CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of the Project

Operational Amplifier is usually called Op-Amps. An amplifier is a device that accepts a

varying input signal and produces a similar output signal with larger amplitude.

An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a

differential input and usually a single-ended output. An Op-Amp produces an output

voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than voltage difference

between its input terminals.

Operational Amplifiers are one of the most needed and most successful components in

the electronic communication industry. It is a transistorized circuit that mainly functions

as amplifiers. This device can be found in computer chips, industrial machines, and even

military equipments functioning as the core of the semi conductor device.

Manuel Toledo (2008) an Engineer of UPRM described the operational amplifier as

perhaps the most important building block for the design of analog circuits. This is

included in his article Basic Op-Amp (August 13, 2008), which is submitted in

instrumentation. He is also quoted as saying that “Good Knowledge of the Op-Amp

characteristics and application is essential for a successful analog Engineer”.

Operational Amplifier trainer is designed to simplify the designing of digital and

analogue circuits. It contains most of the necessary test equipment needed to build and

test the circuits.

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In a study by Nina Katajavouri et. al (2006), the significance of practical training linking

theoretical studies with practice, Nina designed a setup of hands-on training for them, and

as a result, more students felt a more complete understanding of the topic.

Operational Amplifier is an electronics topic that must be given much attention during

the early stage a student is accepted as an Electronics Engineer in any Engineering

faculty.

The operational amplifier trainer is a set of trainers that is portable and allows engineers

to develop the skills required to connect electronic circuits. The trainer is easy to

maintain and they function at a required voltage for safety, it covers nearly all possible

application of operational amplifier IC (Ihedioha ahmed c. 2017).

In this design, the digital applications are provided, using banana jacks and all ground

connection which makes connections easy. A lot of instructor-accessible fault switches

are provided in the rear of the device in order to simulate failure conditions and allow

troubleshooting during training. The training aid provides a safe, inexpensive, efficient,

yet realistic alternative to paper-based learning without the danger of full voltage

experience (Henry, m. 2008).

The trainer is designed to demonstrate on any operational amplifier provided load current

and voltage values does not exceed the current and voltage rating of the instrument or

components used, to avoid being damaged. The trainer is constructed and assembled in a

portable wooden box and during this construction, each node are created for plugging in

the banana wires when running the test, the mains of the source is DC connected and it is

positioned at the power section with a switch connected to the power supply (Ihedioha

ahmed c. 2017).

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1.1 Statement of Problem

In Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, there is a high dependency on

electronic components in most engineering laboratories. My department, Electrical and

Electronics Engineering (EEE) under the College of Engineering and Engineering

Technology (CEET) have a number of trainers like DC chopper trainer, zener/diode

trainer, DC-AC converter trainer etc which are been used in the laboratory for practical

purpose but most of these trainers does not have all application of adding, subtracting,

differentiating, integrating and comparating.

It is therefore important to design an operational amplifier trainer in my department since

it functions as a tool for learning, teaching, and testing digital and analogue circuits.

Operational amplifier trainer offers students in the department an option to quickly build,

modify and troubleshoot all sort of circuit as it has different application and be used as a

learning aid tool.

1.2 Aim and Objective

The aim of this project is to design an operational amplifier trainer that will be used to

educate students in the department of electrical and electronics engineering, most

especially students studying electronics engineering, the importance of operational

amplifier.

1.3 Scope of Work

This work is said to cover the design, construction and implementation of an operational

amplifier. The design of the trainer circuit involves the use of electronic components and

line drawing, showing how the electronic components are connected to make up the

3
trainer circuit. To achieve this, there are multiple choice of electronic components to

select from which leads me to my next scope.

The selection of specific electronic components for the trainer circuit design as there are

different ways in designing a trainer. Thus, the electronic and semiconductor materials to

be used in this design will be connected together with use of the laboratory equipment

such as variable board and bread board. Transferring the design to printed circuit board

(PCB), which is the process of connecting the selected electronic components exactly as

directed from the circuit diagram, providing outlets for the components making up the

operational amplifier trainer. The construction has to do with applying and connecting the

printed circuit design together with help of a soldering technique with its other physical

components that makeup the operational amplifier trainer.

Testing is also an important and final scope of the project. It helps to ascertain a proper

working condition of the operational amplifier trainer and also obtain the desired voltage

gain, positive feedback and negative feedback, differential amplifier, output voltage,

frequency response, which then will be embedded into a casement for proper utilization.

This project can be achieved using hardware components such as resistor, transistors,

diodes, transformers, capacitors, LED indicator, analogue voltmeter, cable, 13A inlet

socket etc.

1.4 Significance of the Project

The operational amplifier is a general-purpose electronic experiment equipped with

different built-in circuits as well as a standard breadboard. It is as a flexible instructional

aid for academic institutions and a powerful development kit in laboratories.

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The operational amplifier circuit design included inverting amplifier, non-inverting

amplifier, summing amplifier, differential amplifier and cascade amplifier.

1.5 Application of the Project

Operational amplifier trainer is used in:

 Designing student projects.

 Familiarizing components used in microprocessor-based instruments.

 Digital application-oriented equipment.

 Designing and debugging techniques.

 Performing input and output experiment.

1.6 Limitation of the Project

Operational amplifier trainer to do more work per unit time is to accept that they

generated more heat, and somehow this power needs to come in (as electricity), and come

out again (as waste heat). It is the latter which is causing the greater problems and has

done for most of the time since the invention of the integrated circuit.

1.7 Organization of Project

The various stages involved in the development of this project have been properly put

into five chapters to enhance comprehensive and concise reading. In this project thesis,

the project is organized sequentially as follows:

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Chapter 1: Describes the background of the project, development of operational

amplifier trainer, the aim/objective, the problem statement, the significance and the

limitations of this project.

Chapter 2: Describes the literature review which entails history of operational amplifier,

different ways in which operational amplifier functions, review of related projects,

comparison between operational amplifiers and other electronic components.

Chapter 3: Describes the materials and methods used in the design of various circuits

which includes equipments, circuit diagrams and mathematical calculation of the various

components.

Chapter 4: All the testing, results, discussion of the implemented project and problems

encountered were discussed.

Chapter 5: The summary, problems encountered in the course of the work and

recommendation.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 History of Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifiers or “op-amp” is a key component of an electronic analog

computer. Its invention in the early 1940s allowed unwieldy mechanical contraptions to

be replaced by silent and speedier electronics. An op-amp technically, is a high-gain

voltage amplifier with different inputs. Using appropriate negative feedback, a single op-

amp can add or subtract from two voltage signals, multiply by a constant, or integrate

voltage over time. Stringing together many op-amps lets one compute complicated

formulas (computer history).

Many analog computers relied on vacuum-tube op-amps, available commercially from

George.A. Philbrick’s company in 1952. In 1963, Bob Widlar at Fairchild semiconductor

made an op-amp on a single integrated circuit. Widlar’s 1965 µA709 became huge

commercial success, he later became the analog wizard-in-residence at national

semiconductor, widely known not only for his creative and reliable designs, but also for

his colorful personality (computer history).

Fig 2.0: Vacuum Tube Operational Amplifier.

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Operational amplifier began in the days of vacuum tubes and analog computers. They

consisted of relatively complex differential amplifiers with feedback. The circuit was

constructed such that characteristics of the overall amplifier were determined by the type

and amount of feedback. Thus, the complex differential amplifier itself had become a

building block that could function in different operations by altering the feedback. Some

of the operation that were used includes adding, multiplying, and logarithmic operations

(Dan sheingold 2009)

The operational amplifier continued evolve through the transistor era and continued to

decrease in size and increase in performance. The evolution continued through molded or

modular devices and finally in the mid 1960s a complete operational amplifier was

integrated into a single integrated circuit (IC) package. Since that time, the performance

has continued to improve drastically and the price has generally decreased as the benefits

of high-volume production have been realized.

The performance increase includes items as high operating voltages, low current

requirements, high current capabilities, more tolerance, low noise, greater stability,

greater power output, high input impedances and high frequency of operation. Today,

high performance of integrated operation amplifier is based on the fundamental

differential amplifier (David L. 2006).

Operational amplifiers abbreviated as OP AMP, was originally the name of a circuit used

for carrying out mathematical operations, such as summation and integration on output

signals. More recently the term “OP AMP” has been given to linear IC which provides,

apart from other characteristics, a high voltage gain (for a band of frequencies from DC

upwards) and which, therefore, can be used to realize many functions besides

8
mathematical operations. It is in this sense that OP AMP is referred to as the basic analog

integrated circuit. The integrated operational amplifier has gain acceptance as a versatile,

predictable, and economic system building block. It offers all the advantages of

monolithic ICs: small size, high reliability, reduced cost and temperature tracking

((Nicolae Lobontiu).

According to Mark.A. Haideker (2013), operational amplifiers are relatively complex

devices, consisting of an input difference stage, a gain stage, and the output driver.

Various simplified mathematical models can be used to approximate their behaviour. In

the simplest model, the voltage difference large, real-valued gain factor g, and op-amp

acts as a voltage-controlled voltage source with gain between 10 4 and 106. This gain is

commonly referred to as differential gain, because it amplifies the voltage difference

between the positive and negative inputs. Furthermore, input currents are considered to

be zero in infinite input impedance is assumed. Also, any output offset voltage is

considered to be negligible and the output impedance is taken as zero. For low

frequencies up to several Khz, the zero-order model of real-valued gain g is sufficiently

accurate. However, the gain decreases with increasing frequencies, and for frequencies in

the high Khz range and above, a higher-order transfer function needs to be used.

Operational amplifiers have intrinsic noise and are composed of active devices

(transistors, FETs) and resistors, operational amplifiers experience shot (schoftky),

thermal (Johnson), and flicker (1/f) noise in an intrinsic manner. Undesired electrical

signal present in the output voltage of an operational amplifier is classified noise and the

internal operational amplifier noise is modeled simply a noise voltage source (Reinaldo

Perez 2005).

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According to (Nicoale Lobontiu), operational amplifiers are components that are

connected with other electrical components i.e. circuits to amplify voltage, isolate

circuits, count signals or perform arithmetical and mathematical operations (addition,

integration, differentiation etc). The symbol of an op-amp indicates its main feature of

having two input ports (a negative input and a positive input) and therefore, differential

input voltages. Voltages are usually measured with respect to ground (which has zero

voltage).

Fig 2.1: Schematic representation of an Operational amplifier (op-amp).

Apart from their most common use as amplifying elements (either inverting or non-

inverting) operational amplifiers, are also used in a variety of applications, that is

buffers (load isolators), adders, subtractors, integrators, logarithmic elements, impedance

converters, filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-reject or notch), and differential

amplifiers. However, all the above op-amp configurations have one thing in common:

there exists a path from the output of the op-amp back to its inverting input. When the

output is not “railed” to a supply voltage, negative feedback ensures that the op-amp

operates in the linear region (as opposed to the saturation region, where the output

voltage is “saturated” at one of the supply voltages). Amplification, addition/subtraction,

and integration/differentiation are all linear operations. Note that both AC signals and DC

10
offsets are included in these operations, unless a capacitor is added in series with the

input signal(s) to block the DC component.

A research work related to students’ learning of operational-amplifier (op-amp)

circuits was conducted by Mazzolini et al. Mazzolini and colleagues developed and

administered a multiple-choice conceptual test on op-amp circuits in order to assess

the impact of a sequence of interactive lecture demonstrations on students’ learning in a

first-year unit on electronics.

Recently, supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased as they have in digital logic

and low-voltage op amps have been introduced reflecting this. This means that supplies

of 5 V and increasingly 3.3 V are common. To maximize the signal range modern op

amps commonly have rail-to-rail output, this shows that the output signal can range from

the lowest supply voltage to the highest and sometimes rail-to-rail inputs.

Fig 2.2: Recent Model of the Operational Amplifier.

2.1 Basic Properties of Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifier contains two input terminals and one output terminal.

The two input terminals are labeled positive and negative, which is non-inverting

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and inverting, respectively. It is also a direct coupled, high gain voltage amplifier

designed to amplify signals over a wide range of frequency range (from dc upwards).

Typically, it has two input terminals and one output terminals and a gain of at least 105.

Its properties also include:


Low output impedance.


High gain 105 - 106.

Operational amplifiers can multiply by a precise constant, adding, integrating with

respect to time, active filtering, signal generation and waveform shaping, accurate voltage

buffering and voltage to current conversion.

2.2 Characteristics of Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifier are usually considered to have the following characteristics:

2.2.1 Infinite Open Loop Gain

The open loop gain in an op amp is very large that is, on the order of tens or even

hundreds of thousands. But, in an ideal op amp, the open loop gain is infinite, which

means that any voltage differential on the two input terminals will result in an infinite

voltage on the output.

2.2.2 Infinite Input Impedance

In an ideal op amp, the impedance of the two input terminals is infinite, which means that

no current enters the op amp from the inputs. The inputs are able to see and react to the

voltage, but that voltage is unable to push any current into the op amp.

Practically, the op amp has no effect on the input voltage but in an actual op amp, a small

amount of current does leak into the op amp’s input circuits.

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2.2.3 Zero Output Impedance

In an ideal op amp, the output circuitry has zero internal impedance, which means that

the voltage provided from the output is the same regardless of the amount of load placed

on it by the circuit to which the output is connected.

2.2.4 Zero Offset Voltage

The offset voltage is the amount of voltage at the output terminal when the two inputs are

exactly the same. Practically, if you connect both inputs to ground, for example, there

should be exactly 0V at the output.

For most op amps, this offset voltage is just a few millivolts.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier)

2.2.5 Infinite Bandwidth

The term bandwidth refers to the range of alternating current frequencies within which an

op amp can accurately amplify. In an ideal op amp, the frequency of the input signal has

no effect on how the op amp behaves.

2.2.6 Infinite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The op amp common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the common-mode

gain to differential-mode gain.

Fig 2.3: An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-

ideal parameters.

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2.3 Operations of an Operational Amplifier

The amplifier’s differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+) with

voltage V+ and an inverting input (–) with voltage V−; ideally the op amp amplifies only

the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential input voltage.

The output voltage of the op amp Vout is given by the equation:

Vout= AOL (V+ - V-)

Where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term “open-loop” refers to the

absence of an external feedback loop from the output to the input).

2.3.1 Open-Loop Amplifier

amp acts as a comparator. If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a

resistor Rg, and the input voltage Vin applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the

output will be maximum positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum

negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open-

loop circuit acting as a comparator.

Fig 2.4: Diagram of an op amp without negative feedback i.e. a comparator

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2.3.2 Closed-Loop Amplifier

The closed-loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of the circuit. When negative feedback

is used, the circuit's overall gain and response becomes determined mostly by the

feedback network, rather than by the op-amp characteristics. If the feedback network is

made of components with values small relative to the op amp's input impedance, the

value of the op amp's open-loop response AOL does not seriously affect the circuit's

performance.

Fig 2.5: An op amp with negative feedback i.e. a non-inverting amplifier

2.4 Applications of Operational Amplifier

Operation Amplifiers can be applied or used in the following ways:

 Operation amplifiers are used in electronics system design.

The op amp is can be used as a voltage comparator.

 Op amp can be used for positive feedback applications.

 Op amp can be used for negative feedback applications.

 Op amp can be applied as audio- and video-frequency pre-amplifiers and buffers.

 Op amp can function as differential amplifiers, differentiators and integrators.

15
  Op amp can function as filters and precision rectifiers

 They are used as precision peak detectors.

 They can also serve as voltage and current regulators.

 Op amp can be used in analog calculators, analog-to-digital converters and in

digital-to-analog converters.

 Op amp can be used as voltage clamping, oscillators and waveform generators

clipper.

2.5 Construction of Operation Amplifier Trainer

Operational amplifier trainer has been designed specifically for the study of OP-AMP IC

and its applications. This training board covers nearly all possible applications of

operational amplifiers IC and makes students familiar with the fundamentals of OP-

AMPS, their characteristics and applications in various fields. The construction of

Operational amplifier trainer carries great educative value for Science and Engineering

Students.

2.6 Description

Operational amplifier trainer is a low-cost Electronic teaching system that is designed to

provide all the basic tools necessary to conduct experiments related to Electronics

Technology. It is also ideally suited for developing, integrating and testing systems in the

laboratory.

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 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLGY

3.0 Materials

The system was developed as a reference material and teaching tool for the lecturers during

the process of teaching and learning. In order to develop the system, there are several

aspects that play an important role such as working step, circuit design, printed circuit board

(i.e. PCB) layout, source materials, implementing, testing and improvements.

3.1 Components

1. Resistors

2. Operational Amplifiers IC (LM741)

3. Voltage Regulator

4. Diodes

5. Capacitors

6. LEDs

7. Terminal Blocks

8. Transformers

9. Voltmeters

10. Potentiometers

11. Digital Oscilloscope

12. Working Tools

17
3.1.1 Resistors:

Resistor is a type of passive electronic components that are extensively used in electronic

circuits which means that it is impossible to build an electronic circuit without involving

resistors.

Basically, the function of a resistor is always to oppose the flow of current through it and

strength of this opposition is termed as its resistances. Many types of resistors are used

having different uses and construction (Coates, 2015).

3.1.2 Operational Amplifiers IC (LM741):

An operational amplifier a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a

differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp

produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of

thousands of times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals (Bakshi,

2009).

18
 The amplifiers 741 offer many features which make their application nearly fool proof,

which mean that overload protection on the input and output, no latch-up when the common

mode range is exceeded, as well as freedom from oscillations (Tocci & Widmer, 2001).

3.1.3 IC Regulated D.C. Power Supply:

A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply and a voltage

regulating device, which means that the output from an ordinary power supply is fed to the

voltage regulating device that provides the final output.

The output voltage remains constant irrespective of variations in the ac input voltage or

variations in output (or load) current.

3.1.4 Diodes (Zener Diodes):

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in one direction.

Zener Diodes is another voltage regulator circuit that applies a constant voltage to the

inverting and non-inverting inputs of the Op-Amp depending on the configuration of op-

19
amp. The importance of this diode is to provide a reference voltage level for the amplifier

input.

3.1.5 Capacitors:

Capacitor stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is a passive electronic component

with two terminals.

The capacitors were used for two major purposes in this design. First, it was used in the

power supply unit to filter AC ripple voltages. Second, it was used to perform the integrator

and differentiator functions of the op amp. The electrolytic capacitor was used for both

purposes.

3.1.6 LEDs:

LED is a light-emitting diode that serves as a semiconductor light source that emits light

when current flows through it.

3.1.7 Voltage Regulators:

Voltage regulator was used in the trainer circuit to create and maintain a fixed output

voltage, irrespective of changes to the input voltage or load conditions. Voltage regulator

helped to keep the voltages from a power supply within a range that is compatible the other

electrical components used.

3.1.8 Potentiometer:

The potentiometer serves two purposes in this design (Op-Amp Trainer). It serves as an

additional variable resistor for varying the feedback resistors in order to obtain various

gains.

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The potentiometer however, was primarily used in this design to function as voltage divider.

It is used to supply the operational amplifier inputs with different voltage levels not

exceeding the regulated input voltage from the supply.

3.1.9 Voltmeters:

Two voltmeters were mounted on the trainer board for easy measurement of different

voltage levels. When the operational amplifier is been used as an adder, the magnitudes of

the input voltages are displayed on the voltmeters if connected accordingly, while the output

can be measured using the multimeter.

3.2 The System Block Diagram

The block diagram of the system is given below; each section of the diagram describe the

function of that particular section.

NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK

POWER SUPPLY
UNIT INVERTING OP-AMP
INPUT
OUTPUT
NON-
INVERTING
INPUT

POSITIVE
FEEDBACK

Fig 3.2: Block Diagram of Op-Amp with a Feedback

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 3.3 Methodology

3.3.1 Power Supply Unit

The power supply units consist of a full wave rectifier, capacitors, resistors and voltage

regulators for regulating the output voltage. This unit performs the function of converting

AC voltage to DC voltage which is needed to supply power to the entire circuit as all the

component work on direct current.

The objective is to build a dual supply that generates regulated +5 and −5 from 220VAC

mains. Such power supply is a very common requirement in all those circuits that use Op-

amps. Since Op-amps are very widely used in variety of circuits and in the construction of

this project which could serve as a very useful tool in testing all those circuits that needs a

dual supply.

Stepdown Rectifier Voltage

Fig 3.3: Block Diagram of Power System Unit

a. Step-Down Transformer

This is 220/240V center-tapped step-down transformer. The work of this transformer is to

convert 220V AC supply from the mains to 12-0-12VAC. The 12-0-12VAC is fed to the

full wave rectifier circuit, taking the 0V at the center as the ground.

b. Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

As the output from the secondary of the step-down transformer is set into the rectifier

circuit for rectification. In this rectifier circuit, only two diodes are used in which one is

22
made to conduct in the positive half cycle while the second diode conducts in the

negative half cycle.

The output voltage from the rectifier circuit is a pulsating DC voltage. This voltage is fed

to the filter circuit for smoothing out the ripples in the voltage.

c. Filter Circuit

Filter circuit consist of electrolytic capacitor that is connected in parallel with the rectifier

circuit. The work of the filter circuit is to smoothen the ripple content of the rectifier

output voltage so a purely DC voltage can be obtained.

d. Voltage Regulator Circuit

The voltage regulator circuit consists of two voltage regulator ICs 7805 and 7905. The

ICs 7805 and 7905 supply constant +5 and −5 respectively to pins 7 and 4 of the Op-amp

respectively. The purpose of using these ICs is to get a regulated constant voltage even

when is increased in the supply voltage or when there is fluctuation in the supply voltage.

3.3.2 Power Supply Calculation

1) 7805 IC rating

Input voltage range 7V to 35V

Current Rating IC = 1A

Output Voltage rating Vmax = 5.2V, Vmin = 4.8V

Since the transformer is 12-0-12V center-tapped with current rating of 500mA, the

secondary peak voltage is going to be 12√2 = 16.97V

23
2) Rectifying Circuit

Here, we used a full wave rectifier because of the following reasons:

 DC saturation is less as in both cycles, diodes conduct.

 IN4001 are used because it can withstand a reverse voltage of 50V.

3) Capacitors

Ripple factor is given by

Y = I/ (4√3FRC)

Where

F = Frequency of AC supply (50hz)

R = Resistance Calculated

But,

R = V/Ic

V = 12√2 = 16.97

R = 16.67/500×10-3 = 33.94Ω. Standard 33Ω was chosen.

C = Filtering capacitance

24
Y = Vac-rms/Vdc

Vac-rms/Vdc = V√2√3

Vdc = Vmax − Vmin

Vr = 5.2 – 4.8 = 0.4v

Vac-rms = 0.4/2√3 =0.11547V

Vdc = 5.2 – (0.4/2) = 5v

Therefore,

Y = 0.11547/5 = 0.02309

So, we can solve for the filter capacitor

Y = 1/4√3FRC

C = √1/Y2×42×3×F2×R2

C = √1/[(0.02309)2 × 16 × 3 × (50)2 × (33)2]

C = 3788µF. 3300 µF standard is chosen.

Also, 0.01µF capacitor is used at the output side of the 7805 to prevent transient change

in voltage due to change in load.

25
Fig 3.3.1: The Power Supply Unit

26
 Fig 3.3.2: Circuit Representation of the Op-amp Trainer

3.4 Principle of Operation

From the block diagram above, we can notice that the operational amplifier IC is powered

via pins 7 and 4 of the IC. When power is turned on, regulated +5 and −5 from power

supply unit are supplied to pins 7 and 4 respectively as per the design.

Operational amplifier is a high gain amplifier and it is in the order of 105.

In this design, we understood that the output of an operational amplifier dependents on the

input of the amplifier.

27

Fig 3.3.3: Operational Amplifier Trainer Board

28
Fig 3.3.5: Completed Design of Operational Amplifier Trainer

29
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the result of various experiments conducted on the op amp trainer.

The result is detailed by comparing them theoretically (ideal), practically and by

simulation using the Proteus software. The results are further analyzed using graphically

Proteus software and the digital oscilloscope to observe the various inputs and output

waveforms. The output waveforms are then compared to meet the experiments

conducted. The conducted experiments were done to justify the objectives stated in this

project.

4.1 Experiments

There are many applications of the op-amp. However, in order to achieve the aims and

objective stated in this project, the various applications of the op-amp are therefore

reduced to the following:

 Inverting op-amp

 Non inverting op-amp

 Summing op-amp

It should be noted that the function generator is required in this experiment (and for the

trainer circuit in general) to supply the various sine wave and triangular wave signals

30
needed at the inverting input (pin 2) terminal of the op-amp UA741 IC to generate

corresponding waveforms for the various experiments conducted in the course these

project. This chapter, as stated earlier, shows the design and implementation of these

waveforms using the UA741 op-amp IC.

4.2 Design and Implementation of Inverting Op-amp and Non-inverting Op- amp

The inverting op amp is simply producing an output that is equivalent to the reciprocal or

the inverse of the input signal supplied to the inverting input (pin 2) of the UA71 IC. The

circuits characteristics have been defined in chapter two of this project. The non-inverting

also produces the output signal that is identical and equivalent to the input signal non-

inverting (3 pin) of the UA741 IC except for the fact that the signal is simplified based on

the working principle of the operational amplifier.

4.2.1 Design Specifications

Specification Theoretical values Practical values Gain

1 Power supply +5,-5 +4.98,-498 -

2 Op-amp IC: UA741 - - -

3 Resistor :2 Rf =10k,R1=100K Rf=9.8k,R1=99.8K 0.1

4 Voltmeter - - -

5 Digital oscilloscope - - -

Table 4.1: Design Specification of the Inverting and Non-inverting Op-amp

31
Other requirement for includes connecting wire, simulation software (proteus), and

function generator (sine wave).

4.2.2 System Design

To test for the inverting op-amp, the trainer is set up in the manner as shown in the

system design (circuit design below).

Fig 4.1: System Design of Inverting Op-amp

Gain = Rf/Ri

Gain = Vout/Vin

Vout = −Rf/Ri×Vin

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For non-inverting op-amp, the trainer is designed as shown below:

Fig 4.2: System Design of Non-inverting Op-amp

Vout = (1+Rf/Rf)

4.2.3 Experiment Result:

Input voltage (volts) Vout-inverting (volts) Vout –non inverting Vout

Theory Practical Theory practical

1 -0.1 -0.09 1 1.1

1.5 -0.15 -0.14 1.5 1.55

2.0 -0.2 -0.09 2.0 2.19

3.0 -0.3 -0.3 3.0 2.91

Table 4.2: Experiment Result of Inverting and Non-inverting Op-amp

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4.2.4 Simulation Results

The inverting op amp and the non inverting op amp was design as shown in the system
design using Proteus software.

The sine wave input was applied to the inverting input to obtained the result shown
below.

Fig 4.3: Inverting Op-amp Simulation Result using Proteus Software.

Fig 4.4: Non-inverting Op-amp Simulation Result using Proteus Software.

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4.2.5 Practical Results

The experiment was also conducted using the oscilloscope to observe the behavior of the
output signal.

A square input was applied from the function generator with amplitude of 3v to the
inverting input of the op-amp with gain 1.

Fig 4.5: Oscilloscope Output of the Inverting Op-amp.

The same was also done using the oscilloscope to observe the waveform.

A square wave input was applied from the function generator with amplitude of 3v to the
non inverting input of the op amp with gain 1.

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The results obtained are listed below:

Fig 4.6: Oscilloscope Output of Non-inverting Op-amp.

4.3 Design and Implementation of Op-amp as a Summing

The op-amp trainer was used to perform the summing experiment.

This circuit simply performs mathematical addition operation whereby two different
voltage are supplied to the two-input terminal of the op amp, and the corresponding
output is the addition of two input voltages.

The following component was used to achieve the desire results.

Aim: To use the op amp as a summer

Objective: To supply two different voltages at the inverting and non-inverting input of
the op amp and obtain their sum at the output.

4.3.1 System Specification

The table shows the components, and the theoretical and practical values used in the
configuration of the summing system trainer.

36
 1 Power supply +5,-5 +4.98,-498 -

2 Op-amp IC: UA741 - - -

3 Resistor: 2 Rf =10k,R1=100K Rf=9.8k,R1=99.8K 10

4 Voltmeter - - -

5 Multimeter - - -

6 10k --

Table 4.3: System Specification of the Summing Op-amp

4.3.2 System Design

Fig 4.7: System Design of Summing Op-amp.

Calculation

Vout = Rf/Rf (V1+V2)

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4.3.3 Experiment Results

V1(voltS) 0 0.5 1 0 0 2 3 2 4

V2(volts) -1 -1 -1 1 -0.5 -1 -1 1 1

Vout(theory) 1 -0.5 0 -1 0.5 -1 -2 -3 -3

-
Vout(practical) 1 0.5 0.04 -1.03 -0.52 -0.82 0.92 -2.87 -2.98

Table 4.6: Practical Results of the Summing Op-amp

4.3.4 Simulation Results:

The following results were obtained after implementation the summing op amp circuit
using Proteus software.

Fig 4.7: Simulation Results of Summing Op-amp.

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Fig 4.7: Simulation Result of Summing Op-amp

39
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Conclusion

From the results of the test performed, the different Operational amplifier circuitry

embedded on the trainer board functioned as expected on the basis of theory of its

operations. The feasibility of the application was also verified through functionality test

made on the testing processes. The operational amplifier trainer is a reliable training

device or tool based on the series of test conducted. With respect to the functionality test

applied, the trainer is verified to perform the basic lessons included on the module of

basic Op-amp applications. For safety purposes, the circuit of the power supply separated

with the circuit board to avoid unwanted current flowing on the nodes. Overall, the

Operational amplifier is 100% reliable in terms of functionality, accuracy, and precision.

5.1 Recommendations

For the difficulties experienced in the course of the research project, the project is open to

any suggestion for the improvement of the trainer board. For modification of the circuit, I

recommend innovation on the application circuits. Any circuit can be utilized for the

module. The power supply of the trainer was left with high range of voltages for future

application. The design of the power supply was versatile enough to supply exact

voltages through the hanging values of the regulators. The designed Op-amp is limited to

±5V so further improvement on the application should only require the said limitation.

Any circuit measurements within these limits were part of the recommended

advancement for the trainer board.

40
 REFERENCES

Bakshi, U. A. (2009). Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (first edit). Technical

Publications.

Coates, E. (2015). Resistors and circuit module. Retrieved from http://www.learnabout-

electronics.org/

Horowitz, Paul; Hill, W. (1989). (2000). The Art of Electronics. Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge University Press.

http://wikipedia.org/Operational Amplifiers.

http://wikipedia.org/transistors

Kitovski, V. B. (1998). Electronic devices and circuit theory, 6th edition, R. Boylestad

Porter, Andrew (2013), All Programmable Planet, Introducing Inverting and Non-

Inverting Op-Amp Configurations, Cape town, South Africa

Resources, ERC. "design and construction of digital electronics training system"

Afribary.com. Afribary.com, 29 Jan. 2018, https://afribary.com/works.

Sarkar, Aloke Raj (2012), Linearization of NTC Thermistor Characteristics using Op-

Amp Based Inverting Amplifier, IEEE sensors Journal (Volume 13, Issue:12

pp.4-85), Kolkota, University of Kolkota, India.

Tocci, R. J., & Widmer, N. S. (2001). Digital Systems Principles & Applications (8th

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U.A Bakshi, A. P. G. (2008). Electronic Devices and linear Circuits, 7–42.

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