See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/260990490

Doñana. Water and Biosphere

Chapter · January 2006

CITATIONS READS

0 747

2 authors, including:

Francisco Borja Barrera

Universidad de Huelva
192 PUBLICATIONS   2,262 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

La evolución de un paisaje agrario. El territorio de Medellin entre la protohistoria y la romanización. View project

CUATROVITAS MEDIEVAL SITE (BOLLULLOS DE LA MITACIÓN, SEVILLE, SPAIN). HYDRO-GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SETTING AND LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Francisco Borja Barrera on 23 March 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Doñana
Water and Biosphere
 Doñana
Water and Biosphere
Francisco García Novo
Cipriano Marín Cabrera
with the assistance of:
Eva Mª Alonso Vizcaíno

contributions from:
Regla Alonso Miura - Elena Angulo Aguado - Salvatore Arico - Sarat Babu Gidda
Benigno Bayán Jardín - Juan Bautista Gallego - Ernest Bladé Castellet - Francisco Borja Barrera
Miguel Ángel Bravo - Juan Calderón Rubiales - Jesus Casas Grande
Eloy M. Castellanos- David Coates - José Juan Chans Pousada - Josefina Cruz Villalón
Emilio Custodio Gimena - Miguel Delibes de Castro - Maguelon Déjeant-Pons
Ricardo Díaz-Delgado - Mari Cruz Díaz Antunes Barradas - Carmen Díaz Paniagua
Mari Paz Esquivias Segura- María Ángeles Fernández - Carlos Fernández Delgado- Andy J. Green
Juan Fernández Haeger - Josep Dolz Ripollés - Rodrigo Gámez Lobo - Pablo García Murillo
Josep A. Gili Ripoll - José González Delgado - Mauricio González Gordon - Fernando Hiraldo Cano
Mireille Jardin - Pierre Lasserre - Marisol Manzano Arellano - Juan Ángel Mintegui Aguirre
Carlos Montes del Olmo - Kalemani Jo Mulongoy - Juan F. Ojeda Rivera
Félix Manuel Pérez Miyares - Joaquín Rodríguez Vidal - Alberto Ruíz de Larramendi
Laura Serrano Martín - Ramón C. Soriguer Escofet- Luis E. Santamaría Galdon
Julia Toja Santillana - Carlos Urdiales Alonso - María Zunzunegui González
Published contributions by Ramón Margalef and José Antonio Valverde

Revised by:
Giuseppe Orlando
The Editors would like to thank:
Félix Manuel Pérez Miyares, Benigno Bayán Jardín, and Fernando Hiraldo for having been the true supporters and driving force of this editorial
project.
José María Pérez de Ayala for generously contributing with his magnificient photographs.
The Doñana Biological Station and the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the University of Seville for their support, scientific contri-
bution, and supply of information.
Mauricio González-Gordon, for opening the door to choice information on the events that lead to the creation of the Doñana National Park.
CENEAM and the Spanish Autonomous Park Authority for their graphical and informative support.
Mireille Jardin, Salvatore Arico, Jane Robertson and the Secretariat of the UNESCO MaB Programme, as well as Pierre Lasserre for their key
guidance that was determining for carrying out this work.
Dionysis Assimacopoulos for his advice on the new water paradigms.
José María Romero for his support and for contributing with contents and technical data on the Doñana 2005 project.
Jesús Casas Grande for his advice and orientation on the conception and strategy of the Doñana 2005 project.
Carlos Urdiales for his comments, for contributing with his great experience on Doñana, and for his suggestions on the contents.
Andrew J. Green, Miguel Delibes de Castro, José Dolz Ripollés, Carlos Fernández Delgado, Juan Mintegui Aguirre, José González Delgado,
Fernando Díaz del Olmo, Javier Cobos Aguirre, Carlos Montes del Olmo, Francisco Borja Barrera, Marisol Manzano Arellano, Jose Mª
Fernández Palacios, Francisco Quirós Herruzo, José Juan Chan, Alberto Ruíz de Larramendi, and José Mª Arenas Cabello, for their guidance as
members or participants of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee and, in particular, the Coordinator of the Committee, Hermelindo Castro
Nogueira.
But our acknowledgements are also addressed to all those anonymous authors that are protagonists of this unique place, to the hundreds of
researchers and defenders of nature who have studied, worked, and fought for Doñana to succeed in the conservation of this gem of nature, an
actual legacy for future generations.

Published by:
Doñana 2005 Project - Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir (Guadalquivir Hydrologic Basin Authority),
Spanish Ministry of the Environment. Madrid, 2006.

This English edition is a translation of the former Spanish edition published in 2005, updated with new data and the addition of 2 new chapters.

With the support of:

UNESCO - MaB (Man and Biosphere Programme), Junta de Andalucía (Consejería de Medio Ambiente)

Edited by:
Cipriano Marín Cabrera - Francisco García Novo

Design and Layout:

Francisco Martín García

Photography:
José María Pérez de Ayala, Antonio Sabater.
Doñana Biological Station, CENEAM ,and Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
Paisajes Españoles S.A., AYESA, Miguel G. Muñoz Sariot, Eva Mª Alonso Vizcaíno, Nassima Aghanim, Luciana Bartolini, Andrés Ceballos,
Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Oscar Contreras Navarro, J.L. González Grande, Carlos Fernández Delgado, Tom Fritts, Bárbara García Moreda,
Cipriano Marín, Juan A. Mintegui Aguirre, A. Portheault, Gordon Rodd, Tobias Salathé, Yolanda Vento, W. de Vries, Aurora Suárez, Ziesle,
Alberto Luengo Barreto, Adam Petrusek, Adam Petrusek, Carlos Urdiales..
Authors of the photographs kindly provided by CENEAM - Spanish Autonomous Park Authority:
Carlos Sanz, Antonio Camoyán, J.M. Pérez de Ayala, J.M. Reyero, Vicente García Canseco, Fernando Cámara Orgaz, Jesús Huertas Muñóz,
Jorge Remacha, J.L. Perea, Antonio Moreno Rodríguez, Carlos Sánchez, J.C. Dueñas, FON-3, Miguel Angel de la Cruz Alemán.

Illustrations, water colours and pictures:

Regla Alonso Miura, Rosalía Martín Franquelo, Luis Mir Payá., Francisco Martín García.

Revision of texts:
Patricia Marín Garavito, Giuseppe Orlando, Carlos Urdiales.
Juan Bautista Gallego, Mari Cruz Díaz, Carlos García Gómez, Luis Gortázar Díaz-Llanos, Angel Martín, J. Carlos Muñoz,
José Marrero y Castro, Laura Serrano, María Zunzunegui.

Revision of the English translation (Introductions to chapters):

Tony Corballis.

Translation of texts:
GABINETE ERASMUS - Consuelo Giansante.

Maps and graphics:

GAIA. S.L.

Photomecanics:
TENYDEA S.L.

Printed by:
MATEU CROMO ARTES GRÁFICAS S.A. - Madrid / D.L. M-10992-2006
ISBN 84-609-6326-8
CRISTINA NARBONA Water and the Biosphere
Minister of the Environment

Man is the first technological species, the first product of

evolution, capable of re-thinking the meaning of his existence,
of converting his dreams into ideas, and his ideas into techno-
logical devices.Along this road, he has found improvements and
facilities, but there has also been sadness. He has produced
gems of thought and action, but he has also brought about
much poverty, his share of disasters and an appreciable amount
of hardship and desolation. With the passing of the centuries,
we have become a global species capable of making significant
changes on a general scale. We can transform more than just
the immediate horizon on which we believe our actions have
an impact. Our species walks the earth, bearing an obsession
to grow, reproduce, transform and change everything around
us into a recreated space, into a de-naturalised territory at our
service and tailor made exclusively to meet only our needs.We
have become a race of planet manipulators, manipulators of
our planet, and we even aspire to being able to manipulate
other planets.
Perhaps for the first time in the course of this long journey,
we are realising just how alone we are in an empty cosmos.We
are like stowaways on a small planet that is no longer unknown
territory to explore and settle; it has become our salvation, the
fragile life raft of the castaway in which we sail through the uni-
verse. This planet, our only home, is finite. There is no other
earth. It would be a good idea to consider how we can all con-
tinue to live here in dignity. That is an important project, to
forge a bond of commitments with men and with the land.
Opting for solidarity and common sense. Opting for a more
sustainable development; i.e. opting for a fairer, more intelligent
and more responsible development.
A growing number of our ranks want to change our world,
so that the world does not change.We want to ignite a revo-
lution to curb our current rush to the very edge of what is
possible. We want to rationalise our habits and our tireless
consumption. We want to put an end to the leading environ-
mental problem that is poverty, ignorance and fanaticism. In
short, we want this to remain a friendly and habitable planet.
And we have to start doing this now, and we have to do it
properly. That is why it is important for us to be able to put
examples, real situations, on the table. Examples that show that

7
 rationality is not incompatible with improving our quality of the marshes and many horizons became routine and uniform.
life; on the contrary, this is the best argument for fair, balanced In this succession of events, some took decisions that are now
and equitable development. considered as vital and visionary, but there were unacceptable
Our world, our very existence, hangs by a thin thread of accidents too and reproachable or, at the very least, inappro-
water. Everything that happens, everything wonderful in life, priate, behaviour.The marks are still there, and our mission for
happens in the water. Life exists thanks to water.Water is the the future should be to patiently and lovingly suture the
life blood of the planet. Water that remains ever changeless, wounds of both the land and its people. Restore the bonds
flowing from the sky to earth, and from the earth back to the between man and his environment; allow the watercourses to
sky in an unbroken cycle to feed dreams, forge landscapes and flow once more and the horizons to recover their variation
sculpt architectures with names of life forms. Learning to move and their leading role.We must learn to leave the mark of the
to the rhythm of water is to understand something more than memories of our elders in the gaze of our children. We must
the mere existence of each of us. Accepting this continual and recover the lost landscapes before the last of those who
infinite flow is the best guarantee that tomorrow other water, remember them disappear for ever.
but the same water in the end, will continue to flow. Our lives To attain this, the work of reconstruction and restoration
are not rivers that run down to the sea to die; our lives are will have to continue. This is a process that will have a dimin-
moments of dreams that the water amalgamates with the shad- ishing content of technological argument and an increasing
ows of still waters. content of social sensitivity. Restoring nature and recovering
The history of Doñana is a good example of waters that territories for the environment is far more than just a well pre-
merge and separate, of improbable wishes, unacceptable cir- sented technique. It is a process that represents a new way of
cumstances and unforeseeable realities. It is a good story of galvanising public action. It is as important as the watercours-
water and life. A good example. What for centuries was a es that are restored, as the hectares of marshes that are recov-
wilderness underwent many changes and opposing attitudes ered; it is the measured protocol that provides the context for
last century. A wilderness, inhabited by fears and impossible action and that gradually accumulates friends, forges alliances,
expectations, became a playing field on which the great argu- creates complicity and, with all the simplicity of words, adds
ments that moved, and move, our society clash.This was a land vectors and efforts in our need to start thinking and acting dif-
that has demonstrated that not everything has a price, and that ferently.
the price should not always be paid, even if we can afford it.The By restoring Doñana, by recovering its waters, returning
result of decades of conflict between alleged promoters of what should never have ceased to be wetlands to the domain
development and conservationist "romantics" in a space in of the swamps, we are doing far more than just recovering a
which the conservation of the biodiversity, enhancing the value wetland, however valuable this may be. What we are really
of endogenous resources and a rational use of its potential has doing is to draw a symbolic sign pointing to a future in which
become the overarching argument for ensuring the quality of water works blend in with and are hidden in the vital womb of
life of our people.Today, the district of Doñana speaks the lan- the land, acting as a dressing wherever they are needed, rather
guage of sustainable development, its people are prepared to than an argument or a rationale.We are opening up the hearts
accept the challenge of moving forward in that direction. of the people, of the good people, showing them that this can
In this kaleidoscope of situations, in this succession of alter- be done, must be done and, moreover, that this is the only eth-
natives, the watercourses were blocked up, to the detriment of ical way of doing it.

8
 PROLOGUE UNESCO
KOÏCHIRO MATSUURA United Nations Educational,
UNESCO Director General Scientific and Cultural Organization

Water-dependent ecosystems and associated services are

crucial to the well being of humans, other species and ecosys-
tems. Indeed, these important ecosystems play a key role in
maintaining global ecological, economic, social and cultural bal-
ances. Examples of this type of ecosystems are, inter alia, wet-
lands, peatlands, brackish ecosystems such as coastal lagoons,
marshes, streams and rivers.
Water is the basis for the sound development of ecological
interactions among the components of these ecosystems, for
their organization, and their full functioning. In turn water pro-
vision as a service would not be possible without the ecologi-
cal processes that take place within these ecosystems.This was
the conceptual basis that led the Organization to establish
"water and associated ecosystems" as its principal programme
priority for the natural sciences for the period of its Medium-
Term Strategy 2002-2007.
UNESCO is keenly interested in the role of science in pol-
icy-making. The work of UNESCO in coordinating research,
monitoring and scientific assessment programmes is comple-
mented by its work in the areas of human rights and social
transformation, information and communication technologies
and the further development of a knowledge society, preserva-
tion of cultural heritage and promotion of cultural diversity,
and education, training and public awareness. The overarching
goal of UNESCO is to promote peace through cooperation on
matters that relate to education, science and culture.
I am therefore pleased and honoured to introduce readers
to this new and truly innovative book on "Doñana:Water and
Biosphere". This emblematic publication symbolizes in a nut-
shell how humans strive to reach equilibrium with nature - an
attempt which in many cases, as in the case of Doñana, can
indeed be reached.The book is therefore an example of how,
although this sometimes entails making hard choices, humans
can turn ecosystems to their advantage in a manner entirely
compatible with the principles of sustainable development,
including taking into due account social responsibility, respect
for cultural identities and the awareness of the importance of
conserving biological diversity and its sustainable use.
This book also bears witness to the longstanding collabo-
ration between UNESCO and the Spanish Authorities, includ-
ing the Ambassador of Spain to UNESCO, the Spanish National

9
 Commission for UNESCO, the Spanish National Committee
for UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme, and the
Doñana 2005 Project.
I do hope that, after reading this important book, we can all
be inspired in our views and practices on how water and the
biosphere interact.

10
PETER BRIDGEWATER Ramsar Convention
Secretary Generall Secretariat
(Ramsar, Iran, 1971)

Designated on 04/05/82 and covering 50,720 ha, Parque

Nacional de Doñana Ramsar site is one of the most important
Ramsar sites in the western Mediterranean, and Spain's first
Ramsar site. Although it has been affected by a number of
human activities that have reduced its integrity, Parque
Nacional de Doñana Ramsar site is a resilient system with
many parts retaining natural appearances and functions.
The special features of the site are:
its high diversity of habitats: as well as wetlands of many
types, coastal dunes, Mediterranean scrub, pine, juniper, and
cork oak/olive woodlands;
its high ornithological values with habitat for five endan-
gered breeding species, one of the largest heronries in the
Mediterranean supporting over half a million wintering
waterfowl, and as a critical link in the migration route for
palearctic waders, and
its status as one of the remaining sites for the Iberian lynx,
Lynx pardinus.

Yet despite all these attributes, it was also placed on the

Montreux Record on 04/07/90, due to possible effects from
changing hydrological regimes. In 1998 there was also the spill
from the Boliden Apirsa pyrite mine, some 60 km upstream,
where some 6 million m3 of toxic sludge and acid waters were
released along the Guadiamar river bed, downstream to the
very edge of the National Park, and into the core zone of the
wetland area.
This ecological disaster proved a tipping point in provoking
government action. Finally, after many efforts and committees
established over the years, the long awaited and clearly focused
programme of priority actions for Doñana were initiated. With
respect to the accident, the Andalusian authorities worked tire-
lessly to remove the large amounts of toxic sludge and restore
the Guadiamar river basin.
A strategy "Corredor verde del Guadiamar", aimed at
restoring the natural riverbed and its riverine forests, was
started in 1999 and has progressed substantially since. The
Spanish government has an ambitious restoration strategy,
"Doñana 2005", to restore the damaged ecosystems and to
solve the remaining management problems. This is an innova-
tive and welcome approach to a clearly difficult problem. But

11
 an approach which is needed if the Ramsar keystone concept
of wise use is ever to prevail.
Two concurrent programmes aim to restore the main
water inflows to the Guadalquivir Marsh in terms of quantity
and quality, to re-establish the necessary water exchanges
between the freshwater marshes and the Guadalquivir estuary,
to create more than 4000 ha of natural landscapes on former-
ly drained and cultivated areas, and to establish a programme
of monitoring of ecological health and for the prevention of
further accidents.
Progress with this substantial programme of actions and
investments is already well underway, as noted by the Ramsar
Advisory Mission during its first field visit, in 2002. The rele-
vant authorities are to be congratulated on instigating this
complex programme, which will undoubtedly result in a more
effective conservation and management strategy for this wet-
land dominated landscape.
In conclusion, this book will play an important role in bring-
ing together the existing information, and showing where we
need further work and information. Eventually, we hope to see
Doñana as a leading example of a Montreaux listed site which
has been rehabilitated and restored to ecological viability,
allowing genuine sustainable development to occur.

12
HAMDALLAH ZEDAN Convention on
Executive Secretary Biological Diversity

It is a great pleasure for me to present this brief prologue

to this auspicious publication. Water is central to life and
nowhere is this more apparent than in wetlands. Wetland
ecosystems are physically, chemically, biologically and socio-cul-
turally complex and support an incredible variety of biodiver-
sity as well as provide immeasurable goods and services to
human populations. Yet despite their value they remain
amongst the world's most threatened ecosystems. Water is a
valuable and sought after resource, in increasingly short supply
globally, yet world-wide we continue to squander and abuse its
bounty.The biodiversity it supports, and the livelihoods of peo-
ple who depend upon it, are the first casualties in this process.
The message is clear - we must learn to manage water better.
There are encouraging signs that we are starting to take
serious notice of this situation and do something about it.
Whilst the decline in the health of wetlands in many regions
continues to be alarming, in other areas societies have begun
to not only recognize their value better but to demand that
they be conserved, rehabilitated or restored.The present pub-
lication illustrates the complexities of the problems at hand
and the challenges ahead, but also that when we try hard
enough we can achieve much.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) covers mul-
tiple ecosystem types in all geographical regions. It was quick
to identify water and wetlands as important areas through its
thematic programmes of work on the biological diversity of
inland water and marine and coastal ecosystems. These were
comprehensively revised, or up-dated, at the seventh
Conference of the Parties to the CBD in February 2004 and
are complemented by work programmes in a number of other
areas, most of which also have direct or indirect impacts upon
aquatic ecosystems.The CBD work programmes lay down the
framework for what needs to be done by Parties and other
stakeholders, in order to meet the objectives of the
Convention - to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and
equitably share the benefits of the genetic resources that these
ecosystems support. A critical test is, of course, the extent to
which the work programmes are implemented. On this front I
am pleased to make two important observations. First, that the
CBD process has shifted recently from a phase of policy/strat-
egy development towards implementation. Second, the

13
 Strategic Plan of the Convention is now accompanied by the
important target of achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in
the current rate of loss of biodiversity at the global, regional
and national levels.The target has been widely endorsed and its
importance to related human development goals (such as the
Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable
Development and the Millennium Development Goals) clearly
recognized. Sub-targets have been set for various focal areas
and viable indicators for assessing progress towards them iden-
tified. These will help to assess whether the activities carried
out to reach the target are effective.
The Parties to the CBD have also re-iterated their commit-
ment to fostering improved partnerships with other conven-
tions, organizations, institutions and processes. Regarding
water and biodiversity, we have many valued partners.We are
proud to mention specifically our long-standing collaboration
with the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, which has always
been the lead partner on matters relating to wetlands under
the CBD.We intend to continue to forge partnerships with all
others with whom we share common interests and goals,
towards a truly global partnership for biodiversity conserva-
tion and sustainable use. In no other field than water is this so
urgent or important.
In this issue of Doñana I am pleased to see these principles
and approaches embodied in practice. I congratulate the
authors and contributors who have so eloquently and artisti-
cally conveyed such a multi-disciplinary approach to the sub-
ject. But what impresses me most is not only the content but
also the sense of common purpose it portrays - to recognize
and promote the value of these ecosystems and collectively
help sustain them by managing our activities better. The CBD
stands by to support all such efforts wherever and whenever
they occur.This is, after all, what the CBD is about.

14
LUIS IGNACIO RAMALLO MASSANET The ties of the world
President
Spanish National Commission for UNESCO

One of the leading characters of a Saul Bellows book

expressed the following thoughts: "I fully agree with Hegel (lec-
tures in Jena, 1806) in that all the mass of ideas that have been
in use to date, the very ties of the world, are dissolving and col-
lapsing like a vision in a dream.A new spirit is about to emerge
- or it better had do".
This character has his doubts about the imminent reality of
this new spirit that will re-make the ties: "for a long time,
mankind was sustained by an unheard music that kept them
afloat and gave him continuity, coherence. But this music has
stopped and a new, different and barbaric music is emerging:
the cosmic orchestra that sends the music has suddenly can-
celled its concert, and where does that leave us?" (*).
A general feeling of progress and modernity seems to dom-
inate our horizons; but a feeling of loss and loneliness seeps in
from time to time, an underlying sadness and desperation that
dulls the mind and festers as an indicator of a certain cosmic
pessimism. Are we playing with the fire that Prometheus gave
us? We seem to be resigned to watch some black prophecies
become self-fulfilling, like, for instance, the evidence that preda-
tory gains in the short term (very often as short as the dead-
line itself) to the benefit of tiny segments of present genera-
tions always prevail over the common good in the longer term.
Beyond the frustrating limits of each life, we seem to be stalked
by a basic nihilism that reproduces, to a lesser extent, the dis-
tant lament of the cynical Greek poet: "the best thing for man
is not to have been born". In the end, we are neither at home
nor are we entirely happy with our inn.This is the new barbar-
ic music, the murmur of the anti-cosmos.
For those of us who wish to listen to a new musical score
(new and different, but not barbaric), we feel comforted by the
work offered by the authors of "Doñana, Water and
Biosphere". Far from inviting us to share a mere erudite essay,
or an ecological-technical treatise about a biosphere reserve,
which is well worth the effort, they offer us an outstanding tes-
timony of the enormous integrating effort being made, based
on the reality of Doñana, in which contributions from very dif-
ferent fields are tied together with a coherence, aesthetic and
a joie de vivre that not only impregnates the work with sense;
it also projects them towards a new vision of the world. In this
carefully crafted choreographic work on one of Spain's great-

15
 est treasures, time, geography, history, ecology, the natural sci-
ences, biology, photography, planning, engineering, sociology
and culture are both an illustration of what Doñana is today
and an announcement of what we are called upon to do with
her. This work strikes a balance between present rigour and
future will that goes beyond mere information, it is spiritually
moving. It is as if one could feel and see the cosmic ties we
form part of in the natural and social micro-world of Doñana.
According to Bellow's tale, Hegel's question for us was
where does that leave us? in the face of the perceived silence
of the old, secular music. The authors of "Doñana: Water and
Biosphere" bring us the chords of the new cosmic orchestra,
or rather, they enable us to listen to the cosmic orchestra once
again, as it had only appeared to stop playing in a time of pro-
found collective deafness among mankind, but they now delight
us with the gift of a renewed music that, with conditions, prom-
ises the hope of continuity and coherence.

* “Cousins”, a short story by Saul Bellow, was firstly published in his collection
“Him with His Foot in His Mouth and Other Stories” (1984).

16
HERMELINDO CASTRO NOGUEIRA Doñana 2005
General Coordinator
Doñana 2005 Scientific Commission

The complexity of Doñana goes beyond the fact that it is one

of the most important protected areas in Europe. Since it was
declared a National Park in 1969, it has attracted continuous
international acclaim that has given rise to a series of measures
aimed at providing international recognition and protection by
extending the management criteria for this protected area.
Thus, Doñana forms part of the MaB Programme as a
Biosphere Reserve; it has been included in the list of Wetlands
of International Importance as a wild fowl habitat under the
Ramsar Convention; it is the only place in Andalusia that has
been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO; it forms part
of the Natura Network as a Special Protection Area for Birds
and has been proposed as a Site of Community Interest for
Andalusia and has won a European Diploma from the Council
of Europe.
Apart from sheltering important natural and cultural val-
ues, the Doñana Nature Park plays an essential role as a buffer
against potential human impacts on the National Park. By the
same token, the Guadiamar Green Corridor Protected
Landscape plays an important function as an ecological corri-
dor and a social and economic catalyst connecting Doñana
with the protected areas of Sierra Morena. Moreover, three of
the 35 Natural Monuments included in the RENPA are situat-
ed in the district of Doñana: the El Rocio Wild Olives, the
Asperillo Cliffs and the Hundred year old Pine of the Parador
de Mazagon. Hence, from an ecological and functional point of
view, each of the protected areas in Doñana is more than an
individual piece, as they form part of a larger area, beyond its
administrative borders, with which they share essential bio-
physical processes. So, Doñana is seen not only as a fundamen-
tal component of the National Parks Network, whose guide-
lines, recommendations, criteria and management and planning
objectives it has to meet; it is also a basic and essential element
of RENPA (Network of Protected Sites of Andalusia), making
an important contribution to its internal coherence and eco-
logical, social and cultural functionality.
Doñana is obviously not a pristine area and many of the val-
ues that justify its international reputation are the result of the
uses to which this region has been put over the centuries. But
the economic boom of recent years, focussed on irrigation
farming and tourism, has had a significant impact on the water

17
 resources of the area and, in consequence, on the associated
natural systems. Furthermore, if we bear in mind that Doñana
is laid out over the bottom of a basin, we will realise that its
ecosystems are especially sensitive to the man's actions
beyond the borders of the protected areas and of the district
itself, especially with regard to the quality and quantity of sur-
face and groundwater, as was made painfully clear after the
Aznalcollar accident.
It is therefore undeniable that the survival of the values that
make Doñana an eco-cultural heritage that is unique in Europe
require a management strategy that is anchored in the reality
of its territorial environment. For this reason, it is essential not
only to adopt an integral management of the different forms of
protection and recognition that have the area has been
endowed with; it is just as important to manage the region in
a co-ordinated fashion, based on shared responsibility and on
building a consensus among the different authorities and sec-
tors involved.
In recent years, much progress has been made in this direc-
tion and the main instruments used in the fields of conserva-
tion, regional planning and development in Doñana have been
created on the basis of accepting the need to strike a balance
between the different interests that overlap in this region,
based on the foundation of consensus and an active commit-
ment by all those involved in the day to day work. Hence, all
concerned recognise that the economic development modal
for the district and the conservation of its ecological and cul-
tural values are interdependent.
Further progress is needed along these lines, promoted by
a common effort on the part of the public administrations and
society, so that the full integration of Doñana with its environ-
ment, protected or not, becomes the principle paradigm of sus-
tainability and conservation on a broad scale.

18
Index

1 A changing world
Water for all, water for life ............................................................................................................ 23
The importance of Biodiversity ................................................................................................... 45
Wetlands and Biosphere Reserves
laboratories of Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Wetlands and Science
scientists to help nature conservation practitioners and society to set priorities in wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Wetlands and the European Landscape Convention ........................................................ 59
Protected areas, biodiversity conservation and
sustainable development in wetlands
issues and prospects .................................................................................................................................... 65

2 The evolution of Doñana

The time of the Marshes
lands marked by water and diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The decisive years
The role of Doñana in the history of conservation ................................................................................... 95
Research in Doñana
the necessary relations between science and natural resource conservation .......................................... 101
The milestones that made Doñana a National Park ......................................................... 107

3 Watery landscapes
Water as the main player ................................................................................................................ 119
The geomorphological evolution of Doñana ......................................................................... 137
The Doñana aquifer and its relations with the natural environment ....................... 141
The paths of water in the Marshes
changes in the hydrological network ........................................................................................................... 151
A Numerical Hydrodynamic Model for
the Marshes of Doñana National Park ..................................................................................... 157
El Partido stream
an example of the challenges posed by hydrological restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Man and water in the history of Doñana
different approaches to water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
A Doñana with clean and transparent waters for life
The agricultural commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Marshes and ponds
the graphic expression of water .................................................................................................................. 169

4 The biological heritage of Doñana

The performance of nature and the worlds of biodiversity within Doñana ....... 175
The aquatic systems of Doñana ................................................................................................... 213
The ecology of Doñana scrub ...................................................................................................... 221
Freshwater algae of Doñana .......................................................................................................... 225
Birds and Hunting ................................................................................................................................ 231
Doñana fish species
threat factors affecting a community in decline .......................................................................................... 237
The amphibians of Doñana ............................................................................................................. 243

19
 The uniqueness of marsh butterflies ........................................................................................ 247
The rabbit in Doñana
the tale of two different tales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
The Iberian lynx
rescuing a species for Doñana and for the world ...................................................................................... 255

5 The challenges of restoration

The context of restoration and the new paradigms of Doñana ................................ 263
The agricultural development in the surroundings of Doñana
spatial and landscape changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Co-existence of livestock in the marshes of Doñana ..................................................... 281
Reconstruction of the Abalario landscape
a referent model for environmental restoration in Doñana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
The Guadiamar Green Corridor
a research programme, example of science's social responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Doñana and its district, on the same path ............................................................................. 293

6 The Doñana 2005 Project

Water regeneration of the basins and water courses feeding the
marshes of the Doñana National Park
The Doñana 2005 Project .............................................................................................................. 301
Caracoles
a new laboratory for science and wetland restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Extending Doñana
an important step towards regenerating the water system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Monitoring and Evaluation
the key to the Doñana 2005 Restoration Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

7 The biological diversity of Doñana

Doñana species checklist ................................................................................................................ 339

8 Epílogue
Doñana 2005, a forward looking project ................................................................................ 363
by Felix Manuel Pérez Miyares

20
Water for All, Water for Life

O n the fourth day, Isis was born among the marshes.This

is how most of the tales of Egyptian mythology begin,
by linking one of their most important Gods with the waters of
band, Osiris, to life, after rescuing his coffin from among the bul-
rushes of the delta.The Goddess Isis protected her son, Horus,
the fruit of her relations with the resuscitated Osiris, from the
the great Nile Delta. "The Egyptians say that Isis is crying to aggressions of his uncle Sept, bringing him up in the depths of the
Osiris when the river starts to rise; and they claim that the fields marshes. In the end, Horus took the form of a peregrine falcon
flooding are, in fact, her tears"1. in the Egyptian skies, his divinity evident by his proximity to the
Isis was an ambivalent Goddess who, through the centuries, sun. And so it seems that this facet of mythology was dreamed
represented fertility, maternity, the symbol of growth and the up to describe the eventful biological and human history that
safety of life; she was also worshipped as the Goddess of the hid- these bodies of water on the edge of the sea have sustained.
den knowledge of nature and of magic, and because of these But, coming back down to earth, and before getting into
attributes, she is possibly the best symbol of many of the world's watery landscapes, one must also remember that the origins of
wetlands. She is, after all, the Goddess of the water enclosed in the modern world also very much depend on the previous exis-
the earth, capable of creating new life and of returning her hus- tence of wetlands. In the carboniferous age, these were the areas

Wetlands stand out as hotspots of biological diversity. However, this productive capacity is especially true in coastal marshes and swamps, which often host
unique and endangered species and ecosystems. The picture shows an Iberian lynx hunting a mallard among the rushes of Doñana.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

23
 the planet's dry land. In terms of area, the most important of
these are the peat bogs, accounting for almost one third of all
wetlands, followed by swamps, marshes and flood plains, with
lakes accounting for a mere 2%.
Wetlands stand out as hotspots of biological diversity.
However, this productive capacity is especially true in coastal
marshes and swamps, as they are exceptional ecotones between
the sea and the land that many adjacent ecosystems depend on.
These are boundary or frontier zones, sharing both land and
aquatic systems, providing protection for both which confers on
them supreme importance in conservation. This new view has
enabled us to rediscover the value of the fragile and sometimes
temporary aquatic landscapes that represent a refuge for count-
Several societies have been living in harmony with wetlands since ancient
less forms of life, related in the myths of civilisations that exist-
times. Above, the lagoon of Porto Novo, a Ramsar site close to Cotonou,
Benin. ed long before our own.
Photograph by Nassima Aghanim - Ramsar. January 2004.
The value of bodies of water close to the sea can be seen in
that generated and created most of the fossil resources now their subtlety, like in some outstanding manifestations of art.The
used in the form of oil-resources that define the wealth fought slightest variation in the water level can be a determining factor
over in unending wars, in effect bringing the dramas of the in how we ultimately define its biological and scenic features.
Egyptian Gods back to life. Maintaining the artistic simile, the presence and character of the
We must also remember that a great part of our modern wetlands is sometimes ephemeral, in geological terms of course.
society is once again becoming aware of the practical and cultur- Many of these features in temperate and sub-arctic zones are no
al importance of these wetlands, especially those that are situat- older than 12,000 years, a mere second on the geological scale
ed on the edge of the seas: places that used to be remote and of history, when they started to consolidate after the ice melt-
deserted, reviled as the source of epidemics, but, at the same ed, changing the sea level at the end of the Ice Age.The contin-
time, appreciated for their incredible wealth in producing unlim- uous variations in sea level during recent ages (known as eusta-
ited reserves of life.They are the final refuge of Isis, the Goddess tic effects), some tectonic effects, the transference of sediments,
of life. and the power of the wind transporting sand and other materi-
And so, thousands of years on, the scientific community has als resulted in the emergence of deltas and estuaries, creating
lashed out in astonishing force in defence of the wetlands. In intricate and varied coastal marshlands as they silted up.
recent years, these surviving aquatic environments are rightly With the passage of time, mankind sometimes contributed
valued as sources, channels and transformers of a multitude of towards environmental diversification even further, rather than
chemical, biological and genetic materials, revealing a new, water- compromising it. Archaeological and documentary evidence
dependent cosmos. Our knowledge of this cosmos remains shows us that the final configuration of the deltas and estuaries
extremely limited, but wetlands are now generally considered as of Norfolk, in the east of England, is the product of digging peat
the most important ecosystems on Earth, not only because of 500 to 700 years ago, and in many places, the mining of gravel
their important role as refuge or habitat to protected or endan- from the alluvial plains over the last 200 years has been followed
gered species, or as a major source of resources, but also by the appearance of lakes and swamps. These close relations
because they are among the most productive ecosystems on the between human activity and fresh or brackish water on the edge
planet in terms of biomass and species.They are bastions of bio- of the sea are repeated throughout the world, at different times
logical generation that continue to offset a systematic loss of and to varying degrees
biodiversity.
Wetlands can be found in all countries, from the tundra to THE DIFFICULT CO-EXISTENCE OF MAN
the tropics, although the exact percentage of the Earth's surface WITH AQUATIC LANDSCAPES
that flood plains make up is not known. Most international sci- The latest threats to zones essential for life on the planet
entific agencies estimate that these territories, in all their forms, are, firstly, the remarkable shift of the world's population in
encompass close to 600 million hectares, approximately 4% of recent decades to coastal areas, and secondly, the exponential

24
 Mar Menor is a Ramsar site close to Murcia (Spain). It is a good example
of the difficulties faced by wetlands under the pressure of human expan-
sion along coastal areas. Here irrigation for agriculture, tourist develop-
ment, old salt works, fishing, and nautical activities co-exist.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

increase in new activities that use these delicate maritime strips, and fresh water reeds that have been used for centuries in build-
such as the development of coastal tourism or the creation of ing canoes and rafts, the world over.These practises still survive,
industrial estates based on a port. Whole cities like Belize or for instance in the wetlands of the Tigris and the Euphrates
Panama City have spread over wetlands. The co-existence, or where reeds are utilized, in South America where totora reeds
conflict, between human activity and the wetland areas, howev- or bulrushes are used, and in Africa, where papyrus is still made
er, dates back much further, especially in the coastal zones. use of2.
Wetland birds have been hunted since the dawn of time as In Belize and Guatemala, the Maya used to drain marshes for
the staple diet of early human societies, using nets, bows and growing crops 3,000 years ago. In Papua New Guinea, research
arrows, and trained cats and birds of prey, among a long list of carried out along the Waghi River in the highlands, has uncov-
other techniques. In the bas reliefs of the temple of Esna, from ered evidence from earlier ages of irrigation ditch systems and
the fifth dynasty of Egypt, there are paintings of complex meth- mounds the size of an orchard built to grow different plants
ods of catching waterfowl, including the use of domestic geese 9,000 years ago.These, with the passage of millennia, have been
as bait and decoys made from clay and leaves for hidden hunters turned into the intensive production of marsh taro that still sur-
to attract migrating birds.The relationship between man and the vives. In Japan, marshes have been cultivated for at least 2,500
wetlands is also seen in the use of the many species of rushes years; rice paddies were constructed in marshes, with basins sur-

25
 flats of immense strategic value since Roman times consolidated
to become water engineering, prompting the transformation of
coastal areas in successive episodes throughout history. Salt,
considered by Aristotle as the fifth element, became the symbol
of power and economic strength of the great civilisations, from
Carthage to Venice. But salt works rarely needed modification to
the water cycle, as all they needed was brackish water and large
areas of flat ground.Although they have been abandoned for all
intents and purposes in the Mediterranean basin now, the enor-
mous cultural and economic value they had up until the early
20th century meant that they could be maintained and conserved
along with many of their associated wetlands.
However, the utilization of the wetlands over the course of
Among the ancient Gods, Isis can be considered the Goddess of wetlands. the millennia is nothing compared to what has happened in the
Her symbol in the sky was the star Sirius, whose appearance heralded last one hundred and fifty years and, more specifically, with the
Nile’s awaited annual floods.
major transformations imposed in the 20th century to the 1970s.
rounded by palisades and wood lined terraces. In medieval The loss of wetlands, in particular coastal swamps and marshes,
Europe, many wetlands were partially drained to improve graz- occurred at a dizzying speed during recent times. Even admitting
ing and to grow hay in the marshes, as sheep could graze there that historic data on the wetlands worldwide are far from reli-
free from the distomatosis parasite. Dating tells us that many able, it is generally accepted that practically 50% of the total esti-
wetlands developed at the hands of our forefathers; a variety of mated area of these zones at the beginning of the 20th century
cultures had an impact on such ecosystems that we are actually has now disappeared.This gives us a very rough idea of the glob-
now trying to protect. al conflict of interests that affects their conservation, either
Of all human intervention, one of the most important mod- because of the spread of irrigated farmlands, or of tourism and
ifications of the wetlands throughout history was rice growing in urban development, or because of draining to prevent malaria. In
China 6,000 years ago.This has had a major effect on the trans- the example of the Mediterranean, records show that 73% of the
formation of costal and delta areas that has increased over the marshes of northern Greece have been drained since 1930;
centuries. Rice paddies gradually consumed a significant part of most of the major flood plains of France have deteriorated
these habitats, progressively covering them. The expansion of thanks to the application of official public regional planning poli-
rice growing over the last five hundred years has been spectac- cies between 1960 and 1994; Spain has lost nearly 60% of the
ular.Yet, in the Mediterranean basin, rice fields only reached their original area of wetlands it enjoyed at the beginning of the 20th
peak relatively recently, in the mid 20th century, when they cov- century; while 84% of the floodable lands of the Medjerdah, in
ered almost a million hectares. This is a good example of the Tunisia, were lost between 1881 and 1987.Table 1 shows alarm-
clash between human activity and the survival of marshes and ing percentages of wetlands lost forever in OECD countries
coastal wetland zones, although it is often thought that their during certain periods of the 20th century4.
existence helps floodable lands to be maintained, having a posi- The case of the United States of America is especially signif-
tive effect on waterfowl. The problem is that, on a small scale,
rice paddies have not been very aggressive in ecological terms, TABLE 1
Significant wetland areas lost during the XX century compared with
but on the larger scale, they work in contradiction to the dynam- those existing at the beginning of the each period.
ics of coastal marshlands and estuaries.The clash lies in that the COUNTRY PERÍOD % OF LOST WETLANDS
need for fresh water for irrigating the rice is out of synchronisa- France 1900-1993 67
Germany 1950-1985 57
tion with the water cycle of the natural wetland zones.As in the
Greece 1920-1991 63
case of Doñana, this has meant a radical change in handling the Italy 1938-1994 66
original hydrological system3. The Netherlands 1950-1985 55
Spain 1948-1990 60
Not all human needs directly challenge the wetlands water USA 1970-1985 54
cycle. Another Mediterranean example shows the symbiosis World
estimation 1900-1998 50
between human activity and the marshlands. Countless small salt

26
 Wetlands are found worldwide, in all situations and at all latitudes, creat-
ing incredibly diverse environments. In the picture, marshlands inside the
crater of a volcanic island in the Galapagos archipelago, an emblematic
World Heritage Site.
Photograph by Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Earth from above/UNESCO.

icant and well documented. In colonial times, there were over The situation in Spain was similar to many other countries in
159 million hectares of wetlands in North America. During the the 19th century such as the aforementioned case of the United
19th century, these were identified as a threat due to the spread States. Draining swampy lands became an obligation of the rural
of malaria, apart from being considered an obstacle in opening health authorities, implemented mainly by the municipal author-
up new farmlands. As a consequence, the policy of eradicating ities, who considered marshy areas close to towns as sources of
wetlands was consolidated through a series of laws enacted
specifically for swamp areas between 1849 and 1860. Congress
granted all these lands to the States with a mandate for cleaning
them up. Hence, in a 200-year period from the first document-
ed interventions in 1780, the country as a whole lost 53% of its
flooded areas, which is equivalent to a continuous loss of 25 ha
of wetlands per hour5.
Several places that have sustained significant losses are wor-
thy of mention. New Zealand is a fitting example, with 90% of its
boggy lands also lost in this same period. Similarly, the immense
peat bogs of England and Ireland were seen as an inexhaustible
source of fuel and have been reduced to a mere 10% of their
original surface area.What's more, since the beginning of the 20th Wetlands are essential refuges for the survival of an important part of
world’s bird populations. Above, flamingoes at Cayo Caguanes National
century, over 80% of the wetlands that used to exist in the Park, Cuba.
mouth of the Danube have been destroyed6. Photograph by Bárbara García Moreda.

27
 Directorate General of Hydraulic Works of what was at the
time the Ministry of Public Works and Transport (Table 2), shows
that practically 60% of the surface area of wetlands and natural
lakes had disappeared, most of it between 1950 and 1990. Some
114,100 ha remained when the inventory was drawn up, of an
estimated total area of 280,228 ha documented at the beginning
of the century. Proportionally, the most affected areas were the
flood plains, with only one fifth of their original area surviving the
conversion to farmland. Inland freshwater wetlands followed,
with only one third of their estimated original area surviving. But
in quantitative terms, the coastal wetlands are the worst affect-
ed by this process, loosing 59% of their original surface area.This
means that 141,949 ha, or 50% of the total surface area of wet-
land coastal areas at the beginning of the 20th century, were lost
in the 20th century, although they still represent a large propor-
tion of the total surface area of aquatic environments.This is why
Doñana is so important in the overall count, as its floodable area
alone (27,000 ha) accounts for one fifth of the natural salt marsh
areas that now survive in Spain8.
However, a simple analysis of surface area losses, although
illustrative per se, does not give a complete picture of the
threats that still endanger these enclaves and the urgent need to
Salt pans and rice fields are millennia-old typical uses of marshlands. In
protect them at all costs. Although pressure on wetlands has
the picture, Janubio salt-pans, Lanzarote (Canary Islands). diminished significantly since 1980, most of the factors that trig-
Photograph by Alberto Luengo.
ger their transformation and degradation remain dormant in
infection -hazardous, unhealthy areas. Hence, as towns grew, any many places. A long list of activities and actions could lead to
swampy area was immediately eliminated.This trend was made direct or indirect changes in the physical, chemical and biological
official in a circular on the prevention of typhus dated the 28th of components of the aquatic ecosystems, with serious conse-
April 1869 and in the Royal Order of the 7th of January 1878, giv- quences like them drying out.The most common types of alter-
ing instructions for reversing the spread of leprosy. Some ation can be divided into four main groups:
marshlands partially escaped these interventions because they - Alteration to the physical structure of the wetland, due to
were considered useful, once cleaned up and transformed into the frequent changes made to natural branches, canals,
rice paddies.The work of clearing and draining the wetlands was streams and brooks, turning them into artificial waterways
soon considered as public works, as seen in the General Public because of building or water works that change their topog-
Works Act of 18777. raphy. This is the case in certain symbolic areas like the
The Inventory of Wetlands, drawn up in 1991 by the Everglades, or even Doñana. In the Everglades case, the
TABLE 2 restoration of its hydrological system, approved almost a
Evolution of the area of Spanish wetlands and lakes decade ago, has been a major operation costing almost 1.5
included in the DGOH inventory (1991).
billion dollars. On a different scale geographically, the
Type Original Present % Superficie
of wetland area in ha area in ha present/original
restoration of the Doñana water system faces similar prob-
lems, arising from the interventions carried out in the second
Interior wetlands 40,600 16,421 40.4
half of the 20th century. Alterations to hydrological systems
Mountain 2,389 2,314 96.9
Carstic 874 784 89.7 and infrastructures usually have the effect of fragmenting
Interior freshwater 14,802 4,805 32.4 habitats.
Interior brackish 6,743 5,212 77.2
Flood plains 15,867 3,234 20.3
- Alteration to the hydrological regime, or the quantity of
Coastal wetlands 239,628 97,679 40.6 water in the wetland; in other words, of the water inputs,
Total 280,228 114,100 40.7
both surface and subterranean, that feed it. A good example

28
 Introduction of exotic and inva-
sive species is one of present-
day greatest risks for wetlands
of this is Lake Ichkeul in Tunisia, a Ramsar wetland that is rap- critical aspect for those in the and for coastal wetlands in par-
ticular, causing considerable
idly salting up due to restrictions in the water flow caused by Philippines. Lastly, we find an alterations of biological commu-
damns situated at the head of the drainage basin.This creates extreme example of pollution nities and leading to a large
number of extinctions. In the
water quality problems that affect water plants, zooplankton in Cambodia, in this case photograph, the brown tree
snake Boiga irregularis, an inva-
and the complex food chain9. Reservoirs have also caused caused by the widespread use
sive species that played havoc
degradation to the great coastal wetlands in the mouth of of the enduring chemical DDT with several species of birds in
the Pacific area.
the Parana-Plata Delta, causing overall change to its water in the past to eradicate mos- Photograph: USGS, Tom Fritts/Gordon Rodd.

cycle rhythms. Major water works transporting water from quitoes, plus the devastating
one basin to another and hydroelectric plants are another effects of bombing
danger factor.The Arenal-Corobici-Sandilla project in Costa and defo-
Rica is a good example of this, with direct consequences on
the coastal mangrove swamps.
- Alteration to the quality of the wetland water, especially by
contaminating inputs, either directly or diluted, or by sedi-
ments brought down from catchment areas. This has
increased exponentially in recent decades.An exam-
ple of the dangers inherent in urban pollution is
found in the difficult situation of the coastal liants used during the
wetlands of the Yellow Sea and the mouth of Vietnam War.
the Yangtze. There is a similar risk in San - Alteration to the biological
Francisco Bay, where the presence of high communities associated with
concentrations of pesticides used in the sur- the wetland, either from over-
rounding agriculture and serious sedimenta- exploitation of resources (hunting,
tion problems have been detected. The input grazing, fishing, farming), or the introduc-
of sediments from deforestation in areas far tion of exotic species.The traditional threats
from the coastal wetlands has become the most that hung over these areas from highly intensive
land use that exceeded its carrying capacity, have
TABLE 3 given way to new forms, such as fish farming.The expansion of
Main causes of wetland loss or degradation. nurseries for crustaceans in mangrove swamps and marshes is
a good example of new factors contributing to the degrada-
- Drainage for agriculture.
tion of the wetlands. The floodable coasts of South
- Salinisation due to over-exploitation or changes in the hydrologic balance of
associated aquifers.
America, on both the Pacific and the Atlantic sides, find
- Diversion of water for irrigation. themselves caught in this new dilemma. It is most endem-
- Drainage to avoid foci of diseases. ic in places like Bahia, in mangrove swamps like those of the Gulf
- Urban development of coastal araes . of Fonseca, and along long stretches of the coast from Ecuador
- Tourist occupation of the coast. to southern Chile. But the great mobility and interconnected-
- Regulatory dams, hydroelectric power stations. ness of the modern world brings another risk of incalculable
- Transfers between river basins. consequence. It facilitates the accidental or voluntary introduc-
- Changes in the hydrologic system to favour navigation or protect occupied tion of countless invading exotic species of all kinds. Every day,
lands.
fish such as tilapias and gambusias, crustaceans such as red crabs,
- Pollution caused by discharge of untreated urban waste water.
algae, tortoises, snakes, insects, molluscs, mammals and birds are
- Pollution caused by industry and agriculture.
introduced to wetlands around the world far from their original
- Mining in the wetland upper basin.
- Large-scale agriculture and fishery over-exploitation.
habitats, with consequences that are sometimes devastating and
- Pastures and fire practices. usually, as yet, unknown.There are countless means of acciden-
- Introduction of exotic species. tal transport: species that travel encrusted on the hulls of ships,
- Fragmentation of habitats. bilge water discharge in estuaries, zoos, air freight transport, the
pet trade, etc.

29
 INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS Over the following eight years, the wording of the future
FOR PROTECTING AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS convention was developed in a series of international technical
Alarming statistics on wetlands destruction have been grad- meetings (St. Andrews, 1963; Noordwijk, 1966; Morges, 1967;
ually put together over the second half of the twentieth centu- Vienna, 1969; Moscow, 1969; Espoo, 1970) with the firm support
ry, spurring a long overdue concerted effort among nature con- of the IWRB11 and the Dutch government. Originally, the pro-
servationists and the global scientific community. This has posal's main idea was to promote the protection of waterfowl
involved as many countries as possible in order to curb one of habitats. However, as the wording developed, the conservation
the most serious processes of environmental degradation affect- of wetlands as whole ecosystems started to take shape instead
ing the planet. of merely protecting the species that inhabited them.
The first major precedent in pulling together this global ini- This preparation took place in parallel with other important
tiative emerged in 1960, when the International Union for the initiatives that have converged in time and space. In the same
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) joined the International decade, foundations were also laid for the MaB Programme12
Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) and the (Man and Biosphere) introducing the concept of the Biosphere
International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) to launch the Reserve as a practical step forward towards the fundamentals of
MAR Project, with a view to conservation of the wetlands and sustainable development. From the outset, it paid special atten-
disseminating such values. This initiative was followed by other tion to wetlands as scientific laboratories and fields for experi-
projects like AQUA and TERMA, tackling the protection of inland menting with the constructive relationship between humanity
waters and peat bogs. But it was during a conference held in the and its environment. This productive period also saw the first
French town of Sainte Marie in 1962, promoted by the MAR steps of the International Hydrological Programme - stemming
project, that an idea for a convention took shape.A process was from the International Hydrological Decade (IHD, 1965-1974) -
initiated to convene an international conference based on a doc- with one of its main tasks to gauge the situation of the world's
ument that was to be the foundation of the wetland convention. aquifers and their interactions with the activities of man.There
The MAR conference was organised at the time with the partic- were also other important precedents like the Programme for
ipation of the IUCN, ICBP10 (currently BirdLife International) and Protecting Habitats and Endangered Species promoted by the
IWRB11 (now Wetlands International). World Wildlife Fund (WWF), or the important role played by
the Council of Europe in the launch of the European Water
Charter in 1967.
TABLE 4 All this preparatory work for a wetlands convention finally
Main figures of Ramsar sites in the European Union (EU 15).
COUNTRIES Total area by Date of Total Ramsar Total
came together in a conference organised by the Iranian
country (km2) ratification area number Department of Hunting and Fishing, in the city of Ramsar on the
in 1994 (including of Ramsar shores of the Caspian Sea.The original wording of what is now
marine areas) Sites
(km2) in 1998 commonly known as the Ramsar Convention was produced,
Austria 83 858 1983 1 028 9 agreed upon and signed by the delegates of 18 countries on the
Belgium 30 518 1986 79 6
Denmark 43 094 1978 7 390 27
3rd of February 1971. Under the auspices of UNESCO as the
Finland 338 145 1975 1 013 11 holding body for the initiative, the Convention came into force
France 543 965 1986 5 791 15
in December 1975, and currently has 1,469 areas entered in the
Germany 356 970 1976 6 712 32
Greece 131 957 1975 1 635 10 List of Wetlands of International Importance, also known as the
Ireland 70 285 1985 697 45 Ramsar List. The wetlands entered account for almost ten per
Italy 301 323 1977 569 46
Netherlands 41 526 1980 3 249 18
cent of all the world's wetlands, approximately 128.9 million
Norway 323 880 1975 697 18 hectares - an area slightly smaller than Greece. Moreover, the
Portugal 91 905 1981 658 10
contracted parties signed up the Convention have increased sig-
Spain 505 990 1982 1 579 38
Sweden 449 964 1975 3 828 30 nificantly, including practically all countries around the world; the
UK 244 101 1976 4 843 129 thirteen original signatories have grown to 146 signatories today.
Total UE 39 049 427
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is now the only envi-
Note: The first column (total area by country) does not take into account marine areas,
but it includes estuaries. This table does not include the new accession countries which ronmental treaty for a specific ecosystem and it is the first to
joined the EU in 2004.
link the conservation of natural resources with their sustainable
Photograph: Wetland International, Ramsar Bureau. Data source: EIONET; Eurostat.
use, along the same lines as the philosophy developed for the

30
 The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is now the only environmental treaty for a specific ecosystem and it is the first to link the conservation of natural
resources with their sustainable use, along the same lines as the philosophy developed for the Biosphere Reserves. In the above picture, a purple heron and a
black-winged stilt in the marshes of the Doñana National Park, declared Ramsar Site, Biosphere Reserve, and World Heritage Site.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Biosphere Reserves. Moving on from the original idea of con- List had been damaged or were facing serious threats that accel-
serving wildfowl habitats, the scope of the Convention has been erated their degradation. There was, therefore, an urgent need
extended over the years to include coastal wetlands like man- to take fast and efficient action to prevent these processes of
grove swamps, coral reefs and marine plant beds, valuing their wetland destruction accelerating, and promoting the restoration
biodiversity and the beneficial role they play in human commu- of damaged sites at the same time. Thus, when parties met in
nities. The range of situations dealt with in the Convention Montreux in 1990, a resolution was passed to investigate sites
becomes clear from Article 1.1 of the text, which defines wet- that have suffered attacks or in which undesirable changes are
lands as: "Areas of marsh, fens, peat land or water, whether nat- likely to occur, so that preventative or restorative actions are
ural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water static or clearly outlined in these places and the appropriate consulta-
flowing, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water the tions and monitoring is established with any stakeholders.There
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres". are presently 55 sites included in this category that has come to
It is important to note that the inclusion of a wetland in the be known as the Montreux Register. Because of the possible
List of Wetlands of International Importance, or Ramsar List,
does not automatically guarantee its protection, as many coun-
tries unfortunately do not meet their commitments, or because
of major external factors affecting their integrity. A recent study
of a sample of 344 sites from the Ramsar List - including wetland
and lake ecosystems - concluded that an alarming 84% of them
suffered serious ecological changes caused by drainage for con-
version to farmland, urban development, pollution, invading
species and the input of sediments.
Adverse changes to the ecological characteristics recorded
in many Ramsar sites have forced the signatories to introduce a
series of amendments to the Convention. Examples include the
Paris amendment of 1982 and the decisions taken by the parties The Ramsar Convention came into force in December 1975, and currently
has 1,469 wetland sites entered in the List of Wetlands of International
to the 1987 Regina Conference. As the Convention was pro- Importance, also known as the Ramsar List.
Above, Kakadu National Park (Australia), Ramsar site.
gressively applied, a significant number of sites included in the

31
 TABLE 5
Main Conventions, Conferences and Milestones related to freshawater and wetlands, coastal wetlands in particular, in Europe and the World.
YEAR MILESTONE RESULTS
1965 Start of the International Hydrological Decade Start of the International Hydrological Programme . UNESCO.
1967 European Water Charter Launching of the Charter by the Council of Europe.
1971 Ramsar Conference, Iran Launching of the Ramsar Convention.
MaB (Man and Biosphere) Programme Constitution of the MaB Programme and of the first Biosphere Reserves.
UNESCO, Paris
1972 United Nations Conference Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment.
on the Human Environment, Stockholm
1973 MARPOL Convention Allows to declare wetlands and nearby sea areas as “sensitive areas”.
1975 Ramsar Convention Coming into force of the Convention under the auspices of UNESCO.
CITES Convention, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. It concerns wetlands both in the field
Washington of species protection and in introduction of alien species.
1977 United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata Plan of Action (PAMP)
Mar del Plata
1979 Berna Convention, Council of Europe Convention dealing with the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats.
Birds Directive, European Union Protection of birds and classify as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) the most suitable territories for migratory birds, such as wetlands.
1981 International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade Global, balanced focus on problems related with water and sanitation specific of each country.
Links with protected areas.
European Charter of the Littoral, Chania, Crete. Preserving valuable littoral ecosystems such as coastal wetlands.
1982 United Nations Convention Links between coastal wetlands, fisheries and reproduction of economically productive species.
on the Law of the Sea.
Montego Bay, Jamaica.
1990 Global Consultation on Safe Water New Delhi Statement:“Some for all rather than more for some” - Sharing water equitably. Integrated water resources management.
and Sanitation for the 1990's,
New Delhi
1992 International Conference on Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource. Economic value of water,
Water and the Environment, Dublin solution of conflicts, natural disasters, sensitisation.
UN Conference on Environment and Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.Agenda 21, Chapter 18.
Development (UNCED Earth Summit)
Río de Janeiro
OSPAR Convention Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic.Annex V: Protection and Conservation of
of Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystems.
Habitats Directive, European Union On the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. Natura 2000 and wetlands Network.
1993 Convention on Biological Diversity Wetlands as world biologiical diversity hotspots.
1995 World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development.“Poverty, water supply, sanitation and natural systems”.
Copenhagen
Conference of the UEU Ministers of Environment. Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy .
Sofia, Bulgaria.
Jakarta Mandate Enlargement of the objectives of the Biological Diversity Convention to coastal and sea environments
with particular incidence on coastal wetlands.
1996 UN Conference on Human Settlements Development of sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing world.“Making the creation of new healthy environments compatible
(Habitat II), Istanbul. with the maintenance of essential wetland resources and ecosystems”.
1997 1st World Water Forum, Marrakech. Marrakech Declaration “Water and sanitation, management of shared waters, preserving ecosystems,
efficient use of waters”.
2000 2nd World Water Forum,The Hague. World Water Vision:“Making Water Everybody's Business”.The challenges: satisfying basic needs, ensuring
food supply, protecting ecosystems, sharing water resources, valuing water and administrating it in a responsible way
.
Ministerial Conference on Water Security Launching of the Report on World Water Resource Development.
in the 21st Century,The Hague
European Landscape Charter Adoption of the definitive text in Florence. Inclusion of the landscape dimension in the protection of wetlands. Launching of
the European Landscape Convention.
Water Framework Directive Inclusion of the “basin” concept for water ecosystems, prevention and water quality.
European Union Promotion of restoration.
2001 International Conference on Freshwater, Water: the key of sustainable development, good governance, mobilisation of financial resources, development of capabilities,
(Dublin + 10), Bonn exchange of know-how.
2002 World Summit on Sustainable development, Plan of Action. Integrated management of water resources.
(Rio + 10), Johannesburg
2003 International Year of Freshwater Governability, integrated management of water resources, efficient use of water, water quality for ecosystems,
3rd World Water Forum, Kyoto restoration, legislative framework.

2005 Start of the International Decade "Water for Life" Resolution approved by the UN General Assembly for the decade 2005-2015.

32
effects brought about by changes in the hydrological regimes, practical level through the running of programmes like MaB. At
Doñana was added to this register on the 4th of July 1990, and this time the UNEP13 eestablished a series of task forces of
the Doñana 2005 Project is one way to address this high-risk sit- experts with a mandate to prepare an international legally bind-
uation.The Everglades, added in 1993, was treated similarly. ing instrument for the conservation and sustainable use of bio-
Coinciding with goals set by the Ramsar Convention, a large logical diversity. In 1991, the group became the Inter-governmen-
number of international provisions, agreements, treaties and tal Negotiating Committee that prepared the wording to be
programmes have come about since the 1970s, dealing directly signed in 1992 during the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro.
or indirectly with protecting wetlands.These were particularly in This is how the Convention on Biological Diversity, finally adopt-
the protection of the coastal wetlands, which helped bring about ed in 1993, appeared on the scene as one of the great accords
a constructive framework on the world stage for the survival of to come out of the Rio Conference. It recognised for the first
waterscapes. The "International Convention on the Prevention time that conserving biological diversity is a common concern
of Pollution from Ships" of the 2nd of November 1973, widely for mankind and forms part of the process of development.Two
known as the MARPOL Convention, was such a case. It made it years later, during the Second Meeting of the Parties in 1995, the
possible to declare certain marine spaces special zones that are programme called the "Jakarta Mandate on Coastal and Marine
particularly sensitive.These included recent declarations like the Biodiversity" was approved, aimed at specifically implementing
Great Barrier Reef (Australia), Sabana-Camagüey (Cuba- this aspect, in the spirit of the Convention on Biological
Biosphere Reserve) and the Wadden Sea, all of which are whol-
ly or partially Ramsar sites. In the same year that Ramsar was
established, the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) came into
force, which has and will continue to have particular impact on
the protected wetlands and the endangered species they shelter,
and its sphere of action will have to be considerably increased in
the face of the growing threat from exotic species in these areas.
In 1979, the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory
Wild Species, known as the Bonn Convention, was adopted,
which aims to ensure the stringent protection of endangered Combining a sustainable use of wetlands with the guarantee of conserva-
tion of their ecosystems, species and water quality, is one of the biggest
migratory species throughout all or part of their range of distri- challenges in nature conservation. In the photograph, fishing huts in the
bution. In this case, a major proportion of the species mentioned "Ortazzo e Ortazzino" Ramsar Site, located in the Po river delta (Italy).
Photograph by Tobias Salathé, Ramsar.
in the two appendices of the Convention are directly associated
with the coastal wetland zones. Three years later, the United Diversity (CBD). The importance that the CBD has placed on
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was adopted in April coastal wetlands is reflected both in the aforesaid Mandate and
1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Some aspects of this Convention in the areas of co-operation that have been developed in recent
cover the same matters, but in this case, it referred to the need years concerning Ramsar. Priority has been given to aspects such
to preserve the great hubs of marine bio-diversity and areas that as "improving the conservation and rational use of wetlands sit-
produce hatchlings to maintain fishing resources. This clearly uated in the inter-tidal zones" and the "integrated management
highlighted many areas of canals and streams in salt marshes, of coastal zones that include wetlands".
estuaries, coastal lagoons connected to the sea, and the highly Initiatives in the conservation of wetlands within a specifical-
productive mangrove swamps. It is curious that this recognition ly European framework have followed a very similar pattern. In
should once again validate the ancient Roman view, two thou- 1974, the former European Commission established the first
sand years on, that places like Estany des Peix in Formentera and Recommendation on Protecting Birds and their Vital Spaces,
San Antioco in Sardinia should be seen as strategic enclaves.They where the decline of many species was highlighted, calling on
played a valuable role as reserves for guaranteeing fishing in the member states to sign up to the Ramsar Convention. Five years
surrounding areas. later in 1979, the member states of the European Union adopt-
Well into the eighties, the term biological diversity with all it ed the "Birds Directive", which was the first European regulation
represents started to circulate, together with concepts like sus- dedicated to bird conservation. The Birds Directive, binding on
tainable development. The two concepts had been tested at a all E.U. member states, proclaimed the need to conserve and

33
 promoted by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) do not
come into conflict with the European Union policy on the
appropriate use and conservation of the wetlands.
Thus, a new point of view - seeing the wetlands politically and
socially - opened up. New directives and recommendations
came into play, either directly or indirectly related to the wet-
lands, characterised by their innovative stance. Water began to
take on a central role. Waterscapes started to become integrat-
ed, or better still, recognised as final users: with all the necessary
guarantees, in directives like the "Urban waste water treatment"
or the "Protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates
from agricultural sources".
On the 22nd of December 2000, this new vision took shape
The coverage of the Ramsar Convention extends to an impressively wide with the European Parliament adopting the Water Framework
variety of wetlands. For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are
"marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or Directive (WFD). The wetlands took a leading role in an historic
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, debate about the necessary new water culture. In fact, the pro-
including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres". In the photograph, aerial view of the Doñana Marshes. visions of Article 1 of the Directive include the following15:
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles.
"The purpose of this Directive is to establish a framework for
the protection of inland surface waters, transitional waters,
suitably manage populations of wild birds. It established the SPA coastal waters and groundwater which:
(Special Protection Areas for Birds) network to this end, an a) prevents further deterioration and protects and enhances the
instrument aimed at protecting 181 of the most endangered bird status of aquatic ecosystems and, with regard to their water
species in Europe, especially migratory birds. A considerable needs, terrestrial ecosystems and wetlands directly depending
proportion of the SPA zones were obviously wetlands.And yet, on the aquatic ecosystems;
as was happening globally, the various programmes within the b) promotes sustainable water use based on a long-term protec-
European framework and the directive started to consider not tion of available water resources; ...".
only conserving the species, but also protecting their habitats. The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) recognises the
Along the same lines, the so-called Habitats Directive was European wetland zones as such. Moreover, the articles of the
finally published in 1992, on the conservation of natural habitats
and wild flora and fauna. The transfer of territory within this
directive led to the creation of the Natura 2000 Network that
encompasses the SPAs and includes all the other important
areas, such as the Special Areas of Conservation (SAC), develop-
ing a coherent network aimed at guaranteeing the biodiversity
of natural habitats and wildlife throughout the European Union.
The importance for the wetlands of the Directive and of creat-
ing the Natura 2000 Network was clearly articulated in the
European Union's 5th Framework Programme when it estab-
lished the need for identifying a set of specific protection meas-
ures for these territories.These measures include integrating the
largest and most important wetland areas in the Natura 2000
Network, integrated management of water resources with
regard to both quality and quantity, the inclusion of European
Union criteria on wetlands14 in the strategic management of land "To ensure a sustainable water supply of good quality, we should protect
and use in a sustainable manner the ecosystems that naturally capture, fil-
use, and major financial support for programmes that include
ter, store, and release water, such as rivers, wetlands, forests, and soils".
ecological use of these zones. Furthermore, member states and Paragraph 24 of the Ministerial Declaration of the 3rd World Water Forum,
Kyoto, 2003.
the Commission are called upon to guarantee that the measures

34
directive promote an awareness of catchment areas in establish- Finally, 2003 was a crucial year for water with the appearance
ing sustainable water use strategies and it highlights the funda- of the ambitious World Water Development Report. It was
mental role of ggroundwater. It also introduces water quality as launched at the Third World Water Forum, organised in Kyoto,
an essential factor. It gives priority to the entitlement to the sus- Japan.All the United Nations agencies and committees devoted
tainable use of water, in appropriate conditions.This could be for to dealing with the water issue worked together for the first
human activities as a whole or for maintaining essential ecosys- time in drawing up this report, in order to examine the progress
tems like wetlands. made in pursuit of water-related objectives.These included areas
The list of supplementary measures which Member States like health, food, conservation of ecosystems, cities, industry and
may choose to adopt for implementing the WFD, in its Part B it energy, as well as a financial evaluation, shared use and good
reads, "recreation and restoration of wetlands areas". Hence, the administration of water resources. An extensive network of
recommendation is based on the fact that wetland protection is interlocutors, broadly from the United Nations, has taken part in
sufficiently covered in European legal regulations. The new creating the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP),
Directive provides a model of prevention and draws up future whose secretariat is run by UNESCO. For the first time ever,
strategy centred on the major challenge of restoring modified twenty three agencies and secretariats of United Nations con-
wetlands. It also introduces the concept of "creating" new wet- ventions have joined forces and shared experiences to produce
lands. As this publication shows, the history of Doñana, like the most complete and up-to-date report on the situation of the
many other emblematic wetlands, runs in parallel with the evo- world's fresh water. Some of the wake-up calls reported include
lution of events in Europe and the rest of the world, by truly and those concerning the increase in pollution, over-exploitation of
effectively facing up to these new challenges that were first iden- groundwater, and a progressive disappearance or alteration of
tified by the scientific community and by certain managers of the lakes and wetlands. In the face of these risks, a new vision is tak-
Doñana Park years ago. ing root that complements the protection of waterscapes. It
The inclusion of an environmental variable in the manage- includes the integrated management of water resources, pro-
ment of water resources for human use, in other words, the moting efficiency in water use, focussing more on the quality of
securing of a holistic way of seeing water management, and espe- aquatic ecosystem waters, fostering research and the promotion
cially the role of wetlands and other important ecosystems, is of large scale restorative action, and creating satisfactory legisla-
starting to become the basis of many WFD projects as it unfolds. tive frameworks.
In the case of Doñana or the Larnaka wetlands in Cyprus, for
example, initiatives like WSM (Water Strategy Man Project) are
included.This is a European Commission project aimed at defin-
ing new exemplars of water management and its future strate-
gies.
Now moving back to the world stage, having reviewed the
trend of events in Europe, we can see that the same phenome-
non has occurred world wide with the recognition of the essen-
tial role of wetlands and aquatic ecosystems. At the same time,
there is a call to integrate this dimension of conservation into
general water policies (see Table 5). The first references start
with the United Nations Water Conference of 1977, in Mar de
Plata, and they continue with important international milestones
and rulings like those of 1992, the year in which the Rio Summit
and the Dublin International Conference on Water and the
Environment were held. More recently, this common thread of
In 1979, the member states of the European Union adopted the "Birds
international concern for the state of water resources has Directive", which was the first European regulation dedicated to bird con-
brought us the appearance of new policies on sustainable water servation. After it, the so-called Habitats Directive was finally published in
1992 developing a coherent network that encompasses the SPAs, aimed at
use at the Conferences on Water and Sustainable Development guaranteeing the biodiversity of natural habitats and wildlife throughout
(Paris 1998) and the World Water Forum held in The Hague the European Union. Above, a water rail (Rallus aquaticus) in Doñana.
Photograph: Organismo Autónomo de Parques Nacionales.
(2000).

35
 LABORATORIES OF NATURE CONSERVATION them.With the exception of El Vizcaino, these cases are current-
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ly undergoing major restoration programmes related to their
Doñana belongs to an extremely select group of coastal wet- hydrological functionality. This is the fundamental aspect of the
lands that have been classed as Biosphere Reserves by the inter- new challenges of conserving aquatic ecosystems of internation-
national community, in other words, laboratories of conserva- al importance.
tion and sustainable development, and furthermore, as World Lake Ichkeul, covering an area of 12,600 ha, is situated in the
Heritage sites. This is a set of exceptional ecotones that also Bizerte region, in the north of Tunisia. It is connected to the
form part of the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Mediterranean by the four-kilometre-long Tinaja Wadi (water-
Importance. course) and is a sublittoral saltwater lagoon, surrounded by a
Very few places in the world meet the triple conditions of permanent fresh water wetland. The main threat hanging over
being recognised as a World Heritage site, Biosphere Reserve this area at the moment is the construction of dykes to collect
and a Wetland of International Importance.They are a very spe- water in three of the lake's tributaries, including the main ones
cial group of seventeen territories that includes such emblemat- (Djoumine and Sedjennane). This lowers the water level and
ic places as the Pantanal (Brazil), Boeng Chmar (Cambodia), the increases salinity with a significant impact on flora and fauna.The
"W" Region of the Níger, San San-Pond Sak (Panama), and restrictions to the water supply led to the draining of the marshy
Palawan (Philippines). If we restrict our selection to coastal areas rim of the lake, triggering a chain of harmful effects such as the
with these characteristics, the list would be further restricted to rapid disappearance of Scirpus maritimus (staple diet of the
include only Ichkeul (Tunisia),The Everglades (USA), El Vizcaíno common goose, that winters here), which has been progressive-
(Mexico), the Danube Delta (Romania-Ukraine) and, of course, ly replaced by invading plant species (Ammi visnaga and
Doñana National Park. There are a few particular settings that Scolymus maculatus). Following that, the pronounced and pro-
should be added to these, in which the flooded area represents longed fall in the water levels of Lake Ichkeul, whose maximum
only a small part of larger reserves, such as the South Isabela depth never exceeds 1.5 m, provides access for livestock to pre-
Wetlands in the Galapagos Islands. Table 6 lists the world's viously inaccessible areas and causes a progressive increase in
coastal wetlands that have been declared Biosphere Reserves or salinity, with a resulting radical transformation of the aquatic
recognised as World Heritage sites, with the corresponding ecosystems. In the current situation, the restoration plans
named sites or Ramsar sites having been added. designed by international agencies and bodies like the GEF and
On analysing each of these cases in detail, the most surpris- IUCN inevitably depend on guaranteeing sufficient water input
ing aspect is that the alteration of their hydrological systems is of at least 20 million cubic metres per year.16 Due to these cir-
the main impact and the principle threat to the survival of all of cumstances, Ichkeul has been on the List of World Heritage in
Danger since 1996.
Apart from the obvious differences of scale and bio-geo-
graphic characteristics, both this case and Doñana are very sim-
ilar to what happened in the Everglades, which is in the same cat-
egory of endangered heritage. The size of the Everglades
Biosphere Reserve is slightly larger, with a floodable area includ-
ed in the Ramsar list of 566,143 ha, which is twenty times larg-
er than Doñana, although this is only half the original wetland
area of 1800.
Before the arrival of European settlers in Florida, the water
of the immense Okeechobee Lake flowed slowly south, along a
watercourse that was wide enough, at some points, to cover up
to one hundred kilometres of surrounding flood plain. The
Before the arrival of European settlers in Florida, the Everglades were real- Everglades were really a wide shallow river running across an
ly a wide shallow river running across an extensive prairie. Over the years
over 2,400 km of drainage canals were built, which radically transformed extensive prairie. But an extensive network of canals was dug in
the hydrological system, and until a few years ago, were diverting an
the early 19th century to drain the area to turn it into farmland.
average of 600 hm3 per day of fresh water into the Atlantic Ocean.
Photograph by Eva Mª Alonso Vizcaino. Over the years, arable land beyond measure was cleared
between the great upper lake and the immense mouth of the

36
 This image, taken by the Terra
satellite, shows two coastal
wetlands of the Baja California
peninsula. The darker circle
shows the San Ignacio Lagoon,
a World Heritage Site part of
the El Vizcaino Biosphere
Reserve that also includes the
lagoon system Ojo de Liebre at
the top-right of the image.
Social pressure, determination
of environmental authorities
and the involvment of interna-
tional organisations allowed
the integral conservation of
these salt marshes unique in
the world.
The UNESCO’s mission
charged by the World Heritage
Centre to prepare the report
on this threatened area was
made up by Mechtild Rössler
(UNESCO), Cipriano Marín
(INSULA), Randall R. Reeves
(Canada) and Pedro Manuel
Rosabal González (IUCN).

Photograph: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS

Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC.

coastal marshes, drained by over 2,400 km of canals that radical- The relative similarity between the risk factors was the basis on
ly transformed the hydrological system.This massive transforma- which the members of the Doñana 2005 Project Committee of
tion grew exponentially after 1948 until it reached the point Experts sent a mission to the Everglades in 2003 to seek points
where, until a few years ago, the canals were diverting an aver- in common for facing the complex task of restoring Doñana.
age of 600 hm3 per day of fresh water into the Atlantic Ocean. The case of the Danube Delta rests on similar assumptions.
The efforts that have been made with the Everglades hydro- All the conflict involved in conserving its immense basin and
logical restoration plan, perhaps the most expensive and compli- associated wetlands in the many countries along its course cul-
cated wetland conservation operation in the world, show that minates in this delta.This is a conflict that also exists upstream,
this is no time for making irresponsible decisions as made in the as can be seen from the inclusion of the Donau-March-Auen
past.This is because the cost of restoration, not to mention the Ramsar site (Austria) in the Montreux Register in 1990. The
irreplaceable loss of biological capital, is a heavy burden on future delta of the Danube is the largest in Europe, encompassing about
generations. The apparent social and political impossibility of 580,000 hectares, 113,000 of which are permanently covered by
curbing farmland expansion, and the need to "protect" the water. Its survival is currently threatened by mistakes made and
waterside urban spread of Miami's mass conurbation from the decisions taken similar to those made last century in Doñana
waters themselves, forced the authorities to develop an impres- and the Everglades, with the difference that we now have the
sive mechanism of water storage, diversion and pumping. This technical and scientific capacity to prevent the consequences of
ended in restricting the traditional inputs into the surviving wet- major hydrological alterations. A shipping channel that the
lands. In practise, input quantities are presently being guaranteed Ukraine is dredging in the delta threatens the survival of over
with an unprecedented investment in energy, infrastructure and 500 species of birds and fish that inhabit this Biosphere Reserve.
maintenance. At the same time, the colossal restoration pro- Countries like Germany and Romania, the principal victims, and
gramme, consisting of 52 actions over a period of 20 years, faces international agencies like UNESCO and the Ramsar
new problems similar to those of Doñana, such as the need to Convention, asked for the works to be stopped and for an envi-
treat waters laden with nutrients from industry or agriculture, ronmental impact assessment be carried out on the project. But
or to mitigate the effects arising from the contamination of the authorities of Kiev started building this channel on the
underground aquifers. Maintaining ecosystems also needs meas- Bistroe Arm in May 2004, without informing Romania, where
ures established to guarantee the level and behaviour of bodies 80% of the vast marshland area is located.Their intention is to
of water, in a terrain in which centimetres turn into mountains17. open a link with the Black Sea.The Ukrainian government, which

37
 has ignored all the complaints presented to them, justifies the dealt with.The ruling argued that the activity should be an inte-
project by the fact that they need their own maritime-fluvial gral part of a sustainable development strategy in which water
channel in the region; a channel 120 kilometres long, with a was a central player, which was not the case, especially as the
depth of 10 metres and a width of between 100 and 500 metres project was within a Biosphere Reserve. Moreover, it included a
to ensure that it is navigable. new social dimension in that there was a lack of provisos for
The other side of the coin is represented by the case of El altering the existing natural landscape, resources that are
Vizcaino. In an act without precedent in the Mexican increasingly rare on the planet. It questioned the legal grounds
Government's management of the environment, President that made it possible to alter this common heritage, just when
Ernesto Zedillo announced the decision to completely cancel other activities and economies that were far more environmen-
the ESSA project during the "Evaluation of National Bio-diversi- tally friendly were being developed in the area (selective fishing,
ty Conservation Policy" meeting, held on the 2nd of March 2000. pharmacology, responsible tourism, and agriculture of native
Backed by Mitsubishi, the ESSA project surrounded the San products). For the first time, a whole coastal wetland of this size
Ignacio lagoon; a whale sanctuary declared a World Heritage site has been rescued because of the convergence of several factors
and part of the Biosphere Reserve of the same name enclosing that mobilised society and the scientific community: integrated
one of the most interesting virgin marshlands on the planet.The conservation of a wetland, non-intervention when there is a high
project consisted of developing a great industrial salt works that degree of uncertainty, strict application of sustainable develop-
ment criteria, and recognition of these areas as the heritage of
society as a whole. Some months later, James E. Brumm, Vice
President of Mitsubishi, declared in a public appearance that "the
preservation of the area in its natural condition is more impor-
tant that proceeding with the salt works".
As with the above cases, the Doñana Ramsar site was includ-
ed in the Montreux Register in 1990, following Recommendation
4.9.1, which noted that "despite positive actions, there is still a
risk of changes to the ecological character of the Ramsar site as
a result of water being drawn for farming and the development
of tourism, among other problems". The reasons for including
Marshes and lagoons have always been a mysterious source of inspiration the site in the Montreux Register are grounded on the reason-
for artists in several cultures. In the image, a reproduction of the painting
"Crossing the Styx", by the Flamish peinter Joachim Patinir born in able doubt that these activities would over-exploit the regional
Bouvignes in 1485. aquifer, hence diminishing the levels of groundwater, causing a
Prado Museum. Madrid.
reduction in the duration and the level of seasonal flooding in
would directly affect some 30,000 ha of land bordering on the the Doñana Marshes. But, unlike Doñana, the other sites men-
natural salt flats and would represent a major alteration to their tioned as benchmark sites are included in the List of World
hydrological regime. The decision of the government was the Heritage in Danger.
conclusive response to a report drafted by the Mission and sent This brief description of the planet's most emblematic
by UNESCO18 to evaluate the impact of the project on the nat- coastal wetlands, or at least those considered as included in the
ural values of the site. It was presented at the 23rd Session of the leading international natural environment protection conven-
World Heritage Committee held in Marrakech in November tions and programmes, enables us to put forward a new exem-
1999. The UNESCO Mission's ruling explicitly recognised that plar that shapes their survival.This is based on their hydrological
traditional salt production is not exactly an very aggressive activ- restoration as the fundamental challenge and the crux of all
ity with this kind of habitat and that the grey whale sanctuary actions. In fact, the World Water Development Report (2004)
would not be seriously affected by it, but at the same time it did explicitly recognises the essential role that these "living water
warn that what made this project extremely dangerous was its laboratories" play. In addition to the above cases, it mentions
scale and the influence it would have on the hydrology of the other coastal wetlands of world importance like the Camargue.
marshes. For the first time, a decision of this kind included two The Report corresponds with the above views, encouraging the
concepts put forward to justify its rejection, breaking the bound- development of international co-operation based on knowing
aries of how losses in biological diversity would traditionally be what can be implemented in these benchmark cases. It not only

38
highlights the importance of conservation policies, but also the eutrophication. The nitrates can be reconverted into nitrogen
new challenges of generating innovation in the area of integrat- gas and fed back into the atmosphere as a result of denitrifica-
ed management of water resources, the restoration of degraded tion. The wetlands may sometimes act as natural water treat-
systems and the maintenance of acceptable water quality ment plants. On the other hand, some wetlands play an
standards.The challenge is not so much to overcome the important role in retaining CO2.The masses of marsh
negative perceptions provoked by an alert ruling on the plants, and especially the peaty organic deposits pro-
conservation of an area, but rather to recognise that duced by the accumulation of the plants remains,
critical situations have come about in these territories account for a large
that have generated solutions, be they right or wrong, proportion
and that all the cases together as a whole provide an of the car-
enormous potential for scientific knowledge and bon fixed as
management know-how that could be harnessed or organic mat-
replicated in many other coastal wetlands. ter. This capacity to retain
nutrients make many wet-
BENEFITS BEYOND THEIR BORDERS lands some of the most
Enhancing skills and exchanging experiences on the manage- productive ecosystems
ment and conservation of these waterscapes will add value, as known to man, to the
we gain a better insight into the future benefits that the wet- extent that they can com-
lands provide for mankind. The known beneficial functions of pete with systems of inten-
the wetlands include: sive agriculture. In some African wetlands,
- Export of biomass. Wetlands are systems annual primary production of papyrus
that offer an enormous wealth of flora and amounts to 100 tonnes per hectare and
fauna that are directly or indirectly usable typha (bulrushes) varies
by man. These include both wild between 30 and 70
species (fish, birds, plants) and domes- tonnes per hectare.
tic species (rice, livestock, reeds, etc.) These figures are similar
Apart from this production, nutrients to and even exceed the
are carried by watercourses, and the commercial production
run-off or re-charging of aquifers Waterwheels, wind- figures for maize (63
mills, stone walls and
feeds other freshwater or marine tonnes per hectare) and
particular buildings
environments, where they enter the such as pile sugar cane (60 tonnes
dwellings, make up
food chain and are re-cycled and the incredibly varied
per hectare).
reused. list of constructive - Fisheries and shellfish
elements associated
- Re-charging aquifers. This to coastal wetlands production. Marine
occurs when the water fil- throughout the species provide 20% of
world. In the image,
ters from the wetland to the engraving of an old all the animal protein
aquifers below ground. The wind-mill of the consumed on the
Janubio salt-works.
water that reaches the aquifer is Lanzarote. planet. Two thirds of
usually of higher quality than the water Engraving: Antonio Ramos the fish eaten
originally entering the wetland thanks to its worldwide depend
capacity to purify. Once in the aquifer, the water on coastal wetlands at some
can be drawn off for human consumption, or it can be stage in their biological cycle, so this is
left to follow the subterranean flow until it rises to the sur- an extremely important function for mankind
face again in another wetland, in the form of aquifer discharge. that goes way beyond the fixed borders of these threat-
- Nutrient retention. In certain conditions, nutrients - especially ened zones. Our knowledge of the role that wetlands play as
nitrogen and phosphorus - are retained by the plants and sedi- critical habitats necessary for the development of many wild
ments of the wetlands, improving water quality and preventing species in their larval and juvenile stages grows day by day, and

39
 False coloured image of
Southern Florida taken
by the Terra satellite. It
clearly shows the big
Okeechobee lake which
once fed Everglades.
The large, green-dotted
brown area is the pres-
ent wetland area, evi-
dently squeezed
between a large strip
opf cultivated lands
and the Miami huge
urbanised area that
stretches along the east-
ern coast. These main
features are sufficient
to understand the com-
plexity of one of the
most ambitious hydro-
logical restorations ever
made.

Photograph: Jacques Descloitres,

MODIS Land Rapid Response
Team, NASA/GSFC.

some of these species are of great commercial value. In the early

stages of their life, these species use wetlands temporarily,
before moving to the surrounding habitats. For example, the
mangrove swamps of the Pacific coastlines maintain an average
of over one hundred species of fish that grow there before leav-
ing for coastal waters.
- Plant food. Wetlands are the natural habitat of rice, a principal
food cereal. Most varieties are grown in modified wetland habi-
tats. It is estimated that in Asia alone, over two billion people
depend on the sources of protein provided by wetland agricul-
tural production and fish.
- Biodiversity and genetic resources. From the point of view of
This painting was produced in Costa Rica during the 7th meeting of the ecosystems, coastal wetlands are a basic source of genetic
Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP) to the Ramsar Convention,
May 1999. The 7 indigenous artists, from the Solentiname archipelago in resources that include potentially essential basic products, for
the south-east corner of Lake Cocibolca, Nicaragua, live in fishing and
farming communities that are closely linked to their wetland environment.
key industries like pharmacology in the future. One example of
Their presence at the Conference was part of a much larger project organ- such potential is found in the alga Dunaliella salina, from which
ized by IUCN-Mesoamerica that brought together local groups in several
countries to discuss the importance of wetlands in their lives; an outcome
basic substances are extracted for treating cancer. Some wet-
of the meeting was a "People's declaration on wetlands", which was subse- lands are also valuable for the conservation of certain native
quently presented at the Conference. As part of the project, a workshop
for artists in Solentiname encouraged an artistic expression of the close breeds and varieties of organism, like the Mostrenca cows and
relationship between the people and their wetlands, and a group of these the Lebrijana sheep of the Guadalquivir marshes, or the drum
artists, working during the COP in Costa Rica, produced this painting of
their Solentiname environment. The painting is currently displayed in the rice that is still grown in the "veles" of s'Albufera, in Majorca.
office of the Secretary General of the Ramsar Convention in Switzerland. - Protection from storms. Coastal wetlands help to dissipate the
The 7 artists: F ernando Altamirano, Paula Clarisa Arellano, Rodolfo Arellano, Silvia Arellano, Gloria
Guevara, Elba Jiménez, Rosa Pineda force of the wind and the waves and often reduce the damage
caused by storms, which is especially important in tropical

40
regions.
- Stabilising the coast and controlling erosion. Typical wetland
vegetation can stabilise the coastline by reducing the energy of
waves, currents and other forces of erosion. At the same time,
the roots of the plants sustain seabed sediments.The vegetation
of riverbank wetlands, in turn, stabilises the banks of these rivers
and thus, reduces erosion.
- Climate change. It is suspected that the wetlands play an impor-
tant part in the earth's carbon cycle, although it is not known to
what extent.What is beyond all doubt is that draining, convert-
ing swamps into farmlands and the widespread degradation of History repeats itself. The opening of a new navigable canal threatens
the wetlands releases large quantities of carbon dioxide and again the survival of large areas of the Danubio delta, completely chang-
ing its hydrological system.
other green house gasses that could make a substantial contri- Photograph : Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC.

bution to climate change.

Despite the way they have been treated, other clear contri- Northern Territory of
butions that these zones have made to human survival should be Australia, offers a land-
assessed objectively.The constant supply of plant products for a scape in which exten-
wide range of purposes other than food would be such a case: sive swamp alternates
for building related purposes (wood, reeds, cane), for making with rugged mountain
utensils (bulrushes), for making furniture (wood, reeds), for mak- relief, with caves full of
ing chemicals (lime), or for making fuel (firewood, peat). The prehistoric rock paint-
coastal marshes have also been a major source of salt for cen- ings. 196 archaeological Human activity in coastal wetlands has cre-
ated a yet little-known cultural, industrial
turies, a basic commodity in our civilisation that countless activ- sites have been identi- and ethnographic heritage. In the photo-
ities and applications depend on. Finally, in today's knowledge fied in Kakadu, many of graph, an ancient wind-mill of the salt-
works in the Secovlje Ramsar site
society, wetlands have become hubs of economic development which are at least (Slovenia).
Photograph by Emil Hilje.
with the appearance of new activities like tourism. Doñana, 10,000 years old20.
Kakadu, the Everglades and the Pantanal are good examples of a Concerning architectural heritage, lagoons and coastal
different way of making a healthy profit from these zones, creat- marshes have been the setting for some incredible works in
ing a new form of cultural co-existence. which man has adapted to his environment, some of which still
In this process of change, a new way of seeing the wetlands survive. One only has to mention the "Stazione da Pesca"
is taking root.They have managed to survive the passage of civil- (Fishing Posts) of the Venice lagoon, the "corrales" making har-
isation, and the accumulated cultural heritage to be found in monious shapes in the shallow waters of the Atlantic estuaries,
these waters should not be forgotten. Some wetlands sustain the "fish houses" forming labyrinths on the coasts of Kerkennah,
traditional activities that form part of the history of entire peo- the old mussel farms of "Étang de Thau", or the incredible salt
ples. For example, the Mai Po swamps are the only place left pans of Guérande.These blend perfectly with the topography of
where the residents of Hong Kong can see how the Gei Wai the marsh, in contrast with the Roman linear design of the thou-
(nurseries) work, where the local community uses a centuries- sand-year-old salt works of Trapani, Marsala and Ibiza21. All of
old traditional method for breeding prawns19. In Australia, many these are expressions that give food for thought about the
wetlands are of enormous social and cultural value for their tra- capacity we used to have for harnessing and adapting to our
ditional aboriginal owners. They still lead an active ceremonial environment. They are highly imaginative projects, like the
life and still use semi-traditional hunting and gathering practices Palafittes, that have flourished in shallow waters throughout the
in the marshes of the Coburg Peninsula (the world's first Ramsar world. In some places, they provide shelter for ethnic cultures
site). Other wetlands are of outstanding archaeological impor- surviving from former times, like the Warao of the Orinoco
tance, like the Stavns Fjord Ramsar site (Denmark), well known Delta, where a sustainable development programme has been
for its archaeological remains, and one of the first Bronze Age started to maintain this ancient symbiosis22.
settlements to include buildings from the time of the Vikings. On The power of coastal waterscapes not only reaches the tan-
the other side of the world, the Kakadu National Park, in the gible world, it is also relayed in traditions, myths, customs, arts

41
 The Kakadu National Park, in the Northern Territory of Australia, offers a landscape in which extensive swamp alternates with rugged mountain relief, with
caves full of prehistoric rock paintings. 196 archaeological sites have been identified in Kakadu, many of which are at least 10,000 years old. It is undoubtedly
an emblematic example of fusion between cultural and natural heritage in the same wetland.
Photograph: Kakadu National Park.

and crafts, building up an intangible cultural heritage that emu-

lates the diverse biological heritage that inhabits it. In this publi-
cation, J.A.Valverde offers a magnificent sketch of this aspect in
Doñana. Not in vain, preferential attention has been paid to the
marshes and lagoons that dot the shoreline, as much by the
World Heritage Centre, defining them as "Cultural Landscapes",
as by the European Landscape Convention. Both international
conventions emphasise the power of spaces in which the work
of nature has been wisely combined with the work of man.
Given all of this, and if we merge the scientific perspective
with the environmental and cultural points of view, a large part
of the world's coastal wetlands have become, without a shadow
of doubt, genuine laboratories of innovation for sustainable
development.These places that are so significant for science, the
environment and for biodiversity, can and should become melt-
ing pots of experience and problem solving that may prevent
what we are seeing today in former Mesopotamia. Over 20,000
km2 of wetlands surrounding the confluence of the Tigris and the
Euphrates in the south of Iraq were the cradle of an important
branch of world civilisation. 5,000 years ago, at the dawn of the
Sumerian culture, extensive natural marshes lived in harmony
with a society that worshipped water and created artificial
islands. Birds and shallow waters were used as calming images
throughout history, permeating art, music and alphabets. In a
mere two decades, thoughtless waterworks have wiped out During the last decades, experience showed that conservation of threat-
ened species living in wetlands is increasingly linked with the amount of
unique areas of this cultural and ecological jewel that will end up water resources that support these landscapes and to the functional
being buried by this senseless oil war - a war that does not even restoration of their disturbed hydrological systems. Above, an imperial
eagle, one of the symbols of Doñana.
respect the waterscapes that were the ancestral origins of the Photograph: Doñana 2005 files.

cultures that its promoters claim to defend.

42
 TABLE 6
Coastal wetlands conatained in areas declared Biosphere Reserves or included in the World Heritage list and their coincidence with the Ramsar list
of wetlands of international importance.
COUNTRY BIOSPHERE RESERVE WORLD HERITAGE SITE RAMSAR SITE

Algeria El Kala Marais de la Mekhada

Germany Waddensea of Schleswig-Holstein Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer
Waddensea of Hamburg Hamburgisches Wattenmeer
Waddensea of Lower Saxony Wattenmeer, Elbe-Weser-Dreieck
Wattenmeer, Jadebusen & westliche Wesermündung
Wattenmeer, Ostfriesisches
Wattenmeer & Dollart
Rügen
Argentina Delta del Paraná
Costero del Sur Bahía de Samborombón
Mar Chiquita
Australia Croajingolong
Mornington Peninsula and Western Port Western Port
Fraser Island Great Sandy Strait
Kakadu National Park Kakadu National Park
Wet Tropics of Queensland
Bangladesh Sundarbans Sundarbans
Belize Belize Barrier-Reef Reserve System
Burkina Faso La Mare aux hippopotames La Mare aux hippopotames
Brazil Mata Atlántica Atlantic Forest Southeast Reserves Baixada Maranhense
Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves Reentrâncias Maranhenses

Canada Clayoquot Sound

Charlevoix
Grand Codroy Estuary
Chile Laguna San Rafael
China Shankou Mangrove Shankou Mangrove Nature Reserve
Yancheng Dafeng National Nature Reserve
Yancheng National Nature Reserve
Nanji Islands
Colombia Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta Sistema Delta Estuarino del Río Magdalena
Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta.
Costa Rica Area de Conservación Guanacaste
Cuba Ciénaga de Zapata Ciénaga de Zapata
Península de Guanahacabibes
Baconao
Buenavista
Dominicana Republic Jaragua-Bahoruco-Enriquillo
Ecuador Archipelago de Galápagos Archipelago de Galápagos Humedales del Sur de Isabela
Spain Doñana Parque Nacional de Doñana Parque Nacional de Doñana
Urdaibai Ria de Mundaka-Guernika
Cabo de Gata-Nijar Salinas del Cabo de Gata
Marismas del Odiel Marismas del Odiel
Lanzarote
Estonia West Estonian Archipelago Hiiumaa Islets & Käina Bay
Vilsandi - National Park
Laidevahe - Natural Reserve
France Camargue Camargue
La Petite Camargue
Archipel de la Guadeloupe Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin de la Guadeloupe
India Sundarbans Sundarbans
Indonesia Komodo Parque Nacional de Komodo
Ujung Kulon
Iran Hara Khouran Straits
Miankaleh Miankaleh Peninsula, Gorgan Bay
Lapoo-Zaghmaz Ab-bandan
Ireland North Bull Island North Bull Island
Mauritania Banc d'Arguin Banc d'Arguin
Mexico Alto Golfo de California
El Vizcaino Santuario Ballenero El Vizcaíno Laguna San Ignacio
Islas del Golfo de California
Sian Ka'an Sian Ka'an
Netherlands Waddensea Area Boschplaat
Griend
Waddenzee
Nicaragua Río San Juan Refugio de Vida Silvestre Río San Juan
Philippines Palawan Tubbataha Reef Marine Park Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park

Polonia Slowinski Parque Nacional Slowinski

Rumania Delta del Danubio Danubio Delta Danubio River Delta
Russian Federation Astrakhanskiy Volga River Delta
Commander Islands
Senegal Delta du Saloum Delta du Saloum
Djoudj Djoudj
South Africa Cape West Coast Langebaan
Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park Upper Kwa Zulu Natal
Tunisia Ichkeul Ichkeul Ichkeul
Ukraina Chernomorskiy
United Kingdom Dyfi Cors Fochno & Dyfi
Loch Druidibeg Loch Druidibeg, Loch à Machair and Loch Stilligarry
North Norfolk Coast North Norfolk Coast
Braunton Burrows
Silver Flowe-Merrick Kells Silver Flowe
United States of America Everglades & Dry Tortugas Everglades National Park Everglades
Carolinian-South Atlantic
Virginia Coast
Central Gulf Coast Plain
Channel Islands
California Coast Ranges
Cascade Head
Uruguay Bañados del Este Bañados del Este y Franja Costera
Vietnam Ha Long Bay

43
The importance RODRIGO GÁMEZ *

of Biodiversity

Scientists analyse Biodiversity on several different levels of organisation, such as communities, species, and genes. In the picture, flock of terns in Doñana
National Park.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

T he term Biodiversity, synonymous of Biological Diversity,

has become globally popular since the proceedings of the
National Biodiversity Forum, organised by the American National
isms, from single cell microbes only visible to a microscope, to giant
trees, enormous whales and elephants.
Strictly speaking, Biodiversity is a quality or characteristic of liv-
Academy of Sciences and held in Washington D.C. in 1986, were ing entities, but the sense of the meaning has been broadened in
published in 1988 (Wilson, 1988). Biodiversity appeared in scientif- the literature, to include not only the very diversity of life on Earth,
ic literature nearly 20 years ago (Lovejoy, 1980), and it was already but also to encompass all life itself, as an entity or a resource
being used in Costa Rica in scientific and conservationist circles (Heywood and Watson, 1995;Wilson, 1992).
since1996. The Convention on Biological Diversity, a result of the Scientists distinguish and analyse Biodiversity at least on three
United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development different levels of organisation: ecosystems, species and genes, the
held at Rio in 1992, made a significant contribution to spreading the traits and qualities of which have been defined and described by dif-
concept on a global scale, introducing the term Biodiversity to the ferent authors, (Heywood and Watson, 1995; Raven, 1997;Wilson,
general public. 1992, 1988, 1997) and which are summarised in broad terms below.
In simple terms, the diversity of life forms that live in the bios- An ecosystem is commonly known as a community of species
phere is what we understand as Biodiversity. One quality of living of organisms that interact between themselves and with the phys-
beings is that they are all different from each others. This gives ical environment around them. Some macro-types of ecosystems
them the ability to occupy the most diverse forms of niches in the can be defined in general terms, as a tropical forest, a wetland or a
biosphere, wherever they may find available energy, giving them, in moor. But despite of the fact that ecosystems of a certain macro-
turn, the particular characteristics of the landscapes of the places type may share certain features, they are always different, they are
they occupy. We can see this in the full range of the Earth's natu- never identical, due to differences in the identity of the species that
ral formations, from the depths of the oceans to the summits of the they consist of, or in the characteristics of the physical environment
highest mountain ranges, and from the tropical rain forests to the around them. Some ecosystems, in turn, shelter unique, endemic
most arid and driest of deserts. We can appreciate it in the species that only exist in certain places and environments and
immense and fascinating variety of shapes and sizes of living organ- which can be found nowhere else.
One of the major problems facing biodiversity lies in these
unique features of an ecosystem and in the destruction and disap-
* National Biodiversity Institute.
Santo Domingo de Heredia, Costa Rica. pearance of ecosystems with unique qualities, which are not even

45
 The diversity of life forms that live in the biosphere is what we understand as the Biodiversity. One quality of living beings is that they are all different from
each others. This gives them the ability to occupy the most diverse forms of niches in the biosphere. Pine trees emerging from a “corral” surrounded by dunes
in Doñana.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.

shared by other ecosystems close by, which may be similar, but not which are the most primitive and most abundant forms of life on
the same. Earth. In these cases, other criteria are used for characterising and
Ecosystems are naturally difficult to classify and define, or even classifying them, mainly bio-chemical and molecular in nature.
to delimit geographically. Species, on the other hand, are easier to Biological diversity on a genetic level deals with the variability
define and describe, which is why they have become the focus of caused by the appearance of different forms of the same gene, that
attention of biologists for several hundred years, used as basic ele- is, of the alleles, the product of mutations that, in turn, cause varia-
ments in dealing with taxonomic and phylo-genetic issues or stud- tions in the sequences of nucleotides of the DNA macro-mole-
ies of a bio-geographic nature. cules. Sexual reproduction clearly also leads to a mixture of alleles
But the definition of species too, faces problems. Biologists by recombination.There are also other processes that cause muta-
define a species as a population of individuals capable of breeding tions but, in the end, and regardless of their origin, it is the muta-
with each other, of freely exchanging their genes among the popu- tions that directly affect the basic characteristics that determine an
lation, under natural conditions.This concept is highly applicable to individual and, in turn, a population.
most animals and plants, but it is unsure as to whether it is applica- The knowledge that we have of the biodiversity is still very lim-
ble to populations of organisms that occupy different geographic ited.There is no consensus among scientists concerning the num-
ranges. ber of species that exist on the planet. Nearly 1.9 million of them
Where the difficulty in using this concept of species becomes have been described scientifically, but estimations of the total num-
most evident is in the case of organisms that do not reproduce ber of species vary from 3 to 100 million, and 5 to 15 million is con-
sexually, or in species in which sexual reproduction is unimportant sidered a plausible range. Our ignorance of Biodiversity at an eco-
in their life cycle. This is the case of bacteria and archi-bacteria, logical and genetic level is even greater.
Given the nature of the processes that lead to its creation, bio-
diversity is the product of millions of years of evolution that occur
in a given place at a given time. This is something that we human
beings should appreciate and value, as a form of wealth of a nation,
just as we do with material and cultural wealth, and this is one of
the most precious legacies to be found in Doñana (Wilson, 1992).
Mankind has taken de facto control of the biosphere and the
tragedy that we face is that we are irrationally destroying this won-
derful work of nature.We have triggered the sixth great extinction
The knowledge that we have of the biodiversity is still very limited. There is faced by biodiversity without yet understanding its origin and its
no consensus among scientists concerning the number of species that exist formation, characteristics or how it works. Moreover, we do not
on the planet. Nearly 1.9 million have been described scientifically, but esti-
mations of the total number of species vary from 3 to 100 million. understand the vital role that it plays for mankind, for our own
Photograph: CENEAM files.
welfare.

46
Wetlands and MIREILLE JARDIN *, SALVATORE ARICO *

Biosphere Reserves
laboratories of sustainable development

nder UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MaB) ecosystems worldwide. Such driving forces include: demograph-
U Programme, at least 60 'biosphere reserves' in some 38
countries, out of a total number of 440 biosphere reserves in 97
ic factors; economic factors (e.g. trade); institutional, legal and
other governance factors; development and the use of new tech-
countries, host wetland systems. These are sites dominated by nologies; climate change; natural hazards; land use changes; envi-
wetland ecosystems and where wetlands are the subject of ronmental policies (e.g., on use of fertilizers, biological control,
research and monitoring activities. Moreover, sites list- etc.); access to resources and use; etc.24.
ed both under the MaB Programme and the The number of wetland biosphere reserves
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, 1971) - the Ramsar worldwide is relatively small - compared with, for
Convention - count at least 74 MaB biosphere example, the total number of wetland sites in
reserves and 85 sites under the Ramsar the world. However, they are important
List of Wetlands of International impor- due to their role as 'living laboratories'
tance, in 43 countries. for demonstrating workable, partici-
These slight differ- patory solutions to achiev-
ences in counting can be ing sustainable develop-
attributed to the fact ment. The Doñana
that certain biosphere Biosphere Reserve is one
reserves may include of such 'laboratories'.
more than one Ramsar Here, the tremendous
site. In any event, these ongoing efforts to rehabili-
figures show that there tate the site after the Aznalcollar
is a significant number of biosphere mine spill in 1998 will serve as a 'learn-
reserves having wetlands as their dominant ing case' for many other sites with simi-
ecosystem type in all parts of the world. lar problems.
The global distribution of wetland bios-
phere reserves is representative both from the point of view of THE 'BIOSPHERE RESERVE' CONCEPT
geographic and biogeographic features, which determine differ- Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal
ent wetland types.Wetland biosphere reserves cover: wetlands ecosystems under a particular set of management regimes
in arid and semi-arid lands such as wadis, gueltas or saline and known as the 'biosphere reserve concept.' They are internation-
intermittent lakes; wetland systems associated with coral reefs, ally recognized within the framework of the UNESCO's inter-
mangroves, lagoons, inter-tidal mudflats and other types of governmental programme on Man and the Biosphere (MaB), and
coastal systems; wetlands in mountain and highland systems, remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are
including high altitude lakes; wetlands in tropical humid systems, located.
sub-tropical and temperate wetland systems; boreal wetlands, Biosphere reserves are united globally into the World
including different bog, fen and mire systems; etc. Network of Biosphere Reserves: and currently there are 440
Moreover, and perhaps more importantly, as a whole, these sites established in 97 countries. Although biosphere reserves
wetland sites are subject to most of the socioeconomic drivers are found in very different geographical, economic and cultural
of environmental use and change that have an effect on these contexts, they do have a common interest in seeking concrete
solutions to reconcile biodiversity conservation with sustainable
* UNESCO's Division of Ecological Sciences and Man and the Biosphere Programme use of natural resources, for the benefit of local people, based on
Secretariat, UNESCO.
The authors thank J. Robertson of UNESCO-MAB for her revision of the manuscript. commonly agreed approaches.

47
 Ideally, fully functioning biosphere reserves perform three Initially, the three zones were presented schematically as a
main roles: series of concentric rings. However, the zonation is usually
- conservation in situ of ecosystems and landscapes, as well as implemented in many different ways to accommodate local geo-
their inherent diversity; graphic conditions and constraints (see Figure 1).This flexibility
- the establishment of demonstration areas for ecologically allows for creativity and adaptability, and is one of the strengths
and socio-culturally sustainable land and water resource use; of the concept. In particular, the logistic function of biosphere
and reserves described above aims to promote scientific research
- the provision of logistic support for research, monitoring, and monitoring in biosphere reserves, which in some ways serve
education, training and information exchange related to con- as 'living laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating inte-
servation and sustainable development issues. grated management of land, water and biodiversity. The way in
These functions are associated through a zonation system which biosphere reserves are organized and run differs from site
(see Figure 1) consisting of a core area with minimal human to site but the key idea is that a mechanism is set up fostering
activities such as non-extractive research and monitoring (there cooperation amongst the participating institutions, which agree
may be several patchy core areas within in a single biosphere upon an overall management policy for the whole biosphere
reserve). The surrounding area acts as a buffer for the core and reserve. Such an overall policy or vision is particularly important
accommodates more interventionist human activities such as envi- for wetland biosphere reserves, with their interconnectivity of
ronmental education, training, as well as tourism and recreation.An upstream and downstream actions.
outer transition area, or area of cooperation, extends outwards The World Network of Biosphere Reserves serves to fos-
and serves as a liaison with the larger region in which the biosphere ter exchanges among sites, for example, knowledge about, or
reserve lies, and promotes in particular the development role with experience in resolving, specific issues (such as conflicts over
activities such as, traditional use or rehabilitation of ecosystems, access to resources), and to facilitate cooperative activities,
human settlements, agriculture, fisheries, etc. It is here that research including scientific research and monitoring, environmental edu-
is applied to resolve resource use problems. cation and specialist training.The World Network itself is com-

FIGURE 1
Theoretical zonation scheme for biosphere reserves.

CORE AREA(S)

BUFFER AREA(S)

TRANSITION AREA(S)

Research Station

Monitoring

Education/training

Tourism

48
 The global distribution of wetland biosphere reserves is representative both from the point of view of geographic and biogeographic features, which determine
different wetland types. Wetland biosphere reserves cover: wetlands in arid and semi-arid lands such as wadis, gueltas or saline and intermittent lakes; wetland
systems associated with coral reefs, mangroves, lagoons, inter-tidal mudflats and other types of coastal systems; wetlands in mountain and highland systems,
including high altitude lakes; wetlands in tropical humid systems, sub-tropical and temperate wetland systems; boreal wetlands, including different bog, fen
and mire systems. In the phortograph, Trinitario River wetlands, Cuba.
Photograph by Bárbara García Moreda.

posed of a number of geographic regional and thematic sub-net- populations, introductions of invasive species, pollution, climate
works.The provisions pertaining to the establishment and man- change - all these factors affect negatively the sustainability of wet-
agement of biosphere reserves are spelled out in the Seville lands and their continued provision of ecological services that are
Strategy for Biosphere Reserves and the Statutory Framework a precept to human well-being. In particular, wetlands are particu-
of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves25. larly prone to receiving discharges and toxic material from activi-
ties upstream (as was the case with the Doñana with the mine
WETLAND BIOSPHERE RESERVES AS spill): this underlines the need to publicize the results of rehabili-
LABORATORIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT tation work for the benefit of other countries.
Wetland systems stabilize mobile substrata through the Although neither science nor policy, nor their combined
mechanical action of wetland plant species, which thus reduce soil efforts have succeeded in formulating a 'magic' cocktail of ingredi-
or sediment erosion and allow other species to establish them- ents for ensuring sustainability in man's interaction with nature,
selves.They are a source of organic matter, which is the basis for there are lessons that start emerging in the context of specific dis-
complex trophic (food and energy) interactions, and which makes ciplines with respect to what makes sustainable development pos-
wetlands among the most productive ecosystems in the world. sible, including lessons relating to wetland systems.
They provide home and shelter to many species, including As one example, there is evidence that the success of education
humankind.They also provide many other services, including sup- programmes depends on proper programme design, on approaches
plies of freshwater, maintenance of water quality, fibers for cloth- which ensure a high degree of engagement of participants, on the
ing, medicinal plants and animals, active compounds for pharma- degree of impact of the programme on increasing knowledge about
ceuticals, etc. the issues being dealt with, on the respect for the specificity of local
Yet, wetland systems worldwide are subject to unsustainable perceptions, etc., as shown in Example 1 below. In addition, education
human impacts, which continue increasing in frequency and inten- programmes need to regularly evaluated and monitored, so that they
sity. Habitat fragmentation and loss, over-harvesting of species and can be adapted to changing conditions.

49
 Wetlands are a source of organic matter, which is the basis for complex trophic (food and energy) interactions, and which makes wetlands among the most
productive ecosystems in the world. In the image, false coloured satellite view of the Lena River delta, the largest protected area in Russia.
Image: Landsat 7 TM, USGS-NASA (7/27/2000).

Experiences gathered in the case of wetland biosphere CONCLUSIONS

reserves, examples of which are contained in Box 1 below, have Biosphere reserves provide a tool for sustainable development,
demonstrated that sustainable development requires, inter alia23: including of wetlands, in that they strive for a balance between con-
- undertaking conservation actions of key ecological services servation of biodiversity and of key ecological services, sustainable
and of the biodiversity within those ecosystems, and aligning use of resources, and the equitable sharing of benefits arising from
local conservation efforts with national and international the utilization of those resources and biodiversity.They are adapt-
objectives, including through transboundary conservation ed, both in their purpose and structure, to cushion changes and to
measures (see Example 2); provide means to adapt to them.They provide an array of mecha-
- ensuring sustainable economies, through the promotion of nisms for all relevant stakeholders for discussing, negotiating and
'quality economies' (see Example 3) and/or of measures for responding to present and emerging pressures and issues. Not less
the sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of the importantly, they provide a tool for preventing conflicts over access
resources under consideration; to and use of natural resources and geographical space. In short,
- ensuring social and cultural sustainability of the human popu- biosphere reserves, including wetland biosphere reserves, can help
lations inhabiting biosphere reserves (see Example 4); a great deal in consolidating and linking the environmental, eco-
- using scientific research and monitoring to tailor sustainable nomic, social and cultural pillars of sustainable development.
development actions to local conditions and needs (see
Example 5).

50
 order to reach a compromise between ecological and social sustainabil-
ity in the biosphere reserve, a combination of natural and social science
studies are conducted, and the information collected used for adapting
local economic activities to the features of the wetland system in the
area, so as to promote appropriate technologies and habitat manage-
ment measures.

EXAMPLE 1

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN THE WETLAND

CAPE WEST COAST BIOSPHERE RESERVE.
The Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve lies on the coast to the north
of Cape Town in South Africa. It is characterized by the local dominant
biome - the fynbos (Mediterranean sclerophyllous shrublands), with spe-
cific coastal marine areas and wetland systems.The area is an important
nursery for several fish species as well as a haven for birds (the area hosts
the largest colony of gulls in South Africa): people are also very much
present, engaged in farming and fisheries.The active local environmental
education center has played an important role in achieving a balance
between the ecologically and economic supporting functions of this wet-
land site.
EXAMPLE 4

ENSURING SOCIAL STABILITY IN THE WETLAND

LOBAU BIOSPHERE RESERVE.
The Lobau Biosphere Reserve in Austria Major is a multi-habitat site,
which is characterized by hardwood forest systems (including partly arti-
ficial tree monocultures), rivers, lakes, and wet meadows.The area is sub-
ject to human activities such as small-scale fishing, timber production and
recreation. However, because of its important role as the area that pro-
vides groundwater resources for the city of Vienna, the area has been
protected since the early last century so that it can perform this func-
tion sustainably (the area has been significantly man-managed and adapt-
ed to this end ). As access to water can be one key factor of social sus-
tainability (as demonstrated by the numerous conflicts over access to
water resources worldwide), the sustainable management of this wetland
area guarantees, in addition to ecological sustainability, also the sustain-
ability of a non-negligible portion of Austrian society.

EXAMPLE 2

CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES IN THE WETLAND RESEARCH & MONITORING

TONLE SAP BIOSPHERE RESERVE. IN THE WETLAND CIÉNAGA
The Great Tonle Sap Lake, located in central Cambodia, is the largest GRANDE DE SANTA MARTA
freshwater body in South-East Asia. The Biosphere Reserve covers the BIOSPHERE RESERVE.
lake as well as the flood plains, which play a key economic role for the The Ciénaga Grande de Santa
region, in that they provide 80% of the proteins consumed within the Marta Biosphere Reserve is
country.The area is a living demonstration on how combined ecohydro- located in the northern part of
logical and ecological conservation approaches can sustain the key ecolog- Colombia and covers an area
ical functions and services of his huge wetland system, on which several considered to be one of the
million people depend. main coastal wetlands in South
America. Research activities in
PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE this biosphere reserves are
ECONOMIES IN THE WETLAND very developed and span from
YANCHENG BIOSPHERE RESERVE. fundamental studies, aimed at
The Yancheng Biosphere Reserve is locat- the collection of baseline data
ed in the central part of the east coast of for future reference, to applied
China and covers an area of 280,000 research on monitoring of
hectares. Some 90,000 people live in this water quality, biodiversity stud-
EXAMPLE 5
site, plus some 20,000 visitors every year. ies at the species and ecosys-
Increasing demand for land puts great tem levels, environmental and strategic impact assessments, and socioe-
pressure on the wetland systems in the conomic studies.The information collected is used for sustainably man-
area, with wetlands being normally aging the fisheries in the local coral reef and mangrove systems, and to
EXAMPLE 3 replaced with managed fishponds. In plan local agricultural activities (banana and African palm plantations).

51
Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in Doñana
Photograph by Antonio Sabater
Wetlands and Science PIERRE LASSERRE *
scientists to help nature conservation practitioners
and society to set priorities in wetlands

FUNCTION AND VALUE OF WETLANDS: resulting organic-rich sediments are the sites of intense micro-
NEED FOR SCIENTIFIC EXPERTISE bially mediated degradation processes, which control sedimenta-
The function and value of wetlands raise problems not just ry geochemical distribution and recycle vital nutrient elements
aesthetic and moral (nature conservation). Wetlands play a cru- and other mobile chemical end-products to overlying waters. In
cial role in almost all biogeochemical processes that sustain the this context, in order to understand and to better control the
biosphere, and provide a variety of products (goods) and func- seasonally variable eutrophication process, it is important to
tions (services), which are essential to mankind's well being, examine the mechanisms and rates of sediment-water recycling
including the production of food and natural substances, the systems driven by the degradation reactions, eventually leading
assimilation of wastes, the remineralization of organic matter to reducing conditions and anoxia.
and a significant contribution to the regulation of the world's The structure of benthic communities has a strong influence
climate. on the fluxes of nutrients from the sediment to the water col-
Wetlands act as natural traps, for organic materials produced umn, and therefore, on the whole wetland productivity.
within their fertile waters as well as for materials entering from Quantitative measurements of such processes are still sparse so
surrounding terrestrial, aquatic and coastal environments. The that those global estimates of sources and sinks or of com-
pounds of climatic and ecological importance remain uncertain.
* University “Pierre et Marie Curie” - Paris, France. The presence of human activity on wetlands is not neces-
Former Director of the UNESCO’s Division of Ecological Sciences
and Secretary of the MaB Programme. sarily incompatible with the maintenance of rich biodiversity

Wetland ecosystems are intrinsically dynamic, and many features that are most valuable for human activities are naturally variable, with a complex interplay of
biological, chemical and physical factors over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. The scientific challenge is therefore to gain sufficient knowledge of
environmental processes to assess the consequences of current patterns of human interferences and their future trajectories. In the image, a view of the Odiel
Marshes protected area, one of the Biosphere Reserves of SW Spain seated in the scope of Doñana.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

53
 and healthy ecosystems. Nevertheless, in many wetlands, native The spread of the invasive native clonal grass Elymus athericus
endemic species and communities have been destroyed or is one of the most significant changes that have affected the
replaced due to inadequate conservation measures, ill-advised plant communities of European salt marshes in the last decade29.
agricultural mono-cultures, or inappropriate intensive aquacul- The idea of broad distributional ranges of aquatic plants col-
ture. Expanding tourism and the intensification of agriculture onizing wetlands and their limited taxonomic differentiation,
place considerable pressure on freshwater and coastal wetland need reappraisal. With the application of new taxonomic crite-
ecosystems. ria, for example, the combination of reproductive isolation and
In the Parc Natural s'Albufera, a coastal wetland in the ecological differentiation proposed in the ecogenetic concept30,
Northeast of Mallorca, Spain, freshwater supply to the wetland and tools such as molecular markers and genomics, broadly dis-
decreased significantly in the catchment, as a result saltwater tributed species will be shown to be composed of groups of sib-
intrusion increased with considerable impact on the wetland ling species. Recent work has revealed limited genetic variation
biodiversity.A long term monitoring of abundance and diversity within aquatic plant species.Variation within populations is par-
of submerged vegetation community provides useful information ticularly low. In contrast, variation among populations seems to
to evaluate the sustainability of current tourist developments be rather high, mainly due to the persistence of long-lived
and land use in the s'Albufera catchment, and offers a common clones. According to Santamaria31, the alleged uniformity and
framework to assess opportunities and constraints for linking "benign" character of the aquatic environment is a misrepresen-
socio-economic and conservation interests26. tation of this type of habitat.Aquatic habitats are heterogeneous
In addition, the invasion of alien species is now recognized as environments, but this heterogeneity largely occur at relatively
one of the major threats to biodiversity and ecosystem function- small scales (within water bodies and among neighbouring ones).
ing27. In Europe, the current piecemeal invasion legislation lends This small-scale environmental mosaic tends to be repeated
itself, moreover, to the unfortunate management of introduced regionally, and it is only in this sense that the wetland environ-
species in a growing number of wetlands, saltmarshes and ment should be considered uniform.
lagoons. We should recognize that the vast majority of wetland
Typical examples are invasion of aquatic vascular plants, such microbes, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, remain uncharac-
as Myriophyllum sp., Lagarosiphon sp., and Ludwigia spp., origi- terized. Their role should be studied using the innovative tools
nally from South America that have been introduced into of genomics, in particular with respect to key processes such as
European wetlands, e.g. the "marais" and lakes of the South West degradation of organic matter, nitrogen fixation, or even photo-
coast of France and the Spanish wetlands, including Doñana28. synthesis. Until this is better understood, there is little hope of
developing realistic models of ecosystem functioning. A further
example is our lack of understanding of how marine organisms
(from bacteria to fishes and algae) respond to stress. Such
knowledge is critical if we are to predict the response of marine
communities to factors such as pollution or coastal engineering.
Given the complexity of these challenges, there is an urgent
need for the scientific community to help conservation practi-
tioners, decision-makers and society to take appropriate meas-
ures that go beyond the obvious impulse to protect economical-
ly valuable species and landscapes providing services, or aesthet-
ically appealing ones. Classical plans established for wetlands and
their surrounding terrestrial and coastal-marine areas, however,
are mostly oriented towards local measures of conservation and
pollution prevention, with little tangible effort being directed on
Wetland's conservation and management requires research initiatives at
scale in space and time that cannot be encompassed by any single country large scale inventories and long term monitoring. Furthermore,
or loose consortium of countries. Knowledge exchange and creation of data collection and monitoring networks are often embedded in
reseaerch networks are among the best tools to establish sound conserva-
tion bases. In the image, birds-of-prey radio monitoring in the Doñana fragmented institutional framework.
National Park. A high level of international scientific expertise is needed in
Photograph: Antonio Sabater.
order to develop methodologies for the better understanding

54
 Scientific research in the marine areas surrounding coastal wetlands
requires special attention. Knowing and understanding their key-process-
es is critical if we are to predict the response of marine communities to
factors such as pollution or coastal engineering. In the image, Astroides
calycularis, a threatened coral species living near the coast of Doñana.
Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

and detection of ecosystem change, as well as the evaluation of levels of organization (genes, species and functional groups),
ecological functions. Modelling work, monitoring and indicator ecosystem modelling, and experimental tests; c) economic,
work and scientific experimentation all need to be better inte- social and cultural value of biodiversity, including theoretical and
grated, given the current high level of uncertainty and igno- practical aspects of sustainable management, and monitoring of
rance32. the health of ecosystems.
During the 1990s, ecological science increasingly turned its
attention to environmental problems and the challenge of pro- ARE WE ACHIEVING SUSTAINABILITY
tecting biodiversity. For example, in 1991, the Sustainable FOR EUROPEAN WETLANDS?
Biosphere Initiative laid out a research programme aiming at SCIENCE-POLICY INTERACTIONS
providing answers to critical questions regarding environmental Wetland ecosystems are intrinsically dynamic, and many fea-
management33. The involvement of distinguished scientists as tures that are most valuable for human activities are naturally
Robert Paine in the scientific review of the Exxon Valdez spill variable, with a complex interplay of biological, chemical and
pushed him to review the monitoring programme that followed physical factors over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales.
the spill, and to suggest ways in which environmental monitoring The scientific challenge is therefore to gain sufficient knowledge
should be improved34. Another significant action refers to the of environmental processes to assess the consequences of cur-
capacity to provide sound guidance on biodiversity knowledge rent patterns of human interferences and their future trajecto-
and conservation priorities in coastal and marine areas35,36. ries. Since research advances, policy-making, and changes in soci-
Initiated by the Network of European Marine Research etal behaviour can each take several years or decades to achieve,
Stations (MARS), the EU Scientific Network of Excellence therefore, many decisions must be made on the basis of imper-
MARBEF can be taken as a demonstrative successful example of fect evidence.
integration in research and monitoring of marine/coastal biodi- Managers and decision-makers must work hand-in-hand with
versity. Activities are centred around three themes: a) global scientists and better make known their needs, thus making
pattern of biodiversity across spatial and temporal scales; b) research in phase with the demand of society. It is axiomatic that
biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, assessed at different sound environmental policies must be based on sound environ-

55
 THE MELDING OF SCIENCE AND SOCIETY:
RESEARCH SITES AND BIOSPHERE RESERVES
In the evolution of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere
(MaB) Programme, launched in 1971, it was unquestioned excel-
lence of participating scientists which elevated applied research
to its proper status. The connection between basic and more
applied environmental research has emerged in several aspects
of the MaB approach and of the highly successful Biosphere
reserve concept that emerged from it41.
Recent trends in modern conservation ecology include a mix
of: (1) controlled experimental removal of species and manipu-
lations of ecosystems, (2) ecosystem approach, and (3) natural
history and monitoring. The lessons learned from field experi-
ments and recent research emphasizing the functions of species
in biogeochemical or ecosystem processes and their role in
ensuring reliable ecosystem functioning42,43,44, have been impres-
sive and are reshaping our understanding of ecological systems
Initiated by the Network of European Marine Research Stations (MARS), and ecosystem functioning.Therefore, the fundamental ecologi-
the EU Scientific Network of Excellence MARBEF can be taken as a demon-
strative successful example of integration in research and monitoring of cal science has the capacity to provide sound guidance on con-
marine/coastal biodiversity. servation priorities in wetlands.
Photograph: CENEAM.
Policy-makers and managers require practical, defensible rec-
mental science. There are problems, however, in that relationship. ommendations now.They are usually forced to proposing quick
Thus cultural differences between researchers and policy-makers partial solutions, often based on very local scientific observa-
reduce the efficiency of communications between them, affecting tions.
the flow and use of scientific information37. What can scientists offer? They can provide theoretical and
Since complex, dynamic systems are likely to change during practical elements for evaluating the complex compromise
the time between information gathering and the policy response, involved in managing wetlands for either biodiversity conserva-
knowledge deficiencies are near-inevitable. Policy decisions can- tion, selecting indicators and criteria to assess effects of freshwa-
not therefore be post-poned until science produces certain ter use in wetlands, safeguarding ecosystem services. Moreover,
answers, but must necessarily be made on the basis of risk assess- the scientists typically work to the rhythm of multi-annual fund-
ments and the much-discussed precautionary principle38. These ing and project cycles. They track complex phenomena whose
considerations are fully applicable to wetlands. changes may sometimes be confirmed only after many years or
Scientists need to recognize that policy decisions within event decades have elapsed. Therefore, biodiversity scientists
democracies are essentially pragmatic constructs, taking account being asked for advice by managers and policy-makers are con-
of public acceptability, cultural perception, business interests and fronted to a dilemma:
media attention. In contrast, policy-makers need to recognise - should they respond by providing the "best practice" sce-
that scientific information is inherently incomplete and nario? or,
unknown, albeit that fundamental "natural laws" are universal - should they reply that they cannot provide advice in the
and unchanging.There is an extensive literature on this relation- absence of data, or reliable records?
ship for a range of environmental areas39,40.The initial outcome of
environmental research is the acquisition of information on the WETLAND SCIENTIFIC NETWORKS OF EXCELLENCE:
status and behaviour of wetland ecosystems. Such effort is fund- A EUROPEAN RESPONSE TO A PRESSING DEMAND
ed by public bodies primarily with the expectation of direct soci- Wetland's conservation and management requires research
etal benefit: the information gained has the potential to change initiatives at scale in space and time that cannot be encompassed
the behaviour of society (via legislature and/or management by any single country or loose consortium of countries.
practices) in ways that improve the human use of natural Widespread realisation that wetland habitats are strongly influ-
resources and nature conservation. enced by accelerating changes, largely derived from human activ-

56
ity, whether stemming from local pressure or from climate In this context, the scientist today has more than ever the
change, should foster plans: responsibility of entering into the "social demand" arena, of
- to protect their highly important biodiversity from the probing into how decisions regarding nature conservation and
spread of invasive species, regional development are made, and who they affect.There are
- to focus on the characteristics of adjacent watershed fea- now strong reasons for reinforcing cooperative initiatives
tures and prevent pollution, between existing networks with complementary targets and
- to integrate, in addition to the recognised resting area func- geographical distribution.
tion for a wide array of migratory birds, the many physical Progress through integrated wetland management will be
and other ecological functions and socio-economic values, conditioned by the degree to which "accountability" and "trust"
- to improve understanding of wetland processes and dynam- issues are successfully tackled. No process of integrated wetland
ics, and of how climate change in combination with other management can produce legitimate answers and effective solu-
human induced pressures is likely to become a main critical tions to the challenges posed without meaningful public (i.e. a full
factor in wetland degradation and loss. range of interest holders) inclusions in the procedures.The pub-
Achieving these ambitious goals require a diversity of skills, lic need to be incorporated in a proactive, participatory and con-
expertise, resource and networks of researchers and sites. A flict minimising fashion.
critical mass of research workers and wetland conservation The need for "balancing the scales", policies for increasing
managers, and decision-makers needs to be reached. Once biodiversity's chances through bioregional management has been
attained, this should significantly boost appropriate basic scientif- widely recognized and discussed these last 10 years, and inte-
ic studies and applied measures for appropriate conservation grated in the range of classifications and networks of protected
and regional development of wetlands and their surrounding ter- areas of outstanding national and regional cultural and biological
restrial and coastal-marine biota.This can be done by: value (e.g. EU Habitat 2000, Council of Europe, RAMSAR,
- producing communication tools for scientists and managers UNESCO MaB biosphere reserves) as contasted to the World
involved in wetland research within and outside their region; Heritage sites for identifying areas of outstanding global impor-
- developing strong training programmes designed to spread tance.
excellence; The biosphere reserve concept (UNESCO-MaB Seville
- creating data banks of primary data and metadata; Strategy, 1995), attempts to integrate, through appropriate land
- producing high-impact scientific publications, and promoting zonation (i.e. core areas, buffer zones, transition areas) and active
public information; participation of local people to activities which are compatible
- promoting submission of collaborative proposals for joint with the preservation of wildlife values. Presently, a total of 78
research by natural and socio-economic scientists; biosphere reserves in 45 countries (UNESCO data 2002) are

The Biosphere Reserve

concept (UNESCO-MaB
Seville Strategy, 1995),
attempts to integrate,
through appropriate land
zonation (i.e. core areas,
buffer zones, transition
areas) and active partici-
pation of local people to
activities which are com-
patible with the preserva-
tion of wildlife values.
Presently, a total of 78
biosphere reserves in 45
countries are wholly or
partially RAMSAR wet-
lands In the image Azure-
winged Magpie, an Asian
species introduced into
Spain.

Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

57
 wholly or partially RAMSAR wetlands. These programmes are
ideally linked to strong education and training programmes, and
are usually driven by science and government needs to provide
experimental sites where planning, monitoring and research can
be achieved on the ground.
European-wide collaboration will allow us to effectively
address the effects of global change on wetland ecosystems over
a nested array of relevant sales, both in terms of spatial (local to
regional), biogeochemical structures, and biological (molecular
to ecosystem) levels of organization.The European dimension of
organized cooperation is even more imperative because of the
contiguous and open nature our wetlands, including the dangers
of transfer and introduction of invasive species.There is a criti- View of the River Gualdalquivir and the Doñana marshes.
Photograph kindly provided by the Seville Port Authority:
cal need to develop networks of field infrastructures acting as
wetland observatories, in reference sites, encouraging the devel- endorsed the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity
opment of a more effective interplay between research, conser- Strategy. Following the recommendations of the Dubronik
vation and management processes at regional and sub-regional Symposium (October 2003) on marine and coastal biodiversity,
levels. It is clear that conservation and sustainable use of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (May 5th,
European wetlands will require research and management plans 2004) underlined that "research networks be encouraged, such
at unprecedented geographic scales. as the European Union's Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem
There are clear provisions (following in particular the deci- Functioning (MARBEF) Network of Excellence, which aim to
sion of Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable integrate the most reliable scientific knowledge into policy-mak-
Development, 2002) on the need to establish networks of rep- ing and management decisions" (Council of Europe, 2004).
resentative protected areas that include wetlands. In 1995 (Sofia, Of a total of 100 "reference" and "focal" sites selected all
Bulgaria), the Environment Ministers of 54 European countries over Europe, for intensive and comparative research activities
and several salt marshes have been identified45. Conceptual and
field oriented cooperation between MARBEF Network of
Excellence and UNESCO-MaB is now envisaged to help nature
conservation practitioners and society to set priorities in coastal
and marine areas42. In this context, biosphere reserves, wholly or
partially RAMSAR wetlands, offer privileged biodiversity obser-
vatories and arenas for the study of multi-purpose management
melding science and society.
In conclusion, maintaining and enhancing the dialogue among
scientists, policy-makers and the public will ensure that critical
and reliable information is developed and communicated and,
also, continue to elaborate innovative monitoring and, therefore,
to invigorate sustainable wetland management, improving the
human use of natural resources and nature conservation.
From this perspective, the Doñana National Park offer
unique situation, where the mingling of human action and natu-
ral ecology has been ancient, complex, and profound. Maintaining
Doñana integrity is essential, an absolute priority. Future objec-
tives should combine biodiversity conservation, sustainable
An old, deep, and complex co-existence of human action and natural envi- ecosystem management, in a coherent approach of high scientif-
ronment makes of Doñana National Park an extraordinary e reference for
ic value and relevance to human society. Doñana is an interna-
wetland conservation
tional treasure that deserves full concern and attention.

58
Wetlands and the European MAGUELONNE DÉJEANT-PONS *

Landscape Convention

"The landscape… ish water and marine areas - coastal waters and the territorial sea.
… has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological, environ-
The Convention is therefore of major importance for wetlands.
mental and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to economic
activity and whose protection, management and planning can contribute to job The wetlands' highly productive ecosystems constitute a remark-
creation; able natural and cultural heritage because of the richness of their
… contributes to the formation of local cultures and … is a basic compo- biology and landscape.
nent of the European natural and cultural heritage, contributing to human well-
being and consolidation of the European identity;
ORIGINS AND FRAMEWORK OF THE CONVENTION
… is an important part of the quality of life for people everywhere: in
urban areas and in the countryside, in degraded areas as well as in areas of high An international intergovernmental organisation set up in 1949,
quality, in areas recognised as being of outstanding beauty as well as everyday the Council of Europe is based in Strasbourg, France. It currently
areas; consists of 45 member states46. Its main objectives are to promote
… is a key element of individual and social well-being and … its protec-
democracy, human rights and the rule of law and to seek common
tion, management and planning entail rights and responsibilities for everyone."
solutions to the main problems facing European society today.The
Preamble to the European Landscape Convention Organisation is active in environment protection and in promoting
sustainable development in line with the Recommendation of the
Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe to Members
States on the Guiding Principles for sustainable spatial development
of the European continent, previously adopted by the European
The European Landscape Convention applies to the entire ter- Conference of Ministers responsible for regional planning
ritory of the Parties and covers both land areas and water areas, (CEMAT). The aim is to bring the economic and social require-
and applies both to inland waters, such as lakes and areas of brack- ments to be met by the territory into harmony with its ecological
and cultural functions and therefore to contribute to long-term,
* Head of the Spatial Planning and Landscape Division of the Council of Europe. large-scale and balanced spatial development.These seek to protect

The European Landscape Convention applies to the entire territory of the Parties and covers both land areas and water areas, and applies both to inland waters,
such as lakes and areas of brackish water and marine areas, including also coastal waters and the territorial sea. In the image, sunset in the coast of Doñana.
Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

59
 "The landscape has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological, environmental and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to eco-
nomic activity ... contributes to the formation of local cultures and … is a basic component of the European natural and cultural heritage". Fragments from the
Preamble to the European Landscape Convention.
Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

Europeans' quality of life and well-being taking into account land- ning, town planning, together with the practices followed in town
scape, cultural and natural values47. and country planning, transport, networks, tourism and recreation,
and more generally the global economic changes, have unfortunate-
Origins of the convention ly in very many cases led to degradation, deterioration or transfor-
On the basis of an initial draft prepared by the Congress of mation of landscapes. It is therefore necessary to react to this evo-
Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, the Committee of lution.
Ministers decided in 1999 to set up a select group of experts res- While each citizen must of course contribute to preserving the
ponsible for drafting a European Landscape Convention, under the quality of landscape, it is the responsibility of the public authorities
aegis of the Steering Committee of cultural heritage (CDPAT) and to define the general framework in which this quality can be
the Committee for the activities of the Council of Europe in the secured. Thus, the Convention lays down the general legal princi-
field of biological and landscape diversity (CO-DBP). Following the ples, which should guide the adoption of national and community
work of this group of experts, in which the principal governmental landscape policies and the establishment of an international co-
and non-governmental international organisations participated, the operation in this field.
Committee of Ministers adopted the final text of the Convention
on July 19th, 2000. The Convention was opened for signature in Relationship with other existing texts
Florence, Italy on October 20th, 2000 in the context of the Council The signatory states declare in their preamble that they wish
of Europe Campaign "Europe, a common heritage".The Convention "to provide a new instrument devoted exclusively to the protec-
entered into force on March 1st, 2004.As at March 29th, 2003, it was tion, management and planning of all landscapes in Europe".Today,
ratified by twelve States and signed by sixteen other States48. the convention is in fact the foremost international treaty dealing
exclusively with the protection, management and enhancement of
WHY A LANDSCAPE CONVENTION, AND WHAT the European landscape. A few international legal instruments are
ARE ITS BENEFITS FOR WETLANDS? concerned with the subject of landscape, either directly or indirect-
As an essential factor of individual and communal well-being ly. None of them, however, deals directly, specifically and fully with
and an important part of people's quality of life, landscape con- European landscapes and their preservation, in spite of their invalu-
tributes to human fulfilment and consolidation of the European able contribution to our natural and cultural heritage and the
identity. It has also an important public interest role in the cultural, numerous threats facing them.The convention aims to fill this gap:
ecological, environmental and social fields, and constitutes a it is thus distinct from the Unesco Convention concerning the
resource favourable to economic activity, particularly to tourism. Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of
The advances of production techniques in agriculture, forestry, November 16th, 1972, both formally and substantively.The two con-
industrial and mineral productions techniques and in regional plan- ventions have different purposes, as do the organisations under

60
whose auspices they were drawn up. One is regional in scope, the of wetlands that have been progressively drained, but which still
other world-wide. The Council of Europe convention can be save relevant natural, cultural and landscape elements.
regarded as complementary to the Unesco one. As regards sub- An original feature of this convention is that it applies to ordi-
stantive scope, the Council of Europe convention covers all land- nary landscapes no less than to outstanding ones.This comprehen-
scapes, even those that are not of outstanding universal value, but sive coverage is justified for the following reasons: every landscape
does not deal with historic monuments, unlike the Unesco conven- forms the setting for the lives of the population concerned; urban
tion. Similarly, its main objective is not to draw up a list of assets of and rural landscapes interlock in complex ways; most Europeans
exceptional universal value, but to introduce protection, manage- live in towns and cities (large or small), the quality of whose land-
ment and planning rules for all landscape based on a set of princi- scapes greatly affects their lives; and finally, rural landscapes occupy
ples.Thus each convention has its distinctive features49. an important place in the European consciousness.
In the work leading up to the drafting of the convention, con- Extending the scope of local authorities' official landscape
stant reference was made to existing international and national action to cover the whole of national territory does not mean,
legal texts concerned with landscape50.The convention states in its however, that the same measures and policies must be applied to
preamble that it has regard to the legal texts existing at internation- all landscapes.These measures and policies should be adaptable to
al level in the field of protection and management of the natural and particular types of landscape, which, depending on their specific
cultural heritage, regional and spatial planning, local self-government characteristics, will need various forms of treatment at local level,
and transfrontier co-operation, in particular the Convention on the ranging from the strictest conservation via protection, management
Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, and planning to actual creation.These various treatments may pave
September 19th, 1979), the Convention for the Protection of the the way for major socio-economic development of the area con-
Architectural Heritage of Europe (Grenada, October 3rd, 1985), the cerned.
European Convention on the Protection of Archaeological The convention is not confined, either, to the cultural or man-
Heritage (revised) (Valetta, January 16th, 1992), the European made components of landscape: it is concerned with all of these
Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between and how they interconnect. This dimension significantly involves
Territorial Communities or Authorities (Madrid, May 21st, 1980) green corridors and space interconnection, being Doñana and its
and its additional protocols, the European Charter of Local Self- surroundings a good exemple of it.
government (Strasbourg, October 15th, 1985), the Convention on
Biological Diversity (Rio, June 5th, 1992), the Convention concern- CONTENT OF THE CONVENTION AND DOÑANA
ing the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage The terms used in the convention are defined in Article 1 in
(Paris, November 16th, 1972), and the Convention on Access to order to ensure that they are interpreted uniformly by everyone
Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to concerned with the well-being of Europe's landscapes:
Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus, June 25th,1998). - "landscape" means an area, as perceived by people, whose char-
In order to avoid any difficulties with other international legal
instruments, the convention states that it shall not prejudice stricter
provisions concerning landscape protection, management and plan-
ning contained in other existing or future binding national or interna-
tional instruments51. The Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, February
2nd,1971, as amended by the Protocol of December 3rd, 1982 and the
Amendments of May 28th, 1987) could be one of them.

SCOPE
The landscape is now recognised irrespective of its exception-
al value, since all kinds of landscapes influence people's surround-
ings and deserve to be taken into account in landscape policies. In his Mediteranski Brevijar, the great Mediterranean poet Pedrag
Many rural and peri-urban areas in particular are undergoing pro- Matvejevic, expressed beautifully and enigmatically the value of the large
salt marshes of the coast: "sage men say that white salt has to be stored to
found changes and should receive more attention from the author- prevent black days".
Image from the film of Antonioni dealing with the saltworks of Trapani.
ities and the public at large.Among them there are a large number

61
 acter is the result of the action and interaction of natural scape protection, management and planning;
and/or human factors52; - to establish procedures for the participation of the general
- "landscape policy" means an expression by the competent pub- public, local and regional authorities, and other parties with an
lic authorities of general principles, strategies and guidelines interest in the definition and implementation of landscape poli-
that permit the taking of specific measures aimed at the protec- cies;
tion, management and planning of landscapes; - to integrate landscape into its regional and town planning poli-
- "landscape quality objective" means, for a specific landscape, the cies and in its cultural, environmental, agricultural, social and
formulation by the competent public authorities of the aspira- economic policies, as well as in any other policies with possible
tions of the public with regard to the landscape features of their direct or indirect impact on landscape.
surroundings. The Contracting Parties further undertake to implement, in a
The Contracting Parties undertake to implement four general consecutive manner, five specific measures:
measures: - Awareness-raising; this involves increasing awareness among
- to recognise landscapes in law as an essential component of people's civil society, private organisations and public authorities of the
surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural value of landscapes, their role and changes to them;
and natural heritage, and a foundation of their identity; - Training and education; this involves promoting: training for
- to establish and implement landscape policies aimed at land- specialists in landscape appraisal and operations; multidiscipli-

The European Landscape Convention (Florence, 2000) defines the landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and inter-
action of natural and/or human factors”. Spain was one of the signatory States of the European Landscape Convention, and is at present in process of ratifying it. In
the image, landscape of pine trees on the sands of Doñana.
Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

62
 A few international legal instruments are concerned with the subject of landscape. None of them, however, deals directly, specifically and fully with European
landscapes and their preservation, in spite of their invaluable contribution to our natural and cultural heritage and the numerous threats facing them. The conven-
tion aims to fill this gap: it is complementary to the Unesco Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972 and to the
more recent one aiming at safeguarding the intangible heritage (2003). In the image, view of the “pajareras” of Doñana, cork oaks full of life at the hedge of the
marshes, a symbol of identity that go beyond their biological value.
Photograph: Antonio Sabater.

nary training programmes in landscape policy, protection, man- of measures taken under the provisions of the convention, and in
agement and planning, for professionals in the private and pub- particular: to render each other technical and scientific assistance
lic sectors and for the relevant associations; school and univer- in landscape matters through the pooling and exchange of experi-
sity courses which, in the relevant subject areas, address the val- ence, and the results of research projects; to promote the
ues attaching to landscapes and the issues raised by their pro- exchange of landscape specialists in particular for training and infor-
tection, management and planning; mation purposes; and to exchange information on all matters cov-
- Identification and assessment; this involves mobilising the inter- ered by the provisions of the convention53.
ested parties with a view to improving knowledge of the land- Transfrontier landscapes are covered by a specific provision: the
scapes and guiding the landscape identification and assessment Parties undertake to encourage transfrontier co-operation at local
procedures through exchanges of experience and methodolo- and regional level and, wherever necessary, prepare and implement
gy, organised between the Parties at European level; joint landscape programmes54.
- Landscape quality objectives; this involves framing landscape Contemporary lifestyles are such that people aspire more and
quality objectives for the landscapes identified and assessed, more to rediscover an unspoiled setting and to preserve their natu-
after public consultation; ral as well as cultural heritage. By means of this growing social
- Implantation; this involves introducing instruments aimed at demand, landscape gains or regains prestige and begins to be per-
protecting, managing and/or planning the landscape. ceived as a major component of sustainable development policies. It
At the international level, one of the most relevant features of is necessary to recognise the importance and value of landscapes and
the Convention is that the Contracting Parties undertake to co- reconciling the right to achieve profitability with the right to enjoy
operate in the consideration of the landscape dimension of inter- well-being, health and scenic beauty.
national policies and programmes, and to recommend, where rele- Situated between soil, sea and sky, wetlands are magic and special
vant, the inclusion in them of landscape considerations. They fur- attention must be given to them and specialy to Doñana, as one of
ther undertake to co-operate in order to enhance the effectiveness the major symbols of European wetlands.

63
Purple heron (Ardea purpurea) in Doñana
Photograph by Antonio Sabater
Protected areas, K J M , ALEMANI O ULONGOY *
S B G ,D C ARAT ABU IDDA ** AVID OATES **
biodiversity conservation
and sustainable development in wetlands
issues and prospects

rotected areas -national parks, nature reserves and other PROTECTED AREAS CORNERSTONES
P areas where special measures are taken to conserve biodi-
versity and ecological processes- have long been recognized as a
FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Protected areas are essential components in national and glob-
key tool to counter loss of the world's biodiversity. Their impor- al conservation strategies. The importance of protected areas is
tance ranging from conservation of biological diversity, storehous- widely recognized at international level. Establishment and manage-
es of genetic material, provision of essential ecosystem services for ment of protected areas are central to Article 8 on in situ
human welfare, and contribution to sustainable development, has Conservation of the Convention on Biological Diversity.The World
been recognized at multiple levels, from international bodies, to Summit on Sustainable Development Plan of Implementation has
national governments, local groups, and communities specifically called for the establishment of a representative system
Almost all countries have a system of protected areas, of marine protected areas by 2012 and for the promotion and sup-
which now cover some 12 percent of the planet's land surface, port for conservation of 'hot spot' initiatives, and ecological net-
making them one of the earth's most significant land uses. works. One of the indicators for meeting goal 7 of the Millennium
While they represent our best chance of effective in situ con- Development Goals ("Ensure Environmental Sustainability") is the
servation of biological diversity, protected areas have many "amount of land area protected to maintain biological diversity".
other demands upon them. Comprehensive and effectively
managed protected areas networks at national, regional and
consequently at global levels are critical elements in the imple-
mentation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
However, while we have clearly made significant progress in
conserving representative terrestrial ecosystems, recent
assessments indicate that conservation of marine and coastal
biodiversity is woefully inadequate, with less than one per cent
of the Earth's marine ecosystems protected. Other biomes,
including some major types freshwater systems and grasslands,
are also poorly represented. Protected areas also have to com-
pete for limited financial resources in the allocation of nation-
al budgets; this is a difficult task, when many governments are
faced with major developmental issues such as health, poverty
alleviation and the provision of essential infrastructure.
Nevertheless, the key environmental services that are provid-
ed by protected areas underpin many aspects of sustainable
development and this role is increasingly recognized as we deal
with a period of global environmental change unprecedented in
human history. Almost all countries have a system of protected areas, and they now cover
some 12 percent of the planet's land surface, making them one of the
earth's most significant land uses. Coastal wetlands have a particular
Scientific Technical and Technological Matters Division importance for biological diversity conservation among all protected
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD). areas, especially if we take into account that 37 % of total world popula-
The views expressed are of authors and do not necessarily purport the CBD. tion lives within 100 km from the coast (FAO, 1998).
* Head
Photograph: The Nature Conservancy
** Programme Officer

65
 Protected areas provide vital protection to many indigenous and local
peoples and space where they can continue traditional lifestyles. Several
coastal marshes and wetlands offer fish breeding grounds and thus main-
tain fisheries: in consequence local fishing communities often support
them.
Photograph: WWF International

The extent of world's protected areas exceeded the target of 10 per cent representativeness. By contrast,
The most comprehensive dataset on protected areas world- the biomes falling well behind the global average include temperate
wide is the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) managed grasslands and lake systems, while temperate needle leaf forests
by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre working in and temperate broadleaf forests are also both below 10 per cent
partnership with the IUCN World Commission on Protected coverage. Many countries have designated protected areas under
Areas and a consortium of internationally active organizations and the various international agreements and programmes that recog-
networks. Protected areas are established for many purposes, and nize specific sites.These include the World Heritage Sites (World
can be classified by management objective. IUCN has developed a Heritage Convention), Ramsar Sites (the Convention on wetlands
system of six categories of protected area defined by primary man- of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat) and
agement objective (Box 1), and about two thirds of the sites in the Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO - Man and Biosphere Programme).
WDPA have an assigned IUCN management category. Of these
sites the most numerous are categories III and IV, while in terms of PROTECTED AREAS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
area occupied, categories II and VI predominate. The categories Values and benefits of protected areas
offering the strictest protection from outside influence (categories Protected areas provide a wide range of values and benefits to
Ia and Ib) make up a much smaller proportion of both the number humanity. They provide vital protection to many indigenous and
and area of the sites.The cumulative growth rate of protected areas local peoples and space where they can continue traditional
as per IUCN management categories is given in Figure 1 demon- lifestyles.A disproportionate amount of the world's drinking water
strating that those categories concerned with landscape (category comes from forest-protected areas (for instance a third of the
V) and with resource management (category VI) have increased world's hundred largest cities draw a substantial proportion of
more rapidly in recent years. their drinking water from protected areas). Marine protected areas
provide fish breeding grounds and thus maintain fisheries: in conse-
Global protection of biodiversity based on habitat analysis quence local fishing communities often support them. Parks and
UNEP-WCMC has analysed global protected areas data as far reserves are important "green lungs" providing space for people to
as possible by biome type to give a first indication of protection in enjoy recreation.They help to protect cultural and spiritual values.
different regions and different ecosystems. Initial comparisons were They are also increasingly recognized for their role in mitigating cli-
made using the framework developed by Udvardy56 in 1975, which mate change by sequestering carbon and by buffering countries
classifies the world into 14 terrestrial biomes. It shows that nine of against impacts such as sea-level rise and extreme weather events
the 14 terrestrial biomes in the Udvardy system have now met or in particular cyclones and flooding.The values of a national protect-

66
 Box 1
commercial values. One 1997 study estimated the annual value of
IUCN Protected Areas Management Categories (1994)55 ecosystem services from the entire biosphere at $33 trillion, not-
Category Ia - Strict Nature Reserve: Protected area managed main- ing that most of this value is outside the market59.
ly for science.Area of land and/or sea possessing some outstanding
or representative ecosystems, geological or physiological features Role of protected areas in poverty alleviation and sustainable
and/or species, available primarily for scientific research and/or development
environmental monitoring.
Category Ib - Wilderness Area: Protected area managed mainly for People living in rural areas have long depended on natural
wilderness protection. Large area of unmodified or slightly modi- resources. Commodities such as animal skins, bamboo, construc-
fied land, and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence,
without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and tion materials, firewood, fish, game meat, honey, medicinal plants,
managed so as to preserve its natural condition.
Category II - National Park: Protected area managed mainly for
resins and timber have been harvested from protected areas for
ecosystem protection and recreation. Natural area of land and/or thousands of years. Local people have often developed mechanisms
sea, designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or
more ecosystems for present and future generations, (b) exclude for managing these resources sustainable and allocating benefits.
exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation Properly managed tourism in protected areas can also bring con-
of the area and (c) provide a foundation for spiritual, scientific, edu-
cational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be siderable income without threatening the natural resource base.
environmentally and culturally compatible. More important still are the ecological services protected areas
Category III - Natural Monument: Protected area managed mainly for
conservation of specific natural features: Area containing one or can provide. Particularly important services at the community level
more specific natural or natural/cultural features which are of out- include soil regeneration, nutrient cycling, pollination, recreation,
standing or unique value because of their inherent rarity, represen-
tative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. pure water and maintenance of harvestable resources. Such bene-
Category IV - Habitat/Species Management Area: Protected area
fits are difficult to quantify and even local people may take them for
managed mainly for conservation through management interven-
tion.Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for man- granted.
agement purposes so as to ensure the maintenance of habitats
and/or to meet the requirements of specific species. Increasing population levels, more sophisticated technology, and
Category V - Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managed changing social, economic and political structures have removed
mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation:Area of
land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of many traditional controls on resources management. If sustainable
people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct char- benefits are to be provided to local communities more effective
acter with significant aesthetic, ecological and/or cultural value, and
often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this controls may be required to ensure that populations of plants and
traditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance and animals are maintained at viable and productive levels60.
evolution of such an area.
Category VI - Managed Resource Protected Area: Protected area
managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems:Area KEY ISSUES
containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to
ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversi- Threats
ty, while providing at the same time a sustainable flow of natural
products and services to meet community needs.
The ecological viability of many protected areas is under threat,
and some have already been significantly degraded. A 1999 survey
of threats to forest protected areas by IUCN concluded that "con-
ed area network are thus more than the traditional issues of siderably less than 10 percent of protected areas has been subject
wildlife conservation and extend, spatially, far beyond the bound- to any kind of analysis of threat, and far less have been subject to
aries of the sites. IUCN summarized the main benefits of protect-
ed areas as58: scientific research; wilderness protection; preserva- Figure 1
tion of species and genetic diversity; maintenance of environmental
Cumulative rate of protected area coverage by IUCN management
services; protection of specific natural and cultural features; category (data from UNEP-WCMC )57.
tourism and recreation; education; sustainable use of resources
from natural ecosystems; and maintenance of cultural and tradi-
tional attributes.
Broadly, the benefits of protected areas can be divided into
direct use values and benefits; indirect use values and benefits;
option values; and non-material values and benefits. Taken togeth-
er, these constitute a protected area's total economic value. The
concept of Total Economic Value (TEV) has been widely used to
attempt to convert all values and benefits of natural ecosystems
into simple economic terms. Instead of focusing only on direct

67
 Figure 2 sider conservation needs of whole, ecologically distinct regions,
The WCPA framework (Source: Hockings et al. 2000). known as ecoregions or bioregions, which cover large areas and
often extend across national borders. Governments and NGOs
have collaborated on ecoregion conservation planning exercises in
many parts of the world, drawing on information about biodiversi-
ty, threats and pressures and socio-economic data to propose com-
prehensive conservation strategies that include, but are not limited
to, comprehensive networks of protected areas. The aim of such
networks is usually to include representative samples of all major
ecosystem types and species, in large enough quantities to be viable
in the long term: 'ecologically representative protected area net-
works' are now recognized as a foundation of national and region-
al conservation strategies.
The design of protected area networks therefore needs to take
into account the needs of many different species and ecosystems.
It also needs to look beyond the borders of individual protected
areas to question whether it is important that these areas be linked
by other suitable forms of habitat and how this might be achieved,
detailed assessment"61. Threats to protected areas can be divided and also at how protected areas can themselves be protected from
into direct threats which directly stress the biological components outside pressures. The importance of connectivity is increasingly
of the protected area, indirect threats which drive the direct being recognized. Protected areas that are surrounded by urban
threats, and underlying causes which comprise broad socio-eco- development or agricultural land are more like islands than parts of
nomic forces often far from the site. Encroachment by farmers, for a broader landscape or seascape and can easily lose species
example, may pose a direct threat to a protected area. This through natural processes or as a result of human pressure.
encroachment may be driven, however, by an indirect cause - the
rapid privatisation and concentration of agricultural land in adjacent
areas.The underlying cause for this situation, in turn, may be subsi-
dies or other changes in government policy aimed at boosting
export agriculture to help pay off debts to international financial
institutions. Another threat example is the large-scale declassifica-
tions of parts of or entire protected areas, legally agreed between
national ministries and agro-industrial, timber, mining or oil and gas
companies.These may be prompted by the budgetary needs of the
relevant countries, driven, in turn, by the underlying cause of struc-
tural adjustment policies and constraints.

System and network design

Today, the theory and practice of protected area design are
becoming increasingly sophisticated, due to a better understanding
of their role of protection of biological diversity. Recently, several
analyses have demonstrated that current protected area systems The values of a national protected area network are thus more than the
traditional issues of wildlife conservation and extend, spatially, far beyond
do not adequately cover key biodiversity features. For example, gap the boundaries of the sites. The main benefits of protected areas as: scien-
analyses carried out for the World Parks Congress in 2003 demon- tific research; wilderness protection; preservation of species and genetic
diversity; maintenance of environmental services; protection of specific
strated that at least 300 critically endangered species, and at least natural and cultural features; tourism and recreation; education; sustain-
237 endangered and 267 vulnerable species of bird, mammal, turtle able use of resources from natural ecosystems; and maintenance of cultur-
al and traditional attributes. In the above photograph, a view of the
and amphibian have no protection in any part of their ranges62,63.A Kakadu National Park.
Photograph: Ramsar
comprehensive planning exercises of protected areas should con-

68
Protected area networks therefore usually include corridors link-
ing protected areas, buffer zones around protected areas, which are
geographically isolated from protected areas but serve as staging
posts for migratory species such as birds.
Governance
Governance is about power, relationships, responsibility and
accountability. Some define it as the interactions among structures,
processes and traditions that determine how power is exercised,
how decisions are taken on issues of public concern, and how citi-
zens or other stakeholders have their say. In a protected area con-
text, a basic understanding of governance refers to who holds man-
agement authority and responsibility and can be held accountable
according to legal, customary or otherwise legitimate rights. In this
sense, governance is crucial for the achievement of protected area
objectives (management effectiveness), determines the sharing of
relevant cost and benefits (management equity), is key to prevent-
Most coastal wetland protected areas present special problems in terms of
ing or solving social conflicts, and affects the generation and suste-
their establishment, management and sustainability. In particular, most
nance of community, political and financial support. The manage- rely upon water inflow from surrounding areas in order to maintain
ecosystem health and integrity. The need to include buffer areas in the sur-
ment of protected areas has often been based on models that roundings of protected wetlands is an increasing need. In the case of
exclude the local resident populations and perceive their concerns Doñana, the protected area system includes this dimension, through a net-
work of protected areas that enclose the most sensitive zones such as the
as incompatible with conservation.While the IUCN protected area Doñana and Odiel marshes. In the photograph, the mouth of the Odiel
categories V and VI are conceived to be more inclusive of human River.
Photograph: Juanta de Andalucía
communities, virtually all IUCN categories can be compatible with
resident or user communities. In the light of the principles of good several methodologies are developed from rapid assessments of
governance, national protected area systems can enter an era of protected area systems to detailed monitoring of individual pro-
renewed strength. Four main protected area governance can be tected areas. Depending on available time and resources and the
identified64: government-managed protected areas; co-managed objectives of evaluation, the processes range from complex and
protected areas; private protected areas; and community-con- expensive to simple and cheap. The World Bank and WWF have
served areas. developed a simple, site-level assessment system for tracking
progress in effectiveness.The methodology, which is also being used
Management effectiveness by the Global Environment Facility, is designed to provide a relative-
Protected areas are only effective in helping to ensure the con- ly quick, easy and consistent system for reporting progress in a
servation and sustainable use of biological diversity if they are effec- diverse range of protected areas.
tively managed.Various national and international organizations are While significant progress has been made on developing
working on this issue, with the aim of helping individual sites and methodologies, assessments of management effectiveness have so
systems to develop more effective management. Much of this work far been undertaken in only a small percentage of the world's pro-
is based on guidelines for evaluating effectiveness published by the tected areas.A major challenge is to have these tools widely used
IUCN World Commission on Protected areas65. Management effec- and to have monitoring and evaluation established as core business
tiveness evaluation measures the degree to which a protected area within protected areas management: to achieve this there needs to
is protecting its values and achieving its goals and objectives. Its pri- be a further increase in awareness of the benefits of evaluation; will-
mary aim is to help better management, but it can also help guide ingness to use such systems; and capacity of often under-resourced
project planning and resource allocation, provide accountability and areas to conduct evaluation.
transparency, and increase community awareness, involvement and
support. Evaluation will also enable managers to anticipate future INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS AND PROSPECTS
threats and opportunities. The IUCN World Commission on CBD Programme of work on protected areas
Protected Areas developed a framework for assessing management The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD at its sev-
effectiveness of protected areas (figure 2). Based on this framework enth meeting building upon the Millennium Development Goals,

69
 Figure 3 The COP has put forward intermediate target dates for many
66
Annual history of Ramsar site designations . activities with time bound deadlines of either 2006/ 2008 or 2010/
2012 or 2015, in recognition of the fact that many of the goals and
targets will require a phased, step-by-step approach.

PROTECTED AREAS AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Inland aquatic ecosystems are very diverse and include rivers,
their flood plains and estuaries, lakes, bogs, swamps, marshes and
coastal wetlands such as mangrove forests and lagoons. They
include all of the world's freshwater ecosystems but many are also
brackish-water or saline (as, for example, with some inland seas). In
many parts of the world inland water ecosystems continue to be
intensely modified and degraded by human activities. Freshwater
ecosystems are the world's most threatened biome and the one
the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable under the most rapidly escalating pressure due to demands upon
Development and the Durban Accord and Plan of Action from the water resources for development purposes.
Vth World's Parks Congress, adopted a programme of work on Inventories of inland aquatic ecosystems are incomplete, incon-
protected areas.The overall objective of the programme of work is sistent in coverage and difficult to undertake for a number of rea-
to establish and maintain, "comprehensive, effectively managed and sons including: difficulties with definitions, limitations of maps, ill-
ecologically representative systems of protected areas" that collec- defined boundaries and the limitations of remote sensing. Heavily
tively, will significantly reduce the rate of loss of global biodiversity. vegetated wetlands (e.g., swamps or naturally flooded forests) and
Implementation of the programme of work will thus contribute to difficult to inventory because of technical difficulties discerning
the three objectives of the Convention, its strategic plan, the land/water interfaces and problems of definition regarding what
Millennium Development Goals in particular poverty alleviation constitutes land or wetland. A particular feature of many inland
and sustainable development. aquatic ecosystems is their highly seasonal nature (especially the
The programme of work on protected areas contained a spe- expansion and contraction of many wetlands, such as on river
cific set of targets and timetables primarily organized around floodplain, due to seasonal changes in flooding).This marked tem-
national-level actions. The programme of work consists of four poral dimension complicates classification systems, including legal
interlinked elements mutually reinforcing and cross - cutting in descriptions, across spatially and seasonably variable land-water
their implementation. In essence, programme element 1 deals with interfaces. Without good time-series data such wetlands are also
what protected area systems need to conserve and where. difficult to quantify, even locally.
Programme elements 2 and 3 cover how to effectively implement The most systematic registry of protected areas for inland
protected are systems, including issues such as the policy environ-
ment, governance and participation, and capacity building.
Programme element 4 covers the steps needed for assessing and
monitoring the effectiveness of actions taken under programme
elements 1-3. Each programme element is structured into specific
goals - targets - and activities.The programme of work contains 16
goals, which are outcome-oriented statements of ultimate purpose.
Each goal is accompanied by a target that sets a specific date by
which the goal is to be accomplished, and in many cases provides
indicators to measure progress towards the goal.A list of activities,
92 in total follow each paired goal and target that individual coun-
tries should consider to meet their commitments to achieve the
identified goals and targets. Marine and coastal areas are severely under-represented in the global net-
work of protected areas. In the photograph, the Nature Reserve of Curto-
The overall target deadline for implementation of the pro- Pichetto, a partly abandoned area of salt pans in Slovenia.
gramme of work is 2010 for terrestrial and 2012 for marine areas. Photograph: Sergio Gobbo

70
water ecosystems is the list of sites maintained under the auspices
of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran, 1971). There are
presently 146 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1469
wetland sites, totaling 128.9 million hectares, designated for inclu-
sion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.A
number of Ramsar sites are also declared jointly with the World
Heritage Convention. Data for protected areas at the national or
local levels have not been adequately compiled.
All inland water and most coastal wetland protected areas
present special problems in terms of their establishment, manage-
ment and sustainability. In particular, most rely upon water inflow
from surrounding areas in order to maintain ecosystem health and
integrity. Buffer zones around the protected areas are desirable, as Delimitation of protected coastal marshes and wetlands is usually a com-
plex challenge. This is due to the variability of the flooded area, the diffi-
with any terrestrial protected area. But inland and coastal wetland culty to mark an exact border, the conflicts existing with upper river
protected areas require management measures within the entire basins, and also to the influence of groundwater. The Doñana 2005 project
is contributing, through its research plans and modelling tools, to elimi-
watershed or catchment, that is - well beyond the protected area, nate this uncertainness. In the photograph, El Acebrón pond, in Doñana
which maintain both the ecological quality and quantity of water Nature Park.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.
being fed to, and often through, the wetland. In this sense they rep-
resent one of the clearest examples of the need for the ecosystem - 3.4: To provide support for and facilitate monitoring of national
approach to planning and management. To be effective, inland and and regional systems of marine and coastal protected areas
coastal wetland protected areas must be planned, established and - 3.5: To facilitate research and monitoring activities that reflect
managed within a basin-level framework that fully adopts integrat- identified global knowledge gaps and priority information needs of
ed resource management planning. For rivers, which include those management of marine and coastal protected areas.
feeding most wetlands, a critical need is to maintain ecological con- Marine protected areas vary in management objectives in the
nectivity along their entire length. Dams and other major infra- same way as their terrestrial counterparts. Decision VII/5 puts for-
structure fragment rivers and disrupt connectivity. Such develop- ward a marine and coastal biodiversity management framework
ment must be planned with due regard to sustaining ecosystem consisting of two types of marine and coastal protected areas: (i)
functioning in rivers and the substantial ecological services provid- Multiple use protected areas, which may permit extractive uses but
ed by wetlands. contain areas that are more strictly controlled for biodiversity pro-
tection. Such controls may also have other (e.g., economic or
CBD Programme of work on marine and coastal areas, with par- social) objectives. Examples include controls on fishing (e.g.,
ticular attention to the wetland coastal areas. restricting bottom trawling), on the removal of certain species (e.g.,
Marine habitats and ecosystems are severely under-represent- habitat forming species), rotational closures, and controls on pollu-
ed in the global network of protected areas. Concern about this tion and sedimentation. Such areas can protect particular species
under representation reflected in decision VII/5 and accompanying or life cycle stages (such as spawning); help to maintain connectivi-
Programme of Work on Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity ty and buffer more strictly protected areas. (ii) No-take zones,
under programme element 3 (marine and coastal protected areas) which permit no extraction and are managed to maintain their
and operational objectives 3.1 to 3.5. These operational objectives ecology or to allow natural restoration. Such strictly protected
include: areas form the backbone of the marine biodiversity conservation
- 3.1:To establish and strengthen national and regional systems of measures and need to be selected for coverage and representation
marine and coastal protected areas integrated into a global net- in the same way as land and freshwater sites. There is ample evi-
work and as a contribution to globally agreed goals. dence that such no-take zones can have short and long-term ben-
- 3.2:To enhance the conservation and sustainable use of biological efits to human communities through, for example, helping to main-
diversity in marine areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction tain fish stocks Decision VII/5 also acknowledges that marine and
- 3.3: To achieve effective management of existing marine and coastal protected areas on their own are not be enough for con-
coastal protected areas servation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and that they need to

71
 be incorporated into a framework of sustainable management ing from invasive alien species, climate change, pollution, and habi-
practices over the wider marine environment. tat change;
4) Maintaining ecosystem integrity, and the provision of goods and
CBD 2010 biodiversity target services provided by biodiversity in ecosystems, in support of
The Parties to the CBD acknowledged, in 2002, the continued human well-being;
threat to biodiversity from human activities. For these reasons, the 5) Protecting traditional knowledge, innovations and practices;
Conference of the Parties adopted a Strategic Plan, in which Parties 6) Ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of
committed themselves to a more effective and coherent implemen- the use of genetic resources; and;
tation of the three objectives of the Convention in order to 7) Mobilizing financial and technical resources, especially for devel-
achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of bio- oping countries, in particular, least developed countries and Small
diversity loss at the global, regional and national level, as a contri- Island developing states among them, and countries with
bution to poverty alleviation and for the benefit of all life on earth. economies in transition, for implementing the Convention and the
This target was subsequently endorsed by the World Summit on Strategic Plan.
Sustainable Development. Protected area coverage is one of the headline indicators iden-
Parties recognized that in order to achieve the Strategic Plan, tified for assessing the progress in 2010 biodiversity target. This
and its 2010 biodiversity target, they required a framework to facil- indicator has direct relevance to goal 7 (Ensuring Environmental
itate an assessment of progress made-a framework within which Sustainability) and target 9 (Integrate the principles of sustainable
national and regional targets could be set, and indicators of development into country policies and programmes and reverse
progress identified.The resulting framework, adopted by Decision the loss of environmental resources) of the Millennium
VII/30, is structured around seven focal areas, which together rep- Development Goals. The targets for focal areas are now being
resent both responses to the drivers of biodiversity loss, and the incorporated into the existing programmes of work of the
means to achieve the three objectives of the Convention. The focal Convention and will be the basis of future review or formulation of
areas are: new programmes. Other Conventions, processes and stakeholders
1) Reducing the rate of loss of the components of biodiversity, have been invited to contribute, in their own areas of interest, to
including: (i) biomes, habitats and ecosystems; (ii) species and pop- both achieving the targets and monitoring progress towards them
ulations; and (iii) genetic diversity; using suitable indicators. However, national implementation of the
2) Promoting sustainable use of biodiversity; programmes of work will be the backbone of progress towards
3) Addressing the major threats to biodiversity, including those aris- achieving the 2010 biodiversity target.

In the face of increasing human pressure on planet's resources, an effective global protected area system is the best hope for conserving viable and representa-
tive areas of natural ecosystems, habitats and species to achieve 2010 biodiversity target. Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity through its various
programmes of work agreed on a far-reaching and ambitious programme of action to establish and maintain "comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologi-
cally representative systems of protected areas" that, collectively, will significantly reduce the rate of global biodiversity loss. Wetlands represent ecosystems of
immense importance to biodiversity and humans. The ecosystem goods and services they provide have been historically seriously undervalued but are becom-
ing increasingly recognized. The provisions of the CBD, working in partnership with the Ramsar Convention, cover most of the requirements for the improved
planning, establishment and management of effective networks and systems of protected areas for wetlands at the local, national, regional and global levels.
In the photograph, a spoonbill in the Marsh of Doñana.
Photograph by Jose María Pérez de Ayala

72
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. SETHE, K., 1964. Dramatische Texte zu Altaegyptischen 31. SANTAMARIA L., 2002. Why are most aquatic plants widely distrib-
Mysterienspielen. Vol. 10, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagbuchhandlung. uted? Dispersal, clonal growth and small-scale heterogeneity in a stress-
2. AGUANTIPLANO, 2001. Centro de Información sobre Recursos ful environment. Acta Oecologica, 23: 137-154.
Hídricos. 32. TURNER, R.K., 2000. Integrating natural and socio-economic science in
3. SALVATORE, R., 2001. Les Riziéres. Stratégies et critères d’amélioration coastal management. Journal of Marine Science, 25: 447-460.
de l’environnement. Med-Wet. ICONA. Madrid 2001. 33. CORILA-UNESCO (in press). Lagoons and coastal wetlands in the glob-
4. IUCN, 2000. Vision for water and nature. A world strategy for conserva- al change context: Impacts and management issue. Proceedings of the
tion and sustainable management of water resources in the 21st century. International Conference CORILA-UNESCO (26-28 April 2004), Venice.
5. CLAIRAIN, ELLIA J. Jr., 2002. Wetlands Research Program. 33. LUBCHENCO, J., OLSON, A.M., BRUBAKER L.B., CARPENTER,
Hydrogeomorphic Approach to Assessing Wetland Functions. Guidelines S.R., HOLLAND, M.M., HUBBELL, S., LEVIN, S.A., MACMAHON,
for Developing Regional Guidebooks. March 2002. J.A., MATSON, P.A., MELILLO, J.M., MOONEY, H.A., PETERSON,
6. UNESCO, 2004. World Water Assessment Programme. C.H., PULLIAM, R., REAL, L.A., REGAL, P.J., AND RISSER, P.G.,1991.
7. CEBALLOS MORENO, M., 2002. La problemática jurídico-administra- The sustainable Biosphere Initiative: An ecological research agenda.
tiva de las zonas húmedas. Sehumed Magazine n. 19. Ecology, 72: 371-412.
8. Spanish Strategy Plan for Conservation and Rational Use of Wetlands. 34. PAINE, R.T., RUESINK, J.L., SUN, A., SOULANILLE, E.L., WON-
Spanish Ministry of the Envirnment. HAM, M.J., HARLEY, C.D.G., BRUMBAUGH, D.R., SECORD, D.L.,
9. MOORE, D., 2003. Those Dammed Wetlands. 1996. Trouble on oiled waters: Lessons from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill.
10. International Council for Bird Preservation. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 27: 197-235.
11. International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau 35. LASSERRE, P., MCINTYRE, A.D., OGDEN, J.C., RAY, G.C.,
12. Man and Biosphere Programme GRASSLE, J.F., 1994. Marine laboratory networks for the study of the
13. United Nations Environment Programme biodiversity, function and management of marine ecosystems. Biology
14. On May 29th, 1995, the European Commission issued a Communication to International, IUBS, sp. Issue N. 31, 33 p.
the Council and the European Parliament on the wise use and conservation 36. HEIP, C., HUMMEL, H., (ed) 2000. Establishing a framework for the
of wetlands, recognising their important role in water resource protection. implementation of marine biodiversity research in Europe. EC-DG
15. Directive 2000/ /CE of the Council and the European Parliament to estab- Research/ESF Marine Board/MARS Network/UNESCO Venice Office.
lish a Community action framework in water policy. Brussels, July 18th, European Science Foundation, Strasbourg, 48 p.
2000. 37. TURNER, R.K., SUBAK, S., ADGER, N., 1996. Pressure, trends and
16. LABANE, Y., 2002. Climate change and Water Resources In Tunisia. impacts in coastal zones: Interactions between socio-economic and natu-
Institut National de la Météorologie. Mediterranean Regional Roundtable. ral systems. Environ. Manag., 20: 159-173.
Athens, Greece. 38. GOLLIER, C., JULLIEN, B. Y TREICH, N., 2000. Scientific progress
17. COMPREHENSIVE EVERGLADES RESTORATION PLAN (CERP), and irreversibility: an economic principle of the precautionary principle.
2003. Program management Plan. South Florida Water Management J. Public. Econ. 75: 229-253.
District - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Jacksonville District. 39. LIPIATOU, E., Y CORNAERT, M.H., 1999. Marine research and policy
18. The members of the UNESCO mission were Metchild Rössler (WHC- interface: an overview from the session. In: Marine Research and Policy
UNESCO), Cipriano Marín Cabrera (INSULA), Randall R. Reeves Interface. Ed: M. Cornaert & E. Lipiatou. Research in enclosed seas
(Canadá) and Pedro Manuel Rosabal González (IUCN). series, No6 EC Brussels: 5-8.
19. Ramsar Bureau Information Pack on Wetlands Values and Functions. 40. NORSE, D. Y TSCHIRLEY, J.B. 2000. Links between science and policy
2003. making. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 82: 15-26. UNESCO-
20. VIÑALS, M .J. (coord.), 2002. El patrimonio cultural de los humedales. MaB, 1995. The Seville Strategy. Paris: UNESCO.
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. 41. BATISSE, M., 1997. Biosphere reserves: a challenge for biodiversity con-
21. MARIN, C., 1997. Nature and Workmanship. Insula, Unesco, European servation & regional development. Environment, 39: 6-15.
Commission. 42. LASSERRE, P. 2004. Marine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:
22. CORDOVA, S., 2003. Informe sobre ecoturismo. Cormotur – Estado de European scientific network of excellence (MARS/MARBEF). 4th Int.
Monagas. Symp. On the Pan-European Ecological Network. Marine and coastal bio-
diversity and protected areas. Council of Europe, Env. Enc. No 56: 77-92.
WETLANDS AND BIOSPHERE RESERVES 43. KAREIVA AND LEVIN (eds) 2003. The importance of species.
Perspectives on expendability and triage. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton
23. JACOBSON, S.K. & MCDUFF, M.D., 1997. Success factors and evalu- University Press.
ation in conservation education programmes. International research and 44. MORRIS, J., (2004). Effect of changes in sea level on th productivity, bio-
environmental education, 6(3): 204-221. geochemistry, and stability of salt marshes. In: “Lagoons and coastal wet-
24. MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT, 2003. Ecosystems and lands in the global change context: impact and management issues.
human well-being: A framework for assessment. Island Press, Washington Proceedings international Conference, CORILA-UNESCO, Venice 26-28
D.C., 266 pp. April 2004.
25. UNESCO, 1996. Biosphere Reserves: Strategy of Seville and Statutory 45. WARWICK, R.M., EMBLOW C., FÉRAL, J.P., HUMMEL, H., VAN
Framework for the World Network. UNESCO, Paris, pp. 18. AVESAATH, P., HEIP C., 2003. European marine biodiversity research
sites. BIOMARE Implementation and networking of large-scale long-term
WETLANDS AND SCIENCE marine biodiversity in Europe. EU, NIOEO-CEME, Netherlands.

26. VERAART, J.A., DE GROOT, R.S., PERELLO, G., RIDDIFORD, N.J., WETLANDS AND THE EUROPEAN LANDSCAPE CONVENTION
ROIJACKERS, R., 2004. Selection of (bio) indicators to assess effects of
freshwater use in wetlands: a case study of s’Albufera de Mallorca, Spain. 46. As at 29 March 2003: Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan,
Reg. Environ. Change, 4: 107-117. Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech
27. MOONEY, H.A., MCNEELY, J., NEVILLE, L.E., SCHEI, P.J., WAAGE, Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Georgia, Greece,
J.K.., (eds), 2002. Invasive alien species: Searching for solutions. Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania,
Washington: Island Press. Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
28. http://eunis.eea.eu.int/index.jsp Romania, Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia and Montenegro,
29. VALERY, L., BOUCHARD, V., & LEFEUVRE, J.C., 2004. Impact of the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, "the former
invasive native species Elymus athericus on carbon pools in a salt marsh. Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom.
Wetlands, 24: 2. 47. Concerning the natural and cultural heritage, see the other conventions of
30. LEVIN, D.A., 2000. The origin, expansion, and demise of plant species. the Council of Europe: Convention on the Conservation of European
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

73
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 19 September 1979), Convention for developments create a much wider basis for the exchange of ideas and
the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe (Granada, 3 October mutual support than was possible even a decade ago, allowing local actors
1985) and European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological throughout Europe to take part and thus creating a true "landscape democ-
Heritage (London, 6 May 1969) (revised, Valetta, 16 January 1992). racy”.
48. See Appendix 2. The convention came into force on the first day of the 54. Article 9 of the convention (Transfrontier landscapes). This article
month following the expiry of a period of three months after the date on requires the parties to set up transfrontier programmes for the identifica-
which ten Council of Europe member states have consented to be bound tion, evaluation, protection, management and planning of landscapes
by it, with the deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance or which straddle borders. In doing so, they are asked to rely as far as possi-
approval. ble, in accordance with the subsidiarity principle defined by the European
49. The explanatory report states that in order to co-ordinate action under the Charter of Local Self-Government, on local and regional authorities, and
two conventions, consideration could be given to scientific co-operation to use the implementation tools advocated in the European Outline
between the Unesco World Heritage Committee and the Committees of Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between Territorial
Experts mentioned under Article 10 of the European Landscape Communities or Authorities in Europe of 21 May 1980 and its additional
Convention, under Article 13.7 of the Unesco Convention of 16 November protocols.
1972, and as suggested in Article 7 of the convention.
50. These include, apart from the Unesco Convention concerning the PROTECTED AREAS, BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, the Convention for AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN WETLANDS:
the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe, the Convention on ISSUES AND PROSPECTS.
the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, the European
Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage, Committee 55. ANON, (1994). Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories,
of Ministers Recommendation 95 (9) on the integrated conservation of IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Gland, Switzerland
cultural landscape areas as part of landscape policies, Committee of and Cambridge, UK.
Ministers Recommendation (79) 9 concerning the identification and eval- 56. UDVARDY, M., 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provinces
uation card for the protection of natural landscapes, the Mediterranean of the world. Prepared as a contribution to UNESCO's Man and Biosphere
Landscape Charter, the European Community regulation on agricultural Programme Project No.18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN.
production methods compatible with the requirements of the protection of 57. See UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/10/INF/12.
the environment and the maintenance of the countryside, the European 58. MULONGOY, K.J., CHAPE, S., (Eds) 2004. Protected areas and biodi-
Community directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild versity: an overview of key issues. CBD Secretariat, Montreal Canada and
fauna and flora, the European Community directive on the assessment of UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
environmental effects, and other important national, European 59. COSTANZA et al. The value of world's ecosystem services and natural
Community and international instruments. capitol. Nature, 387:253-260.
51. Article 12 of the convention (Relationship with other instruments). The 60. MULONGOY, K.J., CHAPE, S., (Eds) 2004 op.cit.
wording of this article is based on model provisions already used in other 61. IUCN, 1999. Threats to Forest Protected Areas: Summary of a survey of
international conventions in order to deal with the problem of linking up 10 countries carried out in association with the World Commission on
conventions concerned with similar fields. Protected Areas. Research Report for the World Bank/WWF Alliance for
52. The term "landscape" is thus defined as a zone or area as perceived by Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use. November.
local people or visitors, whose visual features and character are the result 62. RODRIGUES, A.S.L., et al. 2003. Global Gap Analysis: Towards a rep-
of the action of natural and/or cultural (that is, human) factors. This defi- resentative network of protected areas. Advances in Applied Biodiversity
nition reflects the idea that landscapes evolve through time, as a result of Science, No.5. Centre for Applied Biodiversity Science, Washington. D.C.
being acted upon by natural forces and human beings. It also underlines 63. RODRIGUES, A.S.L., et al. 2004. Effectiveness of the global protected
that a landscape forms a whole, whose natural and cultural components are areas network in representing species diversity. Nature 428, 8 April 2004.
taken together, not separately. 64. BORRINI-FEYERABEND, G., 2004. Governance of protected areas,
53. Article 8 of the convention (Mutual assistance and exchange of informa- participation and equity. In Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
tion). Recent years have seen a burgeoning of political, professional and Diversity (2004). Biodiversity issues for consideration in the planning,
academic interest in the subject of landscapes, hence the development of establishment and management of protected area sites and networks,
a growing body of experience and expertise on which member states, local Montreal, SCBD, pp 100-105.
and regional authorities and others can draw as they seek to implement the 65. HOCKING, M., STOLTON, S., DUDLEY, N., 2000. Evaluating effective-
convention. At the same time, the growth of electronic communication and ness: A Framework for Assessing the Management of Protected Areas.
the arrival of the Internet have provided radically improved tools for IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
exchanging ideas and, indeed, for the technical study of landscapes. These 66. http://www.wetlands.org/RSDB/

74
The Time of the Marshes
lands marked by water and diversity

oñana singularly encompasses every dimension imagina- and branches of the rivers to the initial game reserves.The exten-
D ble for a protected space. We have before us a tremen-
dously changeable, rich and diverse territory whose originality is
sion of the National Park in 1979 with the inclusion of a 77,260-ha
"pre-park" buffer zone, and the creation of a 52,529-ha Nature
reflected as much in its geo-morphological evolution as in the gen- Park around it in 1982, have extended the Doñana title, as direct-
esis of its ecosystems. It is also reflected in the historic episodes ed by the Doñana 21 Trust. It now encompasses the municipalities
that have given it its reputation and especially in the role that it has of Huelva, Seville and Cadiz to an area of almost 250,000 ha.
played for science and the world of nature conservation in recent After the latest extensions in 2004, the Doñana National Park
decades. Presided over by water as the fundamental player in all its currently covers 54,720 ha and the Doñana Nature Park that sur-
vicissitudes, this is a reserve of life that has changed its appearance rounds it covers a further 53,709 ha, offering a spectacular protect-
and its social function constantly and without interruption.Today it ed area of 108,429 ha altogether.
is symbolised as one of the great platforms on which some of the
most important acts in the agitated history of environmental pro-
tection and aquatic ecosystems unfold.
Until the mid 20th century, Doñana was the name of a historic
swathe of big game hunting grounds with a landscape of scrub and
forest that was bounded to the East by the Guadalquivir Marshes
and Estuary, and to the West by a dividing line based on a track run-
ning from El Rocío Church to Torre de la Higuera in Arenas Gordas
(Coarse Sands), as this section of the Gulf of Cadiz shoreline was
known.
An interest in hunting initially, and later wildlife, attracted
hunters, zoologists and conservationists who spread the news of
Location of Doñana and mouth of the River Guadalquivir.
the ecological treasures of the area, clearly linking it to the name
Doñana. El Médano and the Dunes, Las Rocinas, Las Marismas and A CHANGING FACE
the Isla Mayor, the Branches of the Guadiamar and Guadalquivir The current appearance of Doñana is no more than two thou-
rivers, Rocío itself, Lomo del Grullo and Coto del Rey all took a sand years old, as its terrain is sedimentary and recent, the result
back seat to the new name used both to identify the zone and what of the action of winds, tides and rivers. Doñana is the product of
was to become a symbol of conservation in Spain. News of this nat- changes in a large estuary situated in the mouth of the
ural wealth was spread by turn-of-the-century travellers, who com- Guadalquivir River, which formed with the last rise in sea level, and
pared the Guadalquivir marshes with those of the Ganges because which has gradually been filled with sediments brought down by
of their overwhelming wealth of waterfowl.They were referring to the river flooding, by the tides, currents and storms of the Atlantic
a grand space of 250,000 ha of flood plains crossed by the four Ocean, and by sand carried in by the wind to form dunes.
branches and channels of the Guadalquivir and Guadiamar Rivers - The area covered by Doñana came about as a consequence of
Caño Guadiamar, Caño Travieso, the Torre Branch (Brazo de la a range of geological processes that have taken place in the Lower
Torre), the Eastern Branch (Brazo del Este) - leaving extensive flat Guadalquivir Basin. They can be summarised in a series of steps
islands between them with large shallow pans, "lucios", on them. that help us understand the basic characteristics of how it is now.
The creation of the 6,974 ha Biological Station and Reserve in At the end of the Tertiary Age, there was a general subsidence of
1964, and its inclusion in the Scientific Research Council, made what is now the Guadalquivir Basin, forming a deep sea in which
Doñana an administrative and research property, and a short time blue marl was deposited to depths of up to 1,000 m.Then, in the
later in 1969, it was enhanced with the creation of the Doñana Quaternary Age, a much finer layer of red sand was deposited in
National Park (35,000 ha), adding marshes, the shallow island lakes the shallow coastal environment of the Guadalquivir Estuary. The

77
 wind-born mantles (during the 15th-16th centuries) laid over older
dune formations, after the Flandrian transgression. These, in turn,
are superimposed over continental detritic formations, of sand and
gravel. These continental formations are permeable and stretch
extensively within and beyond the Park, resting on a Miocene
marine deposit. Their impermeable clay deposits form the wall of
the great Almonte-Marismas aquifer that underlies much of
Doñana.
The current Marshes cover an area of some 27,000 ha, approx-
imately half the area of the National Park.Yet, they account for only
part of the 140,000 ha known at the beginning of the 20th century
as the Guadalquivir Marshes. "Las Marismas" (The Marshes) is the
traditional name for the low-lying flood plains on either side of the
Guadalquivir Estuary. The left bank has given in to an intense
process of transformation while only the right bank of the estuary
has survived as the Doñana Marshes. Moreover, they are no longer
tidal; they act as a floodplain now fed by rains and by streams.
The Marshes are carved up by a network of seasonal water-
courses, some more recent and active than others. These include
channels (the caños) on the right hand side of the Marshes, or the
so-called “albinas” on the, now disappeared, left hand side.The oth-
ers, effectively ancient watercourses, were only activated at times
An interest in hunting initially, and later wildlife, attracted hunters, zoolo-
of heavy flow, often finding themselves filled to the brim and cut
gists and conservationists who spread the news of the ecological treasures across by other more recent watercourses. The ancient water-
of the area, clearly linking it to the name Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
courses correspond with the so-called “quebradas” (gorges).
Within them, areas of higher points alternate with much lower
lower basin of the Guadalquivir continued to evolve in the same stretches.These are the well-known “lucios” (shallow pans) of the
way as the sea lowered.After sea-level stabilization (approximately Marshes.
6,000 B.C.), an advancing coastal bar running NW-SE was pro- Water patterns in the Doñana Marshes maintain forms remi-
duced, formed by wind-blown sands and material carried down by niscent of the different stages in its development.There are wind-
the Tinto, Odiel, Piedras and Guadiana rivers, then subject to long- ing tidal channels, older straighter branches of the river later cut off
shore drifts. This bar gradually closed the Guadalquivir Estuary, as ox-bow lakes, and silt or sandy-silt levies, called "vetas", flanked
forming an interior lagoon of calm waters that made it into record- by palaeo-channels.There are old sand bars with accumulations of
ed history.This was the Ligurian Lake of Phoenician times and the shells and elongated troughs along stretches of canal, forming lucios
Ligustinus Lake of the Roman Empire. Sediments from the mainland like Los Ansares and El Largo, or the old tidal areas bordered by
were deposited on the lakebed and currently form the base of the levies, forming more regular lucios like Buen Tiro, Seville or El Real
Marshes.The surface level of this 50-100 m thick sedimentary layer and Herrero on Isla Mayor.
is made up of fine silt and blue-grey clays.
As a result of these processes, the characteristics of the HISTORIC GENESIS OF THE
Doñana are said to be broadly divided into three major landscape DOÑANA ECOSYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES
units: the "cotos" or stable sand dunes, the coastal string of shifting Historically, Doñana was a space nearly ten times smaller, lim-
dunes, and the Marshes. Looking further, there is the Guadalquivir- ited to some 30,000 ha of cotos, owned by the House of Medina
Guadiamar estuary, with its islands and channels; the shoreline with Sidonia. Communally owned, it ran between the municipalities of
its beaches and its embryonic dunes; further west, the cliffs and sta- Almonte, Hinojos, Aznalcázar, the Marshes and the beach. From
ble dunes of El Medano de El Asperillo; and to the north, the gen- Sanlucar, on the other side of the Guadalquivir River mouth, the
tle hills of La Campiña. Dukes have run "their" Doñana for six centuries: the woodlands,
Half the sands, including beach, dunes and cotos, are recent livestock, crops and, receiving special attention, big game hunting.

78
TABLE 1
Historic stages in the management of Doñana.
PERIOD PREDOMINANT LAND USE

1262-1636 Mediterranean forest and scrubland managed as a game reserve for deer and boar. Almadrabas (Tuna fish salting works) of Torre Carboneras.
1636-1670 Thinning. Open forest with pastures for cattle and sheep. Big game hunting. High point of the tuna fishing and salting industry.
1670-1709 Overgrazing by sheep and pigs, controlled burning of scrub. Sandy soils cultivated and dunes mobilised. Livestock, big game hunting, fish salting works.
1709-1737 Extensive felling of cork trees. General de-forestation.Trial pine nut plantations in Marismillas. Livestock, big game hunting, fish salting works.
1737-1895 General spread of pine plantations to the stable coastal dunes. Livestock, big game hunting, fish salting works. Salt works in the marshes.
1895-1950 Fragmentation of the property, sold to new owners who maintain the big game hunting and the livestock and forestry business.
Umbrella pine plantations. The start of the "polderisation" of the marshes to convert to rice fields and eradicate malaria.
1952-1992 Scientific takeoff and birth of conservation. Creation of the National Park and the Nature Park. Extension of the Doñana administration.
Profound agricultural change and tourism development.The end of controlled burning and planting of pines and eucalyptus.
1992-2005 Sustainable development fostered by the authorities. Restoration of degraded ecosystems and environmental quality management of the area.

The Marshes, however, were not initially the property of the Duke, in the historic management of Doñana that start with the creation
because they had been granted to the city to be used as summer of the Royal Estate in 1262. It remained almost unaltered due to its
grazing lands, after the conquest of Seville in 1248. use as a big game hunting reserve, until 1636, when it was opened
History and archaeology highlight the fact that the infertile sta- up to grazing livestock. Table 1 shows the different stages in land
ble sand dunes and the neighbouring marshlands remained a management through to modern times.
desert, a demographic vacuum whose only settlements were huts Documentation from the 13th and 14th centuries refers to
for fishermen, herdsmen and coal merchants. There are, however, Doñana as a "woodland", (Bosque de Las Rocinas).The quantitative
Neolithic records of both the permanent and temporary use of the descriptions that have been put together from documents from
zone. These are found in cabin floors from the Bronze Age, in 1636 reveal a thick and diverse forest dominated by cork and
Roman salt fish works1 and in pottery remains from the last three juniper trees. The situation changed rapidly around this time with
thousand years, which have been found in Doñana. Such findings are the introduction of livestock to improve the profitability of the
to be expected in a flourishing regional setting where Tartessians, Duchy's properties during an economic crisis. The livestock and
Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans,Visigoths, Muslims and herdsmen cleared the woods and it must have begun to look more
Byzantines have all played an important historic role. like open grassland, as the rich forest soil began to produce pro-
The first historic record of these territories dates from 1262, ductive pastures. But the low clay content of these predominantly
when Alfonso X "The Wise" declared them "Royal Hunting sandy soils led to their degradation, a process that was accelerated
Grounds", shortly after the 1261 conquest by the Count of Niebla by pig farming. Finally, to maintain the productivity of these exhaust-
who exploited them.The Rocinas Forests attracted the attention of
Alfonso X in his Hunting Book (Libro de La Montería) because of the
good boar hunting. It was later, in 1294, when King Sancho IV would
grant this royal game reserve to Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán "The
Good", although the grant was not effective until the next generation
when, in 1309, King Fernando IV confirmed the land settlement to
Alfonso Pérez son.
The House of Medina Sidonia, which maintained Doñana in its
estate until 1895, has conserved much of the documentation gener-
ated in the course of these six centuries in its Duchy Archives in
Sanlucar. This provides us with an exceptional international case in
conservation: a protected area with a detailed description of its his-
tory spanning centuries1.This has allowed the documentation of dis-
putes between the Duchy and its neighbouring municipal authorities
The Doñana territory is broadly divided into three major entities: the sta-
to be analysed2. Milestones such as historic changes in early wood- ble sand dunes, the coastal string of shifting dunes, and the Marshes. The
lands, scrublands and pastures are documented, along with livestock photography shows the Marshes between Madre de las Marismas channel
and the Biological Reserve in the Municipality of Almonte.
grazing and resource use3. Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

All this research has managed to demarcate a series of stages

79
 The current appearance of Doñana is no
more than two thousand years old, as its
terrain is sedimentary and recent, the
result of the action of winds, tides and
rivers. Doñana is the product of changes
in a large estuary situated in the mouth
of the Guadalquivir River, which formed
with the last rise in sea level, and which
has gradually been filled with sediments
brought down by the river flooding, by
the tides, currents and storms of the
Atlantic Ocean, and by sand carried in
by the wind to form dunes. The satellite
picture shows the true to life result of
these processes and the survival of the
Doñana Marshes on the right bank of the
River Guadalquivir.

ed soils, a slash and burn policy was introduced, with a 10-12 year the 17th century were re-forested after 1805. Favourable results led
cycle, which ended up transforming the surviving remains of the to these pines being sown on other areas of stabilised dunes further
original woodland into a pyrophytic scrub of heather, gorse and inland, with the pine ending up as characteristic of the dunes rather
Halimium that now predominates.Although these well-document- than the original juniper species. Further inland, pruning, livestock
ed traditional burns were few and far between, controlled burning pressure and controlled burning reduced the counts of oak, cork
did impact as ecological degradation5. tree, strawberry tree, wild olive, cottonwood and ash to a token
It was not until 1737 that the first trials were carried out with presence, except for along the water lines, pond borders or areas
pine nut plantations, although they had been successfully established where the sands meets the Marshes, where gallery forests and trees
in nearby areas, like Villamanrique, for centuries. As tree coverage for shade and shelter survived.The traditional woodland vegetation
grew well in Marismillas, high-density plantations were possible for gave way to scrubland that, with burning, was overcome by pyro-
firewood production and low-density plantations for shipbuilding. phyte species.
Some areas of the beach dune systems that had started shifting in A comprehensive knowledge of all these processes and of the
evolution of the Doñana ecosystems constitutes the foundation of
the ambitious restoration projects that have emerged in recent
years, including the Doñana 2005 Project.

CHANGES IN THE TRADITIONAL USE

OF DOÑANA RESOURCES
Throughout this time, there has been a permanent conflict
between game and other alternative land uses: grazing and forestry,
fishing and gathering, and salt works.The current context of oppos-
ing interests competing for land has a background spanning cen-
turies in Doñana. Neighbouring municipalities sometimes sought to
benefit from one of the resources; at other times, it was the
landowners who tried different forms of exploitation.
The History of Doñana starts with the Roman settlements of the 2nd centu-
ry B.C., which survived up until the 7th century A.D. These people lived The confrontation between the Duchy and the inhabitants of
mainly from fishing and fish salting in the area known as Marismas del
Almonte is well known. Lawsuits were dragged through the courts
Guadalquivir, or the Guadalquivir Marshes. But, despite its reduced pop-
ulation and remoteness, Doñana has always formed part of a flourishing for centuries over the ownership of "lands in question" to the
regional environment, where Tartessians, Phoenicians, Greeks,
Carthaginians, Romans, Visigoths, Byzantines and Muslims have all
northwest of the National Park. This legal battle was no isolated
played an important historic role. The photograph shows one of the tidal incident. The western boundary between the properties of the
towers that provided protection against the raids by Berber corsairs.
A village that ran the tuna fishing works, known as "almadrabas", grew Duchy and the municipality of Almonte roughly followed the pres-
up around it. ent road to Matalascañas that was staked out and marked. Herders
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
and woodsmen were not to cross it, with threat of imprisonment.

80
 The above images clearly show the siege of Doñana, started in the middle of last century. Comparing the two images the transformation of the northern side
of the marshes is evident. The left image, showing still unaltered marshes, was taken in 1956, while the one on the right corresponds to 1999 situation.
New rice fields, farms, and channelings clearly outline the sharp boundary that isolated Doñana from its surroundings.
The right image is a detail of the orthophoto of the Doñana marshes produced in the framework of the Doñana 2005 project.

The competition between the different land uses on either side of for wine and the attempt to bring in settlers encouraged the plant-
the line led to a growing tension at the boundary, and the stakes ing of vineyards in Las Marismillas, in the extreme south of Doñana
were often moved or removed altogether, triggering conflict.After opposite Sanlucar. Wine growing is possible in these sandy soils
a spate of confrontation, the borders would be marked out once where wild grape vines already formed part of the natural vegeta-
more.The records of these interventions offer an exact picture of tion, and the first wine producing trials appear to have taken place
the state of the vegetation throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. in 1773.According to Granados Corona (1988), this was initially a
Up until 1628, Doñana retained its character as a cork tree for- success and there were 60,000 vines in the area by 1778. It later
est with junipers and Mediterranean woodland scrub, run exclusive- declined and the vines, fruit orchards and the attempts at colonis-
ly as a private game reserve. Since then, new land uses have been ing Las Marismillas were all abandoned, leaving behind only a few
authorized: pastures were leased to grazers, and the herdsmen were allotments and some huts. It has been suggested7 that the second-
allowed to cut whatever wood they needed for their huts and for ary formation of dunes on the coast shaping the current mobile
fires. This change in vegetation took place very rapidly with these dune system took place in various stages since the 17th century.This
new land uses.The forest was first thinned and then cleared to take
on the look of grasslands. In 1636, the trees still covered 45% of the
area, falling to 36% in 1647 and 27% five years later.
Fluctuations in the finances of the Duchy, periods of inflation in
the Spanish economy in the 16th-19th centuries, and demand for mer-
chandise exported from Sanlucar to America are all reflected in
Doñana's alternating land use: cattle, sheep, goats and the expansion
of pig farming that virtually destroyed the pasturelands and soil. On
top of the grazing, one can add the exploitation of bark, cork, tim-
ber, firewood, and charcoal, which gradually reduced the tree cover,
and also the introduction of controlled burning techniques to pro-
mote tender new pastoral growth6. Over the centuries, there has
been an accumulation of changes in the ecosystems of the dunes:
deforestation, regression of the original native foliage, an invasion of
the pyrophitic scrub, halimium (Halimium halimifolum) and the
degradation of the soils. The photograph shows a reconstruction of the traditional huts in the cen-
tre of el Poblado de la Plancha, currently a tourist centre. After 1785, the
Two other historic interventions are of outstanding signifi- vines and fruit trees were abandoned leaving just a few allotments and a
scattering of huts.
cance: the planting of grape vines and pine nut trees.The demand

81
 wood, charcoal and pine nuts, and they soon became a character-
istic feature of Doñana.The forests that had dominated the face of
Doñana up until the 17th century were once again outstanding in
the 19th and 20th centuries.
These major conflicts and interventions in the historic uses
described above do not exhaust the full list. Owners tried fruit
trees, olives, carob trees, mulberry trees and poplars but the hos-
tile environment prevented any financial success and any odd trees
that have survived from those trials are testimony to their efforts
spanning centuries. Of the animal kingdom, beehives were exploit-
ed and fish (carp and eels) were introduced to the ponds, although
traditional livestock and game species always prevailed.
There was also widespread collection of natural produce
grown in the wild. This was more a complementary use of
resources, rather than an alternative land use.The most important
of these was the collection of ducks, geese and wildfowl eggs, which
were the basis of the confectionary industry in Sanlucar. Rabbits,
hares and partridges were lesser game in the sand country. Other
natural products saw quick surges, like the collection of flexible wil-
low branches for barrel hoops, charcoal from the heather stock for
gunpowder, resin oil from juniper berries for curing livestock dis-
eases, leeches for medical use and even cochineal for dyes.
Exploiting the Marshes was traditionally shared between Seville
and its neighbouring municipalities and the Duchy. It focussed on
livestock.The local cattle can survive for months on boggy land and
they even graze on water plants by swimming into the deeper
Protected by the dunes and the marshes and hidden by the forests, is the
channels. Summer droughts, river flooding or sometimes an unusu-
Doñana Palace, a country house that was the seat of the Dukes and their
guests. Doña Ana de Silva y Pantoja, elder daughter of the Duchess of al cold snap, would constrain livestock rearing, but this shortfall was
Eboli and wife of the Fourth Duke, who commanded the unfortunate
Invincible Armada, left Sanlucar to live in the Palace until shortly before
covered by raising local marsh horses and Lebrija sheep, both of
her death in 1610. Because of her long stay here, the Palace came to be which are very hardy.
known as Doña Ana. Francisco de Goya visited the Palace in 1797, as a
guest of the then Duchess of Alba, Maria Cayetana de Silva, the widow of Separate mention should be given to the salt flats and fish salt-
the XV Duke. He dedicated some of his best paintings to her, including ing works. The former, situated in the Marshes and fed by the
"Sólo mia" (Mine alone), a full-length portrait against a background of veg-
etation and water that is usually associated with the Laguna de Santa Guadalquivir Estuary, remained operative until the mid 20th centu-
Olalla of Doñana. A pine nut tree and brushwood are recognisable, as is ry.Yet, the salt flats on the other bank still cling to life, although pre-
the form and colour of the dunes and the estuary tidal flats of both
Doñana and Sanlúcar. cariously.The most important of the fish salting works were those
at Torre Carboneros above the present beach, which used large
was due to the clearing of junipers to make way for vineyards - quantities of wood and cork from Doñana for floats and for fires
intense felling that possibly came with over-grazing during a period and huts for the thousands of workers. Tuna production in Torre
of unstable climate. Carbonero became a traditional resource, which represented a
As mentioned, another important historic intervention in this healthy income for the Duchy.
region was the planting of pine nut trees. In 1737, the Duchy decid- Throughout this process, we can see how the historically sparse-
ed to try out a pine plantation in El Puntal. The results were prom- ly populated Doñana and the Marshes were basically maintained as a
ising and the plantation area was extended. Later it was gradually game reserve with few other uses until the 16th century.The situation
introduced to the "corrales" (inter-dune valleys) and the stabilised changed categorically in the first half of the 17th century, giving rise to
dunes close to Sanlucar, and from 1805, in the corrales of the conflicts over the different land use between Doñana and the sur-
mobile dune system. In contrast to the outcome of the grape vines, rounding area. In 1895, the last Duke of Medina Sidonia died without
the pine plantations gave excellent results, offering timber, fire- leaving an heir. The traditional property was broken up and sold to

82
 1940 marked the start of major transformation to the right-hand bank of the Guadalquivir River, which borders today's Doñana Park, creating a new landscape
of rice paddies served by a network of canals, which, together with the new towns, radically changed the appearance of the traditional marshes. After careful
levelling, the rice "paddies" re-circulate the irrigation waters, thus preventing brackish estuary water from entering the system. This is one of the major transfor-
mations to the Doñana water system that has had a profound impact on the design of the current conservation strategy for the marshes.
Photo: CENEAM files.

different owners, who maintained its role as a game reserve as well bank of the estuary underwent a radical transformation. It was con-
as for traditional livestock and forestry activities. Along with the aris- verted from flood plain grazing pastures into productive irrigated
tocracy, the new owners included members of the emerging land fed by the Lower Guadalquivir Canal.The major transforma-
European industrial bourgeoisie that were to pioneer the transfor- tion to the Marshes, which border the present National Park, start-
mation of Doñana and the surrounding areas in the 20th century. ed in 1940, with the general spread of the trials that had started in
the 20s.This transformation created a new landscape of rice pad-
RECENT CHANGES IN THE DOÑANA LANDSCAPE dies served by a network of canals that, together with the newly
The historic balance of the Doñana region, based on the created villages, changed the traditional marshes completely. The
exploitation of livestock, forestry and hunting resources, became origins of this great wave of changes go back to 1926, with the cre-
extremely unstable as the 20th century advanced. The stable sand ation of the Islas del Guadalquivir S.A. company, that started trans-
country - the cotos - was re-planted with faster growing forestry forming the marshes into rice fields using polders.After careful lev-
species and the Marshes were transformed for rice growing. The elling, the irrigation waters in the rice paddies are re-circulated to
historic Marshes have been reduced from the 140,000 ha they ini- prevent brackish water entering the circuit from the estuary.This
tially covered to the 27,000 ha that are presently conserved. was one of the major transformations of the Doñana hydrological
This has been felt in the cotos, with pine nut trees re-planted system that had a substantial impact on the design of the present
from the 1950s on, followed by eucalyptus in the 70s.The second strategy for conserving the wetlands. The transformation was
phase of the Almonte-Marismas Plan was implemented, as a result begun on Isla Minima and has been extended south along the right
of the development mindset of the time, to irrigate the sandy soils bank to now cover an area of 53,000 ha.
to the north of Doñana Park, where the constant pumping of water With regard to the important changes arising from replanting
had drained and desalinated the Marshes.At the same time, the left trees, the landscapes of sandy hills that formed the previously

83
 Turn-of-the-century travellers compared the Guadalquivir Marshes with
those of the Ganges because of their overwhelming wealth in waterfowl.
They were referring to a grand space of 250,000 ha of flood plains crossed
by the four branches and channels of the Guadalquivir and Guadiamar
Rivers - Caño Guadiamar, Caño Travieso, the Torre Branch (Brazo de la
Torre), the Eastern Branch (Brazo del Este) - leaving extensive flat islands
between them with large shallow lakes called "lucios" on them.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

forested cotos to the west of Doñana, soon drew the attention of gained ground to the west, next to the Huelva Estuary, with the
the authorities who conceived a re-forestation plan for them in installation of a large chemical complex, including an oil refinery, a
1895. Political and financial difficulties delayed this intervention until fertilizer plant and, later on, diversification into other areas.These
1938, when 55,000 ha were planted with umbrella pine trees in an have had major repercussions in the region.
area running from El Asperillo and Matalascañas, to Huelva village. In line with the development mindset, from the early 50s, the
In 1940, it was the turn of the eucalyptus, as has occurred in many philosophy of the aforesaid Almonte-Marismas Plan took root,
sensitive areas around the world.Thus, the scrub and lagoon basins aimed at bringing some 46,000 ha of the different parts of Doñana
on sandy substrates were planted with Eucaliptus globulus and E. and the surrounding areas into cultivation.This was a grand project
camaldulensis to supply a regional fibreboard factory that was built backed by the FAO that proposed major agricultural development
during the Economic Development Plan. Industrial development founded on harnessing the abundant water resources of the

84
Almonte-Marismas Aquifer System, estimated at some 400
hm3/year.The decrees that brought about the transformation were
enacted in 1972 and 1974 and the plots of land were distributed in
the 80s.
Hence, with ups and downs, and successes and failures, changes
to the Marshes and their adjacent sands came about. The private
sector gave way to the public initiative for the first time in Doñana,
when the Spanish Government, in collaboration with the FAO,
undertook this enormous agricultural reform, draining 100,000 ha
of marshes. Finally, some 35,000 ha were designated for growing
After 1737, planting trials with pine nut trees were undertaken, which had been
rice and 100,000 ha of irrigated land for cotton and beetroot. In successfully grown in nearby areas since the reign of Felipe II. The excellent
course of this vast operation, some 25,000 ha were transformed by tree cover growth in Marismillas made it possible to conduct high density trials
for firewood and low density plantations for ship building. From 1805, some
equipping them with wells and pumping and irrigation infrastruc- areas of the beach dune system that had become unstable in the 17th century
ture.This change in the use of the land meant the existing forests were re-planted. In this way, Doñana started one of its characteristic phases
based on forestry. The photograph shows a recreation of a firewood and char-
and pastures diminished, and the rivers and streams were chan- coal holding in the Doñana area.
Photo by Jose Maria Perez de Aayala. CENEAM file.
nelled into a single watercourse called Arroyo del Partido, which
fed into the marshes surrounding El Rocío. Thus, some 15,000 ha its natural legacy in danger. Doñana, like so many other coastline
were brought into cultivation, which meant extracting about 60 strips, wetlands and forests that were destroyed by the develop-
hm3 of water a year. Over the years, this has had a significant impact ment boom of the 60s and 70s, found itself at a great disadvantage
on the water table, which has progressively dropped in many in its struggle for survival.The tourism versus conservation dilem-
places, leaving traditional springs and lucios dry. ma opened the first door towards the Doñana paradigm, which,
Cultivating and irrigating such a large area of land, in an agricul- thanks to a collective contribution, started to weigh in favour of
tural region dominated by dry land farming and mainly cash crops, more sustainable solutions.
has turned out to be difficult and controversial, like all such experi- Nature finally triumphed, allowing conservation in Spain to take
ments of the time. In the end, this whole operation shifted into shape. As the first benchmarks were created and public concern
strawberry growing, using advanced and highly technical farming was articulated, strategies were set to face the future battles of the
methods.These include green houses, grow-bags under plastic and
an intensive use of water, fertilisers, weed killers and pesticides.
The intensification of agricultural development coincided with
the start of tourism.Attention should be drawn to the appearance
of the typical large tourist resorts of the Spanish coast, where the
boundaries between the concept of mass tourism and the con-
struction industry and the real estate business remain blurred and
confused to this time. The towns of Matalascañas and Mazagon
appeared on the coast, the former right on the edge of the
National Park. These large-scale interventions were preceded by
attempts to build tourist developments in the very heart of
Doñana, and major coastal road projects to open up the area for
settlement, such as the absurd idea of building the Huelva-Cadiz
motorway, with the first section running right along the coastal
stretch of Doñana as far as Sanlucar. Under such pressures, the tra-
ditional harmonious landscapes of Doñana suffered major and pro-
The extreme mobility of the dunes, which became unstable again in the
found changes, endangering the conservation of species and 17th century, can be clearly seen in this picture. We can see the collar of the
ecosystems and opening the gates to controversy over the sustain- well at “Cuartel de los Inglesillos” that was successively raised on the
crest of a dune to avoid being buried. The dune has shifted since then and
able management of the region.This enormous impact, transform- the whole structure is now exposed.
ing the region in a few short years, has certainly put the survival of Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

85
 Aerial view of one of the “corrales“ of Doñana, inclosed by the dunes.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

new millennium.
THE FUNDAMENTAL ROLE
OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
The final conservationist stage, in which Doñana highlights the
links between the environment and society, has been grounded in
science.The discovery, protection and presentation of this scientif-
ic aspect to the media, and from the media to the global commu-
nity, have been achieved by university faculties and the CSIC
(Spanish Higher Research Council).The arguments in favour of pro-
tection are scientific.The soundness of the conservationist offer is
founded in investigative excellence that has provided examples,
data and references that stand out in the world literature and act
as valid currency in the critical debates that have presided over this
outstanding site in recent decades.
Apart from appearing in the press and other media, Doñana has
also secured its presence in the scientific media, in conferences and
View of the Guadalquivir River mouth showing, on the left, the large symposia, and in leading journals, thanks to its stakeholders and
"arrow" of dunes that closes the mouth and the marshes in the back-
ground. The Salt Works of Sanlúcar can be seen to the right of the image. institutions. Some lines of research, like bird and mammal ecology,
Photo: CENEAM files.
have reached levels of excellence, followed closely by limnology,

86
vegetation ecology, eco-physiology, ethology, hydrology, soil sci-
ences and a large appendix of others.There exist some 3300 arti-
cles on Doñana and its surroundings.
The support provided by scientific data in public opinion cam-
paigns and in the controversies that have arisen in the face of key
projects (roads, housing developments, water management), has
been crucial. In Doñana, there have also been studies of plant and
animal populations, and the levels and composition of chemicals in
waters over long periods of time. In some cases this spans thirty
years or more, thus offering valuable sequences for measuring cli-
mate change and the effects of alterations to the local environment.
This wealth of information about the Park is continually
enhanced, thanks to over 120 research projects currently on
Alfonso XIII's 1908 visit to Doñana. This was a time of uncertainty about
course. This scientific infrastructure represents a continual rein- its future, as the property was broken up when the last Duke of Medina
forcement of Doñana, guaranteeing the necessary information is Sidonia died without heirs in 1895.
Photograph: Files of the Doñana Biological Station.
available to undertake future initiatives and to respond to any con-
flicts and controversies that may arise in the near future.

The role of the scientific community has been decisive in conserving the Doñana legacy. Some lines of research, like bird and mammal ecology, have reached
levels of excellence, followed closely by limnology, vegetation ecology, eco-physiology, ethology, hydrology, soil sciences and a large appendix of others. Thus,
the scientific approach has unexpectedly opened doors to international recognition.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

87
 BASIC INFORMATION ON The administrative complexity of the district can be seen from
DOÑANA AND ITS SURROUNDS the fact that there are 12 municipalities. There are Almonte,
The only way to approach the current view of Doñana and get Bollullos Par del Condado, Bonares, Hinojos, Lucena del Puerto,
an idea of the new challenges involved in its conservation and Moguer, Palos de la Frontera and Rociana del Condado in the
hydrological restoration is with a broader geographic view. This province of Huelva; there are Aznalcazar, Pilas, La Puebla del Rio,
starts with what is known as Greater Doñana (Ambito de Villamanrique de la Condesa and Isla Mayor in the province of
Doñana). It is especially true if we are talking about water and nat- Seville; and there is Sanlúcar de Barrameda in the province of Cádiz.
ural processes, as functional inter-relationships, water basins, This is a territory, therefore, of over 280,000 ha, whose identity is
ecosystems and species mobility generally pay very little heed to determined by the Doñana National Park. It has water as a com-
administrative boundaries. mon thread, both in the form of watercourses that mark the route
of the surface waters and in the effect the aquifers have in deter-
Greater Doñana mining this same geography underground. Figure 2 shows the
The definition of what is known as Greater Doñana arose ini- enlarged Greater Doñana, highlighting the surface water network,
tially from the Sustainable Development Plan for the Doñana Area the main settlements and the road network.
(1993) and the limits are clearly established in the Greater Doñana
Regional Planning Master Plan. It is an area of 2,733 km2 between The protected zones of Greater Doñana
the Guadalquivir River, the 50 km of beaches of the Huelva coast, In 1262, King Alfonso X the Wise established the lands of Las
the mouth of the Tinto and Odiel Rivers and bounded to the north Rocinas as a Royal Crown game reserve, but the name of Doñana
by most of the road corridor linking Seville and Huelva. However, did not appear until 1599.The name of these lands was established
for the purposes of this chapter, the scope has been extended to a century on, when the seventh Duke of Medina Sidonia had a
include the umbrella pine forests of Bonanza, the Algaida Marshes palace built for his wife, Doña Ana Gomez de Mendoza y Silva, in
on the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and the marshes at Odiel river- the heart of the countryside.The surrounding lands soon became
banks on the west coast of the district (Figure 1).The connections known as the Forest of Doña Ana, the Estate of Doña Ana, and so
between these places and Doñana are quite clear, as they have cer- on, until it was finally shortened to the name we now know.
tain natural processes and species in common. The long road to protect and conserve Doñana reached its first
Greater Doñana is home to a population of 107,049 inhabitants milestone in 1963, when the Spanish State acquired some 7,000 ha
(2002 census), which has grown at an uneven rate. In the period in collaboration with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and created
1991-2002, there were variations that range from 2.5% in Lucena the Doñana Biological Reserve. Doñana was declared a National
del Puerto to 31.1% in Moguer. Basically, the population is divided Park in 1969 and it has been extended on several occasions. The
among several settlements that form a fringe around the protect- first of these extensions took place in 1978; the most recent one,
ed natural areas. in February 2004, to the present surface area of 54,291 ha.This area
includes a mosaic of ecosystems that provide refuge for a biodiver-
sity that is unique in Europe, especially the Marshes, which are
extraordinarily important staging and breeding grounds and winter-
feeding grounds for thousands of European and African birds.
Other exceptional and outstanding sites are La Vera, the dune sys-
tem and the series ofponds that run around the edge of the Park.
There are also unique and seriously endangered species living in
Doñana, like the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) and the
Spanish lynx (Lynx pardinus).
Presently, few areas are the object of so many classifications as
Doñana, a clear indication of its international importance. In 1980,
it was declared a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.Two years later,
the National Park was declared a Ramsar Site. This declaration
specifies that "Doñana is one of the largest and most important
FIGURE 1 remaining wetlands in Europe. It consists of a vast coastal marsh-
Greater Doñana
land complex in the floodplain of the lower Guadalquivir River, sep-

88
 FIGURE 2
The above image highlights the water network of Doñana and its surrounding area, and the location of the region's population. The coloured
topographical representation of the terrain shows the scope of the original marshes that, until the 19th century, covered much of the depression
formed by the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.
Image: Junta de Andalucía.(Andalusia Regional Government)

arated from the Atlantic Ocean by an extensive system of both sonal marshes, dunes and permanent and seasonal lakes”.
active and stabilized dunes.The area is of international importance On the 23rd of September 1985, the Council of Europe award-
for breeding, staging and wintering birds. It is the breeding site of ed the Doñana National Park the European Diploma for
the endangered Marbled Duck Marmaronetta angustirostris and Management, which has been renewed in 1990, 1995, 2000 and
the rare gull Larus genei.The trees found on the grasslands of La 2005. On the 15th of January 1988, it was declared a SPA (Special
Vera support a large mixed nesting colony of Ardea cinerea, Protection Area for Birds), pursuant to Directive 79/409/CEE of the
Egretta garzetta, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ciconia ciconia and 2nd of April 1979 concerning the Conservation of Wild Birds in
Platalea leucorodia. Nesting species in the Marshes also include Europe.This means that the Spanish State accepts the commitment
Anas strepera, Aythya ferina, Netta rufina, Porphyrio porphyrio to prevent the deterioration and contamination of the habitat and
(1,000-2,000 pairs), Fulica cristata, Himantopus himantopus, to prevent any disturbances that could affect the birds. In 1990, it
Recurvirostra avosetta and Chlidonias hybridus.Wintering species was included in the Montreux Register of sites that face threats to
include Anser anser (80,000), Anas penelope (120,000), A. acuta conservation.And, finally, in 1994, Doñana was finally entered in the
(20,000), A. crecca (170,000), A. clypeata (80,000), Fulica atra UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.
(40,000) and Limosa limosa (40,000). In descending order of pre- Doñana National Park should be seen as the heart of a net-
dominance, it includes the following wetlands types: Sp,Tp, E, M, N, work of zones that cover an area of 121,647 ha altogether, or just
Ss, Ts, 4. The area contains both fresh and saltwater marshes, sea- over 40% of the entire Greater Doñana area, including the Doñana

89
 FIGURE 3
Protected Areas in Greater Doñana.

1. Doñana National Park

(the recent extensions can be seen within its borders).)
2. Pre-Park areas
(maritime zone, transition zone with the Rocina stream)
3. Doñana Nature Park
(area of El Abalario and El Asperillo cliffs)
4. Doñana Nature Park
(Coto del Rey pine forest)
5. Doñana Nature Park
(Isla Mayor, Entremuros del Guadiamar and Brazo de la Torre)
6. La Algaida marsh and pine forest
7. Brazo del Este Nature Reserve
8. Dehesa de Abajo Concerted Nature Reserve
9. Marismas del Odiel Nature Area
(including the Burro marsh and the Isla de en Medio Nature Reserve)
10. Lagunas de los Palos y las Madres Nature Area
11. Estero de Domingo Rubio Nature Area
12. Guadiamar Green Corridor

Figure 3 shows all the declared nature spaces in the Doñana

area and Table 1 lists their category, time of declaration and the
municipal districts involved. Some of these spaces have also been
designated SPAs, Ramsar Sites, or Sites of Community Importance
(Table 2). These include the Marismas del Odiel on the western
edge of Greater Doñana, declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1984.
The 53,709 ha of Nature Park share similar landscapes with the
National Park, along with the habitat of diverse animal and plant
species, including massive pine forests, marshes in different stages
of development and stretches of river branches and channels of the
Guadalquivir, that used to flood the marshes. The series of areas
that make up the Nature Park include, first of all, the Algaida Marsh
close to Sanlucar de Barrameda, very close to the mouth of the
Guadalquivir River on the other side of the river from the borders
of the National Park.This is a strip of natural marshland flooded by
the tides, unlike the rest of the Guadalquivir marshes that only
receive rainwater from certain watercourses. There are still salt
flats to be found in these marshes that are visited by flamingos and
El Asperillo cliffs, in the Doñana Nature Park. Behind the coastal strip, the avocets in search of refuge and food. Close by is the Pinar de la
area contains countless ponds of extraordinary scientific and natural inter-
est. Algaida, where a popular pilgrimage is held in October.This pine nut
Photograph: Junta de Andalucía (Andalusia Regional Government)
forest stems from large-scale historic replanting carried out in the
Nature Park around the National Park. The very declaration of early 19th century and other plantations later on. Within in, there
Doñana as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve defined the National are nesting populations of black kite, with over a hundred pairs,
Park as a core zone, with an area of over 26,000 ha of lands that buzzards, booted eagles, magpies and azure winged magpies.
now form part of the Nature Park as a buffer zone, and an unde- Former ponds, like the Laguna del Ansar, attract flocks of geese that
fined transition zone around that. are highly appreciated by hunters.The pine forest is also the site of

90
 FIGURE 4
Water-related toponyms in the Doñana marshes.

1. River Guadalquivir 9. Partido stream

2. Torre Branch (Brazo de La Torre) 10. La Rocina stream
3. River Guadiamar 11. Brenes channel (Caño de Brenes)
4. River Guadiamar channeling 12. El Abalario complex and peri-dune ponds of the National Park.
5. Entremuros 13. Current flooding marsh zone.
6. Travieso channel (Caño Travieso) 14. Cañada Mayor stream
7. Guadiamar channel (Caño Guadiamar) 15. La Cigüeña stream
8. Madre de las Marismas channel 16. Majaberraque stream

The Travieso channel is shown here to be connected after the restoration work carried out as part of the Doñana 2005 Project.

El Santuario del Lucero, a former holy place where remains from waterfowl when they flood. Down on the coastal strip of the
several diverse ancestral cultures have been found, and the Pozo de municipality of Almonte, we find the spectacular El Asperillo cliffs,
los Caveros, a well of Roman origin. with its system of fossil dunes. Further inland is the Abalario com-
Another area of interest that falls within the Nature Park is the plex, dotted with small but fascinating ponds that have been under
Coto del Rey pine woodland, situated in the municipal district of restoration.
Hinojos, whose woods provide refuge for several birds of prey. Other local land has been classed as Natural Areas, Reserves or
Furthermore, it also includes marshes, which have been trans- Protected Landscapes.The Dehesa de Abajo estate, located in the
formed to a greater or lesser extent for rice growing, and channels municipal district of Puebla del Río, has great ecological wealth and
and other watercourses like the Torre Branch, Isla Mayor and also provides a link between the marshes and the woodlands. It
Entremuros del Guadiamar. These attract birds living in Doñana floods at certain times of year, making it ideal for large numbers of
during summer and winter droughts. In the province of Huelva are migratory species. Cañada de los Pajaros is also nearby. This is a
the Hinojos pine forests and marshes, which attract thousands of private nature reserve, with a wide variety of waterfowl, and

91
 includes wetlands and nesting grounds. On the opposite bank of
the Guadalquivir River, the Eastern Branch (Brazo del Este) Nature
Area is found.This is one of the former branches of the river sur-
rounded by marsh transformed into rice fields - a reasonably large
wetland area made up of Quaternary sediments and alluvial
deposits of gravel, sands, silt and clays. It provides habitat for the
typical marshland vegetation.
To the far west, there are other emblematic protected areas.
The Marismas del Odiel Biosphere Reserve, declared as such in
April 1983 and covering an area of 7,158 ha, encompasses the
Nature Reserves of the Burro Marshes and Enmedio Island. The
marshes at Odiel are maintained by the coastal dynamics of the
Atlantic shoreline of Andalusia. Their character as tidal marshes
gives this wetland the dynamism of a landscape gifted with the
Aerial photograph of the Doñana Marshes taken from the south. In the
rhythm of flooding and draining twice daily. This makes it highly foreground, you can see Las Marismillas pine woodland which surrounds
Lucio del Membrillo. To the left and in the background, you can see the
Hinojos Marshes.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

productive. Apart from aquatic vegetation, there are also charac-

teristic Mediterranean scrub species - home to a large colony of
spoonbills, one of its leading assets.The Biosphere Reserve is locat-
ed next to Huelva, the capital of the westernmost province of
Andalusia and port with an ancient history of important Roman
and Tartessian achievements.
Behind the coastal strip of Greater Doñana, there are two
other Nature Areas: Palos and Las Madres ponds and Estero de
Domingo Rubio. Up until recently, the "estero" (swampy flats) were
a typical tidal marsh system from end to end, subject to flooding
twice a day. But now, the tides barely affect the upper stretch,
because the drains of the roads that cross it have become clogged
up.These blocked drains, along with the water that feeds into this
area from a series of small streams, have modified this stretch into
a lake regime, presenting an interesting combination of fresh and
saltwater biocenoses.
More to the north of the National Park, the last of these clas-
sified spaces is the Guadiamar Green Corridor Protected
Landscape. It was declared as such due to an unfortunate accident
when toxic mud spilt from the Boliden mine tailings at Aznalcollar
FIGURE 5 on the 25th April 1998.The recovery of this area, after cleaning up
The extent of the Doñana National Park Marshes. and removing the sludge, gave rise to one of the most ambitious
1. Madre de las Marismas channel 9. Lucio de Mari López
2. Rosaliman channel 10. Lucio del Lobo
projects ever carried out in the Doñana area. It generated a green
3. Guadiamar channel 11. Lucio del Cangrejo corridor to provide an ecological union with the protected areas
4. Travieso channel 12. Hinojos marsh
5. Torre Branch 13. Gallega marsh of La Sierra, whilst at the same time recovering the environmental
6. Brenes channel 14. Vuelta de La Arena quality and functionality of the historic course of the River
7. Lucio del Membrillo 15. Santa Olalla pond
8. Lucio de los Ánsares Guadiamar.
Doñana National Park boundary
With Doñana as a Biosphere Reserve and given the network of
protected spaces and how they work now, it would seem advisable

92
 TABLE 1
FIGURE PROTECTED NATURE AREA PROVINCE Nº MUNICIPALITIES YEAR DECLARATION / EXTENSION. LEGISLATION
DECLARATION
National Park Doñana National Park Huelva - Seville 4 1978 Law 91/78 (BOE 12/1/79) / Extension: 6/2/2004
Nature Park Doñana Nature Park Cádiz - Huelva - Seville 10 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89) / Extension: D 2/1997
Nature Area Brazo del Este Seville 4 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)
Nature Area Enebrales de Punta Umbría Huelva 1 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)
Nature Area Estero de Domingo Rubio Huelva 1 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)
Nature Area Lagunas de Palos y las Madres Huelva 2 1989 Law 2/89 (BOJA 27/7/89)
Nature Area Marismas del Odiel Huelva 4 1984 Law 12/1984 (BOJA 25/10/84)
Nature Reserve Isla de Enmedio Huelva 1 1984 Law 12/84 (BOJA 25/10/84)
Nature Reserve Marisma del Burro Huelva 2 1984 Law 12/1984 (BOJA 25/10/84)
Concerted Nature Reserve Cañada de los Pájaros Seville 1 1991 Agreement 30/4/91 (BOJA 7/6/91)
Concerted Nature Reserve Dehesa de Abajo Seville 1 2000 Agreement 31/01/00
Natural Monument Acantilado del Asperillo Huelva 1 2001 Decree 226/2001, of 2 October
(BOJA 135, 22/11/2001)
Natural Monument Acebuches de El Rocío Huelva 1 2001 Decree 226/2001, of 2 October
(BOJA 135, 22/11/2001)
Natural Monument Pino Centenario Huelva 1 2003 Decree 250/2003 of 9 September
del Parador de Mazagón
Protected Landscape Guadiamar Green Corridor Seville 7 2003 Decree 112/2003 of 22 April

to review current zoning, as new protected areas have constantly

been included since 1980, including areas of hydrological connectiv-
ity like the Green Corridor of Guadiamar.
This area, along with all areas that make up the Nature Park,
should be included in the buffer zone, including all water catchment
basins as a transition zone, because water is the lifeblood of Doñana
and its raison d'etre.

Geography of the water

Figure 4 shows the main events of the hydrographical network
that have an impact on Doñana, including the courses, rivers and
streams referred to in this article.The picture shows the different
watercourses that feed into the marshes, with its current floodplain
represented, along with the major "caños" (channels) that trans-
port most of the water in the flooding process.
The present hydrographical network, through the 20th century,
has been altered slightly from the original pattern. Firstly, there is
the Rocina stream to the west of the marsh, which merges with the
Partido stream at Rocío, creating the Madre de las Marismas FIGURE 6
stream covering a basin of 620 km2 between the two and providing Ecological Units of Greater Doñana

an annual average of 140 hm3. Further east, we find the Cañada

Pine forest Pastures
Mayor stream with a basin of just under 70 km2, which feeds into Eucalyptus groves Marsh
Wild-olive groves Shallow lakes (Lucios)
Guadiamar channel. Before it was channelled into the Torre Branch, Cork-oak groves Salt-pans
the Cigüeña stream also fed into the same channel.The channelling Juniper groves Non-irrigated crops
Low woodlands (Monte Bajo) Irrigated crops
works have also prevented vast quantities of water feeding into the Interdunal valleys (Monte Negro) Rice fields
Mobile dunes Olives
Guadiamar channel from the Guadiamar River, as used to happen Cliffs-Canyons Strawberries
Vera - grasslands
when the river flooded its banks. It is estimated that this river pro- *Source: Juan B. Gallego Fernández, 1997.

vided an average of some 325 hm3 from a catchment area of 1,070

93
 TABLE 2
PROTECTED NATURE AREA AREA (ha) MAB RAMSAR SCI/SAC SPAS

Doñana National Park 54,251

Doñana Nature Park 53,709
Brazo del Este 1,336
Enebrales de Punta Umbría 162
Estero de Domingo Rubio 480
Lagunas de Palos y las Madres 693
Marismas del Odiel 7,185
Isla de Enmedio 480
Marisma de El Burro 597
Cañada de los Pájaros 7.43
Dehesa de Abajo 617.71
Acantilado del Asperillo 11.85
Acebuches de El Rocío 0.63
Pino Centenario del Parador de Mazagón 0.2
Guadiamar Green Corridor 2,076.8

TOTAL PROTECTED AREA OF GREATER DOÑANA 121,607.62

km2. This situation is repeated with the Majaberraque stream. reaching the Guadalquivir River. It is important to note that the
Nowadays, this water is channelled along Entremuros into the Travieso channel used to act as an overflow channel when the Torre
Torre Branch, draining into the Guadalquivir River. One of the lead- Branch flooded its banks. To get a better understanding of how
ing objectives of the hydrological restoration projects started in water is used in this area, it is worth mentioning that the Torre
recent years is to resolve this atypical situation. Branch now acts as a drainage channel for over 400 hm3 of water
Another hydrological aspect worthy of highlighting in Doñana that are pumped from the Guadalquivir River for irrigating the local
is the string of 'peri-dune' ponds that border the National Park rice fields.
Marshes, and their continuation in the Abalario marsh complex Figure 5 also indicates the main "lucios" (depressions that hold
between the Rocina stream and the coast.All of these elements, of the water for a longer time), in contrast to the "vetas" or "paciles"
extraordinary ecological interest, are influenced by the behaviour (areas that normally remain above water level during times of
of the aquifer. flooding), and the names of the main marsh areas.
Figure 5 shows the layout of the three major caños (channels) The behaviour of groundwater is dealt with in detail in Chapter
- Madre de las Marismas, Guadiamar and Travieso - in the Marshes 3.This is of vital importance in understanding the Doñana hydro-
floodplains. These finally converge into Brenes channel before logical system. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning at this stage
that there is a major aquifer under the marsh area and the adjacent
zones, with reserves of up to approximately 5,500 hm3 of water.
These vast resources have led to some highly misleading views in
water management.The capacity to harness these reserves is lim-
ited.Also the essential ecosystems of Doñana require high phreat-
ic levels, according to what extent they depend on springs and the
proximity of the phreatic layer. Bearing these constraints in mind,
the Guadalquivir River Hydrological Plan, adopted in 2001, consid-
ers that the resources of this aquifer, known as the Almonte-
Marismas Aquifer, show a deficit of 51 hm3 in comparison with fore-
seeable demand.
Figure 6 shows the ecological map of Greater Doñana, drawn
up by Juan B. Gallego Fernandez in 1997, in which the waters of
Doñana can be seen in a regional context from a bird's eye view.
This view of Greater Doñana is completed in Figure 7, showing the
main towns in the area, the road system dominated by the Seville-
FIGURE 7
Huelva motorway, and the location of the protected areas. The
Road system and settlements in the Doñana area
information on land use is fully developed in chapter 5.

94
The decisive years MAURICIO GONZÁLEZ GORDON *
the role of Doñana in the history of conservation

Members of the Doñana Expedition of 1957. José Antonio Valverde, Guy de Mountfort and Max Nicholson participated, among the others,
in this third expedition. The publications resulting from these expeditions made the Doñana heritage widely known throughout Europe.
Files of the Doñana Biolgical Station.

hen in May of 1952 Francisco Bernis and Jose Antonio region. Interest in the area was reflected in the descriptions made
W Valverde came to visit me in Jerez on their way to
Doñana, I could not have imagined the repercussions that our
by certain visiting Romantic writers, revealing idiosyncrasies typical
of the period's hunting aficionados that journeyed to Doñana, many
meeting would later have. I think none of us could have. Doñana, from abroad and almost always English, in whom the passion for the
until then, had been a unique hunting ground, and, as such, the hunt was coupled with a love for natural science.
object of passion of many generations of hunters, and aside from This dual passion, for the hunt and for nature, led my grandfa-
an occasional study, at that time it was only just beginning to be ther, Pedro González Soto, into an association with Abel Chapman,
acknowledged as a natural treasure meriting protection at all costs. Walter J. Buck and Alexander Williams, all of them Englishmen, in
Doñana had been, from the 18th century until just forty years order to acquire the hunting rights for the Coto de Doñana hunt-
ago, a vast expanse of land virtually free of any human activity ing reserve in 1897. The four friends combined hunting with the
except for that of hunting. observation and study of nature, which Chapman and Buck had
Midway through the 19th century, interest in Doñana took a earlier commenced in their book "Wild Spain"8. After associating
somewhat more scientific turn. In 1846, Antonio Machado, our with my grandfather, the two published "Unexplored Spain"9, dedi-
patriarch of poets, had already begun to describe the birdlife of the cated to the Spanish monarchs Alfonso XIII and Victoria Eugenia, in
which thirteen chapters out of a total of forty dealt with their
* Ornithologist and pioneer of the Doñana conservation. expeditions and observations in the Coto de Doñana.

95
 true later when in 1940 he and two friends, the Marques del Merito
and Salvador Noguera, were able to acquire two thirds of the total
surface area of Doñana and when, shortly before his death in 1980
at the age of 93, he was named Honorary Headkeeper of Doñana
National Park by Spain's national park service, the National
Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICONA).
He had always admired and held the gamekeepers of Doñana,
to whom we owe so very much, in high esteem, a feeling that was
transmitted to his children and grandchildren. After all, as Alberto
Ruiz de Larramendi, the Park's Director Curator, states so well in
his book "Doñana cara a cara" ("Doñana Face to Face"), with regard
to the ones who are no longer with us, "… they are part, in their
own right, of the history of Doñana.They have bequeathed to us a
A happy confluence landowners’, scientists’ and nature-lovers’ enthusiasm life of work in benefit of the conservation of these lands, in their
allowed in a difficult moment the rescue of Doñana as a World Heritage hopes that Doñana should be more than a mythical name in the
Site.
Photograph kindly provided by M. González-Gordon. millennium that we now embark upon."
From our earliest childhood, my father transmitted his special
My father cherished Doñana. While passing through London feelings of love for Doñana to my brother Jaime and me. In my case,
on his way to Chile where he was working as an engineer on the I poured them into birdlife, a hobby that was more practical than
construction of the Ferrocarril Longitudinal (Longitudinal railway), scientific. Owing to this I have had the good fortune to meet and
he read news that the Coto was up for sale. He immediately wrote get to know people of great renown in ornithology and biology in
my grandfather urging him to find a way to buy the land with the general, such as Francisco Bernis and Jose Antonio Valverde, who
offer of returning it to Spain while assuming the post of administra- were undoubtedly among the most eminent in our country. I both
tor and game warden of Doñana. His wish to purchase Doñana and greatly enjoyed and was honoured by their friendship.
to be its guardian was not to be granted at that time, but did come My brother Jaime was more the hunter than I, and bearing in

His dual passion for the hunt and for nature lead Pedro González Soto into an association with Abel Chapman, Walter J. Buck and Alexander Williams, in order
to acquire the hunting rights for the Coto de Doñana hunting reserve in 1897.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

96
mind Ortega y Gasset's conditions in his magnificent essay10, which
stated that hunting activity should be scant, he was, I believe, the
first to establish quotas on hunts in the Coto, both for large game
and ducks and geese, and even set a time limit (11.00 h) for shoots.
In short, I would affirm that the concurrence of love for nature
and for the hunt that was always present in the private owners of
Doñana is what permitted its preservation as a natural paradise. In
an interview we did in 1975, Jose Antonio Valverde stated it thus:
"To understand the situation, it must first be made clear that it was
the private owners of the hunting reserve who saved Doñana and
the Marshes from the general devastation of the environment in
Spain arising from the period of forced sale of Church and commu-
nally-owned property known as the Desamortización. Not that this
directly affected Doñana, but the owners at that time refused to be
swept into the ensuing frenzy of deforestation and ploughing up of
virgin territories. Doñana was defended at all costs against every
onslaught and both heritors and later owners continued to protect
and fight for the reserve, even at the risk of losing their property
in the process. To avoid the latent threat of expropriation of the
lands for social ends nothing would have been easier than to dis-
member them and sell them in plots"11.
Valverde was referring to the projects, fortunately abandoned,
to "colonise" the Coto and the marshlands, that arose during the
Primo de Rivera dictatorship and during the Second Republic; but,
fundamentally, he was recalling the serious shift that began on April
1st, 1952, stemming from a new governmental decree ordering the
afforestation -with eucalyptus trees!- of Doñana, under threat of
expropriation. The project, like those of earlier years, could have
signified the end of what we today know as Doñana National Park.
As the owners, we sought for a review of the new law and, after Midway through the 19th century, interest in Doñana took a somewhat
more scientific turn. In 1846, Antonio Machado, our patriarch of poets,
a visit Franco paid to Doñana in 1953 during which he asked my had already begun to describe the birdlife of the region. The book
father if the afforestation already carried out had caused any dam- "Unexplored Spain" is published in 1910, in which thirteen chapters out of a
total of forty dealt with observations made in Doñana.
age to Doñana, my father and I sent him a memorandum that we Photograph kindly provided by M. González-Gordon.

prepared with the collaboration of Francisco Bernis, and which

Bernis drew up, in which, among other things, we stated: "…. the in Spain nor perhaps in all of Europe".We ended thus, " … and as
Coto de Doñana, is, first and foremost, a precious relic of inviolate long as we remain the proprietors of the Coto, we commit our-
nature, in whose midst is sheltered perhaps the most extraordinary selves to its conservation….as a reserve worthy of Spain, given that
and renowned zoological community yet extant in Europe"… "We we consider that this unique estate is worthy of the privileges
entertain doubts as to whether the afforestation of the Coto with granted to protected reserves and national parks"12. Undoubtedly,
exotic trees would constitute an issue of vital importance to our we had reached these conclusions, my own family as well as
nation. On the other hand, it is our profound conviction that pre- Francisco Bernis, Jose Antonio Valverde and myself, in the meeting
cisely what is truly conducive to the interests of Spain is the preser- we held in May of 1952, after, just a few days earlier, the threat of
vation of the Coto de Doñana and the protection of its wild vege- expropriation was published in the official government bulletin.
tation, so as to allow the wholesale conservation of its rich and var- Having staved off the eucalyptus threat as well as another proj-
ied wildlife as well."… "… within the general plan of feasible con- ect to plant 6,000-hectares with guayule plants in the middle of the
servation in Spain, the Coto de Doñana merits the utmost atten- Coto for rubber production - which we had also opposed - we
tion."… "As a present and potential reserve, Doñana has no peer embarked on a decade of fervid activity to preserve Doñana, result-

97
 expected would arise concerning a prompt general adoption of the
approved nomenclature of the Master List Commission of the S.E.C16.
- In 1958 Valverde summoned fellow ornithologists to two sessions dur-
ing the XII International Ornithological Conference held in Helsinki. He
proposed an international fund-raising project to purchase part of the
marshlands which are an essential winter shelter for Nordic Anatidae
species. During the conference, the International Committee for Bird
Preservation issued its 11th Official Resolution, advised by the IWRB
(International Wildfowl Research Bureau), calling for the protection of
wetlands in different European countries, including Spain. The protec-
tion of Spanish wildlife was discussed during the technical meeting of
the IUCN held in Athens.
- The first general study on Spain's conservation needs, "La protection de
la Faune en Espagne: ses problemes"18, was published.
- The Juan March Foundation awarded Jose Antonio Valverde a grant to
carry out a study on the Marshes from which "a protection programme
that could lead to the setting up of a reserve will be prepared".
- In 1960 the Spanish Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC) pub-
lished, in the Archives of the Institute of Acclimatisation in Almeria,
Valverde's study entitled "Vertebrates of the Marshes of the
Guadalquivir" (an introduction to his environmental study), in which he
stressed the urgent need for a biological field laboratory in the
Marshes19.
Spanish imperial eagle in Doñana. - José Maria Albareda, CSIC's Secretary General, authorised and encour-
Photograph kindly provided by M. González Gordon. aged the start of the quest for international funds in order to purchase
6,000 hectares of the Marshes.The quest, from the very beginning, was
MAIN MILESTONES supported by the IUCN, the IWRB, the International Council for Bird
Preservation (ICBP/CIPO- now called BirdLife International) and the
- The first visit, in 1952, of French scientists, who were joined by Guy Comité Internationale de la Chasse. Delegates from these organisations
Mountfort and Roger T. Peterson, which brought about the organisation met in June, 1961 with Mr. Ibañez Martín, the Minister of National
of Mountfort's expeditions to Doñana in 1956 and 1957. Education, offering to finance the acquisition of the marshlands if the
- The commencement, in 1953, of permanent scientific research in the CSIC were to set up a research centre within it. Upon reaching an
Doñana wetlands with the ringing of 2,000 herons by the ringing agreement, the protocol was signed in October in Jerez. Days later,
scheme of the Aranzadi Society of Sciences of the San Telmo Museum members of the Mountfort expeditions held a meeting in London, sim-
in San Sebastian, Spain. This work, organised by Jose Antonio Valverde, ilar to those held with the Spanish government, calling for support for
continued on into the sixties, during which time a total of 15,000 mem- a higher governing body that would be set up in Switzerland and called
bers of the Ardeidae family were rung. the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Doñana, as Jose Antonio Valverde used
- The afforestation of Doñana was stopped as a result of the memoran- to say, was not a creation of the WWF, but quite the contrary!
dum presented by my father and myself in November of 1953, to which - In 1962 the CSIC founded the Patronato Estación Biológica de las
I earlier referred. Marismas (Biological Station of the Marshes Trust).
- The Spanish Ornithological Society (S.E.O.), a private association com- - In 1963 the funds for the proposed purchase of the marshes were
mitted to the study and protection of birdlife, was established in 1954 released and with a matching contribution from the WWF were invest-
(also determined in our 1952 meeting) by six founding members in ed in the acquisition of 6,700 hectares of the property known as the
Madrid,Valladolid, Barcelona, Burgos, Huelva and Jerez. Fifty years later Coto Palacio de Doñana which is transferred to the CSIC.
our group has 8000 members. - In 1964 the CSIC established the Doñana Biological Station and Nature
- In December of 1954 the first issue of "Ardeola", the Iberian Journal of Reserve.
Ornithology and Bulletin of the Spanish Ornithological Society was pub- - The establishment of the Doñana Biological Station and its direction
lished, Spain's first wholly ornithological journal. The first issue began entrusted to Jose Antonio Valverde -which was highly innovative in the
with the publication of Francisco Bernis's "Prontuario de la Avifauna world of conservation- was the final factor needed to, at last after six
Española" ("Compendium of Spanish Birdlife")13 which included 395 years, declare Doñana a National Park. Jose Antonio Valverde was des-
species from Portugal and the Balearic and Canary Islands and listed the ignated, as he well-deserved, its first director conservator.
scientific and Spanish names approved by the Master List Commission
of the S.E.O. This magnificent piece of work resulted in "the outstand-
ing and rapid growth of ornithology in Spain", a hope that the author
had expressed in his letter to the readers which served as a prologue
to the first issue.
- The first study in the history of Spain on Spanish bird migration was
published14.
- In 1956 and 1957 I helped to organise Guy de Mountfort's second and
third expeditions into Doñana and suggested that he invite Jose Antonio
Valverde to the 1957 expedition, which he did. Both expeditions were
a resounding success and are reflected in "Portrait of a Wilderness"15.
The book made Doñana widely known throughout Europe and allowed
Valverde to, on the one hand, transmit his ideas to expeditioners on the
need to adopt conservation measures in the Doñana wetlands and, on
the other hand, meet Max Nicholson, director general of Nature
Conservancy, who invited Valverde to England to visit different centres
and research laboratories. In an interview we did in 1975, Jose Antonio Valverde stated it thus: "To
- The publication in Spain, in 1957, of the adaptation of the work by understand the situation, it must first be made clear that it was the private
Peterson, Mountfort and Hollom "A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain owners of the hunting reserve who saved Doñana and the Marshes from the
and Europe" which I translated and Francisco Bernis adapted.This trans- general devastation of the environment in Spain arising from the period
lation-adaptation was an anticipated response, which Mountfort himself known as the Desamortización”.
proposed and Bernis,Valverde and I accepted, to the obstacles that we Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

98
ing from the seed sown during our May 1952 meeting. Our efforts
culminated in the purchase of the lands, in 1963, by the World
Wildlife Fund, to be ceded to the Spanish Higher Council for
Scientific Research (CSIC), on which the following year the Doñana
Biological Station would be established.
In a letter sent to me in 1997, Francisco Bernis stated, "Apart
from the two or three first national parks established in Spain… it
can be affirmed that the first national park to be driven by modern
conservationist theory is none other than that of the Marshes of
the Guadalquivir. This, and its precursor, the Doñana Biological
Reserve, was and continues to be our country's most resounding
conservationist event."
In 1962 the CSIC founded the Patronato Estación Biológica de las
In view of the brief historical summary offered within these
Marismas (Biological Station of the Marshes Trust) and, in 1963, 6,700
pages I believe it is evident that without the confluence at Doñana hectares of the property known as the Coto Palacio de Doñana were
acquired with a contribution from the WWF, and transferred to the CSIC.
of private owners and scientists, all devoted to nature conservan- In 1964 the Doñana Biological Station is established. The photo shows the
cy, the protectionist theses that took root so profoundly and so Palace of Doñana at the time of the acquisition.
Photograph kindly provided by M. González-Gordon.
quickly within Spain - and most likely outside as well - would not
have been possible. moment had not yet arrived - towards such conservationist theo-
In addition, this confluence took place during certain years, the ries. Even more, the threat of expropriation in 1952 was perhaps
decisive years, in which public authorities were not inclined - the the factor that triggered such a combination of efforts.

The Decree of 1952 ordering the afforestation of Doñana was one of the biggest threats to the survival of this area. Private owners drew up a memorandum
against the application of the Decree that, among the others things, stated: “ ... the Coto de Doñana, is, first and foremost, a precious relic of inviolate nature, in
whose midst is sheltered perhaps the most extraordinary and renowned zoological community yet extant in Europe”... “We entertain doubts as to whether the
afforestation of the Coto with exotic trees would constitute an issue of vital importance to our nation. On the other hand, it is our profound conviction that pre-
cisely what is truly conducive to the interests of Spain is the preservation of the Coto de Doñana and the protection of its wild vegetation, so as to allow the
wholesale conservation of its rich and varied wildlife as well.”
Phototograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

99
Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides) in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
Research in Doñana FERNANDO HIRALDO CANO *
the necessary relations between science and natural resource conservation

ost people would obviously consider scientific research

M as the natural foundation on which measures aimed at
conserving the ecosystems of a given place, the processes that
Number of projects in force for each year

Source: Database of the

Research Coordination
Office of the Doñana
occur there and the species that inhabit those ecosystems should Biological Station.

rest. Another obvious point of this scenario is that any research

carried out in a protected natural area should give priority to the
conservation needs of that area. My experience in Doñana and
other areas, however, suggests that the necessary dialectic that
should be established between research and conservation does
not always occur, and when it does, it is often not as creative or
as positive as could be expected. On this point, as in other aspects
of the management of protected areas, the Doñana experience is
rich and varied and it offers much that we can and must learn,
FIGURE 1
both for those who work here and for those who work in the Evolution of the number of research projects carried out in the
field of these intimately linked activities in any other protected Doñana National Park.
area of the world.
This is the context that justifies the need to offer a brief sum- initial catalyst for gaining protection for Doñanaa.Valverde, and all
mary of scientific activity in Doñana since active protection meas- the others who helped him, used these articles as a foundation
ures were first put in place, in 1964, when the Biological Reserve for their work of converting Doñana into a protected area for all
was created, and their relations with the conservation of the to enjoy.
National Park. The Doñana Biological Station was created in 1964, including
the Biological Reserve of the same name. Its founding father,
RESEARCH AS THE DRIVING FORCE Valverde, was also its first director. Hence the first step towards
BEHIND THE CONSERVATION OF DOÑANA the "official" protection of Doñana was taken. Although the
Research and conservation have always gone hand in hand in Reserve was not a legally valid category of protection in Spanish
Doñana. In the 1950s, Francisco Bernis and José Antonio Valverde legislation that could ensure its conservation, Valverde, as direc-
published several articles that highlighted the ornithological tor, was a fair guarantee of this. In fact, four years later, he man-
wealth of Doñana. Apart from these two scholars, there were aged to persuade the authorities to declare Doñana a National
also contributions by other researchers, including Ferguson-Lees, Park, whose 37,425 hectares encompassed the Biological
Mountfort and Peterson. These first scientific works started to Reserve.At that time,Valverde had also managed to create a small
raise awareness of Doñana and of the threats hanging over the residence in the Reserve and that a certain amount of human
park and some of the species that inhabited it, like the lynx and support was available to facilitate research work in the National
the imperial eagle.The need to conserve Doñana started to take Park.
shape nationally and internationally. In this respect, one especially Ever since the Reserve was declared, Valverde attempted to
important milestone was Valverde's article, "An ecological sketch attract scientists to use it as a research area. This was far from
of the Coto Doñana", published in British Birds and later extend- being a simple task in a country, like Spain at the time, in which
ed and enriched in the work "Vertebrados de las Marismas del research potential was minimum and any interest in studying
Guadalquivir" published in the Archives of the Almeria renewable natural resources even less. Perhaps that is why the
Acclimatisation Institute.These scientific articles represented the first scientific article of interest was written by Valverde himself,
when he published "Estructura de una Comunidad de
* Director of the Doñana Biological Station. Vertebrados Terrestres" in 1967, as the first number of the

101
 120
appropriate. As in the case of Valverde, the work conducted
Publicaciones enpublished
Numer of articles revistasinrecogidas
magazines en el Science
listed Citation
in the Science Index
Citation Index marked a substantial advance in Spanish terrestrial ecology and
Otras
Other publicaciones científico-técnicas
technical-scientific publications
100 Source: Database of the they were decisive for modernising this discipline, and even more
Research Coordination
Office of the Doñana so for extending the use of multi-variant statistics in data process-
Biological Station.
80 ing.
The above clearly shows the importance of research in the
60
early days of "official conservation" in Doñana, and the transcen-
dental impact of the investigation carried out in the National Park
40
on the development of the fields of Botany, Zoology and Ecology
in Spain.
20

0 THE UPS AND DOWNS OF RESEARCH IN DOÑANA

1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Research work has increased significantly in Doñana over the
FIGURE 2
Evolution of the number of publications about Doñana. last twenty years. If we take the number of projects and explo-
rations registered in the Research Co-ordination Office of the
"Monografías de la Estación Biológica de Doñana". Valverde Doñana Biological Station (Figure 1) as an indicator, a clear
raised new issues in the area of Spanish terrestrial ecology, con- increase in the number of projects can be observed in the eight-
cerning predator-prey relations and the organisation of commu- ies, stabilising around fifty in the nineties.This increase in research
nities. Thus he made (independent) contact with the school of activities has also made it possible to make a better selection of
thought that was making a name for itself at the time in the flour- projects given authorisation to use the Doñana National Park as
ishing field of terrestrial ecology in the U.S.A.This work, based on a study area. In fact, if we look at the publications that have orig-
ecological research conducted in Doñana, undoubtedly had a inated from these projects, we can see a clear increase in publi-
major impact on young Spanish workers taking their first steps in cations that have had a major international impact, while publica-
Zoological and Ecological research, especially those studying ver- tions of local interest have remained stable.
tebrates. The fact that science with an impact, "good science" is done
However, the objective of opening the Reserve up to research in a National Park does not necessarily mean that they are doing
was not attained until the mid seventies and investigation did not the research that should be done.These scientific activities could
become consolidated until well into the eighties (Figures1 and be focussed on relatively unimportant aspects for discovering an
2).The contributions made by the team led by Fernando in-depth view of the system. It may neglect other, more necessary
Gonzalez Bernaldez, from the University of Seville Department of aspects that are of greater interest for improving the conserva-
Ecology, were especially important in these early stages. Their tion prospects of the area. Although it is always a risky business
work cast light on the functional aspects of the plant communi- to make value judgements of this kind, a review of the lines of
ties of Doñana; the fundamental relations that existed between research covered by the different projects will help to give us an
groundwater and surface waters and the role they play in model-
ling ecosystems. Other leading contributions included both the
detailed mapping of the Reserve vegetation, which was later
extended by the same team, spatially and conceptually, to cover
the rest of the Park, and for the questions raised that led to
debate and measures aimed at curbing actions in the National
Park and the surrounding area that could perhaps irreversibly
affect many of the ecological processes that attracted such a con-
centration of biological diversity to Doñana. Their contributions
were decisive for enhancing the management of Doñana's ecosys- The Doñana Biological Station, and its Biological Reserve of the same
tems. If the conservation actions implemented in Doñana were name, was created in 1964. The founding father, Jose A. Valverde, was also
its first director. In the photograph, Prince Juan Carlos (that later became
not all correct, this was probably due more to the fact that the King Juan Carlos I of Spain) at the opening of the Bolin laboratory in 1972.
recommendations made by this team were not always followed, The opening ceremony was also attended by Valverde and Felix
Rodriguez de la Fuente.
rather than the measures themselves not being either right or

102
 for the Park, which was only able to make any kind of selection
after the fact.This situation has now changed. First of all, a specif-
ic call for projects has been opened for National Parks as part of
the "National Research Plan", funded by the Ministry of the
Environment, in which priority is given to lines of research pro-
posed by National Parks. On the other hand, the recently adopt-
ed Doñana National Park Use and Management Plan includes the
elaboration of a Sectorial Research Plan. This document, to be
approved by the Board, will be drafted by scientists, with the
counselling of managers, and it will focus on the research aspects
that are considered of special interest for the National Park. In
Identifying nature conservation problems and proposing ways of solving the selection process, special consideration will be given to the
them has been an important contribution made by many of the different immediate interest of a potential project for improving manage-
lines of research conducted in the Park. The scientific contributions related
to how the aquifer works and its relations with surface waters and vegeta- ment.With these two new tools, the research situation in Doñana
tion, and studies related to the populations of endangered species like the takes another step closer to the desirable optimum situation.
lynx and the imperial eagle, have been especially important.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater. Doñana will be a living laboratory, open to the entire scientific
community and research will provide the necessary information
idea of the situation in Doñana. In Figure 3, we have divided the and scientific standards for taking management decisions in the
projects carried out since 1978 into different lines of research. Park.The new lines of funding opened up should not represent a
This division may be somewhat coarse, but it is sufficient for our considerable increase in the number of projects conducted there,
objectives. The projects classed as "functional aspects of ecosys-
tems and ecological relations in Doñana" account for the major-
FIGURE 3
ity of projects. Even though nobody could doubt the importance Number of projects in the different lines of research.
of these projects, there are far too many of them in comparison 250
Números
Numberde
ofproyectos (1978-2002)
projects (1978-2002)
with the other lines of work.
Aspects like the "surface hydrology and hydro-geology of 200
Source: Database of the
Research Coordination
Office of the Doñana
Doñana National Park and its drainage basin" are essential for Biological Station.

understanding the Doñana ecosystems. These are decisive areas 150

that require more attention, as is also true of projects concerned
with the re-generation of the vegetation, endangered species and 100
pollution.
Our results also show that little scientific effort has been 20
focussed on issues related to the Park and how it interacts with
its surrounding environment and with visitors. Further studies in
0
these areas seems fundamental for improving our understanding A B C D E F G

of these difficult relations and, thus, make progress in the quality

a) Surface hydrology and hydro-geology of the National Park and its
of interactions with the neighbouring towns and the role of the drainage basin.
park as an environmental education tool. The heads of research b) Strategy and methodologies for re-generating plant formations and asso-
ciated processes.
and management of the National Park are well aware of this sit-
uation. Why has it not been corrected? To date, National Park c) Biology and ecology of endangered species: Factors that affect the size of
their populations.
funding for adequate research into priority issues has been few
d) Ecological effects of abiotic (contaminant) and biotic elements (invasive
and far between. On the other hand, there have been no clear species) introduced in the National Park.
mechanisms for demonstrating these preferences to the scientif-
e) Functional aspects of ecosystems and ecological relations in Doñana.
ic community as a whole. Most of these projects were approved
f) Man's interactions with his environment in the National Park.
by research financing agencies or entities without any kind of rela-
g) The response of visitors and inhabitants of the area to the Park's system
tions with the Park. So the projects were assessed on their scien- of public use and its message.
tific quality, without considering the importance they could have

103
 During this period, and despite the deficiencies already
described, Doñana has been an area open to science and the
research results have provided valuable information for improving
conservation work in the National Park.The former can be clear-
ly seen from the publications and the reports produced during
this period (Figure 2), and from the fact that the Doñana
Biological Reserve was included in the European Commission's V
Framework Programme, "Trans-national access to major research
facilities", designed to sponsor access to Doñana for research
teams from other European countries.
Identifying conservation problems and proposing ways of
solving them has also been an important contribution made by
many projects in the different lines of research conducted in the
Park. In this area, the scientific contributions related to how the
In a protected natural area, priority should be given to research aimed at
covering its conservation needs and requirements. aquifer works and its relations with the surface waters and the
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.
work done on populations of endangered species like the lynx
as the Park has a limited capacity to host these projects.The fore- and the imperial eagle have been especially important. In these
seeable increase in the number of scientists seeking funding to cases, many of the results produced by the research work done
work in Doñana should make for a better selection of projects, have not been applied to the conservation of the Park, clearly
with the emphasis place firmly on the criterion of scientific qual- highlighting the need to improve the mechanisms that are
ity and how a project responds to the current conservation prob- presently used for transferring research results to the area of
lems faced by the Park. management. The first steps towards solving this problem have

From 1950, Francisco Bernis and José Antonio Valverde published several articles that highlighted the ornithological wealth of Doñana. These led to others,
including contributions by Ferguson-Lees, Mounfort and Peterson. These early scientists started to disseminate the enormous flow of information to be found
in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

104
 Research programmes have had a profound impact on the conservation of
Doñana. In the picture, results of breeding lynx in captivity for later
release.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

probable already been taken with the measures put in place as ence. The former is always applicable, sooner or later, and the lat-
part of the "National Plan" and the "Use and Management Plan" ter is never applicable. We must provide incentives for the lines
that we have mentioned previously. of research that most interest us, fostering a dialogue between
It could be said that the research/conservation relations in scientists and managers, but we must not forget that one of the
Doñana have been positive, but that there is room for improve- most important functions of a protected natural area is to open
ment, and that mechanisms are being put in place that are expect- its doors to science to generate the knowledge we need to understand
ed to make this relationship more productive.Accumulated expe- the world we live in.
rience in this area suggests that it is not enough to make a pro-
tected natural area an attractive study site for scientists to guar-
antee that it gets the research it needs.The budgets of these areas
should include funds for research that can direct projects in the
direction of whatever lines of research may be considered as pri-
ority.And this should be done without closing the door to other
research projects that do not directly address immediate conser-
vation problems. In the mid and long term, these contributions
will help us to understand the system as a whole, help us to iden-
tify problems at an early stage, when they are easier to solve. I
would say that the relations between science and conservation in
Greater attention should be paid to aspects related to the surface
a protected natural space should never be conceived as a con- hydrology and hydro-geology of Doñana National Park and its drainage
frontation between basic science and applied science or the appli- basin and to those addressing the regeneration of the vegetation, endan-
gered species and pollution, as these are all fundamental for understand-
cations of science. Both of these are necessary and, in the end, ing Doñana's ecosystems.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.
there are only two forms of science; good science and bad sci-

105
“La Saca de Yeguas” (The Mares' Roundup)
a centuries old tradition in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
The milestones that made JESÚS CASAS GRANDE *

Doñana a National Park

he creation of the Doñana National Park was the result

T of a process that was driven more by individual will and
impulses than by general planning or a long term political proj-
ect. When the efforts of a few dedicated people were translat-
ed into printed letters in the Official State Gazette, the preser-
vation of what is perhaps the very best of Spanish nature,
endangered at the time, was assured. But the future preserva-
tion of this space was obviously not ensured per se. In the years
between that time and now, the National Park has undergone
many changes. These changes, in general, have always been for
the good and they have helped to consolidate the conservation
of the Park that is no longer questioned by anybody. From time
to time, somebody is always determined to compare "the state The National Park of Doñana is the result of a Solomon-like agreement
that has attempted to strike a balance between the simultaneous presence
of Doñana now" with how it was in the past, and, of course, of three different policies on the same territory: nature conservation, agri-
depending on the ideology of the person making the compari- cultural transformation and the development of the tourist industry.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.
son, they will consider that Doñana is "in a better state than it
has ever been in", or "on the edge of extinction". I firmly believe reduction in the natural state of the environment. Doñana is no
that it has improved constantly since it was declared a National longer an isolated, marginal and wild area in lower Andalusia.
Park. This improvement is often founded on controversy and But, despite all this, the Park, as a whole, has continued to flour-
sometimes on confrontation.These improvements are also off- ish. It has grown as a support for conserving the biodiversity,
set by the changes suffered by the area around the National and it has also developed as a facility in the service of this con-
Park, where, of course, transformation has inevitably led to a servation, providing information to visitors, scientific know-how
and it also makes an important contribution to the quality of life
* Head of the department of planning and technical programmes for National Parks.
Ministry of the Environment, Spain. of the district.

The work of the Doñana Board, driving a Sustainable Development Plan, and the institutional support for this from the National Park played an important role
to secure the support of the European Union to carry out the project. In the picture, sands barrs in the marshes boundary merge into one in the sunset of
La Vera.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM Files.

107
 But, in the course of these regional planning of this district is the National Park. It has not
thirty five years, we have also only become a determining factor in vertebrating all land uses and
witnessed a succession of del- activities; it is also the main catalyst of economic activity by a long
icate situations involving the way. Anything that does not have some kind of connection with
National Park, with significant the National Park is difficult to sell nowadays.The ambition of the
social repercussions. Doñana district is to become a benchmark for sustainable development. It
was declared a National Park is true that names are merely names, and that there are more
as the result of a Solomon-like doubts than certainties behind the concept of sustainable develop-
agreement in an attempt to ment, but this ambition is indicative of the extent to which the
strike a balance between three concept has taken root in a society that, initially was not very
Doñana was declared a National different models that were prone to changing its attitude towards life until very recently.The
Park by a Decree passed in 1969. But
applied to the same territory National Park is now well accepted and its value recognised.This
the modern history of Doñana really
did not start until 1978, when it was at the same time, which were is a situation that was unthinkable forty years ago. Forty years ago,
re-classified in Spanish Parliament.
probable incompatible in prin- the Park was a conceptual, political and social dwarf, facing enor-
ciple.These three models; nature conservation, agricultural trans- mous battleships of transformation that had social approval, polit-
formation and mass tourism, were not only highly difficult to com- ical backing and financial resources. Although it many not be easy
bine, they were also obliged to co-exist shoulder to shoulder, with- to understand, David defeated Goliath in this story too. Not only
out any kind of buffer zone between them.The result is obvious: did he defeat him, he even managed to persuade Goliath that it
visitors to Doñana are constantly amazed by the lack of balance was better for both of them to live side by side, David's way.
that enables the most protected area of Europe live alongside Doñana was declared a National Park by a Decree passed in
areas of intensive farming or high density tourist resorts, only sep- 1969. But the modern history of Doñana really did not start until
arated from them by a simple fence. 1978, when it was re-classified in Parliament.To outside eyes, this
In the course of this same period of time, and in parallel with re-classification was apparently a mere legal consolidation at the
the National Park, the district has also undergone a major social, highest level. It brought an expansion in the area of the National
cultural and economic transformation. And the demands of the Park that increased from around 35,000 hectares to 54,251
population have grown.These demands have often been associat- hectares, bringing in major areas of marshes, Coto del Rey, the
ed with the National Park.The Park has always been a touchstone, beach and Marismillas, in comparison to the original declaration.
the heart of each and every one of the major issues. But the Doñana Act was far more than just a law. For the first time
If you could take an objective view, something I still find impos- in Spain, it meant the implementation of a participative process
sible, when analysing the distance between the current situation prior to enacting the law, in order to build an initial, fragile social
and the situation of forty years ago, the result would probably be consensus in declaring a protected area. It was the first law enact-
surprising. It is now a shared opinion that the driving force for the ed by Parliament after the Constitution was adopted, and it is

Colony of flamingos on a Marsh "veta" (rised old levee).

Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
impregnated with the same spirit of consensus and balanced
progress that enlightened our political leaders at that time. The
Doñana Act was not just a decision of the Spanish Parliament.
Behind this Act, and basically behind its limits, there were hours of
deliberations in the Inter-Ministerial Environmental Commission
(CIMA, from its acronim in Spanish), in which the different sectors
presented their demands and finally reached a reasonable agree-
ment. If this preliminary agreement had not been tacitly accepted
by all concerned, implementing the National Park in practise
would have been even more eventful.
The Doñana Act was totally innovative. It introduced the pri-
ority of conservation over any other activity in the National Park
as a basic concept. It created the first buffer zones and areas of
Doñana is one of the few protected spaces that has managed to consoli-
influence for a National Park, outside its borders, where part of date an independent scientific unit as part of the Park. The picture shows
the management and conservation activity was transferred, includ- the Palace of Doñana, seated in the Doñana Biological Reserve.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.
ing the Park administration and the Board, although these buffer
zones were not given the same degree of protection. It took on had and has excellent legislation. This law acted as a model for
board the criterion of drainage basin, for both surface and ground- other areas and even today, twenty five years after it was enacted,
water, and how these could affect the National Park. It established it remains absolutely valid and up to date.
the possibility of maintaining private property ownership within The first consequence of this law was the creation of an
the protected area, although this was subject to accepting the administration for the National Park.This is a dedicated adminis-
determinations of the Park managers who, in the case of a dis- tration and independent from the Doñana Biological Station that,
agreement, were empowered to expropriate land to nationalise it. for many years had acted as the tacit administrator of Doñana. It
It recognised the need to manage the National Park based on is true that the new administration, belonging to the Ministry of
planning and with its own, specific administration, and it sanctioned Agriculture at the time, was seen as being non conservationist, or
the vital presence of the Board as an organ of social consensus, openly hostile to the ideology of the National Park. For years,
support, deliberation and participation. All these issues, which we newspaper archives collected pages and pages on the conflict
work on in protected areas, may seem obvious now and inherent between Doñana National Park and Doñana Biological Station.
in any declaration of this kind, but it is good to remember that There was talk of Doñana having two heads, and of there being
they grew out of the Doñana Act. Much of what has happened open discrepancies that made park management sterile.The diffi-
since, both in Doñana in particular and in Spanish nature conser- culty in striking a balance and for the two administrations to work
vation in general, is a direct consequence of the fact that Doñana together in a common area, but each with its own clearly defined
 responsibilities, one a management body and the other a research issue was to transfer the complex elsewhere, in this case, border-
body, was a built-in handicap for the development of the National ing on the National Park, propitiating a new, probably unforesee-
Park.The controversy reached its height in the early eighties, and able, direction for developments: the National Park was starting to
the idea of two "de facto" administrations for the same area was have an impact on its immediate surroundings.
even considered, each with its own administrative procedures and We started to glimpse the curious phenomenon of osmotic
arrangements.These teething troubles, which were not exempt of involvement.The National Park felt "threatened" by the transfor-
personality cults and over-inflated egos in both administrations, mation of its surroundings that, to some extent, represented a
has undoubtedly been the main constraint on the National Park as threat to the continuity of the natural systems and processes
a working entity. encompassed therein. But at the same time, the surrounding area
Today, there is an evident balance and the two administrations felt threatened by a National Park with the ability to induce, from
maintain reasonable relations, but, with the advantage of hindsight an imprecise but notorious position, changes in organisation.The
and their capacity to resolve their differences, there remains a cer- National Park feared its surroundings and the surrounding area
tain general feeling that the model has not worked, or that the feared the National Park.
dynamic generated by its dual approach was not the right one. In The "World Hotel" was designed as a shorefront complex on
reality, once again with hindsight, and in the light of the innovations Marismillas lands, to the south of the National Park. The law
formulated from Doñana to other pro- declared the affected area part of the
tected areas, the only thing that has not National Park, but the project already had
been transferred is precisely this, the idea enough papers and permits to present a
of creating an independent scientific unit, solid case for litigation with the govern-
sited in the protected area. The law ment.The result was a permutation of the
declaring Las Tablas de Daimiel a National project to lands to the west of
Park, enacted immediately afterwards, Matalascañas, south of El Acebuche,
included the possibility of creating a beyond the borders of the National Park.
Biological Station in the Park, although There were changes in the ownership,
this was never done. The following probably due to the financial difficulties
National Parks Acts have not contemplat- faced by the developers and in the mid
ed this possibility. Neither has the abun- eighties, the project reappeared in the
There is currently no doubt that the driving force behind
dant regional legislation that has been the regional planning of this district is the National guise of "Costa Doñana", a powerful
Park. It has not only been decisive for vertebrating uses
developed in the course of the last few and activities, it is also the main catalyst to economic development initiative with significant
decades. It is probably obsolete now as a activity by a long way. political support and social backing. The
Photograph: CENEAM Files.
concept, as we now have more complex position of the Park administration, which
models and more people are involved, and the very role and pres- could, in theory, afford to stay out of the operation, was critical,
ence of the administrations in managing protected areas is clearly highly critical. In fact, the park administration formed part of an
in flux. This approach is now tinged with the sepia of old photo- opposition movement to the project, with the silent acquiescence
graphs, as there appears to be a mutual understanding of the role of the government it belonged to.The opposition generated ten-
that each institution can play in the future of the National Park. sion in the district at a time of economic difficulties, and did not
Another consequence of the Doñana Act was to bring to an exactly win many friends among the authorities. From time to
end a series of transformations in the National Park that were time, there were even highly complicated moments.The fact that
either planned or in course in the neighbouring zones. The the controversy reached its height during the regional government
Almonte-Marismas Plan suffered slight cuts, the "World Hotel" election campaign created a fertile breeding ground for seeking an
complex moved out of the National Park grounds, the possibility outside solution that took the form of a International Committee
of a coastal road running between Huelva and Cadiz (provinces of Experts.The Committee was created to solve the controversy.
crossing the Park) was discarded, etc.These decisions took sever- What happened is history. For the first time in the history of Spain,
al things beyond the boundaries of the National Park. In some a protected area was able to generate a debate on planning the
cases, for example, in reducing the area of the Almonte-Marismas area around this protected area, but outside of the system.
Plan, the social tension was shifted to the area around the National What is known as the "Experts' Report" consolidated much of
Park. And in others, such as the case of the "World Hotel", the what the National Park was defending as its position. Deep down,

110
 Marshes and dunes. In this water colour, two areas of Doñana meet. In the foreground, we find geese on the sand. On one side, the cork oaks of La Vera with
the imperial eagle flying over them, and, in the background, the Marshes with groups of flamingos and avocets. A water colour that reflects the area that has
been saved for conservation.The painting has been prepared by Regla Alonso Miura and Rosalía Martín Franquelo.

it was a formidable support for the theories promoted by the effects of this process are evident. On the one hand, a certain and
managers of Doñana. In essence, the report proposes that the increasingly flourishing economy has been created, based on con-
future of the district of Doñana was more closely associated with servation. But much more important than this activity is the fact
the conservation of its natural assets than with their transforma- that a culture of sustainability has been consolidated as a bench-
tion, and the environmental differential of the district was the main mark and the view of the National Park in the district as the prin-
argument for gaining a leading place in the competition with other ciple argument for accepting the sustainability culture.And you can
areas. But harnessing the advantageous difference that lay in the only smile wryly when the legacy of "Costa Doñana" converted
excellent state of conservation of the area obviously required
extra investment in resources, capacity building, training and tech-
nology that the district could not provide on its own.The work of
the Doñana Board, driving a Sustainable Development Plan, and
institutional support for this from the National Park was perhaps
responsible for with the major financial support that the authori-
ties, basically the regional authorities, finally obtained for the Plan
and completed with the support of the European Commission.
Obviously there was a political opportunity that was seized, and
part of the money invested has probable not been put to the best
Much of what has happened in the last decades, both in Doñana in parti-
possible use, but the change has been obvious and pronounced; cular and in Spanish nature conservation in general, is a direct consequen-
and not only in appearances. In summary, you want to remember ce of the fact that Doñana had and has excellent legislation. This law acted
as a model for other areas and even today, twenty five years after it was
the sensation that it was thanks to the National Park that the dis- enacted, it remains absolutely valid and up to date.
trict attracted a formidable flow of investment and activity. The Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

111
 Nobody fishes in the National Park today; nor is their any irregular camp-
ing, nor are vehicles allowed to circulate freely along the beach and that,
in itself, is good for conservation, it is good for Doñana and it is good for
its surrounding district. For this reason too, we can now maintain one of
the most outstanding images of Doñana: observing geese when they con-
gregate at dawn on Cerro del Trigo to eat sand.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

into "Castillo de la Luz”, has also finally found its place in the area, when the employment situation of the district was turned around
this time over 25 kilometres from the borders of the National and moved towards full employment and a significant presence of
Park. immigrant labour.The positive side of all this is that the formida-
Some may wonder if there wasn't a certain social toll to paid ble investment effort that has been maintained and practically all
for travelling this path.And the answer is yes there was, and it was the infrastructures and facilities of the National Park are now
not cheap.The history of Doñana also contains a page of conflicts complete and almost more money is now spent on maintenance
with a social environment that demanded the recovery of title to than on investment.
the use and rights of the land.This title was neither justified, nor The second step was an attempt to create a social economy
was it possible to deliver. The administration tried to undermine associated with managing the area. In the early eighties, the initia-
the critics in every way possible, with unequal results, by embark- tive of creating the "Marismas del Rocio" Co-operative to run the
ing on a range of different initiatives. public visits to the National Park, was the first attempt to consol-
First of all, it increased its capacity to invest in local labour.The idate a local economy based on the National Park, not only in the
investment budget was increased four fold in three years in the area, but also in Spain in general. Looking back over this now, and
early nineties, and the number of local employees increased from despite the many delays that the task has suffered, it has obvious-
less than twenty to over three hundred. But despite all the finan- ly been a resounding success, an in situ benchmark that clearly
cial effort made, this job creation policy did not mark a turning shows that it is possible to live off the resources of the National
point or strike a balance in demand until well into the nineties, Park, but not by exploiting it in traditional ways.The Co-operative

112
is one of several active nature tourism initiatives that have been been a kind of tutorship or an extra push brought to bear on what
generated. In the light of the demand, supply would obviously have was going on outside of Doñana, with very few exceptions. One of
appeared, but it is also reasonable to think that the National Park these that requires a mention is the issue of the beach use. The
administration would not have opted for a local solution. Many of National Park beach forms part of the National Park, exactly in the
the companies that now trade would probably not have had the same way as any other part of the Park.Turning this beach into a
social location that they do. free and open space for all, without any significant limitations, has
Third; the network of National Parks promoted a line of sub- been a more complex task that one may imagine. Initially, there
sidies for actions around the National Park. Initially, these were was conflict with the illegal ranches built on the beach in the late
only for Local Councils, but they have gradually been increased and seventies.Then the irregular traffic had to be regulated in the late
opened up to companies, families and non-profit making organisa- eighties. Obviously, in both cases, the rules were clear, and in both
tions. In this aspect, the balance is a bitter sweet one.The results cases, the National Park administration took a firm and solid
are relatively satisfactory with regard to social aspects, but they do stance. From the point of view of attitudes today, this attitude may
entail the risk of generating a dependent society with no intention seem somewhat strict, but the results were excellent. The park's
whatsoever of using this exogenous resource as a catalyst. attitude to the invasions of crab hunters in the first half of the
In the years that have transpired, almost all the major mile- eighties deserves the same consideration. Once again, the admin-
stones associated with the National Park have been implemented istration took up a complicated struggle, with some striking
beyond its boundaries. The management of Doñana has mainly defeats in some years, but with regard to maintaining its position,

113
 The Doñana experience has acted as a foundation for spreading the idea that protected areas require their own, specific administration, which should be based in
the area of the National Park, and which should have sufficient human resources for administration, technical work, public use and services.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

which was evidently supported by the regulations, it won accept- traditional uses, forming part of local traditions that are abundant
ance and credibility for the Park authorities in the medium term. in the district. It is still too early to assess the results of this situ-
Nowadays, nobody fishes for crab in the National Park, neither do ation.The National Park maintained a relatively firm stance in the
they camp illegally, or roam freely in cars along the beach… and early nineties, in defence of the general interest, but it softened its
that is a good thing for conservation, per se, it is positive for positional significantly in the mid nineties. Everybody still remem-
Doñana and it is good for the district as a whole. This is a clear bers the livestock invasion, which, it is true, was not significant
example of how a willingness to maintain a dialogue, always essen- from the point of view of numbers, but it was a turning point from
tial, cannot ignore the letter of the law in the application of the a qualitative point of view.The effect this had on other protected
rules when any contravention of these rules is clearly harmful to areas, as Doñana was a basic yardstick in Spanish conservation, is
the general interests. to give an exaggerated pre-eminence to traditional uses, some of
During the same time, there has also been another process, which are little more than alleged traditions, in management plan-
concerning the evolution of what are known as the traditional ning.This is an open question, and one we will have to return to in
uses of the land, which is also worth mentioning. When the area the years to come. There is a general impression that some of
was declared a National Park, as has been mentioned, the declara- these are not traditional uses at all and in many cases, considering
tion was accompanied by a resurgence of the demand to "return" them as such merely sustains something that forms part of the
Doñana to its residents. Initially, the area declared a National Park past.There is an appreciable new school of thought that does not
was mostly in private hands.The administration later nationalised necessarily identify tradition with balanced, sustainable conserva-
this land, either by buying it or by expropriating it. This move to tionism, a school of thought that will probably put things back into
public ownership put demands for land use on the table that had perspective in the coming years; a perspective in which traditions
hardly been considered to date.These demands to be able to use are not excluded, but neither are they raised to the category of
the land were enhanced and reinforced by the desire to recover absolute truth.

114
 Like most other things in life, Doñana has been moved by the Hence, by way of conclusion, one would like to believe that cir-
principle of action and reaction. Part of the administrative power cumstances have always been on the side of the National Park.
the space now has is due to the mortality of birds in the mid eight- Although it is also true that there has always been someone with
ies.The sensation of ignorance and impotence, of not being able to vision enough to grasp the opportunities offered. From the time it
do something that had become a media phenomenon is closely was declared a National Park, Doñana has always been conserved,
associated with the reinforcement that park management has with better fortune at some times than others, and no change in
undergone in the second half of the eighties. Here too, Doñana is this conservation policy has ever been considered, in fact, it has
a yardstick. Nowadays, nobody would argue about the fact that continued to expand in practise. The creation of what was first
protected spaces require their own, specific administration, which called the Doñana Area Natural Park, now called Doñana Natural
should be locally based and should have sufficient administrative Park, and its successive extensions, and the creation of other pro-
staff, technical staff, park rangers, public use resources and servic- tected areas in the immediate proximities of the National Park, the
es. The consolidation of the management machine of Doñana increasing involvement of the National Park in defining policies and
National Park, with over 500 employees and, in some years, a strategies that go beyond the borders of the Park, Doñana 2005.All
budget of almost 10 million euros, seems impossible to understand of these are examples of this attitude, clear examples of how the
if it is not supported by a formidable political base that was creat- National Park has always been a growing and expanding reality.
ed in the late eighties. Doñana could have adopted another man- The National Park has recently been extended, the third time
agement model, with far less people and with far less resources. in its history that this has happened. It now encompasses the orig-
But, if we accept that the National Park is the differential yardstick inal lands that were transformed and opened up for farming, and
in planning the district, then this is the only possible model. One which will shortly recover their natural state. This is an unusual
as yet unsolved issue is whether such a high degree of resource event, because it not only signifies continuing with the policy of
allocation remains strictly necessary, once the process is launched, protecting well conserved areas under the Doñana umbrella, it
or whether, on the contrary, the organisational drive provided by also means implementing another policy, a policy of restoring
managers has led to excesses, completely out of place, at practi- transformed lands and returning them to something like their
cally all levels of district action that should be reconsidered and original state.This time, however, the district has understood these
shifted towards focussing spending on the objectives of the changes, and they support them.The extension has been planned
National Park. and implemented on the basis of a broad consensus That is the
Finally, something should perhaps also be put down to luck. conclusion, rather than a paradox.What started out as a defensive
Luck disguised as an economic boom that few could have fore- mechanism to save something of the virgin territory from the
seen. In the early eighties, after a long period of drought, the unstoppable advance of alleged progress has become the main
National Park authorities promoted an initial regeneration of argument for ensuring that the future is possible.And it remains a
water resources that, despite its failure, is worth reconsidering great National Park.
because it highlights the anxiety of the management who felt over-
whelmed by social pressure and convinced that the progressive
decadence they were witnessing was unstoppable. The Almonte-
Marismas Plan, however, found neither the water, nor the agricul-
tural know-how, nor the markets that their ideologists were
dreaming of, and the Plan failed.And although there was no short-
age of fingers pointing accusingly at the National Park as the cul-
prit of the failure, it really had nothing to do with it.The develop-
ment of the tourist industry along the coast beyond Matalascañas
also failed to find the quality of services, products or complemen-
tary activities, and also failed. Some of the failures of other region-
al planning models touched upon in the district consolidated their
pre-eminent position over the National Park, as the up-side, but
also generated a current of playing the victim that was only The public use of Doñana and the flow of visitors became one of the first
links with the local economy of the area. In the photograph, the Palace of
plugged when the treasure trove of resources associated with the Acebrón, one of the old Doñana mansions now adapted as a visitor centre.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
Sustainable Development Plan appeared on the horizon.

115
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. The present Duchess has studied the Archives from an historic stand point 8. CHAPMAN, A. & BUCK, W.J., 1893. Wild Spain. London, Guerney and
and has also analysed the management of the Torre Carboneros Tuna Jackson.
Fishing Post. Ojeda (1990) published an historic analysis of the transfor- 9. CHAPMAN, A. & BUCK, W.J., 1910. Unexplored Spain. London, E.
mation of Almonte. Arnold.
2. This material has been analysed by Professor Martin Vicente's team from 10. ORTEGA Y GASSET. J., 1948 prólogo, Yebes. Conde de, Veinte años de
the University of Seville, who laid the fundamental groundwork for study- Caza Mayor. Editorial Plus Ultra. Madrid.
ing the ecological history of Doñana. 11. VALVERDE, J.A., 1975. Doñana y las marismas del Guadalquivir: su
3. GARCIA MURILLO et al (2000, 2003), while studying place names, rescate y sus problemas presentes y futuros. Ardeola. Número especial.
identified the changes in the landscape units of the Cotos, El Albario and 12. GONZÁLEZ GORDON M. & MAURICIO GONZÁLEZ, D., 1953.
Las Rocinas, thus offering a regional framework for the ecological histo- Exposición a F. Franco Bahamonde.
ry of the Park. 13. BERNIS, F., 1954. Prontuario de la Avifauna Española. Ardeola Vol 1.
4 GRANADOS CORONA, M., MARTIN VICENTE, A., FERNANDEZ 14. VALVERDE, J.A., WEICKERT P, 1956. Sobre la migración de varias
ALES, R., GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1984. Long term vegetation changes in garzas españolas. Munibe 1956 II.
the stabilized dunes of Doñana National Park. Vegetatio, 75:73-80. 15. MOUNTFORT, G., 1958. Portrait of a Wilderness. London, Hutchinson.
5. GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1977. The effects of fire in the vegetation of Doñana 16. PETERSON, R., MOUNTFORT, G.., HOLLOM, P.A.D., 1957. Guia de
National Park. En: Mooney, H., Conrad, F. (Eds.) Symposium on the envi- campo de las aves de España y de Europa. Barcelona, Ediciones Omega S.A.
ronmental consequencies of fire and fuel management in mediterranean 17. MOUNTFORT, G.., HOLLOM, P., 1954. A field guide to the birds of
ecosystems. Technical Report WO-3.U.S.Forest Service. Washington: 318- Britain and Europe. London, Collins.
325. 18. VALVERDE, J.A., 1959. La protection de la Faune en Espagne: ses proble-
6. GRANADOS CORONA, M, MARTIN VICENTE, A., FERNANDEZ mes. Comptes Rendues de la Reunion Technique d'Áthens de l'UICN Vol
ALES, R., GARCÍA NOVO, F. 1987. Evolución conjunta del paisaje y su V:31-43.
gestión. El caso del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Estudios Territoriales 19. VALVERDE J.A., 1960. Vertebrados de las Marismas del Guadalquivir.
24:183-187. Archivos del Instituto de Aclimatación Vol. IX Almería.
7. GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1990. The origin of the Doñana Ecosystems. En The
National Park of Doñana. ICONA, Lunberg. Madrid: 8-17.

116
Water as the main player

I n The Birth of Venus, Botticelli makes the goddess emerge on

the coast, in an allegory that could well represent the appear-
ance of Doñana at the other end of the Mediterranean.This unique
Doñana's waters, using a series of aerial photographs taken over
thousands of years, we would see how the final stretch of the
Guadalquivir depression was quickly filled in with the sediments it
place arose out of its relationship with the sea, and water is the transported.This included sediments from other water courses like
essence of its birth and formation. As with the birth of Venus, the the River Guadaira, on the left bank, the Huelva River and the
wetlands that give form to Doñana recreate the landscape with the Guadiamar River on the right bank. The great gulf gradually gave
passage of each season, renewing its flora and fauna and consolidat- way to increasingly smaller bays where spreading tidal flats and
ing over time its well-deserved fame. marshes finally took over the area, constructing a silt plain above
With water as a common thread, it is easier to understand the sea level.The Doñana Marshes are the last phase of this landfill in
natural systems and functional relations that turn the wetlands into our sequence of pictures, forming a floodplain that is separated
the dynamic environment that is the foundation of its great diver- from the tides of the estuary, fed only by rainfall and continental
sity.Water has been the cause and agent of change, a building block waters.
of the landscape, and is now the main argument for its restoration. Almost a million years of shoreline evolution would by synthe-
If we took a bird's eye view of the evolution of the world of sized in these brief images.This shoreline has seen rises and falls in

Every year, whether wet or dry, the Donaña Marshes come out in an explosion of life. In this canvas, Boticelli paints a picture that could be interpreted as the
emergence of Doñana, showing Venus arriving at the coast, pushed by the wind, after her birth. On her right, we see Zephyr, the Greek god of the west wind,
considered the gentlest of all winds, and father of two immortal horses. Next to him is Chloris, the nymph of flowers and springtime. On land, we find one of
the Horai, the nymph of the seasons, covering herself with her mantle to show that the mysteries of Venus are hidden, like in Doñana, where science attempts
to unravel the complex secrets of nature.
Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

119
 enclave. For this reason, Doñana represents the final act in a long
and enriching ecological process that has unfolded at the cross-
roads of the biosphere, at the meeting point of Africa and Eurasia,
of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, of seas, rivers and lands.
Each episode and each transformation has left its marks, patterns,
processes and actors that all echo to the present, allowing us to
interpret their origins.
The final episode started about 20,000 years ago, at the end
of the last ice age (Würm, in Europe), with a eustatic rise of some
175 metres. The seawater flooded the coastal plain and
Guadalquivir depression for the last time, in alternating periods of
relative stability and quick episodes. In the Tyrrenian Age, about
6,500 years ago, the seawater reached its highest level, approxi-
mately 0.5 m above the present sea level, later receding to sta-
bilise at its present level. A new episode of a rising sea level has
been triggered during the 20th century, which could mean a rise of
some 10 - 15 cm in the 21st century, a considerable amount for
such a low-lying and flat coastline.
The variation in the sea level is a predominant agent of change
in marsh and estuary systems, but it is one that is not only due to
eustatic fluctuations and global changes in the sea level. By zoom-
ing in on much shorter periods - of hours or days - we can dis-
cover the oscillations of the tides, with a maximum range in the
area of 3.6 m.The wind, in turn, also affects rises and falls in the
sea level, and storms can raise the high tide mark by the odd
metre or two, carrying water with sediments onto the shore.
For a million years, Mother Nature has been experimenting with the con-
struction of a diverse mosaic of environments along the coast of the Gulf
Within the Guadalquivir depression, rain and flooding rivers play
of Cadiz and the Guadalquivir Depression, varying the placement and the same role, turning it into a flooded plain that, before river
proportions of the seas and continents, the floodplains, the land and water
species, and the populations that migrated into the enclave. The successive dyke systems were built, covered an area of over 200,000 ha of
variations in sea level have helped to forge what are now the great water surface. Over longer periods of time, erosion and sedimen-
Doñana Marshes.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.
tation were to be the agents that modified the level of the bot-
tom and, thus, the depth of the water column: the present-day
sea level of almost 200 metres in each direction with successive Marshes have risen by 0.5 to 3 mm a year. Finally, if we revert back
Pleistocene ice ages, all of which has remodelled valleys, water to a geological point of view, we see the tectonic movements that
courses and deposits.The shoreline advanced up the Guadalquivir induced blocks to shift vertically by tens of metres during the
valley during the marine transgression of the interglacial periods, Pliocene and Pleistocene Ages.
due to rises in sea level. This contrasts with periods when water The balance between sea and continental waters has been
accumulated as continental ice during the ice ages and falls in sea dynamic, with shifting boundaries between the different water
level made the river channel grow deeper and longer. These old masses in their varying salinity, chemical composition, suspended
courses of the Guadalquivir and Tinto Rivers are still recognisable matter, temperature, origin and persistence. Water that varies in
on the coastal shelf, as underwater canyons that run south for its regime and salinity, either connected to or separated from
some 15 or 20 km from today's coastline. other water masses, make up a varied mosaic of contrasting habi-
For a million years, Mother Nature has experimented with tats, the foundation of the extreme bio-diversity of this territory.
building a mosaic of different environments along the coastline of The sea level is the absolute limit to the dry land and so too to
the Gulf of Cadiz and the Guadalquivir Depression, varying the the areas where infiltration and run-off occur. Thus, we enter the
placement and proportions of seas and continents, floodplains, other world of Doñana water, where the surface waters flow to
land and water species, and the populations that migrated to the feed a complex drainage network, carrying inputs of water, nutri-

120
 FIGURE 1

In the image, a few geological features of the Doñana aquifer (the Almonte-
1 Marismas Hydro-geological Unit), useful to understand the hydrological behav-
iour of the area, have been superimposed over the satellite photograph
2 (Landsat-5).
The blue marls of its impermeable bottom appear on the surface in the north of
the area. The River Guadiamar acts as a subterranean watershed with the
3 Espartinas sub-unit. Then follow the basal sands of Late Pleistocene, whose thick-
ness under the marshes reaches almost 200 metres.
Wind blown sands are next in the sequence, surrounding the left side of the
marshes, reaching a thickness of 200 metres in the Acebuche area. The dune
cover, which include older stabilised dunes of the quaternary period and the
recent dune system, is characterised by high permeability and it is then an impor-
tant recharge area.
Then we find the marsh bowl of Doñana, with its impermeable basement made
4 of clay, silts and sand. In the satellite image it has been coloured of light blue,
showing the original boundary of the big marsh.
7 6 The area of "La Vera" has been differently coloured, emphasising this ecotone
located between the silt-clay area and the sands, two materials with very differ-
ent reply to water permeability. It is therefore a strip of springing water, an
emblematic area of Doñana that maintains the humidity in the dry period.

1 LATE MIOCENE - Blue marls 5 RECENT DUNE SYSTEM

5 2 MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE - Basal silts 6 MARSHES
3 LATE PLEISTOCENE - Basal sands 7 LA VERA
4 AEOLIAN SANDS

ents, solutes and sediments to the Marshes and the shoreline. and charging under the marsh sediments of the eastern zone,
Underneath this area of terra firma there is a powerful aquifer that stretching under an area that encompasses almost 3,000 km2.The
plays a decisive role in the current configuration of this varied natural limits to this aquifer are imposed by the Tinto River and the
mosaic. The survival of this area depends on factors such as the impermeable outcrops of blue Miocene marls, which coincide
input of surface waters and the behaviour of the water table.The roughly with the route of the Seville-Huelva Motorway to the
streams and rivers that converge on this area provide the in-flow north and west; and to the east and south-east by the Guadiamar
that floods the Marshes for part of the year, but the existence of River and the rising waters from Quaternary rock that surrounds
permanent wetlands and ponds is also due to groundwater welling the marshes; and by the Atlantic Ocean to the south.The depth of
up.

GROUNDWATER, THE HIDDEN DEFENDER

OF DOÑANA’S DIVERSITY
Although not obvious at first glance, the role of the groundwa-
ter is an extremely important one.They do not just guarantee the
inputs that increase the flooding of the marshes, they also provide
vital sustenance in summer so that both animal and plant life can
maintain a year-round presence there. If it were not for these hid-
den resources, the major ecological reserve that Doñana has come
to represent would never have been possible. In the dune ecosys-
tem, for example, where the level of the water table is close to the
surface, the soil in the corrales (inter-dune valleys) retains moisture
all year round and peridune ponds swell in winter months. The balance between sea and continental waters has been dynamic, with
shifting boundaries between the different water masses in their varying
Moving onto the subterranean geography of the water, the salinity, chemical composition, suspended matter, temperature, origin and
persistence. Water that varies in its regime and salinity, either connected to
Doñana zone is located at the southern tip of aquifer system num-
or separated from other water masses, make up a varied mosaic of con-
ber 27 (according to the classification of the Spanish Institute of trasting habitats, the foundation of the extreme bio-diversity of this terri-
tory. The photograph shows the mouth of the River Guadalquivir, with
Geology and Mines) and, within this system, it forms part of the Pinar de las Marismas pine forest on the left and in the Park, and the salt
Almonte-Marismas sub-system.The Almonte-Marismas Hydro-geo- pans of La Algaida Nature Area on the right at the far end.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
logical Unit is a free detrital aquifer in the NW sector. It is confined

121
 the aquifer gradually increases from the north, where it is just a few 45,940 ha in the provinces of Huelva and Seville, which meant prac-
metres deep, to over 220 metres in the South, under the marsh tically the entire immediate ring of land around Doñana. Since then,
sediments. the aquifer has been studied in greater depth and new protection
The impermeable base on which the permeable sediments rest instruments have been arbitrated for the Doñana National Park
is made up of a powerful formation of Miocene blue marls, whose and Nature Park, and so the zone that can be irrigated has been
ceiling gradually descends as we move from north to south, from successively restricted, until now, at only 6,000 ha. Most of the
about 50 m above sea level, to about 250 m below sea level on the water extracted from the water table is now used for growing rice.
southern border of the coastal strip. Most of the natural charge of Moreover, there is another important event for the management of
the unit occurs by direct filtration of rainwater falling in the areas groundwater resources that must be taken into consideration. It
in which the water table is free and much less of it produced by occurred on the 1st of January 1986, when the Water Act came into
surplus irrigation water. force, proclaiming all waters, be they surface or underground
Concerning the character of the permeability of these materi- waters, as public property, although the transitory provisions do
als in facilitating the flow of groundwater, it can be seen that there recognize the private ownership of the groundwater that were
is also a clear north-south variation. The areas at the edge and being exploited before this date. Even in this case, if the owner
under the marshes are far more permeable than the northernmost wished to increase the amount of water they draw up, or if they
zones, where there is a higher proportion of silt material and the wish to modify conditions of use of the water, they would need a
water is transported more slowly. For this reason, the largest draw- formal administrative concession covering the entire usage, which
ings of groundwater currently in operation are concentrated is of great importance for both the present and the future manage-
around El Rocío and all along the edge of the marshes.The amount ment of the waters of Doñana. This exception has created prob-
of water drawn up artificially from the aquifer is similar to the lems that have been identified, for example, in the Aznalcazar Marsh
amount discharged naturally. and more specifically on the Hato Blanco and Hato Raton estates.
The increase in extracting groundwater, which has affected the Large volumes of water are drawn up from the aquifer to irrigate
water table to such a degree, arose from the development mindset rice, leading to the formation of a cone-shaped depression in the
of the seventies, when the great irrigation strategy of the Almonte- phreatic layer. This has grave consequences for the region where
Marismas Plan was conceived.The plan appeared in 1971 as a result rice growing occurs in the north of the Marshes, and especially at
of declaring the creation of the Almonte-Marismas irrigation zone Coto del Rey.
to be a programme in the national interests. It covered an area of The influence of rising water discharging from the water table
to the surface is key to the survival of many of the outstanding
ecosystems and landscapes of Doñana.We can see that discharges
on the southern shore and within inter-dune valleys or corrales,
have allowed the formation of temporary ponds, characteristic of
this environment. To the east, in a lowland strip called La Vera,
formed by a sandy rib running around the Marshes, the water table
allows emerging water in the depressions, creating ponds, like El
Hondon and El Sopeton, and springs from which some of the canals
that drain to the marshes flow. Further north, between El Rocío
and the old Santa María stream (Arroyo de Santa Maria), near
Almonte, there was a string of seasonal ponds that were also fed
by springs arranged in a network that discharged into the right
bank of the Partido stream (Arroyo del Partido) until the mid 20th
century. Unfortunately, they have all disappeared because of the
agricultural transformation caused by the abovementioned
The influence of rising water discharging from the water table to the sur-
Almonte-Marismas Plan (part of Sector II).The last few ponds dried
face is key to the survival of many of the outstanding ecosystems and
landscapes of Doñana. We can see that discharges on the southern shore up in the year 1987.
and within inter-dune valleys or corrales, have allowed the formation of
temporary pond, characteristic of this environment. The picture shows a
Another important area of springs is El Abalario, in line with the
view of one wooded corral beyond a dune in the foreground. Pinus pinea Rocina stream (Arroyo de la Rocina) and south of it, running along
dominates tree cover in dune corrals.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.
a small tectonic step, with a string of ponds, in an area reaching to

122
 The impermeable nature of the clay silt that covers the Doñana depression
guarantees the permanence of water for long periods of time. The plain is
only interrupted by small elevations almost imperceptible to the payper-
son, known as paciles and vetas, and dotted with water-filled depressions,
caños, lucios and quebradas, that form a subtle hydrographical network.
Small variations in water level allow for a wide variety of environments to
be housed in the Marshes.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

the Matalascañas-Mazagon road which gets flooded during heavy shown by fluctuations in climate and by expansions and reductions
rainfalls. Dozens of small springs and seasonal ponds appear here in the size of water surface. Unfortunately, the dense gallery vege-
too, with tributaries that feed the "algaidas" (creeks of sand areas) tation and part of the abundant peat deposits have been exploited,
and flow into the Rocina stream from the right bank. There is hence, diminishing the ecological interest of Las Madres. The two
another interesting unfolding of events the El Abalario area. The Palos ponds, also connected to the water table, occupy eroded
regular input of waters with a low mineral content from the aquifer depressions in the detrital formations, their drainage impeded by
has led to the creation of peat bogs.The largest flood plain is the wind blown sands. Although they have lost their original dense
chain of ponds called Laguna de Ribetehilos, which has been shoreline vegetation, they still offer extensive surface areas of
restored and at times of heavy rain, covers a large area. water, and they act as suitable wetlands for vertebrate water fauna.
To the west of Doñana, on its detrital formations, there are If we change our perspective again and superimpose a map of
three interesting ponds, which are protected areas: Laguna de Las the major differences in chemical composition over this extraordi-
Madres, very close to Mazagon, and what are known as Laguna nary range of groundwater inputs, we see a significant diversity in
Grande and Laguna Pequeña de Palos, the latter two closer to the water environments.We would find springs with an extraordinary
Park. Laguna de las Madres, practically destroyed by the human range of pH values (1.9 to 9.6), or with different concentrations of
greed of the 1960s, forms the last part of the Avitor stream and is several elements such as N, P, Mg, Ca, Fe, Cu, Mn and others. It has
fed with waters with low mineral content from the water table.The been discovered that the characteristics of the water that feeds the
most interesting aspect of this pond lies in the formation of a peat Doñana springs may depend on depth. Mineralization may increase
deposit in the flooded basin. Pollen studies of the peat deposits with depth, although human influence appears to be a commanding
have provided a record of vegetation over the last 6,000 years. In factor. On the surface, mineralization is low and very irregular. If the
general terms, these studies indicate that there have not been any location is favourable for discharging from greater depths, the
changes in the species identified, but rather variations in abundance water that rises has a higher mineral content and rises at a more

123
 Although not so obvi-
ous at first sight, the
role of the groundwa-
ter is extremely
important, providing
vital sustenance to the
animal and plant life
in times of low rain-
fall. The picture
shows a temporary
pond in a corral slack,
between active dunes.

Photograph: CENEAM files.

regular rate. So different water bodies under the influence of the non-floodable marsh ecosystems were set - areas of exceptional
same multi-year water cycle may respond differently, i.e. annual value as refuge for the terrestrial wildlife in times of major flood-
flooding, flooding in certain years, continual drop in the water table ing.
level under the basin. It is clear how this water narrative shows us The flooding phase lasts through until March or April, which is
its incredible capacity for creating diverse niches of life, before it normally when a balance is struck between water inputs and evap-
even surfaces. oration / transpiration. From this time on, water loss through evap-
oration and transpiration leads to a progressive drying out of the
THE CHANGING FLOW OF WATERS marshes until the annual cycle is completed. The input of surface
THROUGH THE DOÑANA MARSHES waters, before the hydraulic developments began in the mid 20th
Having lost their former tidal influence, the variable water sur- century, guaranteed this cycle, with areas remaining flooded well
faces that dot the most outstanding landscapes of Doñana depend into summer, or even all year round.
almost entirely on the input of rain waters and the overflow from But to gain a more detailed insight of how the water cycle
the rivers and streams that converge on the great trough of the works in the Marshes and the effects of the changes that have
Marshes. The low permeability of silts that form their foundation occurred, one has to understand the character the varying inputs
guarantees that the waters will remain for long periods of time.The of surface waters and their different systems. The contribution
landscape is only interrupted by small elevations known as paciles made by rainfall is determined, in broad terms, by an annual aver-
or vetas, flat depressions (lucios) and river beds (caños, quebradas) age rainfall of 575 mm, which, on average, is distributed as follows:
that perform as a subtle hydrographical network.These small vari- 20% in spring, 5% in summer, 35% in autumn and 40% in winter. The
ations in the water level cause a variety of environments that can autumn rains are generally torrential while in spring and winter
be seen in the zones of pools, ponds, pans, and channels. they are produced by frontal perturbations with a lower intensity.
The great marsh plain has always been subjected to a variable With regard to river and stream input, consideration must be
flooding regime, which has depended on rainfall and the flow of given to the fact that the Doñana Marshes have always been cov-
watercourses draining into the Marshes. The flood process starts ered by a complex hydrographical network formed by branches
slowly and evolves progressively between October and November of the Guadalquivir and Guadiamar rivers and the La Rocina, Los
and under natural conditions, the Marshes continue to fill until Sotos, El Ajolí and Las Cañadas streams. One of the major contri-
water level reaches the heigth of the levee or right embankment of butions comes from the Guadiamar River, which stems from
the Guadalquivir River, in the area known as Las Salinas and Los beyond the Doñana aquifer system, and which has a much greater
Rompidos. This acts as a natural overflow, channelling the excess catchment basin than the other sources of surface water, except
waters into the estuary of the Guadalquivir River, "Wadi al-Kabir" for the Guadalquivir River itself.The Guadiamar River is the final
or Great River or as it was called by the Arabs.This was how the tributary feeding into the Guadalquivir River on the right hand
maximum flood levels were regulated and the spatial limits to the bank before the river mouth. Until mid XX century, its basin was

124
the main hydrological sub-system that flooded the Doñana favouring one branch of the river over the others, which finally led to
marshes. It is still one of the few unregulated river complexes of their silting up.
the Andalusian hydrographical system. Another wave of changes was produced at the hands of the
Inputs from the branches of this river account for over half the development mindset that orchestrated the Almonte-Marismas
input of water into Doñana. For an average year, it was estimated Plan.This plan had altered basins and extensive marshlands and the
at 225 hm3/year. Its high inter-annual irregularity must be empha- functionality and layout of the channels and branches of the
sised, comparing the 19 hm3 debit for the year 1982/83, or the Guadalquivir, such as the Torre Branch. At the same time, the dig-
extremes of 724 hm3 in 1962/63 .This water feeds in through the ging of deep wells lined with steel and the use of submerged elec-
Guadiamar channel (Caño Guadiamar), basically during winter rises tric pumps had a profound effect on the functioning of the aquifer4.
in the water level, or through the Travieso channel (Caño Travieso). And so the goalposts of Doñana's hydrological system were
The inputs from this latter stream normally used to be fresh water, permanently shifted. It triggered processes to accelerate, disturb-
although it was able to feed in brackish water in late summer ing a centuries-old balance. The most important interventions in
because of the influence of the tides and the connection with Torre recent decades that have changed the original way these wetlands
Branch (Brazo de La Torre). Moreover, from a broader perspec- were arranged and their most significant consequences can be
tive, the layout and geographic situation of the Guadiamar basin summarized as follows:
turns this watercourse into the most important corridor connect- - The transformation of tidal marshes into reclaimed land (pol-
ing Doñana's coastal ecosystems with those of the Western Sierra ders) for rice growing on the right bank (55,000 ha) and for irri-
Morena, specifically the Sierra Norte and Sierra de Aracena ranges. gation crops (10,000 ha) on the left bank.
Another major component of the input that defines the surface
hydrological system is that of the fresh waters from the Rocina
stream and its tributaries.They are notably supported by contribu-
tions from groundwater draining out of Doñana's aquifer. Oddly, this
system provides relatively regular flows throughout the year,
although the average annual contribution shows a pronounced fluc-
tuation, ranging from 1.5 hm3 in cycles of drought to a maximum of
73 hm3 recorded in 1995/1996, the period of highest rainfall and
flooding on record in Doñana in the last thirty years.
However, the regulation of this intricate and delicate hydrological
network was to be radically transformed. Some areas of the former
marshes had already been dried out and used as grazing pastures for
livestock by the end of the 18th century.Walls and locks were to be
used to control the flooding of the low lying areas, letting in fresh
water from the estuary during the "botamentos" (fllodings during
very high tides), to promote the growth in the Marshes of grass and
macrophytes for livestock consumption. But the most profound
transformations in the hydrological regime took place in the second
FIGURE 2
half of the 20th century, basically by two actions: the draining of the In the image, the original Doñana network has been superimposed over
Marshes to convert them into irrigated farmland and rice paddies, the survey and the satellite photograph (Landsat-5), highlighting the for-
mer rivers and streams that flowed into the Marshes. The system is
and the regulation of the Guadalquivir River basin through dam build- bounded to the right by the River Guadalquivir. The current flood area of
ing. Both these changes are closely interrelated, as it was essential to the Marshes has been coloured in, bounding to the south on the dune sys-
tem and Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) in the confluence with the
build reservoirs and diversion canals in order to supply irrigation Guadalquivir, and to the north by the town of El Rocío. Also clear is the
water to the farmlands and rice fields in summer. For example, the bordering flood corridor known as the Encauzamiento Guadiamar.
The most significant lucios, or depressions, in the Marshes area have been
Canal de los Presos (Channel of the Prisoners), built by political highlighted. The watercourses marked within this zone are locally known
as caños. Following the coast line to the west, a major pond complex has
detainees after the Civil War,was a key project for granting the water
come about, running from the edges of the Doñana Marshes, along a strip
supply for farmland irrigation on the left bank of the estuary.The reg- between the Rocina stream, Arroyo de la Rocina, and the coast. The El
Abalario pond complex and the peri-dune ponds of Doñana make up a
ulation of the Guadalquivir had other clear impacts, such as the diverse and rich wetland system.
dredging of the shipping canal between Sanlucar and Seville thus

125
The image, built up
from a Digital Surface
Model developed for
the Doñana Marshes,
clearly shows the sub-
tle network of the
hydrographical system.
The intersection of the
two channels, Caño
Madre de las Marismas
and Caño Guadiamar,
can be seen on the left,
both of which converge
into a channel known
as Caño de Brenes. On
the right, the Travieso
channel can be clearly
seen, and at the bot-
tom, the Lucio de los
Ansares. The scale gives
a clear idea of how the
slight variations in the
terrain define the par-
ticular hydrological
system of Doñana..

Elevation (m a.s.l.)
 Since the earlier tidal influence has been lost, the variable water surfaces that create the Doñana landscapes now depend almost exclusively on the input of
water from rains and floodwaters of the rivers and streams that flow into the great trough that is home to the Marshes. In this picture, water is leaving the
Marshes for the estuary by the Old Cherry canal during a period of flooding (note the muddy waters and near-full canal).
Photograph: CENEAM files.

- The draining and desalination of mainland marshes on the right Hidrológica del Guadalquivir) and it is aimed at maintaining low
bank (10,000 ha), under the auspices of state promoted projects salinity (under 4g/l) waters in order to use them to irrigate rice
and private initiatives, forming a fringe of transformed areas paddy fields.
around National Park marshes. - Major flash flooding has diminished or been reduced excessively
- The regulation of the Guadalquivir River basin with 52 large by the headwater irrigation trenching. So inputs to the
dams.The winter maximum floods (bujarretes) have disappeared Guadalquivir when these would have coincided with high tides
and the maximum river flow is now in late summer. This flow is have been reduced.
wholly controlled by River Authority (Confederación - The construction of drainage canals and retaining walls to pro-

127
 ging wells to draw on what were then considered to be inex-
haustible water table resources. Private owners fuelled changes,
bringing new areas into cultivation, including the rice fields in
Hato Raton. In most cases, this has led to falls in water table
levels, with springs in depressions drying up and some old
"lucios" disappearing.
- Concentrating surface drainage in a new canal bordered with
walls in the Partido stream, causing erosion in the channel and its
banks, an increase in the transport of sands, and the consequent
The image shows a reproduction of an early meteorological record entry
formation of a sandy delta of some 300 ha that now covers part
of 1888, an exceptionally wet year. To the early decades of the 20th century of the National Park Marshes in the proximity of the village of El
the inhabitants of Doñana district faced the challenge of the changing
waters: cycles of floods and droughts, storms, overflowing of the streams Rocío.
and the major floods of the Guadalquivir River. An extract from Murray's - Planting of eucalyptus groves in areas of what is now the Nature
narrative gives us a good idea of this view:
"The Guadalquivir… when it reaches Seville, gradually casts off its fine Park. This has provoked an increase in transpiration and falling
clothing until it becomes little more than an enormous canal that winds water table levels in zones like El Abalario, which has led to the
across the great plain; when the steamer we are travelling in rounds its
bends, one after another, the spectacle that opens before our eyes is far drying out or shrinking of the local ponds. Ribetehilos pond is a
from picturesque, and the only living thing to be seen are the vast herds of clear example of this, with a drastic decline of aquatic resources
bulls that graze on its banks. And these animals are walking on treacher-
ous ground, as they are just a few palms above the water level, and, there- and clean spring water.
fore, exposed to frequent floods that carry them away, as happened to
thousands of head of cattle in the winter of 1837, when the incessant rains
- Extracting water from the water table to supply new settle-
swelled the flow of the "great river" in a way that the inhabitants of its ments, such as Matalascañas tourist resort. Cones of depression
banks had never seen before. It was not only these pastures that were
underwater, the entire countryside around Seville was turned into a wide
resulted, which penetrate into the National Park and can be felt
sheet of water with isolated villages sticking up above the water here and as far as Charco del Toro. In the same way, the extraction of
there; not even the city escaped the catastrophe, as all the neighbourhoods
close to La Alameda were flooded and impassable for several days." groundwater in the municipal districts of Almonte, Hinojos and
Source: R.D.Murray. 1849 The Cities and Wilds of Andalusia. 2 vol. R. Bentley Ed. Vilamanrique have caused a general fall in water table levels in
the Nature Park and the surrounding area.The level has fallen by
tect crops from the flash flooding of the Guadiamar, the Torre as much as 20 m in Villamanrique (NE of the Park).
Branch (Brazo de La Torre), the Cigüeña and Partido streams Faced with this situation, it would be worth considering the
(Arroyo de la Cigüeña and Arroyo del Partido) and the River obvious: the changes that have been wrought on many wetlands
Guadalquivir.This has led to a fragmentation of water resources. through the pressures of human activity over time, is causing them
- The decline in the tidal function of the Torre Branch since the to shift towards a new scenario. In relative terms, this is a different
turn of the century.This was a consequence of building the regu- and sometimes equally as diverse and valuable scenario. In fact, very
lation reservoirs mentioned above, together with the digging and
dredging work carried out in the River Guadalquivir to facilitate
shipping.This aspect is especially worrying because of the reper-
cussions it has on fish life.
- The loss of functionality of the Guadiamar and Travieso channels.
The first case came about in 1955 when diversions to the
Guadiamar River were constructed in order to clean up the land
for later cultivation.Then, the Travieso channel lost its connection
when they converted Caracoles estate to polders in 1969. In this
way, waters were prevented from continuing to flood former
marshes (Marisma Gallega, Cantarita, Caracoles and Isla Mayor),
thus reducing the marshes to a mere one third of their original The Fernandina Cut (Corta Fernandina) was made in 1816, isolating the
area. Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) from the Guadalquivir and, therefore only
receiving water inputs from the Guadiamar River. The picture shows the
- The transformation of sectors II and III of the Almonte-Marismas drawing of this canal at the time, opened at the Island called Isla Menor
Plan, which cleared extensive areas of brush and large areas of by the Compañía de Navegación in 1816.
Source: Port of Seville Archives.
forest to the north and east of El Rocío, levelling the land and dig-

128
 FIGURE 3
The great Marsh plain has always been subjected to a variable regime of flooding that depends on rainfall and the flows provided by the watercourses that feed
into it. The flooding process starts slowly but surely between October and November, and, in natural conditions, the Marshes continue to fill until they reach
the high water line defined by the lowest area of the right levee or bank of the Guadalquivir, at the area known as Las Salinas or Los Rompidos. The sequence
of images, according to the Digital Surface Model, shows us how the flooded areas evolve, depending on the level reached by the water in the flooding-drain-
ing process, providing an excellent tool for studying and zoning the different aquatic ecosystems. The water mass that fills corresponds with the Lucio de los
Ansares.

129
 The changes induced in many wetlands by the pressure of human activity, has pushed them toward new scenarios, scenarios that are different and in some
cases flourishing with new forms of diversity. But, most of the changes in the hydrological system carried out between 1950 and 1980 can no longer be justified
from any perspective. Alleviating the effects makes up an important part of the new challenges facing the hydrological restoration of Doñana, as these have
now translated into specific initiatives like the Doñana 2005 Project and the Guadiamar Green Corridor. In the image, flamingos are seen in the marshes.
Photo by José María Pérez de Ayala.

few marshland areas are now in a strictly "natural" state. Corridor. It is not just a question of correcting the effects of his-
Nevertheless, most of the changes listed go beyond this abstract toric cultural treatment of our natural heritage; it is simply about
threshold.They cannot be justified any longer.We have abandoned cleaning up after the absurd decisions taken in certain decades of
the development whims of the past and the historic mistakes the 20th century, with a view to establishing a hydrological basis that
caused by scientific ignorance of the biological legacy the area is will allow the marshes to survive in a dynamic world.
home to. In contrasting how the water cycle worked in the recent past
This is the context, the new challenge and the basic work to do when the main rivers and streams draining into the marshes had
in restoring the water cycle in Doñana. It has begun translating into full use of their free space, we can illustrate with current points of
initiatives like the Doñana 2005 Project and the Guadiamar Green reference. It is enough to highlight some examples of indicator
species that have now disappeared completely, or which are seri-
ously endangered by a loss of, or modification to their habitat. In
the case of waterfowl, we could mention the great bittern
(Botaurus stellaris) that used to maintain a large breeding popula-
tion that no longer exists because of the disappearance or degra-
dation of large formations of helophyte vegetation; the glossy ibis
(Plegadis falcinellus), which disappeared as a breeding species in the
1950s following the disappearance of bulrushes when major trans-
formation of the marshes started, although recovery of this species
has now been triggered; the marbled teal (Marmaronetta angu-
stirostris), which almost disappeared because of changes to the
clear water marsh system; and finally the white headed duck
(Oxyura leucocephala) that requires the deep waters of certain
areas that used to remain flooded for long periods of time.
Although less visible, other important changes have taken place
A view of the Santa Olalla pond. It is the largest pond in the dune area of in the waters of Doñana.These concern aspects related to water
Doñana. Its variable regime is clearly shown by its desiccation happened
several times in the last decades. Nevertheless, in 1624 King Philip IV was "quality" in the broadest sense of the word, something that has only
hunting in this area on a large boat for the whole day. The mute swan become a cause for concern in the world of conservation in recent
(Cygnus olor) was breeding in this pond until 1750. It is a pesent one of the
sites where the white headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala) has started breed- decades, yet it is possibly just as important as the challenges of
ing again.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.
restoring the natural hydrological functioning of the water systems.
A general understanding of these waters, and especially the

130
influence of these other water properties, is certainly recent. We
know that during the 19th century, chemists started to document
the major changes in composition and that, later on, with the
appearance of microbiology, studies of small aquatic organisms
began. Limnology combined physics and biology to understand how
different water masses work and, in the 20th century, integrated
responses to the effects of human intervention were first offered.
Applying molecular techniques to identify micro-organisms has
recently revealed an astonishingly diverse panorama of life. Old
species are made up of a multitude of lines that differ widely in their
activity, production of toxins, smells and irritant molecules.
Advances in analysis, in turn, providing access to concentrations of Ship navigating on the River Guadalquivir seen from the Doñana Marshes.
Photograph kindly provided by the Seville Port Authority.
less than 1 ppb, are now discovering compounds that have come
from drugs like female hormones, beta-blockers, anti-inflammatory - Discharges from Villamanrique into the Cigüeña stream (Arroyo
medication, antibiotics, cosmetics like ceramides and cleansing de la Cigüeña) and urban and industrial waste from Pilas,
products like tensio-actives in our waters, apart from the weed Aznacazar, Hinojos, and Sanlucar la Mayor, with little or no treat-
killers and pesticides that we already know about. Even in these ment, still reach the Guadiamar River today. The river also still
concentrations, some of these molecules have been shown to have suffers spills of brine, oil press dregs and untreated urban efflu-
harmful biological effects. ent.
We are, therefore, entering a scenario of an ecological mutation - The Aznacollar mining basin, exploited almost since early times
in aquatic resources, caused by chemical changes and by the intro- but far more intensely from the 18th century on, has accumulat-
duction of biological species and strains from other areas. Almost ed a large volume of slag.This has sustained profound long-term
the entire drainage network is affected by these kinds of impacts, levels of contamination at the head of the Guadiamar River, via
as pollutant substances are used in all human and agricultural set- the Agrio tributary. Its acid waters which, in times of low water
tlements, including those in the Doñana area. contain dissolved metals, have been documented in the mid
All of this forces us to take a broader view of the management stretch of the Guadiamar River since the 1970s3. But a new phase
of Doñana, a view that encompasses the basins. For even if we
resolved the main aspects of the ecological restoration of the sur-
face waters, the invisible effects on the quality of the Doñana's
water sources would persist.
A sample of data and events show how far we still have to go
to strike a harmonious balance with an ecosystem as exceptional
as Doñana:
- The urban spread represented by the Matalascañas tourist
resort, set in the very borders of the National Park and with
summer peaks of 175,000 inhabitants, generates a large volume
of wastewater that affects the shoreline at this time of year.
However, in recent years these affects have been resolved since
the installation of a wastewater treatment plant, including terti-
ary treatment that might meet the demands of golf-course irri-
gation.
- The growth of Almonte, and to a lesser extent Rociana and the
This orthophoto shows us part of the advancing dune system, interrupted
disastrous state of its collectors and the wastewater treatment
by the green strips of the "corrales". The marsh is practically dry. Beyond
plant, mean that the Santa Maria stream, that later changes its the sands of wandering dunes we can observe a green-coloured area of
sands saturated by the water springing from the aquifer, which are cov-
name to El Partido stream, receives raw wastewater or half- ered of woody vegetation. In a different colour, on the bottom-right, the El
treated spills that contaminate it before passing on these effects Hondón pond, fed by springing water.
Orthophoto: Ayesa.
to the marshes of the National Park.

131
 itor the water mass.
The Guadalquivir Hydrographical Authority (Confederación
Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir) has been systematically monitoring
water quality in Doñana since 1989, using its 18-point monitoring
network that includes all surface watercourses that affect or feed
Doñana, plus other points in the interior of the marshes.An under-
standing of the water quality data, heightened by the Aznacollar
accident, has made it possible to alert the authorities about this
new dimension in the management of water resources associated
with Doñana, and a wide range of actions has now been implement-
ed.There has been a substantial reduction in the organic pollution
recorded in El Partido stream and the Guadiamar River. This has
managed to put a brake on the onerous wastewater problem that
used to affect the National Park.
Nevertheless, in the face of this complex scenario, in which it is
essential to admit that even if the main sources of pollution are
eliminated, the collateral effects will take a certain time to disap-
pear, Doñana comes up with new surprises, as always. In this terri-
tory, certain water masses are still conserved that maintain a pris-
FIGURE 4
tine composition. This is of great importance for science, as it
Layout of the ponds fed by groundwater in Greater Doñana makes it possible to work on its ecosystems in conditions that no
On the edge of the Marshes, where the caños and lucios are highlighted,
peri-dune ponds can be seen, laid out along the sandy rim that borders longer exist in the rest of the park.These are the spring waters in
the flood zone, all of which are integrated within the National Park. To the
the Nature Park and National Park that are fed by the aquifer sys-
left, the string of ponds in the El Abalario area can be seen below the
stream known as Arroyo de La Rocina. Most of them fall within the Nature tem, and they do not currently present any evidence of pollution.
Park, where there is a group of peaty ponds that have undergone one of
the most interesting restoration operations of recent times in Doñana.
In this way, the El Abalario ponds in the Nature Park and the 'peri-
dune' ponds of the National Park have become biochemical yard-
sticks, natural controls of the state of surface waters and every
in mining was initiated in 1990, which managed to accumulate effort must be made towards their conservation.
nearly 6 hm3 of excess minerals, mostly finely ground pyrites and
arsenopyrites, in a pool next to El Agrio. It spilled when the banks THE SURFACE WATER DILEMMA:
of the pool dramatically burst in 1988. THE FIRST SIGNS OF DRYING OUT
- Seville's wastewater treatment is very good, but the Estuary The first publications on the study of insects in 1971, suggest-
receives the discharges and spills from the towns of Alcalá del ed that the marshes were, in fact, made up of a mosaic of different
Río, La Algaba, Santiponce, Camas, Sanjuán, Gines, El Aljarafe, water masses that varied greatly in depth, duration, mineral content
Coria and La Puebla on the right bank, and from La Rinconda and and chemical composition2.Aguilar Amat, Ramírez Diaz and Montes
its industrial estates on the left bank. Moreover, other inland conducted the first numeric analyses of the chemical characteris-
towns, like Utrera and Los Palacios, only partially treat their tics of the waters of the Marshes, and, with Antonio Torres, they
wastewater, which ultimately reaches the Estuary or its tributar- published an ecological map of the National Park in 1977, a map
ies. This depressing picture means that the last stretch of the that is still consulted today3.
Estuary, which forms part of the National Park, is polluted and From a more detailed insight into all water-related aspects, the
eutrophicated, creating a strange need to, at least partially, dis- first attempts at explaining the heterogeneity of the Marshes have
connect Doñana from the Guadalquivir. been taken, based on hydrological structures that cause the chem-
- The first incident of massive waterfowl poisoning was detected ical and physical variations in the water. Being such an extensive ter-
in 1970, causing recurrent spates of deaths during summer.The ritory with over 30,000 ha of floodable land, studies of it with tra-
1972 episode was estimated to have taken 40,000 birds, the 1986 ditional instruments advanced very slowly, until recent decades
episode 22,000 and there were other less deadly episodes in the when remote sensors and refined procedures for accurate topo-
1990s, until measures were taken to collect dead birds and mon- graphical surveying have become available.

132
 The first interpretation trials, dating from 1977, used satellite heading the IRYDA project, accepted the task as a crusade against
images from the Landstat Satellite (then ERTS-1)4, giving a water a hostile natural environment, to push back the agricultural fron-
surface area of 26,000 ha. Sufficiently powerful computer-support- tiers beyond the barren lands of the marshes. In his words, he was
ed numeric models for making fine numeric simulations in the "rescuing the marshes and cotos (stable sand dunes)."
marshes were not accessible until the 1990s. Hence, topography The plan's proposal took into account the low revenues from
accurate to the millimetre and numeric flooding models have only the area involved, the climate that was ideal for fruit orchards, and
been available since early 2004, after the development of a marsh- the fact that there were annual inputs into the aquifer (overestimat-
es modelling project. This has been promoted since the Doñana ed by 400 hm3). The plan ignored the ecological impacts, despite
2005 Project, with the support of the Inter-ministerial Commission their clear inclusion in a preliminary report by Herteaux6 (1970). It
of Science and Technology (CICYT). was mistakenly accepted that the entire local population of farm
It is feasible that the recent history of water in Doñana might workers would find employment in the production of the new
have been written differently, had we had the means and knowledge high-tech crops.The slow implementation of the plan delayed crop
that we have now. In 1970, the FAO5 report drew attention to an production and water extractions until 1980, with some 14,000 ha
important aquifer with high quality waters, capable of supporting an being prepared for irrigation, of which some 4000 ha were distrib-
extensive irrigation area of sandy soils. In 1971, the Almonte- uted among settlers and their co-operatives, although not all of this
Marismas Plan was declared a Zone of National Interest with an land was farmed. On the other hand (and not included in the land
area of 45,960 ha, 30,000 of which could be irrigated. Sandy soils area of the plan) the private sector had started farming a larger
were brought under the plough by irrigating them with groundwa- area of land and the volume of water extracted in 1990 was around
ter. The transformation of the marshes grew by way of drying them 50-55 hm3 per year12. And so, from 1972 onwards, the historic
out and desalinating the soil with deep drains. Grande Covian, wilderness of Doñana and its marshes was to suffer anew from the

The inundation of the marshes seen from the satellite.

The sequence of Landsat satellite images, taken over several years, clearly shows the water filling of the Marshes. The inundation starts slowly and progressive-
ly between October and November, the flooding phase lasting usually until February-March, when equilibrium levels between water intake and evapo-transpi-
ration are reached. Then losses from evapo-transpiration increase, leading to a progressive desiccation of the marshes, followed by the summer drought that
close the cycle.
Image montage made by Carlos Urdiales.

133
 chaos of the state maintaining ownership of plots of land that were
not always farmed, but which did act as collateral to guarantee the
loans of their tenants to finance other sectors.After years of neg-
lect, some of the pumps and irrigation systems fell into ruin until
the administration took over the debts in the nineties, taking back
these plots of land and redistributing them, but this time with deeds
of ownership.
The private sector created plantations of citric fruits, stone
fruit and strawberries outside of the Almonte-Marismas Plan, occu-
pying scrublands or by clearing forests.The entire area of the Palos
ponds was occupied, despite being declared a protected area. On
the banks of the Odiel estuary, the small Pliocene hills were flat-
The Almonte-Marismas Plan represented the 'point of no return' for tened to fill in the depressions that used to able to fill up as ponds
nature, due to the extensive farming on sands in the area of Doñana which
has not ceased expanding and has become more and more mechanised, or bogs and cover the tidal marshes.This process of encroachment
constantly increasing the extractions of water. The private sector had converted the public domain of shoreline, municipal countryside
already created a large, 223 ha, strawberry plantation near Mazagon, with
the help of peat taken from Las Madres lagoon, which turned out to be the and woodlands into private plantations, with the support of local
best agricultural option. Hence, farming that had spread in the eighties to
authorities and the acquiescence of the public administration.
Moguer, Palos and Lucerna, now spreads to the Almonte-Marismas and to
Lepe-Isla Cristina to the west of the Odiel River, making Huelva the lead- The current intensive farming of Sector II is highly productive,
ing European strawberry producer.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.
exporting strawberries to European markets, and is now starting to
diversify into raspberries, with pilots of garden flowers and plants.
interference of this plan - on top of the polderisation that had The old Sectors I-Villamanrique and II-El Rocío have been restruc-
started in 1918, the stabilization of the dunes with pine trees in tured and Sector III Marshes have been mostly abandoned. The
1938, the planting of eucalyptus in 1941 and the urbanization of owners of Hato Blanco have turned an area of sandy soils into rice
Matalascañas after 1968. fields, using groundwater in what could be described as the most
The agricultural trials carried out on the transformed sandy incoherent case of farming in the region.
soils produced mediocre results in citric and stone fruits, because, The ecological impacts of this profound transformation can be
in much of the region, there was a ferruginous base layer just a few assigned to a range of different processes. Firstly, there is, the
decimetres below the surface. This layer tended to cause a small destruction of the vegetation cover and soils in the sandy areas
hanging water table, causing puddles to form in the area and pre- (sectors I and II). Then, there is the concentration of the surface
venting roots from growing. But, at the same time, the private sec- drainage network in two artificial canals to replace the Marin chan-
tor created a large, 223 ha plantation of strawberry fields near nel (Caño Marín) and the Partido stream and preventing them from
Mazagon, with the aid of peat dug from Las Madres lagoon, which working as inter-connected water courses connected to the
turned out to be the best agricultural option.Thus, the crops that Cañada Mayor to the East, during times of flooding. And finally,
spread to Moguer, Palos and Lucena in the eighties extended to there is the draining of wetlands dotted with small canals, pools,
the Almonte-Marismas Plan and to Lepe-Isla Cristina to the west temporary ponds and lucios, which used to covered the Guadiamar
of the Odiel River. overflow area and drained into the Travieso channel and the
At a practical level, the farmers of Almonte, Hinojos and Guadiamar River, joining the Brenes channel (Caño de Brenes) and
Villamanrique were used to small irrigated fields and orchards, and the Madre de las Marismas, and finally draining into the Torre
larger plots for dry land farming, using old-fashioned farming meth- Branch.
ods like the hoe and animal power. The plots offered in 1980 by A combination of drains and canals with earth banks to con-
the Almonte-Marismas Plan averaged 17.5 ha per family and were fine the floods, have transformed the Guadiamar River and the
mechanized farms, endowed with wells that were equipped with Cigüeña stream - a tributary on the right bank, into almost ruler-
submerged pumps and electricity connections. They were designed straight watercourses at almost sea level to provide maximum
for an entrepreneurial mentality in a slick export market, with agri- drainage.The upper stretch of the Torre Branch - which ran east,
cultural services, warehouses and a processing industry. None of was reduced to nothing, the Guadiamar and Travieso almost disap-
these things had existed in the local farming of the time. So, the peared and the Torre Branch was narrowed and filled in.There was
take-off of these crops was slow in the context of administrative an enormous geo-morphological transformation and the old

134
Doñana marshes lost their water inputs from the Guadiamar River Ecology Department of the Hispalense University in Seville. The
and the Cigüeña, and were cut off from the Torre Branch.The water Doñagua Project, conducted by the Universities of Granada and
flowed only along the canals and the great wetland had been bro- Seville, created a piezometric network with impressive continuous
ken up into fragments. recordings.The works of the Institute of Geology and Mining and
As the agricultural changes advanced, other impacts made the CEDEX continued, with isotopic studies of the waters. The
themselves felt: swapping the scrubland, pastures and woodland for Complutense Universities and Catalonia Polytechnic set up new
farmland, with its power lines, metal fences, wells, huts and rubbish surveys, which were implemented first by the Geological Services
dumps among other things.The increase in the population and the of MOPU and later by the Guadalquivir Hydrological
extension of the water supply into Almonte, Rociana and Bollullos Confederation.The National Park ranger service started recording
increased discharges into the Santa María and Partido streams.The systematic piezometer readings and the surface levels that were to
waste from Hinojos, Pilas,Villamanrique and Aznalcazar affected the generate data sets and make it possible to analyse the problem
Alcarayon stream and the Guadiamar River. On top of the urban quantitatively9.
waste, there was also untreated industrial waste from olive oil At this time, Professor Ramon Llamas coined the term
plants, wineries, poultry farms, workshops and other installations. "daimielisation" (in reference to the problems faced by Las Tablas
Mining activity in Aznacollar produced acid waters with a high de Daimiel - Damiel's Tables) for the process of a natural area dry-
metal content that flowed into the Guadiamar River at low waters. ing out due to an overexploitation of the aquifer, and the term won
Contaminated water invading Doñana began to exceed the self- wide acceptance, with debates on whether Doñana was indeed fac-
purifying capacity of its tributaries. ing these circumstances.The water problems vary from one sector
Nature can maintain its balance with human activity for long to another, according to findings from analyses developed by the
periods of time, sometimes for centuries. But in some cases, the team of Josep Dolz of the Polytechnic University of Catalonia. In
introduction of new technologies or a major intervention mark a the north, surface flows have been reduced and untreated waste-
threshold, when nature is forced to sound the retreat before find- water is discharged into the Doñana Marshes and the streams.
ing a new balance.The Almonte-Marismas Plan represented such a Agricultural water consumption has caused a fall of several metres
major threshold because it triggered cultivation of the sands in the in Sector III (Villamanrique) and to a lesser extent, some five
Doñana area. The process has not stopped expanding and has metres, in Sector II (El Rocío). Concentrating water flows in the
become more technological and mechanized, extracting increasing Partido stream increases the transport of sands, and a delta is start-
quantities of water, generating ever more agricultural waste so that ing to appear over the marshes, next to El Rocío. Channelling the
the effects of using agrochemicals are more prominent.
Fortunately for conservation, although the Almonte-Marismas
Plan was implemented without any consideration given to the envi-
ronment, at least it was implemented slowly. It was developed dur-
ing the 'golden decade' of the 70s, at the same time as the National
Park was extended (1969-79), in coincidence with the change of
political regime in Spain. In 1969, the Decree that created the Park
was published in the same issue of the Spanish Official Gazette as
the FAO Experimental Plot for future crop trials.And poor admin-
istrative co-ordination led to an overlap of some hectares between
the park and the plot. Ten years later, the Park was extended at the
expense of Sector II, fragmenting it because the Rocina stream was
protected, and exploiting the aquifer was brought into doubt.
The effects of pumping were revealed in the eighties as alarm-
ing, causing concern among conservationists. But sufficient informa-
tion had become available to discover the actual extent of these
Prof. Ramon Llamas coined the term "daimielisation" (in reference to the
effects. The hydrology of the lower Guadalquivir River had been problems faced by Las Tablas de Daimiel, or Damiel's Tables) for the process
outlined by Vanney in 1970.This was a starting point for hydro-geo- of a natural area drying out due to an overexploitation of the aquifer, and
the term won wide acceptance, with debates on whether Doñana was
logical studies that linked up with the surface hydrology studies in indeed facing these circumstances.
the reserve and the limnology studies started in 1970 by the Photograph: CENEAM. Files.

135
 La Vera, the grassy edge of the Marshes, may receive all three
kinds of input after episodes of intense winter rains during wet
cycles. The massive discharges flood the edge of the marshes and
create watercourses hundreds of metres wide, as in the case of El
Martinazo, where the flowing surface area is over a kilometre wide.
The marsh sediment of silt and clay is almost impermeable and the
upward flow it allows is very weak, except where it emerges in par-
ticular clusters, the so-called "Eyes" (Ojos) of the Marshes.The cur-
rent piezometric decline means that vertical flow has changed
direction, and perhaps the surface waters now slowly filter down.
During dry cycles, the aquifer levels behave differently. The
hydrophytic vegetation and ponds in the National Park that are fed
The proposal of the Almonte-Marismas Plan was based on the low rent of
the zones for intervention and on the favourable climate for fruit growing. by them show tendencies that vary greatly in time and in chemical
However, the capacity of the aquifer was over-estimated and it ignored composition, affecting the nutrient dynamics and the progression of
the ecological impacts, despite these already being clearly pointed out in a
preliminary report by Herteaux in 1970. The image shows a view of a strip plankton.The Limnology Group from Hispalense University, head-
of the marshland edge where it meets the sand.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
ed up by Julia Toja, has done intense research on the peri-dune
ponds, the composition of the phytoplankton and zooplankton, the
Guadiamar River prevents flooding of the marshes in winter. In his annual fluctuations in nutrients and the effect of the bank vegeta-
contributions, Benigno Bayán details the steps in the process of tion and water run-off on the chemical composition of the ponds.
hydraulic transformation and J.A. Mintegui describes the changes in A pioneering article by Ramon Margalef on the plankton of the
the Partido stream regime, after all these complex and necessary ponds that addresses this aspect has been included in this book, as
interventions to prevent the growth of sandy deltas over the a tribute to this great limnologist.This intense work has produced
marshes. Finally, wells have been dug on the borders of the park to a classifying system for water masses in the sandy substrate of the
supply the Matalascañas resort and the depression cones have National Park, as well as long data sets on the ponds of Santa Olalla,
reached as far as Charco del Toro pond. Dulce,Taraje, Zahillo,Verde, Charco del Toro and Las Pajas.
The accumulated evidence has shown that, since the 1980s, Other authors have studied different aspects of the ponds, like
there has been a fall in the deep piezometer readings of the the sediments and water balance, macro-invertebrates and the sub-
National Park near the areas where water is drawn. Research merged macrophyte vegetation.Apart from the peri-dune ponds of
conducted in this field has allowed us to understand that, between the National Park, the ponds of El Abalario, located in the Nature
the main aquifer and the surface, there are interspersed water Park, have been studied by Pablo Garcia Murillo and his group, com-
retardants - detrital clay or silt formations, and localised layers of prising another set of facts that have attracted scientific attention.
peat and that diminish the vertical flow of the water. This provides Obviously, the Marshes themselves have also been studied in depth.
the conditions for a surface aquifer, whose discharges are impor- For example, El Lucio del Cangrejo is the object of a multi-discipli-
tant from an ecological point of view. Studies carried out by Muñoz nary study that began in 2003. This includes the study of macro-
Reinoso have shown the relations between the levels of the invertebrates, waterfowl, fish and shoreline vegetation.
aquifer, the discharges in different topographic situations and their Hydro-geological evidence and a large part of all the scientific
role in the vegetation21. This has re-evaluated the 1975 Gonzalez work done demonstrate that conserving the diversity of Doñana
Bernaldez model of the relationship between topography and and the flows of the surface water masses cannot be separated
scrub composition. On sandy ground, in times of heavy rains, the from maintaining the aquifer in close to natural conditions. So
emergence of spring waters with low electric conductivity spreads water extraction has to be reduced to levels that will guarantee the
to the small depressions.Annual rains, concentrated in autumn and sustainability of the ecosystems, whilst at the same time the chem-
winter, feed the surface aquifer, which then discharges into the ical composition must be monitored to ensure that this is not
extensive depressions. Part of the annual infiltration makes it altered by discharges or pollutants. In 1992, the "Ruling of the
down to the lower aquifer, the level of which follows a multi-year International Commission of Experts on the Sustainable
cycle, feeding ponds and lower zones and the grassland area of La Development of Greater Doñana"13 proposed reducing the level of
Vera. These waters have a higher conductivity than the intermedi- water extractions and to maintain them at a level of 55-60
ate ones and they can reach hyper-saline concentrations. hm3/year, a target that has yet to be reached.

136
The geomorphological JOAQUÍN RODRÍGUEZ VIDAL *

evolution of Doñana

FIGURE 1 Strabo, the famous Roman historian, wrote of the existence of

two mouths to the Guadalquivir River, with an inland lake (Lacus
Ligustinus) from which two channels flowed to the sea. Between
the channels was, according to oral tradition, an island on which
a city with the same name as the river was situated,Tartessos, the
capital city of a mining and trading emporium located in the
south-eastern lands of the Iberian Peninsula; the kingdom of the
legendary Argantonius (between 630 and 550 BC).
The geomorphological research carried out in Doñana and
the Gulf of Cadiz has allowed us to distinguish up to 5 evolution-
ary episodes.The three oldest, dating from 30,000 to 2600 BP, are
stabilised and cover a large area spreading out towards the inte-
rior of the continent. The two most modern (in historical time)
are found on the coastal zone, are smaller in extent and frequent-
ly overlapping, and comprise the most outstanding dune complex-
es. In some sectors the dune systems have encroached upon the
marshland and eclipse it, in the same way that they are superim-
posed upon the older dune systems. These dune systems inter-
face with a network of freshwater ponds, of which the Santa
Olalla is the most significant, created by the discharge from the
water table underlying the dune fronts.
The migration of the active dune systems is approximately
north-east with a variable rate of movement of 5 m/year. The
dune morphology is asymmetric, with a longer leeward slope and
aeolian deflation depressions, locally known as "corrales".

G eology tells its tale within a framework of millions of

years and Doñana is, geologically speaking, just a bird
passing in flight. Its origins date back only six thousand years while
With regard to coastal barriers, the most outstanding is the
coastal stretch of Doñana, on the right bank of the Guadalquivir

its present appearance goes back only about two thousand.

Doñana is nothing more than a large estuary that was formed
during the last rise in sea level, the same general level that still
exists today, and which determines the wetlands' maximum sheet
of water.
Since then, the deep estuary of the Guadalquivir River has
been filling with the sediments brought by river floodwaters, by
tides, and by Atlantic currents and storms, as well as the sands
blown by the winds in the form of dunes.This slow but continu-
ous work the different environments that we now know and
enjoy.

* Professor of External Geodynamics, Department of Geodynamics and Palaeontology,

University of Huelva, Spain. Doñana and the Gulf of Cadiz in its early evolutionary stage.

137
 River and La Algaida on the left bank. Both were initially formed the present. All advance phases were separated by successive
by the deposition of beach material, and are disfigured on the erosion phases. The extensive area situated behind the coastal
most part by the dunes that are encroaching upon the mouth of strands is occupied by fluvial-coastal formations; these are the
the estuary. Guadalquivir marshlands. Sediment accumulation developed pro-
The coastal stretch of Doñana is the large coastal complex of gressively as the coastal formations encroached upon the estuary,
the Gulf of Cadiz; it presents an elongated form stretching 25 thus revealing the direct relationship between the two processes.
kilometres NNW-SSE and is the coastal prolongation of the El A variety of diverse morphologies resulting from the intense
Asperillo Sandcliffs. In its morphology it is possible to distinguish fluvial-tidal dynamics can be distinguished within the marshland.
several minor episodes of progradation (infilling or accretion There are oxbow lakes filled in by silting, ancient levees, alluvial
towards the interior of the estuary) formed by beach crests and fans, and what are known as "vetas". Vetas are sandy spits with
troughs: these are the Marismilla and San Jacinto spits to the far remnants of malacofauna, which seem to stem from intensive ero-
SE of the strand. Dating of these ancient beaches reveals a recent sive events, such as storms and tsunamis.The most ancient vetas
advance of the coast (during the last 2,000 years) of about 2-4 are the Carrizosa and the Veta la Arena, dating from 4755 BP,
m/year. while the most recent are La Plancha and Vetalengua, dating from
On the opposite bank of the mouth of the Guadalquivir is the 1808 and 1753 BP.
La Algaida spit the coastal prolongation of the Chipiona-Sanlucar Natural estuarine areas of the type of Doñana are fragile, sen-
de Barrameda section measuring 12 kilometres SSW-NNE. It is sitive to change and transform rapidly. Doñana's landscape evolu-
completely bordered by marshes which denote its relict charac- tion, aided by human intervention, tells us that it is currently in a
ter. Although it has undergone subsequent changes, the origins of state of advanced maturity, without being old.When old-age does
this sedimentary formation dates back prior to 2500 BP. arrive, and it could be very soon, the landscape will change into a
The coastal systems of this sector of the Atlantic were wide desiccated coastal plain with no marshlands, upon which the
formed during several phases of coastal advance (Figure 1). The dunes will advance inland.The mouth of the Guadalquivir will be
first, established at a regional level, and occurring between 6500 completely fluvial, with scant tidal influence and will advance into
and 4700 BP, the second between 4200 and 2500 BP, the third the sea creating a deltaic point that will shift slowly towards the
between 2200 and 1100 BP, and the fourth between 1000 BP and southeast and will join with the Punta del Malandar to the west,
and with the coast between Sanlúcar de Barrameda and Chipiona
to the east, transforming the present appearance of the territory.
This prediction of the evolution of Doñana is common to
nearly all tidal estuaries, and it should proceed thus, excepting
human modifications that, almost surely, would accelerate the
siltation processes of the Doñana Marshes.
The future management of Doñana National
Park and its surroundings, perhaps the area
most sensitive to change of all
Spanish coasts, will be debat-

The migration of the active dune systems is approximately north-eastern with a variable rate of movement of 5 m/year. The dune morphology is asymmetric,
with a longer leeward slope and aeolian deflation depressions, locally known as "corrales".
Photgraph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

138
ed between two models: that of its siltation and natural transfor- Natural estuarine areas of the type
mation into a dry coastal plain, and that of the gradual encroach- of Doñana are fragile, sensitive to
change and transform rapidly.
ment of the sea and coastal recession owing to the rise in sea Doñana's landscape evolution,
aided by human intervention, tells
level brought about by climate change. Society must take into us that it is currently in a state of
account that this unique area of nature is geologically ephemeral advanced maturity, without being
old.
and that its permanence should be achieved through human
measures under strict scientific control; decisions of any other
nature would not be beneficial towards conserving Doñana in a
state similar to its present condition.

The “Flecha de Doñana”, an arrow-shaped, 25 km-long coastal strand, is the prolongation of the El Asperillo sandcliffs. The image shows a partial view of the
“Flecha” close to the Marismillas pine grove, where the Visitor Centre of the National Park is located.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

139
Coto del Rey Palace. Doñana.
Photograph: CENEAM
The Doñana aquifer and M M E ARISOL ANZANO *, MILIO CUSTODIO **

its relations with the natural environment

T he district of Doñana contains a large sedimentary aquifer,

convening an area of about 3400 km2, that is of outstand-
ing environmental and human importance, as groundwater plays an
were contributed by the Pliocene fluvial network with its headwa-
ters in the high relief of what is now Sierra Morena, to the north
of Doñana.This Deltaic Unit is more developed to the north of the
essential role both in the generation and maintenance of a wide aquifer than to the west.To the south-east, under the marshes, the
variety of ecologically important natural habitats, and in the subsis- sediments become finer and less permeable and, therefore, from a
tence and development of a population that depends almost entire- hydraulic point of view they are considered part of the imperme-
ly on this groundwater for their domestic water supply and for able substrate of the aquifer.
crop irrigation.The formerly Aquifer 27 and now Aquifer 05-51 + - Beneath the marshes, the upper part of the Deltaic Unit is
04-14 in the catalog of the Geological Survey of Spain (IGME), is replaced by alluvial gravel layers deposited between the Pliocene
officially known as the Almonte-Marismas Hydrogeological Unit, and the Quaternary (Alluvial Unit in Figure 1).The Alluvial Unit lies
and in practice simply as the Doñana Aquifer. mainly under the marshes, where its thickness is up to about one
From the hydrogeological point of view it is an "aquifer system", hundred metres; its lateral extension is limited and to the south it
that is, a set of spatially and hydraulically interconnected units of dif- is interspersed with layers of much finer sediments (sands, silts and
ferent origin and ability for storing and transmitting water. It is clays) of marine platform and estuarine origin; they disappear
comprised of Pliocene (between 5 and 2 million years old) to before the present day coast line.The Alluvial Unit is covered by a
Quaternary (less than 2 million years old) sediments, deposited in fairly uniform layer (50 to 70 metres thick) of Quaternary silts and
the Guadiana-Guadalquivir rivers arc, over a thick (exceeding 2000 Soil CO2 sampling in a
m in places) substrate of Miocene (between 24 and 5 million years naturally vegetated area
of the wind-blown
old) blue marls, which acts as an impermeable base to the aquifer sands, to determine car-
throughout its extension. Most of the permeable sediments are bon isotopic composi-
tion in the aquifer
unconsolidated, fine grained ones that were deposited in fluvial- recharge area.
marine (coastal, alluvial, aeolian, estuarine, tidal) sedimentary envi- The amount of carbon-
14 dissolved in ground-
ronments.The aquifer system thickness varies spatially, from a max- water allows a reason-
imum in the south-east (>300 m under the Marshes, near the able estimation of water'
residence time in the
coast), to less than 100 m in the south-west (El Asperillo-El ground.
Photograph by Emilio Custodio.
Abalario), and to the north it ranges between 10 and 50 m thick.
Recent geological studies and works still in course65 explain the
aquifer geometry and its hydrological characteristics as a function clays of estuarine and tidal origin ("Marismas" Unit in Figure 1), and
of the environments in which it was formed and of the processes it is separated from the present sea shore by the coastal eolian
that led to the accumulation of the sediments. Figure 1 shows the sand spit of Matalascañas-Malandar, also dating from the
main geometrical and structural features: Quaternary Age.
- A layer of silts, loams and fine sands of deltaic origin, aged between - In the south-west sector of the aquifer the Deltaic Unit is far less
the Pliocene and the Pleistocene, was gradually deposited over the developed (less than 15 metres thick) and the Alluvial Unit seems
Miocene blue marls and the clayey-sandy sediments that cover to be absent, at least in the form of gravel deposits. A thick sedi-
them (Deltaic Unit in Figure 1; which corresponds to the Basal Silts mentary deposit (between 20 and 80 metres) of medium-grain
and Basal Sands of older studies) (IGME, 1982). These sediments sand, coming mainly from the continental shelf and the shoreline
relief of the Algarve-Huelva coastline, accumulated over the Deltaic
* Technical University of Cartagena, Spain.
Unit. Although it is called the Aeolian Unit (Figure 1), these sands
** Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain. have different origins: the deepest layers originated in a submerged

141
 FIGURE 1
Regional geology and geometry of the Doñana (or Almonte-Marismas) aquifer.

PLIO-C
PLIO-Q
CUATERNARIO
QUATERNARY TERCIARY (Miocene)
UM Unidad de Marismas.Arcillas
UE
UMUnidad
Marsh
Eólica.Arenas
Unit. Clays MA Blue marls Lucio (permanent shallow pond)
UD
UE Unidad Deltáica.Unit.
Aeolian LimosSands Sands and silts River, stream
UM Unida
UD Deltáic Unit. Silts National Park limit
UD Deltáic Unit. Sands Natural Park limit
UA Alluvial Unit. Sands and gravels
Alluvial deposits of the Guadiamar River

142
beach, the intermediate ones in an emerged beach and also from HOW THE AQUIFER SYSTEM WORKS
alluvial deposits, and the shallower ones have been wind The only water source to recharge the aquifer is the infiltration
borne.Actually, most of these sands have been re-worked through- of rainwater falling on the sands. Irrigation surpluses do not pro-
out the local geological history, shifting from one sedimentary envi- duce a net recharge, as irrigation is done with waters drawn from
ronment to another in later times.The upper layers, deposited by the aquifer itself, but they do modify the quality of groundwater.The
the wind during different dune episodes in the course of the scarce surface runoff does not provide much recharge either.The
Quaternary41, form what is known as the Doñana Coastal Aeolian regional water-table (Figure 2a) is a tight reproduction of the ter-
Mantle42,43, the second largest aeolian mantle in western Europe, rain topography, with some local modifications due to localised and
covering an area of some 400 km2. Interlayered with these sands intensive groundwater extractions.The figure shows that the rivers
there is a layer of marine clays that stretches from El Abalario vil- and streams are lineal groundwater discharges or drains, some of
lage to the east to connect with the clays of the marshes.This is the which are permanent and others seasonal. It also shows how the
result of an old westwards pulsation of the shoreline and, from a topography favours the formation of a piezometric dome in the
hydrogeological point of view; it differentiates the upper sands, western sector of the sands, whose highest altitude (some 60
which act as a water-table aquifer, from the lower ones, which metres) coincide with the highest topographic heights close to El
behave as a semi-confined aquifer53. Abalario village. On a regional scale, most of the groundwater
On a regional scale these Pliocene-Quaternary sediments, as a moves south and east from the sands and silts, that is, towards the
whole, create two perfectly differentiated hydrogeological areas, area where the aquifer becomes confined under the marshes, and
although they are side by side without a break and hydraulically towards the shore. On a local scale, part of the groundwater fol-
connected: lows other, shorter routes (towards the rivers, streams and
1. The sands, which cover the entire western sector from the Tinto lagoons).
River valley to the Guadalquivir River marshes, stretch north to An old well, close to Don Ignacio
Villamanrique de la Condesa and reach the Guadiamar River valley. house in La Vera. At an earlier time it
was a flowing well, at least during the
This river valley separates the Doñana aquifer from the Aljarafe wet season. Nowadays it is not flow-
aquifer (see Figure 1).The sands are the outcrop of the permeable ing due to the drawdown of the
piezometric levels caused by intense
materials of the aquifer system, and acts as an impluvium to aquifer groundwater pumping for irrigation
recharge from rain water. Until about 10 years ago, the whole sand of the areas S of La Rocina.
Photograph by Emilio Custodio
sector was considered a single water-table aquifer, but when the
Guadalquivir Water Authority (CHG) installed a network of nest- The south-east sector of the confined aquifer contains a large
ed piezometric observation stations it was confirmed that although mass of long residence time water (several thousand years) of high
the upper part of the sands and silts contains the water-table, deep- salinity.This is sea water that was trapped in the pores of the sed-
er down semi-confined layers can be clearly seen with different iments at their time of deposition, when the sea level raised after
piezometric levels due to the three-dimensional flow. This causes the low stand glaciation, or it is partly evaporated sea water in
upward and downward vertical flows at different spots of the lagoons or "lucios", and later modified by a series of physical and
aquifer, which play an important role in generating and maintaining chemical processes within the sediments55,57.The sea level went up
the natural habitats with the constant discharges into them of low fast about 10,000 years ago, and stabilised some 6000 years ago.
mineral-content fresh water on the western edge of the marshes, This saline water has not been displaced towards the sea by the
and also by maintaining the dense phreatic vegetation that thrives fresh water flowing from the cropping-out sands over the last few
in some areas. thousand years due to the flatness of the area.
2. The marshes, under whose clay sediments the gravels and sands The natural discharge of the aquifer system takes place in sev-
that make up the confined part of the aquifer's permeable sector are eral ways: into the sea along the entire coastal strip (the springs and
found.The clays and silts of the Marisma Unit also are part of the seepages of the El Asperillo-El Arenosillo cliff, to the west, are a
aquifer system, behaving as an aquitard with respect to the underly- good example of this, although most of the discharge occurs dif-
ing more permeable sediments.They contain connate salt water in fusely along the coast45); into the streams (Las Madres, La Rocina, El
their pores that has slowly been moved from the time of their for- Partido, Cañada de la Mayor, Río Loro, etc.) and rivers (lower
mation to the present day, mostly by upward vertical flow to the stretch of the Guadiamar and Tinto rivers); along the sand-clay
surface of the marshes51,64.The confined part of the aquifer accounts interface to the northern and western bounds of the marshes
for some 1800 of the 3400 km2 of the aquifer surface. (ecotone); by direct evaporation from the water-table (this is

143
 A

Lines with the same phreatic level

Elevation of the phreatic level (in metres) above the sea level

FIGURE 2
A) Regional piezometry of the Doñana and Aljarafe aquifers. B) Location of main pumping centres within the aquifer.
See geological legend in Figure 1.

favoured by its shallow depth in the western sector); through tran- the sea shore, and towards the different wetland types to be found
spiration of the phreatophytic vegetation (especially in the area in the inter-dune depression strips or "corrales"44. The confined
between El Abalario and La Rocina and between Los Cotos and the areas have flowing aquifer levels (with a piezometric level that is
marsh); as linear or diffuse discharges into shallow brooks, and above the surface height of the terrain), but the possible deep dis-
through the discharge, in periods of high levels, of phreatic water to charge into the sea is difficult to explain, as the fresh water head at
the hundreds of small wetlands (lagoons, vegetated stream belts the depth of the confined gravels is insufficient to off-set the pres-
and small topographic depressions) of different geo-morphological sure difference with sea water due to its greater density.This aspect
origin to be found on the surface of the Quaternary and Pliocene is presently the subject of more detailed studies.
sands55,56,62,63. This scheme of natural behaviour of the aquifer must have been
A small, poorly known part of groundwater flow may carry on operative since the last sea level stabilisation, about 6000 years
towards the confined aquifer instead of discharging along the ago70,71, until about 30 years ago. In the last three decades, the nat-
sands-clays contact. Once in the confined area, part of this water ural flow system has been locally modified due to intensive and
may discharge onto the marsh surface by means of very slow concentrated pumping taking place just near some of the aquifer
upward flows through the clays51. Little is known about the possi- natural discharge areas (Figure 2b): along the northern and north-
ble deep groundwater discharge into the sea and, if it exists at all, west marsh-clay and sands boundaries (in the proximity of El Rocío
it could well be very small, as most of the aquifer under the marsh- and Villamanrique de la Condesa villages), and to the western cor-
es contains confined salt water.The Matalascañas-Malandar coastal ner of the aquifer, in the Mazagón-Palos-Moguer sector.The spatial
sand spit contains the water-table level of local recharge over the concentration of farmlands has had three effects: 1) a local draw-
dunes.This shallow groundwater in the dunes discharges towards down of the water-table level and of the deep piezometric levels

144
(between several centimetres and a few metres); 2) a reduction of aries spends several decades in the ground, and the deep wells
the natural discharge, which has been replaced in part by artificial under the marshes tap water 1000 to 15,000 years old40,49,55.
discharge through wells48,61,66,67,68,69 and 3) a local reversal of the
hydraulic gradient and of the groundwater flow direction, slowly CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY
shifting the saline waters confined under the marshes towards the OF THE DOÑANA GROUNDWATER
agricultural pumping centres in the north-east, some of which are The chemical composition and natural quality of groundwater
slowly salting up. is the result of a series of inter-related factors such as the geology,
Localised intensive exploitation of groundwater has had a vary- climate, topography, biological processes and how the land is used.
ing impact on the entire aquifer, but at a local scale (around El They combine to give water what is known as natural chemistry
Rocío, La Rocina, Villamanrique, Palos, Moguer, etc.) it has caused baseline or chemical background.The first factor that contributes
significant natural environment modifications.The most significative to the chemical background of an aquifer
ones are the decreased water availability for the phreatophytic veg- is the chemical composition of the rain
etation and for the fresh water brooks that sustain much of the that fails on the aquifer. Rain contributes
wild herbivore population in summer time (Figure 3). Also the solutes of both marine and terrestrial ori-
hydroperiod (flooding time) frequency of many small wetlands of gin, as well as gasses in different propor-
the aeolian mantle has diminished, changing them from permanent tions, depending on where the clouds
to temporary or from seasonal to inter-annual (Figure 4). Some come from and their spatial trajectory.
wetlands have disappeared completely, as can be seen from some Once in the ground, evapotranspiration
local names for places where there are no longer any wetlands54,55,56. increase the saline concentration of the
The locally intense groundwater extractions to supply towns and Discharge of groundwa- water, that will vary from one place to
ter to the sea through
tourist resorts (Matalascañas, Mazagón) or for environmental uses springs and seepages in another. Besides this process, there is also
(Acebuche) also have a negative effect on the water-table and, the El Asperillo cliffs. a series of interactions between the water
Photo by Marisol Manzano.
therefore, on the water availability to habitats (vegetation, flooding and the soil that take place from the
of wetlands)53. moment the rainwater starts to infiltrate.The main processes are:
Another human action that has made a significant contribution dissolution of soil CO2 into the water during its transit through the
to the appreciable water-table drawdown (of tens of centimeters, soil; precipitation and dissolution of minerals out of and into the
and impacting on a kilometric-sized area69) and to the consequent water; adsorption of substances initially dissolved in the water on
modification to the water processes of many wetlands, was the clays, organic matter and iron oxides; ion exchange of some cations
introduction of foreign plant species (e.g. eucalyptus) that displace initially dissolved for others initially adsorbed on the soil solid sur-
native vegetation through their greater accessibility to groundwa- faces; oxidation-reduction reactions; bio-degradation of some dis-
ter with their deeper roots and the corresponding drawdown they solved substances, etc.To understand the chemical reactions taking
produce.This is the case of the El Abalario-La Mediana-La Rocina place between the soil water and the soil solid matrix, and to quan-
area, where much of the natural discharge of water-table waters to tify their contribution to groundwater chemical background, it is
the Ribetehilos and Mediana wetland complexes, and other isolat- crucial to determine the mineral composition of the terrain, the
ed lagoons, had completely dried up due to the introduction of chemical composition of rain water and that of the infiltrating
eucalyptus trees some fifty years ago. However, the eradication of water.
practically all these trees in the area ten years ago, as part of the The chemical background of the Doñana aquifers, and the
Doñana Natural Park restoration plan, has favoured a recovery of processes that originates it, are reasonably well known after
much of the original water cycle of these lagoons. detailed studies of the chemical composition of the water and the
The average time that groundwaters remain in the terrain mineral composition of the terrain at different depths. By way of a
varies over a wide range, depending on the local conditions of each summary, on a regional scale the origin and chemical characteristics
place. From studies of environmental radioisotopes (tritium and of groundwater are as follows:
carbon 14) in the water, it results that the time for recharge water - In the unconfined zones of the aquifer, the chemical background
to reach the water-table from the land surface varies from less than of groundwater is controlled by the following processes: the com-
one to a few years; groundwater discharging in the coastal springs position of the local rain water, which comes from the Atlantic
of El Asperillo is only a few years old; groundwater regional flows ocean and is of the sodium-chloride type; saline concentration of
discharging through the coast or through the sand-marsh bound- soil water produced by evapotranspiration; dissolution of CO2

145
 The area of Doñana is characterised by an extraordinary abundance of wet-
lands. The geomorphological origin and hydrology of these wetlands varies
significantly, but most of them depend on groundwater. Water processes are
the main factors controlling wetland behaviour, and therefore, their ecology.
The picture shows the western boundary of the flooded marsh seen from La
Vera. librium. The resulting groundwaters have a mineral content that
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
varies between moderate to very high (even higher than the min-
from the soil; chemical equilibrium of groundwater and calcite eral content of sea water), they have no measurable sulphate, may
(CaCO3) in the aquifer layers in the places where carbonates are contain methane and, due to the effect of ion exchange with the
present (sandy water-table sector to the north of the marshes and clays, they are locally harder (excess of Ca and Mg) or softer
the coastal sand spit); chemical equilibrium with silica and feldspars (excess of Na) than would be expected from a simple mixture,
in the layers where carbonates are absent (western water-table depending on the trend to salinization or to freshening.
sector).As a result, in the western water-table area groundwater is The clays forming the Marismas Unit also contain pore water
of the sodium chloride type, with low mineralisation and acid pH that is more saline than the sea water.The high salinity found in the
(between 4.5 and 6), all of which is due to the dominance of the upper 40-50 m of these clays has been explained as the result of
marine aerosol in the recharge water and to the practical absence sea water evaporating on the Marshes surface, when they behaved
of easily soluble or hydrolysable minerals in the terrain. In the as tidal marshes, and of the later downward transport of these salts
northern water-table sector groundwaters have a higher mineral through the clay pores51,64.
content, and they are of the sodium-calcium chloride-carbonate In most of the aquifer the chemical composition of groundwa-
type with clearly alkaline pH values (7 - 8.5) due to the presence of ter is stable both on a regional and on a local scale. However, in
carbonate remains in the sediments. In the sandy spit along the some places of the aeolian mantle, and at a very local scale, shal-
coast pH values are also alkaline, due to the presence of shells low groundwater may change considerably its salinity, pH and ion
remains in the sands, but the water is usually of the sodium-chlo- composition, even on a temporal basis. These changes occur
ride type due to the dominant contribution of marine aerosol to mainly near the ponds of Los Cotos area and along La Vera
the dunes. aquifer discharge area. The reason is that, around certain ponds,
- In the transit from the water-table to the confined aquifer, the regional or local groundwater flow systems dominate depending
chemical background of groundwater changes mainly due to on the season of the year (dry or wet), driven by changes in the
groundwater mixing with the old sea water encroached under the hydraulic gradient between the ponds water level and the water-
marshes. Apart from progressively increasing the salinity of the table in the surroundings52,53. Besides the change of scale of the
water under the Marshes, this mixture is accompanied by geo- groundwater flow network in the course of the year, major chem-
chemical processes such as ion exchange of Na for Ca and Mg on ical changes occur inside the water of the ponds that are trans-
the fresh-salt mixing front, sulphate reduction as the ambient mitted to the surrounding phreatic water in the terrain. For
becomes anoxic, and local calcite precipitation or dissolution, con- example, strong evaporation in the dry season causes the precip-
trolled by temporal and spatial changes in the calcite chemical equi- itation and accumulation of salts (sodium chloride, calcium sul-

146
 FIGURE 3
NATURAL STATE DISTURBED BY WATER PUMPING
EL ROCÍO EL ROCÍO Simplified sketch
showing intensive
groundwater pump-
ing effects in the El
Rocío and
Matalascañas areas.
Without pumping
activity (natural state,
left sketches), water
recharge from the
sandy area flows
(a) towards the deepest of
the aquifer and then
locally raises and dis-
charges close to
La Rocina and the sea.
If this state is dis-
turbed by water-
pumping (right
sketches), both the
piezometric level of
deeper beds and the
water-table in upper
sands descend, the
MATALASCAÑAS MATALASCAÑAS hydraulic gradient
between them increas-
es, and most flow
paths become down-
ward. As a result, the
natural discharge to
La Rocina and the sea
decreases. (Modified
from Custodio and
Palancar, 1995).

(b)

Fine and medium-grained sand Rain recharge

Gravel and coarse sand Spring

Impermeable o less permeable Flowing borehole

Water-table Free water evaporating

Deep piezometric level Phreatic transpiration

Flow line Well pumping

Unsaturated zone Water level in wells/boreholes

phate and may be calcium carbonate too) in the floodable zones salinity of groundwater close to the water-table and, eventually, its
of the wetland basins, often accompanied by a reduction of sul- ion composition. Another frequent process is the dissolution of
phate into sulphide and the accumulation of reduced sulphur in iron, abundant in Doñana as nodules and as coating of sand grains,
the sediments of the pond bottom. In the next wet season, a large when the water redox potential drops and the acidity increases
part of these salts is re-dissolved and transferred to the sur- around the abundant peaty soils generated in old and recent
rounding local phreatic water along with the sulphur, once again lagoon beds.All these chemical changes, which usually occur with
oxidized to sulphate (not in all the ponds), hence modifying the the first rains after a long dry period, are fast, and they are trans-

147
 mitted to the phreatic water around the lagoon when the water Although there is little information on water pollution of
level of the pond rises higher than the adjacent water-table after rivers and streams, existing data indicate that certain substances
a rainy period.These shallow phreatic waters discharge into local originating from human activity have reached the protected areas
depressions in the land surface (other lagoons, streams, channels, of Doñana. Hence, the streams and rivers that flow towards the
edges of the Marshes) after short transit lengths, thus highlighting marshes from the north carry heavy metals and organic com-
the changes that have occurred inside or close to the lagoons. pounds from the local food industry and farming activities
The natural vegetation, both the vegetation that depends on (Almonte, Hinojos, Pilas).The source of some of these substances
the moisture of the ground and the vegetation that depends on is very close to the protected zones: in the sandy sector south-
phreatic water, has adapted to local groundwater chemistry. So, in west of El Rocío, much of the surplus irrigation water, with high
the western water-table sector there are vegetal species that are sulphate and nitrate contents, and probably containing pesticides
adapted to acid waters with a low mineral content and poor in and other agricultural chemicals, discharges into small streams
nutrients; in the northern water-table sector, the scarce remain- coming from the farmland area.These polluted waters end up in
ing natural species are adapted to alkaline waters, but also poor La Rocina or in La Vera, both of which are zones of dense vege-
in nutrients, while around the lagoons with high evaporation rates tation and outstanding ecological value, to a large extent because
and in the coastal sectors of the aeolian mantle, the vegetation is they are areas in which high quality groundwater discharge after
adapted to saline waters. a long residence time underground.
But the groundwater chemical background above explained is
today locally modified by human activity. Thus, in the shallower THE DOÑANA WETLANDS
levels of the sandy unconfined areas (less than 40 metres deep) AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH THE AQUIFER
some products derived from chemicals used in agriculture appear As already said, Doñana is characterized by a great abundance
(mainly nitrates, but pesticides, other nutrients, metals used in of wetlands.The geo-morphological origin and hydrology of these
phyto-sanitary products, etc. can be expected), as well as industri- wetlands is diverse, but most of them are directly dependent on
al pollutants (mainly heavy metals that have been air-transported groundwater45,55,59,60. Significant work has already been done on their
from the industrial area of Huelva -some 30 km to the west-, and genetic and hydrological classification, an essential step for manag-
perhaps also from the open cast mining activities in the Iberian ing these wetlands62,63.
pyritic belt -some 50 km to the northwest-), which entered the The main control factor of how these wetlands function, and
aquifer through the recharge water after rain dissolution of therefore of their ecology, is their hydrology46.This term encom-
atmospheric dust and gasses49,57.Also, some agricultural wells that passes factors such as the water origin in the wetland, how this
drains, its hydro-period (flooding frequency and duration), the
The "eyes of the marsh"
are localised, small water mineralisation and its ionic type54,55. As most of the Doñana
round areas where slow wetlands are dependent on groundwater, a determining factor of
upflowing water, coming
from shallow or deep their hydrology is wetlands position in relation to the aquifer
sand beds discharges
onto the surface through
regional flow network. Because of the large diversity of local fac-
the clay layers. tors there is a wide variety of genetic-hydrological types; but a few
Photograph by Emilio Custodio.
main hydrological types can be established, along with their leading
characteristics, which, in broad terms, are56:
pump water from the confined layers at a depth of 40-50 metres - In the water-table area, where regional recharge takes place, there
in the north-east of the Marshes contain agricultural nitrates that is an abundance of both permanent and temporary wetlands
have reached well catchment areas, either after percolating appearing in the rainy season when the water-table intersects small
through the ground, or by entering directly through the space aeolian, erosive or simply morphological depressions (like the inter-
between the well piping and the ground. All these observations dune flats) existing amid both the old and the present day dunes.
are consistent with the water residence times calculated using This is due to the fact that, except in the areas in which the aquifer
the environmental radioactive isotope tritium, which are a few is intensively developed, the water-table is generally shallow and it
years for the shallower waters, and over 40 years for groundwa- easily intersects the low topographical features of the terrain. In the
ter deeper than 35-40 metres45. In the confined zones there is no dry season, direct phreatic evaporation and the transpiration of the
human impact, and groundwater composition corresponds main- vegetation draws the water-table down to below the land level. In
ly to chemical background. these conditions, intense sporadic rains may accumulate to build up

148
 PERMANENT DISCHARGE TO LAGOONS PERMANENT GENERATION OF SURFACE FLOWS

evapotranspiration
precipitation neutralisation of
pollutants
evapotranspiration
precipitation
WET YEAR
evaporation
OR
AQUIFER UNDER water-table
NATURAL
water-table REGIME flow
(river or stream)

SEASONAL/INTERANNUAL DISCHARGE SEASONAL/INTERANNUAL FLOW GENERATION

soil erosion and

precipitation transport
soil of contaminants
erosion and
transport
DRY YEAR
of contaminants precipitation
OR evapotranspiration
water-table in AQUIFER UNDER water-table
wet year/season DISTURBED
REGIME

flow
water-table in dry year/season

FIGURE 4
Functioning of the groundwater dependent Doñana's wetlands: water discharge to valleys, streams and small depressions.
The above sketch shows water functioning in the most common wetland type in Doñana, comprising water discharges (both phreatic and from deeper
beds) to small depressions (ponds) and to valleys and slopes (streams). Under high water-level situations (wet year or undeveloped aquifer) the water-
table always reaches the soil surface, giving rise to permanent laponds and streams, and to thick belts of riparian vegetation. This vegetation acts as an
active filter to contaminants (e.g. nutrients) transported by surface flows, and contributes to decrease soil erosion and to maintain environmental humidity
through transpiration. Under low water-level situations (dry year or a situation altered by groundwater development) groundwater discharges only takes
place in the wet season and not every year, giving rise to seasonal wetlands or also interannually flooded areas. Phreatophytic vegetation then decreases,
together with its protecting effect against erosion, the generation of atmospheric humidity and the neutralisation of some contaminants.

small water bodies in these wetlands.They remain there, perched depressions in the ground surface that come across in their trajec-
on the water-table for some time, thanks to the relatively imper- tory.
meable nature of fine material and organic remains accumulated on The wetlands located in the recharge area show a wide variation of
the lagoon floor; short after they disappear by evaporation. water mineralisation both in space and time. In general, the waters
Because of land use changes and aquifer development, nowadays are of the sodium-chloride type, or intermediate between sodium-
there are few naturally permanent wetlands left over on the sands chloride and calcium-bicarbonate types.The temporary changes in
(Dulce, Santa Olalla, Las Madres -partially excavated-). Some of mineralization and ionic type depend mostly on changes in the bal-
them are artificially maintained as permanent bodies of water, ance between water inputs and outputs and on the chemical reac-
either because they are artificially fed by means of wells (El Huerto, tions that occur within the lagoon, in which the biota plays a cru-
Las Pajas,Acebuche), or because the basin has been locally excavat- cial role. Regardless of the water origin and permanence, all wet-
ed ("zacallones") to provide livestock permanent access to water- lands over the sands sustain aquatic and phreatophyte species that
table (Alamillo, Moguer, Mata de los Dominguez…). have helped to retain the wind-blown sands for hundreds or thou-
Some wetlands in the western water-table sector are fed by infil- sands of years, thus helping to create the extensive and lush aeo-
trating rain that feed temporary local flows perched within the lian mantle that runs along the Doñana coast.
unsaturated zone of the terrain, above the regional water-table. On - Most of the wetlands located in areas of groundwater natural dis-
their way down to the water-table, these infiltrating waters may charge are wet soils that support dense vegetation, with or with-
eventually find less permeable ground layers (compacted soils, old out a body of free standing water, and located in the lower parts of
lagoon beds, peaty layers, etc.) that facilitate their lateral displace- small streams ("algaidas"). In natural conditions they are permanent
ment rather than vertical flow, thus discharging into nearby small water-table discharge areas that allow aquatic and phreatophytic

149
 vegetation to survive all year round. This is the case of the small world famous is the integrated result of combining the different
streams, watercourses and brooks that flow into La Rocina and the hydrological types of wetlands together with their location, their
marshes along La Vera and La Retuerta, and also is the case of some water salinity and their chemical composition in a fluctuating envi-
permanent streams, gullies and springs that run into the sea over ronment.
the western coastal cliffs of El Asperillo (e.g. Rio Oro). La Rocina As already mentioned, intensive groundwater development for
stream is also a linear drainage of both shallow and deep ground- over twenty five years, localised in areas where the aquifer dis-
waters that supports a relatively well-conserved riverine forest charges naturally, has caused accumulated local drawdown of the
along its banks. The streams running into the Marshes from the deep piezometric levels that, in turn, has induced lowering of the
north (El Partido, Cañada de la Mayor, etc.) used to maintain dense, water-table height.As these falls have not yet stabilised, the prevail-
water-table fed riparian vegetation, but in this case the vegetation ing hydrodynamic situation is a transient one evolving towards a
was cleared long ago to prepare the land for farming and for roads new equilibrium in accordance with the current aquifer recharge
and tracks. Its flow, especially in the lower stretch, is still of phreat- and discharge.These piezometric drawdowns cause a reduction of
ic origin most of the year, as the runoff from the rain is only signif- the natural groundwater seepage at the sand-clay interface, the
icant when the precipitations are intense. In general, these waters drying of formerly flowing boreholes placed along the same area,
have a medium to high mineralisation, variable throughout the year the water-table lowering, the decrease of the upward seepage
because of local processes of evaporation and chemical reactions, through the marsh clays, and the generation of a large piezometric
as the groundwater inputs have a stable composition. depression cone in the north-east of the marshes, which has also
- In the Marshes, were the aquifer is confined, there are also differ- induced a slow south-to-north shift of saline groundwater.
ent types of wetlands. Some of these are fed from groundwaters. Wetlands close to the aquifer regional discharge areas (around
The Marshes themselves, formerly mostly tidal and nowadays dom- the marshes and on the aquifer western edge) are the most vulner-
inantly fluvial, receive water from the rivers and streams that, in able to intensive groundwater development of deep and shallow
turn, drain as base-flow the sandy aquifer to the north and north- aquifers, but they are not the only ones.The numerous wetlands of
west of the Marshes. Other wetland types found in the Marshes the El Alamillo-El Acebuche-El Abalario-La Mediana sector have also
are: seasonal ponds of fresh to saline waters, which are remnants been affected by the water-table drawdown caused by a combina-
of the winter flood; permanent ponds ("lucios") of fresh to saline tion of pumping for irrigating farms next to La Rocina and an
waters, whose water source can be either phreatic water discharge increase of phreatic evapotranspiration since eucalyptus trees were
from the coastal sand spit and/or remnants of the winter floods introduced in the area some decades ago.The original phreatophyt-
(some of these "lucios" habitats are nowadays artificially maintained ic vegetation of Los Cotos, La Vera and the northern edges of the
with groundwater pumped from the confined gravels and sands); marshes have also experienced difficulties in drawing water from a
small circular areas of permanently saturated sand ("eyes of the water-table that is now much deeper, and many specimens are dry-
marsh") fed by upward groundwater flows ascending from sandy ing up. As a consequence, many small wetlands situated close to
layers of varying depths; and tidal wetlands, of which only one farmlands (El Acebuche; El Alamillo; El Peladillo; La Mediana and La
remains on the right bank of the Guadalquivir river, near the river Rocina, to the west; Villamanrique and Guadiamar, to the north)
mouth. that were permanent 20 or 30 years ago, are now seasonal or even
Much of the extraordinary biodiversity that makes Doñana sporadic, only flooded in very wet years.
One additional effect of the water-table drawdown in areas
close to the marshes perimeter is a reduction of groundwater dis-
charge into the many existing streams, brooks, algaidas, etc., whose
fresh water contributions, be it directly or via La Rocina creek, are
very important for the marshes in the dry season. Many of these
water sources used to be permanent, but today they are seasonal
and, moreover, they carry water from irrigation surplus, which
means that they introduce nutrients, organic matter, pesticides, etc.
into areas of high ecological value. Finally, another effect has been
the change in the dry and wet seasons length, which affects vegeta-
tion access to phreatic water46,69 and increases the water stress
duration.

150
The paths of water B J. B J ENIGNO AYÁN ARDÍN *

in the Marshes: changes in the hydrological network.

he area covered by Doñana has been subject to the range

T of geological processes that have occurred in the Lower
Guadalquivir. At the end of the Tertiary Era, there was a general
subsidence of what is now the Guadalquivir basin, forming a deep
sea in which blue marls were deposited to a depth of up to one
thousand metres.
During the Quaternary period, a much thinner layer of red
sands were deposited in a shallow coastal region: the Guadalquivir
estuary. The evolution of the lower Guadalquivir basin continued
along the same path and a coastal sand bar started moving in a
NW-SE direction. This bar was formed by the deposit of wind-
blown sands and materials from the Tinto, Odiel, Piedras and The subtle hydrographical network of the Marshes allows for a wide
Guadiana rivers, which drifted on the coastal marine currents. A range of environments. Knowing how they work and discovering the
complex paths of the water are essential for keeping the niches of biodi-
series of successive bars gradually closed off the Guadalquivir versity alive.
Photograph by Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.
estuary, forming a shallow lagoon of calm waters between the bar
and the open sea, which survived up until historic times.This was can be seen at an average height of 3.6 metres above sea level.The
the Ligur Lake of the Phoenicians, later called Lake Ligustinus height of the soil surface determines its connections with the sea,
under the Roman Empire.The sediments from the mainland were in such a manner that the marshes are only connected to the sea
deposited in the bottom of this lake, which now form the base of during very high tides.The practical lack of relief is only interrupt-
the Marshes.The most superficial part of this layer, between 50 and ed by a few elevations of old levees and islets and by depressions
100 metres thick, is made up of fine silt and grey-blue clays. which corrspond to channels, riverbeds, shallow ponds and gullies
At the same time, systems of sand dunes developed that must that make up a shallow hydrographical network. This determines
have reached a considerable height. The shifting dunes we see the hydraulic behaviour of the Marshes and favours the existence
today reach a height of 40 metres above sea level, advancing on the of a wide variety of environments, which, in turn, promotes a flora
Marshes at a rate of between three and six metres a year.The rate and fauna that is highly differentiated in both time and space.The
of advance is accelerated when the vegetation that stabilises the temporal diversity is motivated, to a large extent, by the acute
sands disappears, as has repeatedly occurred. annual variation of water levels of the Marshes.Apart from a rich
The Doñana Marshes have been created as the result of the variety of fauna, the productive surfaces are also rich in quantity. It
silting up of the lagoon caused by the estuary being enclosed. is estimated that approximately half a million water fowl spend the
Sedimentation rates have been estimated at 1 to 2.5 millimetres winter in the National Park, a population which requires some 50
per year over the last few millennia. Up until the 18th century, the tonnes of food per day. It is thanks only to these special weather,
marshes of both sides of the estuary were heavily influenced by soil, and hydrological conditions that local productivity can meet
tides. They completely lost this tidal influence and became conti- such a high demand in the Marshes.
nental in nature, although some peripheral areas retained tidal The Doñana Marshes are located in an area of mild
marsh surfaces. Mediterranean climate, with an Atlantic influence that keeps the
The continued input of sediments from the streams draining in temperatures within narrower limits.The average annual rainfall in
the old lagoon forged the present topography, where a great plain the region is approximately 600 mm and real evaporation-transpi-
ration is estimated at between 400 and 500 mm/year.
* Director of projects and works: "Doñana 2005 Project". Guadalquivir Water Authority It is essential to consider the fact that the prevailing winds play

151
 an important role in the behaviour of water level in the Marshes We should now turn our attention to Travieso channel (Caño
as they displace these waters. Water level may vary by several Travieso) that runs approximately E-W across the Marshes. It
inches as wind force and intensity change, although the prevailing divides off the right bank of Torre Branch, at a place known as
winds are blowing from the west. Vuelta de la Arena, and runs into Guadiamar channel (Caño
Guadiamar) from its left bank. Travieso too only acts as an over-
ORIGINAL HYDROGRAPHICAL NETWORK spill channel for the flood waters of Torre Branch.
Along the River Guadalquivir, down river from Seville and La The Rocina stream (Arroyo de La Rocina) flows to the west
Puebla del Río, and some 60 kilometres before the mouth at of the Marshes, next to the village of El Rocío, where it joins
Sanlúcar de Barrameda, the river branches, forming an arm on the Partido stream (Arroyo del Partido), creating the Madre de la
left bank, East Branch (Brazo del Este) , which creates Isla Menor, Marisma channel, which, in turn, joins Guadiamar and Travieso
and another branch on the right bank,Torre Branch (Brazo de la channels to create the Brenes channel, which finally drains into the
River Guadalquivir, downstream from the confluence with the
Torre Branch.
The drainage of waters flooding the Marshes into the
Guadalquivir and Torre Branch was impaired by the levees of estu-
ary which formed a high bar next to the river bed slowing down
the flow of the waters along Brenes, Figuerola and Buen Tiro chan-
nels.This bar less than two metre high was known as Montaña del
Rio (River Mountain) and although the name may seem somewhat
exaggerated, it should be considered in the context of immense
and almost horizontal plains where the levee made a noticeable
elevation.
Montaña del Río also controlled the entry of brackish water
from the Guadalquivir estuary during high tides.This tidal input to
Doñana was, and continues to be, negligible.

ALTERATIONS TO THE ORIGINAL

HYDROGRAPHICAL NETWORK
Transformations brought to the original hydrographical net-
FIGURE 1 work date back to the first interventions in 1775. The Corta
The old hydrographical network of the Marshes, where the former flood
Fernandina (Fernandina Cut) was made in 1816, isolating Torre
area can be observed. The original marsh surface encompassed the entire Branch from the Guadalquivir and only received water inputs,
vast area that stretched among river branches, reaching much of the cur-
rent farming land to the north. therefore, from the Guadiamar. In more recent times, work was
carried out around the Doñana National Park by the former
Torre), which forms Isla Mayor. The original area of the marshes Ministry of Public Works, through the Guadalquivir Water Board.
encompassed the entire area situated between these two branch- These works (channelling water courses and modifications to the
es of the Guadalquivir, together with large areas to the east of East hydrological system) started in 1947 and were finished in 1977
Branch and to the west of Torre Branch (Figure 1). (Figure 2).
La Rianzuela stream, or Majaberraque, flowed out into the The major works undertaken involved channelling the banks of
Northern part of Torre Branch, as did the River Guadiamar, which River Guadiamar, which could also be called the channelling of
had very little flow close to the mouth, and it flooded over the Torre Branch. Basically, this consisted of building two long parallel
right banks almost every year. This flooding fed Guadiamar chan- earthen walls about one kilometre apart. The floodable area was
nel (Caño Guadiamar), a broad and seasonal water course. The limited to the marsh span between the walls, channelling the water
course of Guadiamar channel flows slightly south, receiving the directly into the Torre Branch.The right hand wall starts before the
waters of the Cigüeña stream (Arroyo de La Cigüeña) on its right River Guadiamar drains into Brazo de la Torre, preventing water
bank and, further down, it receives the waters of the Almirante, spilling from River Guadiamar into Guadiamar channel. La Cigüeña
Sajon, Portachuelo, Juncosilla and Cañada Mayor streams. stream, which also fed into Guadiamar channel, is also channelled

152
 FIGURE 2

Major transformations were brought on the water courses of the Marshes during
the 20th century. In a first stage, the major channelling works were carried out and
modifications made to the hydrological system from 1947 to 1977. The second
stage was a response to the interventions made in this period, known as the
Water Regeneration stage, encompassing the period from 1982 to 1987. In both
these periods, major damage was done to the Marshes, some produced by the
mentality of the time prone to intervention, and other damage was due to a lack
of sufficient scientific knowledge.

1 River Guadalquivir 7 Partido stream

2 Torre Branch 8 Cañada Mayor stream
3 Travieso channel 9 La Cigüeña stream
4 Guadiamar channel 10 River Guadiamar
5 Madre de las Marismas channel 11 Majaberraque stream
6 Rocina stream 12 East Branch

Limit of the National Park before17-03-2004

Floodable area - Marshes

along this upper stretch of the right hand wall.The left hand wall, outputs, they can be considered as isolated from the underlaying
on the other hand, collects the waters of La Rianzuela stream, or aquifer. So, once the tidal influence was almost lost, the water bal-
Majaberraque stream, in the early stretch. The place where the ance of Doñana Marshes is made up of the rains falling directly on
River Guadiamar runs into the Torre Branch is usually considered them, inputs from the rivers, upwellings from the freatic level in La
the end of the first stretch of the channelling. Vera and La Retuerta, evaporation-transpiration and outputs along
All along the second stretch, the walls follow the course of a range of smaller tributaries.
Torre Branch, as far as La Vuelta de la Arena, where the third The Marshes of Doñana, which currently cover 27,000 ha in
stretch starts. Here, the walls move away from the natural course the Park, follow a marked annual cycle. The process starts when
of Torre, heading south in a straight line, until they finalise when the Marshes are filled up, normally in the months of October and
they come back to Torre Branch, close to its mouth. Moreover, in November. In this situation, in which only the highest ground (lev-
this third stretch, a transversal wall has been built, running west, ees, islets) remain above water level, a maximum of 17,000 ha
towards El Rocío. This crosses the former course of Guadiamar become marshy, with an estimated volume of 35 hm3 of water, giv-
channel, while, a little further south, the right hand wall crosses the ing an average depth of around 20 cm.This stage, the boggy phase,
natural course of Travieso channel.The latter has been eliminated lasts until March or April, while the relation between water input
as it crossed "Los Caracoles" estate, used for farming until recent- and evaporation-transpiration is kept in balance. Losses through
ly. evaporation-transpiration gradually dry out the surface, until, by
During all this time, the Guadalquivir river action has been the end of the summer, only the deepest depressions retain some
eroding Montaña del Río levee, especially during floods. But this highly saline waters (shallow ponds, gullies and some channel
natural process has accelerated during the 20th century due to the stretches).
waves produced by river traffic of larger and ever faster vessels As a consequence of all the actions described in the hydro-
bound to Seville at high tide. Over the last few decades, Montaña graphical network as a whole, the inputs into the Doñana Marshes
del Río has been largely destroyed by this process and the Marshes from the rivers were limited to waters from Madre de las
drain much faster; it also makes it easier for unwanted brackish Marismas stream (with a basin of 620 Km2) and Cañada Mayor
water seep to the Marshes from estuary. stream (basin of 70 Km2).The average annual input from Madre de
las Marismas is estimated at approximately 140 hm3, with record-
HYDRAULIC FUNCTION ed minimum of 31 hm3 and a maximum of 475 hm3. But, moreover,
Given the highly impermeable nature of silts forming the most of these resources come from the free aquifers of the dunes.
marsh deposits, for the purposes of analysing water inputs and After these interventions, the obvious consequence has been a

153
 FIGURE 3

Hydrographic Network of Doñana Marshes and new boundaries of the National

Park, with a simplified view of the Marshes after the actions included in the
Doñana 2005 Project. In this representation, the floodable area includes "Los
Caracoles" estate, recovered as natural marshlands for the future. It also includes
the recovery of water courses and the suppression of major channelling works
and water barriers that have accumulated in the recent history of Doñana.

1 River Guadalquivir 7 El Partido stream

2 Torre Branch 8 Cañada Mayor stream
3 Travieso channel 9 La Cigüeña stream
4 Guadiamar channel 10 River Guadiamar
5 Madre de las Marismas channel 11 Majaberraque stream
6 Rocina stream 12 East Branch

Limit of the National Park before 17-03-2004

Floodable area - Marshes

major decline in the available water resources in the Marshes as the levee, consisting of the construction of an earthen wall, using the
inputs from Guadiamar and Travieso channels are now prevented deposits from the nearest marshes as source material.This wall is
from entering.To highlight this fact, one only has to point out that 14 km long, running parallel to the right bank of the River
the rains that fell in November and December 1989 led to an input Guadalquivir, 250 m away from it, except where it goes around a
from the River Guadiamar at the beginning of the channelled sec- salt flat. From south to north, the work starts in the area of dunes
tion (basin of 1,070 Km2), estimated at 325 hm3, while the input near the mouth of the river, and it extended as far as the conflu-
from the streams draining directly into the Marshes were estimat- ence between the river and Torre Branch. From here, it runs
ed at approximately 125 hm3. The total rainfall for these two upstream for a kilometre, along the right bank of the Torre. It
months in the Park and the surrounding area was 600-700 mm. should be pointed out that, unlike the usual procedures for "clas-
Bearing this in mind, one will probably ask about the motives sical" engineering, these works have avoided straight lines, respect-
for carrying out such costly works to the detriment of the natural ing the areas of thickest vegetation and trying to blend into the
marsh system.You should remember that a few decades ago, one landscape.
of the challenges mankind was facing was to drain wetlands, which Depressions or shallow pond with some islands inside have
had historically been a focus of disease and their soils were been designed in holes from which materials for the wall had been
assumed to be suitable for farming. Times have now changed and excavated. Each pond covers an area of approximately three
there has been a growth in social concern for and interest in hectares, a depth of less than one metre (some were deeper) and
nature, and the challenge that man now faces is the complete oppo- an unexcavated area has been left in the middle to act as an island
site from a few decades ago; i.e. man now has to save wetlands.This when the lagoon floods in winter.A series of flood gates have been
change in mentality has driven a series of actions aimed at recov- installed in canals and depressions to control the water level in the
ering the functionality of Travieso and Guadiamar channels and Marshes.The work finished in December 1983 and soon after, the
Montaña del Río, which, as we have said, was seriously damaged. natural vegetation, especially shrubby sea bright, colonised the
banks, so the wall now blends in well with the landscape and exca-
REGENERATING WATER RESOURCES vated grounds perform as natural ponds.
FROM 1982 TO 1987 In the interim years, the water level in the Marshes has been
The objective was to recover the surface waters that used to considered too high, causing major problems to the associated
flood the Doñana Marshes along their original courses, hence ecosystems.The problem lies in the fact that the wall is too high
making these riverbeds functional once again. and there are not enough flood gates and the existing ones are
The first work tackled was to restore the Montaña del Río too small to avoid water drainage.The work was carried out with-

154
out the necessary scientific counselling, so important points of
view were not taken into consideration.
The second work undertaken in this process of regenerating
water resources is what is known as the Centre-North Project. In
essence, this is the transfer of up to 6 m3/second debit from the
River Guadiamar, taken from the Vuelta de la Arena bend, using a
pumping station, to the course of Guadiamar channel, at Junta de
los Caños, in order to make them flow into the Marshes.This proj-
ect uses existing drains from the Almonte-Marismas irrigation
zone, and it was finished in May 1985. In all these years, these
works have been used very little because the quality of the water
was unsuitable for the Doñana Marshes, making it a failed experi-
ence that, once again, highlights the need to plan projects of this
kind on a scientific and multi-disciplinary basis.
The third works addressed, the so-called South Project, was
aimed at making Travieso channel functional again.Works consist-
ed of building an earthen canal, 0.50 metres deep and 250 metres
wide, just South of "Los Caracoles" estate, within the boundaries
of the Doñana National Park, connecting the channelled part of
Guadiamar with Travieso channel. This canal is 2,100 metres long,
running in ample bends to blend in with the landscape. Works
were completed by September 1987. The so-called South Project
only comes into operation during those floods of River Guadiamar
that can fill the channel, but it has been seen that, once the initial
flood waters pass, most of the water coming in through the South The satellite picture shows the Montaña del Río levee as a line around the
flooded Marshes (upper part of the picture), running parallel to
Solution returns to the Guadiamar channel, following the same Guadalquivir and Torre Branch riverbeds.
False colour image from the Landsat satellite (2000).
course, but in the opposite direction.

View of the Montaña del Río levee and the "sacatierras" excavation grounds. It should be pointed out that, unlike the normal procedure in "classical" engineer-
ing works, straight lines have been avoided, respecting the areas of densest vegetation and attempting to blend the works into the landscape. The hollows left
by excavation for the wall have been shaped in shallow ponds of approximately three hectares each, with a depth of less than one metre, and an unexcavated
area has been left in the middle to act as an island when they are flooded in winter.
Photograph: CENEAM files.

155
A Numerical Hydrodynamic J D , E B , J G OSEP OLZ RNEST LADÉ OSEP ILI *

Model for the Marshes of Doñana National Park

The numerical hydrodynamic simulation model of the Marshes allows for the calculation of the temporal evolution of water levels and velocity at different
spots in the area. The above image shows the drainage network superposed to the wavy natural canals of the Gallega marsh.

he Marshes of Doñana National Park comprise a very drain to the marshes. These variables had previously been
T complex water system whose qualitative characteristics
are fairly well known, whereas its quantitative aspects are not. It
researched in a study also commissioned by the Guadalquivir River
Basin Authority.
should be noted that currently there is scant information on such The marshes are located in an area of very low topographic
important hydrological data as the relationship between water lev- relief and the drainage system is therefore defined by minor alti-
els and flooded marsh surface, temporal evolution of marsh inflow metric variations. This type of drainage system to a large extent
and outflow rate, evaporation and evapotranspiration, temporal determines water flow in the marshes, particularly at the beginning
and spatial evolution of water levels and physical, chemical and bio- of the flooding period and towards the end of the recession of the
logical characteristics, water flow characteristics, and the impact of water levels.Therefore, in order to study the hydrodynamics of the
wind on water flow. An understanding of these variables is essen- marshes, detailed topographic information must first be available,
tial to precisely defining the actions required to prevent the degra- particularly with regard to the relief of the terrain.This information
dation of the marshes. is especially difficult to obtain given the extension (40,000 Ha) of
The Guadalquivir River Basin Authority (Confederación the Park and the required altimetric precision of the measurements
Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir), aware of and sensitive to these con- (down to a few decimetres).
cerns, commissioned, within the framework of the Doñana 2005 An emerging technology known as laser altimetry is now avail-
project, a numerical model to study the hydrodynamics of the able for obtaining digital terrain models (DTM). The technique
marshes. To do this required detailed knowledge of the marsh consists of laser pulse emissions directed from an airborne instru-
topography and of the water outflow from the catchments that ment that scan the terrain.The instrument receives a signal reflect-
ed back by the surface and calculates the distance based on the
* School of Civil Engineering, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Spain. signal's round-trip time-of-flight. Although the measurements have

157
 an accuracy of around one centimetre, the calculation of the loca- every 10 minutes at each of the 200 x 200 m2 cells into which the
tion of the aircraft (obtained through the Global Positioning marshes have been divided. Both intervals, time and space, could be
System, GPS), and the direction in which the laser pulse was emit- shorter, but would involve a longer calculation time.
ted (obtained through an Inertial Navigation System, INS) can intro- The calibration and validation of the model was undertaken
duce errors, rendering a final accuracy of about 15 centimetres. using field data on the annual evolution of inflows and the water
Laser altimetry is capable of measuring the elevation of several levels at specific spots in the marshes. Field data on infiltration,
tens of thousands of surface points per second.The technique is an evaporation and the impact of wind on water flows are also neces-
excellent way to obtain a DTM of the flat extensive area of the sary to ensure that the model can adequately take these factors
marshes owing to the high density of surface points and the accu- into account for optimal performance.
racy of the measurements. Consequently, the system was used to Based on the finished digital terrain model, the numerical model
determine the mean coordinates (surface and height) of a surface was developed and the first calibration-validation process was car-
spot every 3 m2 in the approximately 40,000 ha of marshes. The ried out in March 2004. Field data used for this purpose was
height and distribution of the vegetation at the time the measure- obtained from the measure stations that had been set up in the
ments were taken (September 2002)71 were fairly accurately deter- area the previous year. The calibration-validation process will
mined as well.The image below shows, as an example, the Digital advance systematically as new field data is obtained. In a later stage,
Surface Model (DSM) of an area nearby the Palacio de Doñana. this hydraulic model (temporal evolution of water levels and veloc-
The numerical hydrodynamic simulation model of the marsh- ity) will be used as the basis for the study of other phenomena
es72 allows for the calculation of the temporal evolution of water associated with the hydrodynamics of the marshes, such as the
levels and flow rates at different spots in the marshes and is based transport and sedimentation of solid load and the evolution of
on Saint Venant equations for gradually varied open channel flow.A water quality.
one-dimensional approach is used to study flow in the network of The conclusions of these studies will provide us with a very
stream channels and a two-dimensional approach (associated to powerful tool to understand the hydrodynamic behaviour of the
the one-dimensional approach) is used to analyse the flow in the marshes and the likely impact of the measures that may be taken
rest of the marshes. The water levels and velocity are measured for their protection.

The Marshes are located in an area of very low topographic relief and the drainage system is therefore defined by minor altimetric variations. Image obtained
from the Digital Surface Model (DSM) showing an area nearby the Doñana Palace. The vegetation, higher than water, has a lighter colour. Trees can be seen as
yellow dots.

15

10

Elevation
masl

158
El Partido stream JUAN ANGEL MINTEGUI AGUIRRE *
an example of the challenges posed by hydrological restoration

U nforeseeable mid- and long-term consequences can

result from changes to the hydrological system and alter-
ing of the waterways in a system as fragile as that of Doñana. El
FIGURE 1
El Partido stream watershed: Significant sections.

Partido stream is a typical case of the damaging effect of interven-

tions that, although well-intentioned, are not supported by a sound
base of precautionary foresight and monitoring of induced effects.
El Partido stream is a small watercourse with a low gradient, B
A
less than 0.2 % on its lower reach, which flows directly into the El
Rocío marsh to the north of Doñana National Park. The stream is
C
fed by a catchment area covering 307.37 Km2 and has maximum
and minimum elevations of 121 and 5 metres respectively. The
headwaters present moderate slopes which decline with the D
G
descent towards the area dominated by the stream, in which there E
are wide zones that do not exceed 1% (Figure 1).
The stream has a marked torrential character owing to its
H
proximity to the ocean and the orientation of its catchment area, A La Calancha stream
which is exposed to the penetration of Atlantic storms as there are B La Cárcaba stream I
C La Parrilla stream
no obstacles to moderate their advance. Hence, fall and winter D Paraje de Cabezudos F
downpours cause the discharge of the stream to multiply from E Santa María stream
F Partido stream J
twenty to thirty times its mean summer flow, estimated at 5 m3/s, G Section 1
and to even exceed these values under occasional extraordinary H Section 2
I Section 3
circumstances. Similarly, with the exception of its moderate slope, J Section 4
the rest of the catchment morphology is characteristic of a torrent
catchment: with its catchment area, gorge, and, prior to 1981, its ing years in which it was flooded by fall and winter spates.The rest
former alluvial cone and even its own drainage channel. This chan- of the time the land was left untended as the sandy soil could not
nel, called Caño Ajolí and today filled with sand, was where the ensure a harvest. The advent of new farming technologies posed
stream current finally flowed sediment-free into the Doñana the possibility of putting the lands to agricultural use, and so in
Marsh. 1981, within this context and to that end, seven kilometres of the
Originally, the stream's spate flow would expand outwards lower reach of El Partido stream were channelised, immediately
before it reached the marsh, generating a series of secondary chan- upstream of its outlet to the marsh.
nels in such a way that the scant depth of the channels could not Channelisation of the stream substantially modified the way in
exert shear stress capable of breaching the resistance and initiating which the streamflow circulated during peak flows, concentrating
the motion of the sands that made up their beds. In fact, these the flow in such a way that when it finally debouched into the
streams were forced to drop their entrained sediments, thus form- marshes it generated a new alluvial fan, due to the expansion of the
ing the initial alluvial fan. Subsequently, once the floodwaters reced- current and the subsequent deposition of the solid load which up
ed, the streamflow was conveyed smoothly through the drainage to then was incorporated in the flow. In other words, the chan-
channel into the marsh, devoid of sediments. nelling had moved the former alluvial cone towards the interior of
Occasionally the land surface of the alluvial fan was farmed, dur- the marsh.
The increase in the surface area of the marshes occupied by the
* Professor, Department of Forestry Engineering (Hydraulics and Hydrology unit) of
the Technical College of Forestry Engineers, Polytechnic University of Madrid. new alluvial fan between 1982 and 1998 is shown on Table 1.These

159
 TABLE 1 Evolution of the surface areas and volumes occupied by El Partido stream new alluvial fan in the
El Rocio marsh and its surroundings, downstream from Cañada Real.

YEARS ESTIMATION OF THE ALLUVIAL FAN RECEIVED OBSERVATIONS

AREA MEAN THICKNESS VOLUME SEDIMENTS
(m2) (m) (m3) (m3)

1982 147,220
1985 290,593
1993 1,038,802 0.365 379,163 600,654 Spates 1995-96
1996 2,041,283 0.480 979,816 903,718 Spates 1996-97
1997 3,176,280 0.593 1,883,534 1,116,466 Spates 1997-98
1998 3,815,055 0.786 3,000,000

values were determined after delimiting the successive expansions tion and directly applying it. Furthermore, while on the one hand El
of the fan on aerial photographs taken during the corresponding Partido stream presents a torrential character typical of mountain
years and then transferring the data to a GIS in order to correctly torrents, given that it presents very significant liquid and solid dis-
identify, situate and measure the phenomenon (Figure 2). charges (refer to the aforementioned 58 spate events); on the other
In view of the situation, and in seeking an answer to the phe- hand, its bed, comprised almost exclusively of sands, its slight slope
nomenon, the following two questions were specifically posed: and prolonged periods of concentrated flow differentiate the stream
- Where do the sediments discharged by El Partido stream from mountain torrents, making it necessary to test many types of
into the El Rocío marsh originate? equations.
- What steps must be taken to arrest the process? In regard to the discharge of suspended load, water samples
To answer this, research was designed with the following work were collected from section 3 of the stream during the transit of
plan: the spates and later studied in the laboratory to determine the
On one hand, measurement of the progression of El Partido concentration of sediments. In short, application of the MUSLE
stream's alluvial fan into the El Rocío marsh and its bordering area model estimated a total volume of 1,151,957 m3 of suspended sed-
during the 1995-98 period was commenced.The alterations occur- iment discharged by El Partido stream into the El Rocío marsh
ring along the stream's channelled segment during the same period between 1995 and 1998.A mean concentration of 6.86 g/l74 of sus-
were also measured.These measurements were based on the plani- pended sediment was established for the group of 58 spate events
metric studies mentioned earlier and bolstered by topographic studied.
field campaigns. To this end, the cone's radials were measured in Finally, in order to determine the bed load deposited into the
July, 1997, this same area was levelled between April and May of marsh, an estimation was made of the 1995 to 1998 annual
1998, and a map was drawn up of the channelled segment of the increase of the volume of El Partido stream's alluvial fan within
stream in June of 1999. the marsh itself and its surroundings, using all of the information
On the other hand, the Hydrologic Modeling System (H.M.S.) shown in bold- in Table 1, and based on which the table was
version 2 (2000), an integrated hydrologic model, was applied to completed.
define the characteristics of El Partido stream's 58 spates occurring On the other hand, in order to verify that we were really
over the 1995-98 period73. dealing with a bed load discharge, the erosion of the floor and
To evaluate sediments carried in suspension by El Partido stream, sides of the channelled segment of the stream was evaluated
coming from the catchment runoff and discharged into the marsh by using the information obtained from the 1996, 1997, 1998 aerial
way of the 58 spates earlier defined, the Modified Universal Soil Loss photographs and from the topographical map of the channelled
Equation (MUSLE) model was combined with the aforementioned section made in June of 199975. We were thus able to verify that
hydrologic model.This required prior determination of the defining there had been downcutting of the bed of the channel of over 2
factors of soil erosion conditions in the catchment area. metres with respect to the level of the terrain in 1981.This made
What was more complicated was the estimation of the sedi- it evident that although erosional versus sedimentation phenom-
ments discharged into the marshes as bed load, meaning as a conse- enon had taken place on the channel floor, there had been a
quence of the abrasion of the streambed by the current. To start remarkable predominance of the first. Additionally, retrogressive
with, there were no clear criteria for the selection of a specific equa- erosion of El Partido streambed was found along an over-2-kilo-

160
 1989-90 hydrological years. Finally, the yield from the retro-
gressive erosion of El Partido streambed, upstream from the
channelled segment, was evaluated at 785,362.5 m3 after
analysing the effects detected on the aerial photos, from field
verification and then carrying out an estimation. Thus, the
total yield of erosion was estimated at of 2,820,226.8 m3.This
is a deviation of less than 6% with respect to the 3,000,000 m3
that were established after the levelling carried out between
April and May of 1998 as the deposition of El Partido stream's
new alluvial cone.
Based on this, I conclude with some considerations and rec-
ommendations on solving the problem of El Partido stream's
discharge of sediments into the El Rocío marsh, especially in
relation to bed load.
a) It has been verified that both under the circumstances prior
to the channelling of the lower segment of El Partido stream
FIGURE 2
in 1981, and under the present circumstances, the stream
The expansion of
El Partido stream's new
generates the same physical processes in the section where
alluvial fan into the the formation of its alluvial fan commences. This primarily
El Rocio Marsh and
surrounding area consists of the dissemination of its discharge flow to dissipate
between 1982 and 1998. the energy during spate events, a process known as channel
shifting. The difference lies in that prior to 1981 this section
was near the Casa de la Matanza Bridge (section 2 of Figure
metre section upstream from the channelled segment. 1), while it is presently located in the vicinity of the Ajolí
The volume of sediment originating from excavation bridge (section 4 of Figure 1).
processes on El Partido's channelled segment and discharged b) Clearly, any attempt to channel El Partido stream spate
into the marsh was evaluated at 1,685,814.30 m3 regarding events, thus impeding the stream's original tendency to dis-
spate events occurring between 1995 and 1998 and at perse, would disturb the fragile balance capable of maintain-
344,050 m3 regarding spates occurring during the 1987-88 and ing the stability of a watercourse of these characteristics

View of the sands deposited by El Partido stream next to the Ajolí bridge.
Photograph by J.A. Mintegui Aguirre.

161
 downstream from it, with the purpose of allowing the waters
to cover a large part of the stream's former floodplain. To
achieve this it will be necessary to remove the left wall of the
present channelled segment of the stream, situated down-
stream from where the barrage would be, so that the cur-
rent can overflow the banks and deposit the sands it trans-
ports before the spate flow debouches into the marsh.
Implementing these actions is both advisable and necessary;
but could nonetheless prove to be insufficient.The issue of the
stability of the new alluvial fan forming downstream from the
checkdam is as yet to be resolved. To achieve this stability, the
gradient that the floodplain must adopt downstream from the
Image obtained from the Digital Surface Model (DSM) developed for the barrage and upstream from the marsh must be designed and
Doñana marshes, showing of the alluvial fan. planned. Shaping this compensation or equilibrium slope may
Source: Ayesa.
require some complementary hydraulic works which would
eventually be covered with soil and vegetation so the final visual
when confronted with torrential flow spikes. The shear stress and environmental impact would be virtually null.
of the current is increased and, because of the poor resist- Lastly, once the final segment of El Partido stream is correct-
ance of the materials that make up the floor and sides of the ed, it would be necessary to restore its catchment in order to
channelled segments, the material is eroded and dragged consolidate the applied measures and ensure its future stability76.
along by the action of the current. Furthermore, the ongoing
process of abrasion of the streambed by the current during Aerial view of El Partido
spate events has caused a serious problem of retrogressive stream alluvial fan. In 1981
seven kilometres of the lower
erosion on the bed of El Partido stream itself. reach of El Partido stream
c) The solution to the problem leads to contemplating two were channelised. It substan-
tially modified the way in
main actions: which the streamflow circula-
- The building of a checkdam at a section of El Partido ted during peak flows,
concentrating the flow in
stream near the Casa de la Matanza bridge, to control the such a way that when it
retrogressive erosion processes occurring upstream from it. finally debouched into the
Marshes it generated a new
- Allow the current to expand out during spates, from the alluvial fan.
Photo: CENEAM.
section where the aforementioned barrage is situated and

Detail of the erosion on the right side of the stream, close to the Matanza bridge (road to Hinojos).
Photograph by J.A. Mintegui Aguirre.

162
Man and water JUAN FCO. OJEDA RIVERA *

in the history of Doñana

different approaches to water management

hen we talk about the world of Doñana, one should

W bear in mind that this is a complex, dynamic and con-
flictive space.These features are sustained by the very nature of
the areas as a "hybrid territory", where a range of physical, eco-
nomic, social and cultural elements combine, creating an area of
frontiers and encounters between ecosystems, economies, soci-
eties and cultures. It reminds of a colonial territory that is still
unfinished from the point of view of both its physical layout
(advancing dunes, senescent marshes) and its economic and
social perception (major change in values in recent decades,
when resource limitations became new resources), and even in
its administrative organisation (confrontation of administrative
and management bodies).
In this world that is being created -"terra in fieri", as the
Romans would say, or "Argolida", in Caballero Bonald's words -
surface and groundwater, the sands, the streams and many other
inputs, reach the National Park. Park settings, at the end of a
river mouth, mean that in a sense it plays the role of a collector,
as opposed to nature conservation.Thus, Doñana National Park
becomes a challenge, a melting pot of the economic system that
allowed itself the "useful luxury" of declaring it as such in pre-
democratic times.
While the General Franco dictatorship was showing the Until well into the 20th century, the vision of Doñana came into constant
world how it was opening up by declaring Doñana a National conflict with its image as a marginal territory and a feudal manor. Later,
with a view to solving this marginal status, new, enlightened ideas of pro-
Park (1969), in France there was a democratic debate as to duction appeared and part of its lands were occupied by the hands of the
whether to do the same with the Camargue.This Mediterranean autocracy's philosophy launched by the General Franco regime after the
Spanish Civil War (1936-39).
delta was less complex than the Atlantic estuary of Doñana, but Photograph: Doñana Biological Station Archives.

even so the French Government reached the conclusion that it

was preferable not to set up a National Park in a river mouth world. This analysis has arisen from re-reading the analyses of
area, and declared it a Regional Nature Park, despite its power- the organisation and regional planning of Doñana and its sur-
ful symbolic and representative potential.The maximum degree rounding area, taking water as the starting point, which has led
of protection for areas where man has maintained a permanent me to present the following hypotheses about the different per-
presence for centuries, is usually granted to islands, or to high- ception of the waters in recent centuries, and on the manage-
land and mountain areas. ment model that each perception has developed around them:
The analysis addressed herein, of the different views of water A. During the General Franco regime (1939-1975), a time of low
in Doñana in the course of recent history, intends to bear wit- production and voluntary isolation of the lands of Doñana -too
ness to these contradictions that are inherent to this complex poor for agriculture, but rich in range, timber and game, a time
of a social order established by Lords and Councils, of aristo-
* Pablo de Olavide University. Seville. Spain. cratic and council by-laws, pacts and litigation over the jurisdic-

163
 this paradigm was the pioneer in considering the need for pro-
tecting nature.At the same time, during the first half of the 20th
century, interventions were focused on dunes, and later on
marshes that founded their initial justification in environmental
arguments and, after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), on auto-
cratic national reasons. The key concepts of this second stage
were: Enlightened promotion of production, as opposed to a
pioneering and romantic protection of nature; Transformation
of marshes, draining ponds, fixing dunes; Controlling water man-
agement.
C.The developmental period of the 1960s and 70s in Doñana is
characterised by its public discovery as a space for new produc-
tions: intensive farming on sands, sun, sea and sand tourism, vis-
itable nature. The search for groundwater undertaken by the
FAO from the late 50s was rounded off with the success of hav-
ing found a large resource (Aquifer 27) that, according to the
forecasts made at the time, could change the face of this margin-
al district and may lay the foundations of a brilliant future: thou-
sands of hectares of irrigated farmland on traditionally barren
The most recent scenario, starting with the 1978 Doñana Act, has been sands.The Atlantic beaches of Doñana, with their white sands, on
characterised by an initial phase in which the ideology of compensating the the other hand, were to be the scenarios for the Huelva coast
towns in the surrounding area for having granted the legacy of Doñana to
the world predominated, and a second phase in which the emphasis is Tourist Development Plan. El Rocio and Doñana National Park
placed on integrating Doñana in a peripheral and subsidised European itself were to act as tourist attractors. Surface and underground
district to attain a paradigmatic "sustainable development".
Photograph: Jose Maria Perez de Ayala. waters, at this time became a factor of conflict - as a resource
shared among farming, recreational and tourist settlements, and
tion and use of territorial resources. A time of little develop- natural spaces. Key concepts of the development stage:
ment of the means and the forces of production -low popula- Discovery of the aquifer and the beach; Intensification of uses:
tion, unhealthy conditions and lack of technology to exploit Irrigation/Nature/Tourism; Dominating; Squandering and con-
sandy or clay soils. Nature dominated in this world of Doñana, flictive water management.
and one of the most conspicuous elements was water, which D. In the present democratic stage, starting with the Doñana Act
was sometimes anxiously awaited and sometimes feared. (December 1978), we have moved on from a stage characterised
Regional and productive planning attempted to adapt to the by compensating the surrounding towns for having given Doñana
changing and unforeseeable circumstances of dry years, followed to the world, to a second period in which the aim is to integrate
by wet years, summer followed by winter, drought, flood, salt Doñana in a peripheral and subsidised European district to attain
water, fresh water, etc. seeking micro and macro scale strategies. a paradigmatic "sustainable development".The contradictions of
In short, the key phrases that could describe this early tradition- this situation are highlighted in many ways, but here, we should
al stage of the configuration of Doñana, were the following: mention the projected infrastructures for importing water to
Marginalised territory and feudal rule, Predominance of nature, the areas in order to make possible to supply the economic
Adaptive water management. emergency (agricultural, tourist demand) and the ecological
B. These approaches can be seen in Doñana since the late 18th emergency (park needs) of this space. Awareness of the squan-
and early 19th centuries, pointing to the need to convert these dering of the previous phase has not led to an advanced sustain-
wild lands into productive lands, with development projects and able management, but to plans to import water from neighbour-
programmes -province of Sanlúcar de Barrameda, agricultural ing districts to make irrigation and mass tourism compatible
and forestry settlements, draining of the Marshes- that always with nature and conservation. Compensations, integration, "sus-
contemplated controlling the water. The romantic paradigm - tainability" and a management philosophy that imports and
spread from the mid 19th century until the mid 20th century -dis- restores water are, therefore, the key words of the present
covered the naturalist, scenic and scientific values of Doñana, and moment.

164
A Doñana with clean JOSÉ GONZÁLEZ DELGADO *

and transparent waters for life

The agricultural commitment

Building a solid alliance between sustainable agriculture and the waters of Doñana is one of the top priorities in the immediate future. This way, all the waters
of the area, that drain into the Marshes will do so without the alterations caused by soil erosion, transport and deposit of sediments, surplus of nutrients and
organic matter, pesticides, weed killers, waste waters from the towns and from the agro-food industry. View of the Marshes when flooded.
Photograph by Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.

n a broad sense Agriculture encompasses what is known as mechanical equipment for processing agricultural produce, etc., as
I the agricultural or primary sector, which is made up of the
sub-sectors of agriculture, in the strict sense, livestock and forestry.
well as the industrialisation, distribution and marketing of all these
products and their derivatives.This means that we are dealing with
This definition also includes the food sector and modern fish farm- what is known as an Agro-Food Industrial System, which includes
ing. both the pre and the post agricultural phases in a seamless interac-
For several decades, the "agri-business" has been understood as tion.That is, the weight of “traditional agriculture" is reduced in this
a concept that, on top of farming, includes the production of inputs new context, but the whole system experiences a strong expan-
for the sector like the manufacture of fertilisers, pesticides, herbi- sion.
cides, irrigation equipment, different agricultural machinery, The system now includes all operations concerning the manu-
* Professor of the Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences.
facture and distribution of the means of production for farming, the
University of Seville. harvest operations in agricultural facilities and the storage and dis-

165
 all its inputs and selling its products, all of which are outside the
sector.These outside agents are the first links in a long process of
industrialisation and distribution that is outside the scope of tradi-
tional agricultural sector.
Intensive agricultural production, such as the farming in the
Doñana area, on the one hand, has made a large supply of food
available and, on the other hand, has triggered problems like soil
erosion, environmental pollution, some reduction in biological
diversity and the drop of water tables, among others.
For all the above reasons, the challenge to be met is how to
continue increasing food production, while maintaining quality lev-
els and prices, without undermining the conservation of natural
resources.
The Doñana 21 Label is a brand created by the Doñana 21 Foundation to
highlight the companies of Doñana District and their products. Companies
exhibiting Doñana 21 Label show responsible attitudes, respect for accept-
FARMING AND THE ENVIRONMENT
ed standards of quality and environmental protection in the everyday One thing that must be made clear is that agriculture per se is
management. Certificated brands belong to some agricultural companies,
making this one of the means of opening up new links between the agricul- not the enemy of the environment; on the contrary, properly
tural sector and the environment,working together in returning Doñana organised, agriculture can improve natural resources such as soil
waters to their former healthy state.
The Marshes seen from José Antonio Valverde Visitor Centre.
and water. The interaction between agriculture and the environ-
CENEAM files.
ment is currently well known.As a consequence of industrial devel-
opment, farming activity is severely affected by the "greenhouse
tribution of all products. In any event, farming is the central pillar of effect" of carbon dioxide, as well as by acid rain, industrial and urban
the system. waste. Furthermore, intensive agricultural production without ade-
This is why the industry cannot always provide solutions to the quate management can cause pollution from fertilisers, pesticides,
problems of the sector. We need a more in-depth analysis of its weed killers, salinisation of the soil, over exploitation of groundwa-
interrelations with the system prior to production, and in the phas- ter, exhaustion of resources, over grazing, inadequate handling of
es that follow the harvest, as they are so important in this system. the land, leaving soil unprotected, etc. Doñana and the surrounding
area have obviously not been left unaffected by these processes; in
INCOME GROWTH AND INTENSIVE FARMING fact some of them continue to have a significant impact on Doñana
This shift in the interpreation of the functions of farming is the today.
consequence of how the economy has evolved in all the developed This very process of intensifying farming by using more fertilis-
countries, with a steady increase of income for consumers. ers and pesticides in general than are strictly necessary together
Increases in income trigger a demand for more processed and with an inadequate use and handling of mechanical equipment, non-
diversified products, with better quality and better presentation conservative growing systems, and the fact that farmers no longer
that would be very difficult for traditional agriculture to provide. add well fermented manure to the land from time to time, as this
Agricultural holdings are unable of meeting the demands of a is now relatively scarce, distances agriculture from the natural eco-
growing population with greater purchasing power; holdings have logical process.
to resort to loosing their leading role in the process, sharing it with
some other, closely related entities, to supply them with agricultur- AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
al inputs and to process and distribute the final produce. This model of intensive farming is not considered sustainable,
Traditional farming has also provided its own farming machin- as it cannot possibly meet current economic needs without endan-
ery, its beasts of burden, auxiliary equipment, manure, organic fer- gering the capacity of future generations to meet their needs.
tilisers based on burying beans or lupins, seeds for the crops, stud Hence, a new alternative system of agricultural production
animals and other means of production.The farmes manufactured appeared, completely opposed to the production oriented model,
their food and clothing, and directly marketed the family consump- known as biological, ecological or organic farming, based on not
tion surplus. However, the industry has now transferred all these using chemical inputs.This method has expanded fast and its prod-
functions and has become highly dependent on others for buying ucts are winning the corresponding "niche" in the market.

166
However, refusing to benefit from technological progress, this new reforms. Hence, it is essential to accept the concept of integral
school of farming involves higher costs, since an increase in the area agrarian management for the entire industrial-agro-food sector, in
used for farming means a rise in prices for the consumer. each and every one of its stages of production, which can ensure
In consequence, the most reasonable option appears to be an sustainable agriculture in the long term with a balanced use of
intermediate model, one that can harness the advances of technol- inputs.
ogy to apply them to a balanced agriculture, eliminating any This includes the following actions that have a special impact on
processes that are harmful to the environment and to conserving the future of Doñana:
natural resources, in order to guarantee quality of life for today and - The crops to be grown should place the minimum possible
for the future. demand on water and additional nutrients, they should be
This sustainable agriculture model must be possible in real from resistant to plagues and disease and they should have deep and
an ecological, financial and social point of view as the European well developed roots to retain particles of soil in the face of
Common Agricultural Policy has confirmed in each of its successive erosion.
- The growing system should require minimum cultural tasks and
it should follow the contours of the land in strips or bands,
interrupting the run off.Top priority should be given to main-
taining some vegetation cover in all stages of production.
- The farm implements should only act at a shallow depth and
without turning the soil over, and compact the terrain as little
as possible.
- Irrigation has to be applied efficiently, to attain minimum con-
sumption, depending on the needs of each crop, its pheonolog-
ical state and evaporation-transpiration.
The land should be fertilised in a similar way, to provide the
plants with what they strictly need at any one time:
- Pesticides and weed killer should be kept to the minimum dose,
and applied at the best time, using products that do not remain
in the soil for long, which degrade into non toxic metabolites
as soon as possible, in order to prevent a persistent pollution
of soil or water.
- Manure shall be well fermented and swill waste and
unprocessed organic matter eliminated.
- Industrial and domestic waste should be treated prior to being
released to the environment.

DOÑANA AND THE WATERS RECEIVED

FROM THE SURROUNDING COUNTRYSIDE
The Doñana area, especially sensitive, demands a sustainable
agriculture, so that all the water, draining into the Marshes arrives
with minimal disturbances caused by soil erosion, transport and
deposit of sediments, surplus nutrients and organic matter, pesti-
The mine tailings spill into the River Guadiamarin April 1988 acted as a cides, weed killers or waste waters from towns, the agro-food
wake up call for all decision makers and authorities and detailed monitor-
ing of pollution levels in several water courses, including the Guadiamar, industry and livestock farms.
started at this time. Available data showed a presence of sources of con- The "Doñana 2005" Project is implementing a series of far-
taminations other than the mine residues. The main sources of these con-
taminants are to be found in intensive farming, the agro-food industry of reaching actions to return the area to the state it was in formr
the area (brines and swill), urban effluents and heavy metals loads from
times.With a programme of sustainable agrarian activity in the sur-
the small industries of the area. The photograph shows part of the layer of
toxic sludge after the Aznalcollar accident. rounding area, clean waters will flow into Doñana to support its
Photograph by Jose MAntonio Sabater.
rich biodiversity.

167
 We should not forget that "Doñana is water" and water is life. farmers, first of all using the pertinent training and counselling. It
Defending the quality of Doñana's waters must be understood as also must be understood by the Local and Regional Authorities who
defending the rights that all living creatures in Doñana have to sur- can render it economically and socially viable with grants, guidelines and
vive,thus sustaining a rich biodiversity. These are also the rights of regulations, in order to produce the optimum quantities that are com-
the people that live from its crops and livestock. patible with conserving nature and a rational and efficient use of
Sustainable agriculture in this area should be understood by resources.

We must not forget that "Doñana is water" and water is life. The defence of its waters must be understood as the defence of the right of all living creatures in
"Doñana" to survive in optimum conditions, sustaining the rich biodiversity of the area. This also includes the people who live from growing crops and raising
livestock.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

168
Marshes and ponds REGLA ALONSO MIURA *

the graphic expression of water

PICTURE 1
Marshes and “Vera”. End of Winter. Doñana
Biological Reserve.
Author: Regla Alonso Miura.

he pleasure that we experience in the presence of water

T in a landscape has a deep, almost genetic origin.The sen-
sual characteristics and the symbolic aspects with an intense
situation of the sheet of water, colour level of information, etc.
By establishing comparisons among the results, we can draw
emotional content, make them into the conveyor and generator some conclusions on perception and representation like those
of aesthetic values. Spaces associated with water and which form given as examples below.
a frontier with that water, usually possess an enormous treasure Images 1 and 3 have represented two Doñana ecosystems;
trove of flora and fauna. In Doñana, we have addressed marshes marsh and pond, respectively.These pictures share their princi-
and ponds, two units with a horizontal surface that is free of all ple elements: sheet of water, well structured scrubland of cork
visual obstacles and other specific individual features.They both trees and marsh vegetation. In both of them, the water covers a
share the element that defines them; water, but they forge differ- similar space, it is the same colour and it is open on the right
ent landscapes.The areas of contact (eco-tone) with the ecosys- side of the picture.The size of the tree mass is similar, as is the
tem around them possess a major morphological and biological marsh vegetation. Only certain structural and formal aspects
richness, but they have different physiognomies.They also behave have been accentuated or varied. In the picture of the marsh, a
differently throughout the year and have divergent influences on distant, linear horizon has been chosen, one that enlarges the
their surroundings. surface area to give the sensation of an unmanageable space with
In a study conducted between 1982-85 dealing with the distant boundaries. In the pond, we come closer to the horizon
graphic expression of these Doñana landscapes, the structural, and its elements can be made out as individual and personalised
formal, chromatic elements, etc. that define and make them indi- features, seeking to encircle and close the perimeter to give the
vidually distinct have been analysed. To do this, large sets of feeling of a secluded environment. Marsh vegetation is laid out in
images were taken, introducing certain elements like: location, a different way in each picture. In the marsh, the picture concen-
size and density of the different elements, height of the horizon, trates on the area to the left, leaving the sheet of water free,
depth of field, point of view, proportions of the format, size and while, in the lagoon, it is also situated in the area to the right,
delimiting and attempting to bound the water, but without doing
* Professor of Anatomy. University of Seville, Spain. so physically.

169
 PICTURE 2
Dulce pond. End of Winter. Doñana Biological Reserve.
Author: Regla Alonso Miura.

The changes in the colour of these waters are due to with the information that defines the landscape and its moment
ephemeral factors like the time of day or the weather condi- in the seasons. In the lagoons, the annual cycle is reflected in the
tions. But it is surprising that, in the course of the year, and vegetation that surrounds the water (pictures 2 and 3).
regardless of the seasons and the position of the sun, they show In the whole process of transmitting the morphology of the
an unusual consistency in their colour, which we described as landscape into graphic images, we have followed the rule of
ultramarine blue with flecks of cobalt. economising on means: what can be expressed with one stroke
As has been pointed out, the behaviour of marshes and does not need using two, what can be indicated with three mil-
ponds is different throughout the year. In the former, one can see limetres of line is not to be accentuated with another.There may
extreme morphological changes, with the amazing process of be an infinity of possible solutions, but obviously, not all of them
seasonal filling and emptying, and with the growth and senes- have the same value. Only the images with the best expressive
cence of the vegetation that fills it.A few succinct brush strokes quality, of the hundreds taken, have the power to convey the sug-
with the colours that express this discourse can provide use gestion of Doñana landscapes.

IMAGEN 3
Dulce Pond. Onset of Autumn. Doñana Biological Reserve.
Author: Regla Alonso Miura.

170
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. BAYÁN JARDIN, B., CASAS GRANDE, J., RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI, 26. TOJA, J., 1991. Ecología del Río Guadalquivir. Memorias de la Academia
A., SAURA MARTÍNEZ, J., URDIALES ALONSO, C., 2001. Proyecto de Ciencias de Sevilla.1(1986/89):329-353.
Doñana 2005: Restauración hidrológica de las marismas y cuencas ver- 27. TOJA, J., LÓPEZ, T., GUISANDE, C., BRIEVA,C., 1986. Ecología del
tientes a Doñana. Ed. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. estuario del rio Guadalquivir. II Simposio del Agua en Andalucía 1:523-
2. En 1971 González Bernáldez colabora con Agustín Soler, profesor de Zoología en 532
la Hispalense que iniciaba el estudio de los insectos de la Marisma, los cuales habían 28. LÓPEZ, T., TOJA, J., GABELLONE, N., 1990. Limnological comparison
sido abordados con anterioridad por Bigot y Marazanof. of two periduar ponds in the Doñana National Park (SW Spain). Archiv.
3. AMAT,J.A.,MONTES,C.,RAMÍREZ DÍAZ,L., TORRES MARTÍNEZ,A. Hydrobiol. 120(3):357-378
1977 Mapa Ecológico del Parque Nacional de Doñana. ICONA Madrid 29. SERRANO, L., TOJA, J., 1999. Limnology of temporary ponds in Doñana
4. GARCÍA NOVO,F., COTA GALÁN, H., POU ROYO, A., 1977. Estudio National Park (SW Spain) Limnética.
de las marismas del P.N.Doñana utilizando las imágenes del satélite 30. TOJA, J., LÓPEZ, T., GABELLONE, N., 1990. Succesional changes in
ERTS-1. Bol.Estación Central Ecología 6:29-41 two dune ponds in Doñana National Park (SW, Spain). Verh. Internat
5. FAO, 1972. Proyecto piloto de utilización de aguas subterráneas para el Verein Limnol. 24
desarrollo agrícola de la cuenca del Guadalquivir. Anteproyecto de la
transformación en regado de la zona Almonte-Marismas (margen dere-
cha). Informe técnico. I-AGL:SF/SPA 16. Madrid. 2 vol 263 p. THE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF DOÑANA
6. HEURTEAUX, P., 1970 Influences nefastes de risque d´asurer l’equilibre
ecologique du Parc National de Doñana l’utilisation voir a de fins agri- 31. CARRETERO, M.I., RUÍZ, F., RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ, A.,
coles et touristiques des nappes aquiferes d´Almonte et des marismes. CÁCERES, L., RODRÍGUEZ-VIDAL, J., GONZÁLEZ-REGALADO,
Informe. Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat.CNRS. 32 p. M.L., 2002. The use of clay minerals and microfossils in palaeoenviron-
7. VANNEY, J.R., 1970. L’hidrologie du Bas Guadalquivir. Publicaciones mental reconstructions: The Holocene littoral strand of Las Nuevas
del Dep. de Geografía Aplicada. CSIC. Madrid. (Doñana National Park, SW Spain). Clay Minerals 37: 93-103.
8. BAONZA DE PRADO, E., PLATA, A., SILGADO, A., 1984. Hidrología 32. LARIO, J., 1996. Último y Presente Interglacial en el área de conexión
isotópica de las aguas subterráneas del Parque Nacional de Doñana y su Atlántico-Mediterráneo (Sur de España). Variaciones del nivel del mar,
zona de influencia. CEDEX. MOPU. Madrid. 139 p. paleoclima y paleoambientes. Tesis Doctoral, Universidad Complutense
9. IGME, 1982. Hidrogeología del Parque Nacional de Doñana y su de Madrid, 269 p.
entorno. Col. Informe. Ministerio de Industria y Energía. Madrid. 120 p. 33. MENANTEAU, L., 1979. Les Marismas du Guadalquivir. Exemple de
10. LLAMAS, R., 1990. Geohydrology of the eolian sands of the Doñana transformation d’un paysage alluvial au cours du Quaternaire récent.
National Park (Spain). Catena Supplement 18:145-154 Thèse 3è cycle, Univ. Paris-Sorbonne, 154 p.
11. LÓPEZ, T., MAZUELOS, N., MUÑOZ REINOSO, J.C., 1993. Spatial 34. RODRIGUEZ RAMIREZ, A., 1996. Geomorfología continental y subma-
and temporal variation in the ionic composition of shallow water table in rina del Golfo de Cádiz (Guadiana-Guadalquivir) durante el Cuaternario
Doñana National Park (SW Spain). Verh. Internat.Verein.Limnol. reciente. Tesis Doctoral, Universidad de Huelva, 378 p.
12. SUSO, J.M., LLAMAS, M., 1990. El impacto de la extracción de aguas 35. RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ, A., RODRÍGUEZ-VIDAL, J., CÁCERES,
subterráneas en el P.N.Doñana. Estudios Geológicos. 46:317-345 L.M., CLEMENTE, L., BELLUOMINI, G., MANFRA, L., IMPROTA, S.,
13. CASTELLS, M., CRUZ VILLALON, J., CUSTODIO, E., GARCÍA DE ANDRÉS, J.R., 1996. Recent coastal evolution of the Doñana
NOVO, F., GAUDEMAR, J. P., GONZÁLEZ VALLVE, J. L., GRANA- National Park (SW Spain). Quaternary Science Reviews, 15: 803-809.
DOS, V., MAGRANER, C., ROMAN, M., SMART, M., VAN DER 36. RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ,A.,RUÍZ,F., CÁCERES, L.M., RODRÍGUEZ-
MAAREL, E., 1992. (Comisión internacional de expertos sobre el desar- 37. VIDAL, J., PINO, R., MUÑOZ, J.M., 2003. Analysis of the recent storm
rollo del entorno de Doñana). Dictamen sobre Estrategias para el record in the southwestern Spanish coast: implications for littoral man-
Desarrollo Socioeconómico Sostenible del Entorno de Doñana. Sevilla: agement. The Science of the Total Environment, 303: 189-201.
Consejería de Obras Públicas y Transportes, Junta de Andalucía. 38. RODRÍGUEZ VIDAL, J., 1999. Doñana. In: DURÁN, J.J. y NUCHE, R.
14. GALINDO, D., MAZUELOS, N., MATA,J.A., SERRANO,L., 1994. (Ed.). Patrimonio Geológico de Andalucía: 214-219, ENRESA, Madrid.
Microcrustacean and rotifer diversity relating to water temporality in dune 39. ZAZO, C., GOY, J.L., SOMOZA, L.; DABRIO, C.J., BELLUOMINI, G.,
ponds of Doñana National Park (SW Spain). Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. IMPROTA, S., LARIO, J., BARDAJÍ, T., SILVA, P.G., 1994. Holocene
25:1350-56. sequence of sea-level fluctuations in relation to climatic trends in the
15. SERRANO, L., 1994. Sources, aboundance and disappearance of Atlantic-Mediterranean linkage coast. Journal of Coastal Research, 10
polyphenolic compounds in temporary ponds of Doñana National Park In (4): 933-945.
M.A. BROCK, P.I., BOON, A., GRANT, Plant and Processes in
Wetlands. CSIRO. Australia. 1994. THE DOÑANA AQUIFER AND ITS RELATIONS WITH THE NATURAL ENVI-
16. SERRANO, L., TOJA, J., 1993. Influencia de las extracciones de agua RONMENT
sobre las lagunas peridunares de Doñana. Quercus, 92: 21-23.
17. SUSO, J.M., LLAMAS, M., 1990. El impacto de la extracción de aguas sub- 40. BAONZA, E., PLATA, A. Y SILGADO, A., 1984. Hidrología isotópica de
terráneas en el Parque Nacional de Doñana. Estudios Geológicos 46(3- las aguas subterráneas del Parque Nacional de Doñana y zona de influ-
4):321-323 / Influence of Groundwater Development on the Doñana- encia. Centro de Estudios y Experimentación de Obras Públicas
National-Park Ecosystems (Spain). J. Hydrology 141(1-4):239-269. (CEDEX), Madrid, Cuadernos de Investigación C7: 1-139.
19. ZUNZUNEGUI, M., DIAZ BARRADAS, M.C.,GARCIA NOVO, F. 41. BORJA, F. Y DÍAZ DEL OLMO, F., 1992. Eastern sector of the cliff at El
1998. Vegetation fluctuation in Mediterranean dune ponds in relation to Asperillo (Huelva cost, SW Spain): formation and chronology. MBSS,
raifall variation and water extraction. Applied Vegetation Science 1:151- Newsletter, 14: 87-93.
160. 42. BORJA, F. Y DÍAZ DEL OLMO, F., 1994. Geomorfología de el manto
20. MONTES,C., AMAT J., RAMÍREZ DÍAZ, L., 1982. Ecosistemas acuáti- eólico litoral de El Abalario (Huelva). In : J. Arnáez, J.M. Garía Ruíz y A.
cos del Bajo Guadalquivir (SW España). Variación estacional de los com- Gómez, (eds.), Geomorfología de España, Sociedad Española de
ponentes fisicoquímicos y biológicos de las aguas. Studia Oecologica 3: Geomorfología: 337-338.
1259-180 43. CMA, 1998. Reconocimiento biofísico de espacios naturales protegidos.
21. OLIAS ALVAREZ, M., CRUZ SANJULIAN, J., BENAVENTE HER- Doñana. Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía. Memoria y
RERA, J., GARCÍA NOVO, F., MUÑOZ REINOSO, J.C., 1991. New mapa ecológico de Doñana.
data about the Almonte-Marismas aquifer from the hydrological monitor- 44. COLETO, I., 2003. Funciones hidrológicas y biogeoquímicas de las for-
ing (1989-90). Sobreexplotación de Acuíferos.23 Congreso AIH. Islas maciones palustres hipogénicas de los mantos eólicos de El Abalario-
Canarias: 159-163. Doñana (Huelva). Tesis Doctoral, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
22. IGME, 1982. Hidrogeología del Parque Nacional de Doñana y su 45. CUSTODIO, E., 1993. Preliminary outlook of saltwater intrusion condi-
entorno. Colección Informe. Madrid 120 p. tions in the Doñana National Park (Southern Spain). Study and Modelling
23. LLAMAS, M.R., 1990. Geohydrology of the eolian sands of the Doñana of Salt Water Intrusion. CIMNE-UPC. Barcelona: 295-315.
National Park (Spain). Catena Supplement 18:145-154. 46. CUSTODIO, E., 2000. Groundwater-dependent wetlands. Acta Geologica
24. GARCÍA NOVO, F., GALINDO, M.D., GARCÍA SANCHEZ, J.A., Hungarica, 43(2): 173-202.
GUISANDE C., JAUREGUI, J., 25. LÓPEZ, T., MAZUELOS, N., 47. CUSTODIO, E., 2004. Posibles procesos de contaminación agrícola de
MUÑOZ, J.C., SERRANO, L., TOJA, J., 1991. Tipificación de los escosis- aguas subterráneas en el área de Doñana (Huelva). Congreso Nacional
temas acuáticos sobre sustrato arenoso del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Análisis y Evolución de la Contaminación de las Aguas Subterráneas,
3er Simposio sobre el Agua de Andalucía. Córdoba :165-177 Alcalá de Henares.

171
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

48. CUSTODIO, E., Y PALANCAR, M. 1995. Las aguas subterráneas en cial and interglacial periods in the Guadalquivir marshlands (Mari López
Doñana. Revista de Obras Públicas, Madrid, 142 (3340): 31-53. drilling, SW Spain). Geogaceta, 26: 119-122.
49. IGLESIAS, M., 1999. Caracterización hidrogeoquímica del flujo del agua
subterránea en El Abalario, Doñana, Huelva. Tesis Doctoral, ETSICCPB, A NUMERICAL HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL FOR THE MARSHES OF
Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona. DOÑANA
50. IGME, 1982. Hidrogeología del Parque Nacional de Doñana y su entorno.
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España. Madrid, 120 p. 71. Production of the DTM of the marshes was a joint effort of Estudio
51. KONIKOV, L.F. Y RODRÍGUEZ-ARÉVALO, J.,1993. Advection and dif- Cartográfico Gea S.A. and Fotonor As.
fusion in a variable-salinity confining layer. Water Resources Research, 72. Development of the numerical model was a joint effort of AYESA and
29 (8): 2747-2761. WL/Delft Hydraulics.
52. LOZANO, E.; DELGADO, F.; MANZANO, M. Y CUSTODIO, E., 2002.
Caracterización hidrogeoquímica de las aguas subterráneas y superfi- EL PARTIDO STREAM
ciales de la Vera del Parque Nacional de Doñana (SW de España).
Groundwater and Human Development (Bocanegra, Martínez y Massone, 73. Simulating these flash floods made it possible to estimate the volume of
eds.). Univ. Mar del Plata, Argentina: 1348-1358 (CD). the run off Q (m3); peak flow qp (m3/s) and peak times tp (hours) for these
53. LOZANO, E., 2004. Las aguas subterráneas en los Cotos de Doñana y su flows. All these parameters were determined in section 3 of El Arroyo del
relación con las lagunas. Tesis doctoral, ETSICCPB, Universidad Partido (Figure 1), located in the channelled stretch, about 4 km up river
Politécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona. from where it flows into the Marshes, where it spills 95% of the area of
54. MANZANO, M., 1999. Los humedales de Doñana y su relación con el the basin, and fitted with the Guadalquivir Water Board's metre number
agua subterránea. 1ª Reunión Internacional de Expertos sobre la 151. The downpours that caused the aforementioned flash floods used to
Regeneración Hídrica de Doñana (Doñana 2005). Huelva, octubre de be defined from the hourly rainfall data provided by the Almonte HU007
1999. MMA, Madrid. weather station that forms part of the Andalusia Regional Government
55. MANZANO, M., 2001. Clasificación de los humedales de Doñana aten- Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Alert and Phyto-sanitary
diendo a su funcionamiento hidrológico. Hidrogeología y Recursos Information Network.
Hidráulicos, Madrid, XXIV: 57-75. 74. This figure is only a 10% deviation from the average value of the 7 sam-
56. MANZANO, M.; BORJA, F. Y MONTES, C., 2002. Metodología de tip- ples of water with sediments taken in the same section, during the course
ificación hidrológica de los humedales españoles con vistas a su valo- of seven flash floods in the period 1996-98, which gave a value of 6,244
ración funcional y a su gestión: Aplicación a los humedales de Doñana. g/l. Despite the small size of the sample, the simulation as such offers a
Boletín Geológico y Minero, 113 (3): 313-330. good fit when one considers that thee of solid flows in suspension.
57. MANZANO, M. Y CUSTODIO, E., 2004. Groundwater baseline compo- 75. It should be pointed out that the winter of 1998-99 was one of extreme
sition of the Doñana aquifer (SW Spain) and geochemical controls. 4ª drought and without any flash floods in the Doñana area, so the delay in
Asamblea Hispano-Portuguesa de Geodesia y Geofísica, Figueira de Foz, this alter operation did not alter the morphology of the Arroyo from the
Portugal, Febrero de 2004. previous year.
58. MANZANO, M.; CUSTODIO, E.; LOOSLI, H.H.; CABRERA, M.C.; 76. This research forms part of the Project 174/93; Sedimentary Dynamics of
RIERA, X. Y CUSTODIO, J., 2001. Palaeowater in coastal aquifers of the Doñana National Park marshes, future prospects and management
Spain. Palaeowaters in Coastal Europe: Evolution of Groundwater since alternatives, funded by the Regional National Parks Board. We would like
the late Pleistocene. (EDMUNDS, W.M. & MILNE, C.J., eds.). to express our gratitude to Doctors Jose Carlos Robredo Sanchez and Pablo
Geological Society London, Sp. Publ. 189: 107-138. J. Sendra Arce for their significant participation in this project.
59. MANZANO, M.; CUSTODIO, E.; MEDIAVILLA, C. Y MONTES, C.,
2002b. Effects of localised intensive aquifer exploitation on the Doñana MEN AND WATER IN THE HISTORY OF DOÑANA
wetlands (SW Spain). Simposium on Intensive Use of Groundwater.
Challenges and Opportunities, SINEX. Instituto Geológico y Minero de 77. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1985. Le Parc National Doñana et son environnement.
España, Generalitat Valenciana y Fundación Marcelino Botín. Abstracts. Revue géographique des Pyrénées et du Sudouest. T.56/2, avril-juin 85. Toulouse:
60. MANZANO, M.; CUSTODIO, E.; MEDIAVILLA, C. Y MONTES, C., 225-242
2005. Effects of localised intensive aquifer exploitation on the Doñana 78. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1987. Organización del territorio en Doñana y su
wetlands (SW Spain). BALKEMA Publishers. entorno próximo. (Almonte). Siglos XVIIIXX. Ministerio de Agricultura
61. MONTES, C.; BORJA, F., MANZANO, M. Y OTROS (2000). Inventario ICONA. (Monografía, 49). Madrid. 456 p.
y tipificación de los humedales del Manto Eólico Litoral de Doñana. 79. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1990. Doñana paisaje cultural. Doñana cultural
Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía. landscape. Doñana: La naturaleza en España. Ed. Lunwerg, Barcelona:
62. PAH, 2002. Plan Andaluz de Humedales. Consejería de Medio Ambiente, 18-25
Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla. 80. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1992. Políticas forestales y medio ambiente en
63. RODRÍGUEZ-ARÉVALO, F.J., 1988. Origen del movimiento del agua Doñana y su entorno. Agricultura y Sociedad, nº 65, Ministerio de
intersticial en el acuitardo arcilloso de las marismas del Guadalquivir. Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, Madrid: 303-357.
Tesis Doctoral. FC., Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 300 p. 81. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1993. Doñana: Esperando a Godot. Instituto de
64. SALVANY, J.M. Y CUSTODIO, E., 1995. Características litológicas de Desarrollo Regional, Sevilla. Cuaderno, nº 31. 84 p.
los depósitos pliocuaternarios del Bajo Guadalquivir en el área de 82. GRANADOS, M. y OJEDA, J.F., 1994. Doñana. Paisaje y poblamiento.
Doñana: implicaciones hidrogeológicas. Rev. Soc. Geol. De España 8 (1- Edificaciones en el Parque Nacional. Consejería de Obras Públicas y
2): 21-31. Transportes. Dirección General de Arquitectura y Vivienda, Junta de
65. SUSO, J.M. Y LLAMAS, M., 1990. El impacto de la extracción de aguas Andalucía, Sevilla. 142 p.
subterráneas en el Parque Nacional de Doñana. Estudios Geológicos, 46: 83. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1999. Una aproximación interpretativa a la
317-345. catástrofe del Guadiamar. Cuchará y paso atrá, nº 7. Colectivo de
66. SUSO, J.M. Y LLAMAS, M., 1993. Influence of Groundwater develop- Estudios Marxistas, Sevilla: 49-56.
ment on the Doñana National Park ecosystems (Spain). Journal of 84. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., GONZALEZ FARACO, J.C. y VILLA DÍAZ, J.
Hydrology, 141: 239-269. 2000. El paisaje como mito romántico. Su génesis y pervivencia en
67. TRICK, TH. 1998. Impacto de las extracciones de agua subterránea en Doñana, en MARTÍNEZ DE PISÓN, E.(Coord.) Estudios sobre el paisaje.
Doñana: aplicación de un modelo numérico con consideración de la vari- Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid y Fundación Duques de Soria.
abilidad de la recarga. Tesis Doctoral. ETSICCPB, Universidad Colección de Estudios, nº67: 343-357.
Politécnica de Cataluña, Barcelona.
68. TRICK, TH. Y CUSTODIO, E., 2004. Hydrodynamic characteristics of MARSHES AND LAGOONS
the western Doñana Region (area of El Abalario), Huelva, Spain.
Hydrogeology Journal, 12: 321-335.. 85. ALONSO MIURA, R., 1987. Flora y Paisaje en Doñana. Ministerio de Obras
69. ZAZO, C., GOY, J.L., LARIO, J. Y SILVA, P.G., 1996. Littoral zone and Públicas. Madrid.
rapid climatic changes during the last 20,000 years: the Iberian study 86. ALONSO MIURA, R., 1988. Doñana. Vegetación y paisaje. Percepción morfoló-
case. Z. Geomorph. N.F.; Berlin-Stuttgart, Suppl. 102: 119-134. gica y análisis plástico. MOPU/Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla. 250 p.
70. ZAZO, C.; DABRIO, C.; GONZÁLEZ, A.; SIERRO, F.; YLL, E.I.; GOY, 87. ALONSO MIURA, R., 1992. La emoción de descubrir. Universidad
J.L.; LUQUE, L.; PANTALEÓN-CANO, J.; SOLER, V.; ROURE, J.M.; Hispanoamericana. Santa María de la Rábida. 259 p.
LARIO, J.; HOYOS, M.; Y BORJA, F., 1999. The record of the last gla-

172
The performance of nature and
the worlds of biodiversity within Doñana

he ecological traits of the area that surrounds the former ventional, without any physical feature to mark the frontiers.These
T game reserve called “Coto de Doñana” vary enormously
and have also varied though history. A first approach to studying
Pleistocene hills and Miocene marls have always been farmed and the
settlements between Niebla and Seville form a rim of age-old human
the biological heritage found in this area is through looking back for presence in the countryside.The County of Niebla, which remained
remnants of history and the first descriptions of its resources: how independent from Seville during many periods, and the River
they were used and how they were considered, including the Guadiamar have played the political role of border with Aljarafe,
accounts of the first scientific explorers of these lands. These are Seville. The boundaries of the southernmost municipalities, like
points of reference that should be addressed in the search for a Rociana,Almonte, Hinojos,Aznalcazar,Villamanrique, Puebla del Río,
better understanding of the Doñana of today. Coria and the recently created Isla Mayor, form belts running down
The first characteristic of the wider area of Doñana is a grand to the shore, marshes or estuary. To the east, the Guadalquivir
rolling sandy plain of old dunes,dotted with ponds in the depressions Estuary and its islands offered a continuity with the marshes. The
that border the edge that runs down to the shores of the Gulf of inhabitants of Trebujena and Sanlúcar, in the province of Cádiz, have
Cádiz. Historically, this area has been considered a desert uninhabit- always been linked to Doñana and its resources, so these municipal
ed land. districts can be considered as the eastern boundaries of the Greater
To the west, the area borders on the Huelva and Tinto estuaries, Doñana area.
forming escarpments in the sandstone that give way to tidal marsh- Seville and Cádiz are the regional centres, in political and
es.The Río Tinto marshes border this northwestern part of the ter- administrative terms, followed by Niebla, Jerez and Huelva, with
ritory as far as Niebla, while the northern boundaries are more con- Sanlúcar as the local capital of the old Doñana Estate. The El

To get an idea of the enormous wealth of this area, one only has to realise that 400 species of birds have been sighted in Doñana. There are also 33 species of
mammals, 19 reptiles, 12 amphibians and 7 fish species, plus a further 60 species in the Guadalquivir Estuary. These figures, while high for Spain, are excep-
tional for the European continent. In the photograph, a backlit view of a "pajarera" (open aviary), cork oaks renowned for the enormous quantity of birds that
nest in them in La Vera, facing the Doñana Marshes.
Photgraph of José María Pérez de Ayala.

175
 Rocío chapel has always acted as the spiritual centre for the
region with the pilgrimages of religious hermandades (brother-
hoods) from these municipalities during Whitsuntide.
Shipping has been one of the keys to this area for thousands of
years. Merchandise was shipped out down the rivers from Niebla
with its active port, and from Palos, Moguer, Sanlúcar, Coria, San
Juan and Seville.The Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) was naviga-
ble by boat down to the River Guadiamar, where it ran back into
the main Branch of the River Guadalquivir. The Eastern Branch With the means now available, scientists are convinced that they know the
Doñana of today relatively well. But, when its evolution and future projec-
(Brazo del Este) was also open to river traffic. Even the cattle trails
tion are discussed, major questions arise. What was Doñana like centuries
to Puntal de Doñana and Moguer used barges to carry the cattle ago, with marshes that were still tidal to a certain extent? Or a thousand
years ago, with a sea gulf and large marsh islands between the branches of
down to Sanlúcar or Huelva. The livestock crossed to the islands the Estuary inhabited by immense flocks of birds? What was Doñana like
on the edges of the different branches of the rivers, and they were beforehand, with bears eating the juniper berries, attacking the flocks of
birds and fishing in the shallow pools, at a time when the sandy islands of
recovered with barges from the "vetas" or islands of the Doñana the estuary mouth were inhabited by colonies of monk seals and the sea
Marshes (Las Marismas) during the floods. The bridge over the turtles came ashore on the beaches to lay their eggs. In the picture, the
bank of a pool.
River Tinto was in Niebla, the Guadalquivir bridge was a ferry Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

crossing at Seville, and it is on record that the River Guadiamar

used to have a Roman bridge at Aznalcázar, although the river was Sanlúcar. Fish, shellfish, fresh and pickled oysters, and sun-dried fish
crossed at the fords.To a certain extent, the Doñana Marshes had were distributed throughout the region from here.With time, the
the appearance of an archipelago, in which the vetas on which peo- tuna from the fish traps and the "sollos" or sturgeons from the
ple built huts and settlements were the islands.The inhabitants trav- Guadalquivir Estuary were produced industrially and gained an
elled with livestock and belongings from one to another on horse- excellent reputation.
back through the shallow waters or, if the water was deep, in The fish that became trapped in the marshes and temporary
"cajones" - flat bottomed punts that they pushed along with a pole. lagoons, like the mullet, carp (known locally as "panarras"), eels and
A description of the resources historically available and how lampreys, were fished in large numbers.According to Juan Francisco
they were harnessed gives us another view of Doñana and its dis- Ojeda, the place name of Canaliega, next to El Rocío, is named after
tricts at different times in history.Along the coastline and the estu- an ancient structure based on canals to allow fishermen to catch
aries, man has fished with nets and traps for thousands of years and the eels coming out of Las Marismas on their way up La Rocina
collected shellfish along the shores. Two types of fishing became stream (Arroyo de La Rocina). Other resources from the wetlands
important in the area: the tuna fishing traps (almadrabas), particu- that were collected were the leeches for medical purposes, the
larly the traps at Torre Carboneros, and the stone fish pens in eggs and chicks of waterfowl, the bulrushes for weaving seats, rush-
es for weaving bags and baskets, canes for training plants in allot-
ments or for making sun shades, linen for weaving and saltwort
plants for making soap. Salt flats were built all along the
Guadalquivir Estuary, a strategic activity dating back to ancient
times throughout the Mediterranean that boomed thanks to trade
with the Americas because of the demand for salted meat and fish.
Some salt flats still survive on the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and
the crystalisation pools and flats from old salt works are still con-
served on the edges of the National Park.The San Isidro and San
Rafael salt works are examples.
Further inland, farming was developed on rich soils: cereals
(including buckwheat), olive trees (often grafted on to wild olive
trees), fruit trees (orange and figs), and allotments on the edges
This picture of a tin of caviar processed in the area gives an idea of the
abundance of sturgeon. They were finally wiped out in a few years after
of the villages, using the fertile plains of the streams. In Sanlúcar,
the adults were caught in mass, having been retained by the construction Hinojos and perhaps elsewhere, there used to be "navazos" or
of the Alcala dam on the Guadalquivir River.
"lavazos", excavations made in sandy soil down to the damp

176
 underlying sand, as The predominantly sandy soils of the southern sector and close
an alternative to to the shoreline were not appropriate for farming, so the forests
irrigation.Vines for were conserved until felling gradually eliminated them. Forestry
producing young covered the needs for firewood, furniture and tools, building, and
wines thrived in one particular market, shipbuilding, was an important industry in
the loose soil. In Moguer and Palos and along the Estuary as far as Sanlúcar. Local
order to meet the forest products included forest resin, pitch for caulking, charcoal,
demands of the coal dust for making gun powder, cork for floats, bark for tanning,
American market juniper resin, willow branches for basketwork, juniper forks for
in the 16th century, supporting the bunches of grapes on the vines.There was trading
the wines were in pine nuts, pinecones, acorns and carob beans. Re-planting
laced with alcohol umbrella pine trees on the coastal dunes started in 1938 followed
so they would in 1941 by eucalyptus, and later pine trees further inland.
keep better during Sheep, goats, pigs, cows and horses were the main livestock in
the journey. The the countryside of this district. Flocks and herds grazed in the
18th century saw a forests and brush in the winter, and the marshes and lagoons in
boom in wine summer when water levels were low, in a local nomadic cycle, in
growing for mak- other words, with relatively short moves from one place to anoth-
ing dry and man- er.We should not forget the beekeepers, who produced important
Small game hunting for partridge, rabbit and hare
was common. Ducks and geese were hunted in zanilla sherry, lead- resources like honey and wax, in the area.There were also grazing
great quantities in the ponds, marshes and on the ing to the creation lands and tree-studded range land, with long-term crop rotation of
shores of the estuary. Big game hunting was cen-
tred on boar and deer but later increased with the of great wineries about fifteen years, and evergreen oaks, cork trees, gall oaks, wild
introduction of fallow deer. This spread to hunt-
ing lynx, wild cats, foxes, eagles and other birds
in Sanlúcar and olive trees, carob trees and hackberries in open forests, which were
of prey, all of which were considered pest at the great expansion in used for pig herds to forage on their fallen fruits and berries.The
time of the hunting estates.
land devoted to scrubland on poor soils had controlled burns every twelve years.
Documental Centre of the Doñana Biological Station.
vines once and for Small game hunting for partridge, rabbit and hare was common,
all. Later, from 1920 onwards, the local agriculture was trans- and hares could be hunted in the dry marshes in summer. Ducks
formed when rice paddies were established in the Marshes, or and geese were hunted in great quantities in the ponds, marshes
they were drained for irrigation-based crops. From 1970, the and on the shores of the estuary. Big game hunting was centred on
sandy soils with groundwater were reclaimed for irrigation farm- boar and deer but later increased with the introduction of fallow
ing, many as green houses. deer. According to records, to promote these activities on the

The Ebro Delta

and Doñana
attract the
largest concen-
trations of little
terns on the
Iberian
Peninsula.
This species
prefers to settle
on sandy coasts
and on the
shores of ponds
or marshes.
Photograph by: Antonio
Sabater

177
 An outline of the historic ecology of Doñana can be gleaned from old
descriptions. 18th century descriptions indicated the presence of oak trees
and wild olive, rock rose, greenweed, mastic tree and strawberry tree
scrub. They also indicate the presence of evergreen oak and extensive pine
forests. In the picture, undergrowth of cork trees lit up by the sun set.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

country estates, there were organised hunts aimed at driving out with ash, black and white poplars and tamarisks in areas with a ten-
wolves. This spread to hunting lynx, wild cats, foxes, eagles and dency to flood, depending on the salinity of waters. Wild olives
other birds of prey, all of which were considered pests. were found on higher ground and in stronger soils, and evergreen
The better land has always been farmed and has never been oaks on well-drained soils and calcarenites. There were probably
part of the hunting estates, as these were to be found on sandy juniper and prickly juniper further inland, on poor substrates, and
soils or marshes, with forest or scrub vegetation. Hunting was a maples (Acer granatense) on better soils. Shrubs like strawberry
right that was jealously guarded by the landowners and defended trees, buckthorn or glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus ssp. baetica),
against the local settlers who, apart from poaching game, also tried and kermes oak, with maquis scrub, would create dense thickets
to let their livestock into the hunting grounds to graze, or to gath- that would be difficult to penetrate. In the rest of the area, there
er the forestry resources. The excellent state of conservation in was scrub, heather and pasture.The spread of the dunes and forest
the area that we have inherited is due, to a large extent, to the fact fires would have helped this scrub to survive for long periods of
that these were not arable lands and the fact that there was malar- time (20-40 years) after each episode.
ia in the wetlands. Old descriptions and studies in historical ecology agree on
Two grand hunting estates still survive: one, in the south, was this point.We have the reference of Ojeda's transcription of the
known as Las Rocinas Forest (Bosque de Las Rocinas) or the Coto parish priest of Almonte's reply to Tomas Lopez' questionnaire in
de Doñana, belonging to the House of Medina Sidonia; and the 1785: "most of the district is populated with undergrowth, with a
other, in the north, was called Lomo del Grullo or Coto del Rey, variety of branchless trees like cork trees and wild olive and an
owned by the Monarchy. Both included woods and scrub, they had undergrowth of rock rose, greenweed, mastic trees and strawber-
ponds and streams and bordered the Doñana Marshes.The Coto ry trees. It has several ranges of cork trees and evergreen oaks
de Doñana included the juniper woods and the dunes of the shore- and a large part in pine forest"1.
line down to the beach, and was surrounded by a large uninhabit- Some of these species must have first appeared thousands of
ed area. Lomo del Grullo, on the other hand, was surrounded by years ago, possibly in the Neolithic Period, like the carob tree that
settlements and it was on the livestock route to the marshe, so it came from the eastern Mediterranean. The presence of umbrella
has understandably been subject to greater pressure from humans. pine trees has been the subject of much scientific debate as it
Breaking up the ownership of the historic hunting estates in the grows easily in distressed areas, affected by the spreading dunes,
19th century did not bring about a radical change in the use of these instability of the substrate, or fires. Umbrella pine nuts have been
lands.The new owners continued to hunt and raise their livestock, consumed in the Mediterranean basin since the Stone Age, as they
and in a later phase they re-planted forests. are easy to carry and store. The pinecones and wood have been
The original vegetation of the sandy area of Doñana, from the used as fuel, as building material, for making tools and for shipbuild-
stabilised dune mantles to calcarenites, can still be deduced from ing.The resin too has been used as a preservative for sealing con-
the surviving remnants. These include forests of junipers on the tainers and tar to caulk ships' hulls.This valuable tree, closely asso-
sandy coastal mantles and cork trees in the damper sandy parts, ciated with human presence, is also easy to grow from seed. This

178
would make migration of pine trees along with human groups plau- The first three decades of the 20th century saw a Dutch
sible, at least in the Neolithic Period, forming part of its first, pre- company carry out planting trials with fast growing tree species
agricultural phase that Fernando González Bernáldez labeled on the sandy soils of the coastal plain of Huelva, and species
"fruitalisation of the Mediterranean forest". These arguments do from the Eucalyptus family gave promising results for these pur-
not exclude the spontaneous incidence favoured during the intense poses.After the Spanish Civil War, in the early forties, Gaspar de
Pleistocene disturbances that repeatedly offered open areas to be la Lama continued with this initiative in the National Forestry
colonised by pine forests during changes in climate and major Trust, created in 1941, experimenting with new species and
eustatic movements. The maturity of the luxuriant forest, with its planting an interesting arboretum in the Doñana region. After
dense undergrowth, however, would end up excluding the pine fifty years of growth, those trials now look like an antipodean
from reproducing in a few centuries, creating pine-free woodlands forest from Australia or New Zealand3.
but maintaining patches of pine woods in disturbed or unstable This selection of species identified Eucalyptus rostrata (= E.
areas.The inverse correlation between the abundance of Pinus and camaldulensis) and E. globulus as suitable species for the region,
Quercus pollen is well established in the pollen diagrams of the starting a wave of planting that covered 33,280 ha by the end of
Acebrón-Las Madres-Acebuche area. 1950, mostly in the province of Huelva, with about 20,000 ha of
There are no records of umbrella pine trees in the Doñana umbrella pine and pinaster and another 11,800 ha of eucalyptus.
Estate until 1624 or in the demarcation of its boundaries, or in the Fortunately, the guayule (Parthenium argentatum) introduced for
Coto del Rey, where they are first mentioned in 1636. There are producing rubber was only planted on a few hundred hectares. and
records of sowing their seeds in 1737 in El Puntal, from where the soon abandoned. Eucalyptus planting in the Doñana Estate started
species spread rapidly. In 1751, Gutierrez de Ruvalcava, a naval in 1946. Mauricio González Gordon remembers, in his contribution
inspector, recorded 18,000 cork trees, 1,119 poplars and 222,200 to this book, the efforts made to curb this planting, triggering a
pines on the estate, though probably including other adjacent areas. series of events that culminated in the creation of the National
Pines were only sown in the dune valleys after 1805, and Ojeda Park.
indicates that there were 895 "fanegas" (about 450 ha) of pine The eucalyptus spread at the expense of the semi-natural veg-
forests in the Doñana Estate in 1852.There are also records of his- etation: the original scrub, the pyrophytic scrub, the pastures and
toric pine forests in Moguer,Almonte, Sanlúcar and other towns, in wetlands. The diverse mosaic of communities generated by water
addition to the cork tree woodlands1. in ponds, springs and streams was overwhelmed by these interven-
Neither is there any conclusive evidence on the origin of tions. Moreover, the powerful roots of the eucalyptus drew up
other species. There is a stand of some twenty specimens of more water than the existing vegetation, causing the water table to
Tetraclinis articulata that appears to be a 19th century plantation. drop and so drying up the rising water sources and their associat-
The possibility of hackberry and mastic tree being introduced ed wetlands.The serious ecological impact did, however, have major
into the region centuries ago cannot be ruled out.There has been social benefits, as it provided employment in a depressed region for
intensive trade in the latter bush species throughout the
Mediterranean, for medicinal purposes and for fresh consumption
since 1000 B.C. The Greek island of Khios was one of the best-
known centres of its production and distribution. To benefit the
resin, the so-called "mastic" for medicinal purposes, the evergreen
pistaches were pruned to give them a crown and a trunk, in the
form of an evergreen oak. These were the nursery trees that
were tapped for resin. Up until the 1980s, there were two speci-
mens at the entrance to the El Rocío Trail, in Coto del Rey, very
close to Puente del Ajolí.
Eucalyptus was introduced into the area in ancient times, and
those that can now be seen in Coto del Rey or in the Palacio de
Doñana are old specimens, forming an integral part of the landscape Unlike the Spanish imperial eagle, other resident birds of prey in Doñana
in La Vera, and occasionally providing support for the nest of a pair have a brighter future. This is the case of the short toed eagle, kestrels, the
Montagu and marsh harriers, the Bonelli's eagle (in the picture), the red
of imperial eagles. Breeding colonies of storks have settled in the kite, the buzzard and the peregrine falcon.
rows of eucalyptus that link the Palacio del Rey with the marshes. Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

179
 in the nineties and the replanting work carried out this century
have been done for restoration purposes, planting the original veg-
etation species: juniper, cork, ash, poplar and the various woodland
scrub.
The list of species gives us little clue about the landscape, as the
same flora can produce a dense forest or open scrubland with the
odd tree, a large vertebrate community, or one made up of just a
few specimens. There are relicts of mature forest vegetation and
large ferns like the royal fern (Osmunda regalis) in the area of
Encinillas Altas in the Biological Reserve, along the banks of La
Rocina stream around the Ribetehilos Lagoon, crossing the Coto
del Rey (Matasgordas), and on the edges of the Llanos de Velasquez
touching El Puntal.The cork trees of Encinillas reached a diameter
of 23 m at the crown. We can only imagine the landscape of the
past, based on these remains and other evidence that has survived
in the western Mediterranean. El Dehesón, the remains of a forest
The hydrological features strongly determine Doñana's vegetation. On
that has been conserved on sandy mantles emerging from the Tagus
lands not so prone to flooding, the vegetation is dominated by maquis
scrub forming large islands of mastic tree (5 - 10 m wide by 3 - 6 m high) River Valley in the municipal district of Navalcan (Toledo, central
associated with umbrella pine trees and wild olives. The presence of cork
trees and other scrub species varies depending on substrate and topogra-
Spain), has a vegetation of very large cork trees, scrub and lianas
phy. The picture shows a close up of the branch of a female mastic tree that might give us an idea of what Doñana was like in the 13th cen-
(Pistacia lentiscus). Black berries are fertile, while sterile ones are red.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
tury, when it was preserved as a Royal game reserve named Bosque
de Las Rocinas (Las Rocinas Forest).
about twenty years and created new settlements where the work- The difficulty of reconstructing the ecological past, even if only
ers lived with their families.Towns like Los Cabezudos, Bodegones, in our imagination, has always been a constant challenge, not only
El Abalario and El Acebuche owe their foundations to the eucalyp- for the imagination but for science too.What was Doñana like cen-
tus plantations.The main aim at this time was to reduce wetlands turies ago, with a dense forest still inhabited by wolves, and arshes
in in order to clear land for new human activities.This effort was that were still tidal to a certain extent with swans in the lagoons
helped by the introduction of the gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki), and an overwhelming presence of birds? Or a thousand years ago,
a small fish that managed to reduce the mosquito population, with a sea gulf and the coastline to the hinterland, with large marsh
which, along with new medical treatments, made it possible to islands between the branches of the Estuary inhabited by immense
eradicate malaria. flocks of birds? Or before that even? What was Doñana like before-
The initial replanting of eucalyptus in the hinterland, in the hand, with bears eating the juniper berries, the acorns and the
1940s, linked up with the umbrella pine trees, stabilising the coastal strawberry tree berries, attacking the flocks of birds and fishing in
dunes that had developed since the beginning of the century and the shallow ponds, at a time when the sandy islands of the estuary
gradually spread when the Forestry Trust bought new properties in mouth were inhabited by colonies of monk seals and the sea tur-
the coastal sector between the River Guadiana and the River tles came ashore on the beaches to lay their eggs?
Guadalquivir. Private land owners followed this official policy and
also planted eucalyptus and pines.This forestry practice continued THE WEALTH OF DOÑANA TODAY
in the sixties for producing fibreboard in a factory in San Juan del A few brief lines will give us an initial approach to the excep-
Puerto, and a maximum of about 200,000 ha of eucalyptus planta- tional heritage that Doñana and the surrounding area still safe-
tions was reached in the province of Huelva alone. After three guard. The MaB Report on the Doñana National Park (Table 1)
felling periods, production started to fall sharply and stumping reveals the wealth of a great mosaic of environments that it encom-
became expensive, meaning that replanting with eucalyptus was no passes, identifying twenty kinds of terrestrial ecosystems and eight
longer commercially viable. aquatic ones, classifying six of them as of world importance, anoth-
It is interesting to note, in the new conservationist phase, that er ten as of European importance and five more as important for
from the mid-eighties, eucalyptus plantations were cleared in the the Iberian Peninsula.The predominant land ecosystems are scrub
National Park and, later on, in the Nature Park. Recent replanting (16.7% of the area), followed by woodland (15.8%), which are main-

180
ly umbrella pine, with remains of juniper, prickly juniper, cork and
ash woodlands. Grazing meadows account for a further 5.5% and
the shifting dunes and beaches, another 10.1%. Finally, the Marshes,
with 52%, cover just over half the area, with 13.5% of them form-
ing shallow ponds and lagoons and channels that flood in winter.
Such a variety of ecosystems obviously provides shelter for a large
number of species.
The vertebrate fauna has been studied in detail.To get an idea
of the enormous wealth of this area, one only has to realise that
400 species of birds have been sighted in Doñana.There are also 33
species of mammals, 19 reptiles, 12 amphibians and 7 fish species,
plus a further 60 species in the Guadalquivir Estuary.These figures,
while high for Spain, are exceptional for the European continent.
The magnificent vertebrate fauna includes species that are high-
In the picture, a young little bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), always a difficult
ly endangered in Spain, like the spur-thighed tortoise, the Iberian bird to spot that stretches its neck and beak upwards when it is in danger.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
lynx, the ichneumon and especially birds: the squacco heron, slen-
der-billed gull, spoonbill, rednecked nightjar, little bittern, gallinule,
crested coot, marbled teal, ferruginous duck, white headed duck, protected area is well conserved and the exchange of specimens
black shouldered kite and the magnificent Iberian imperial eagle. within the surrourrounding areas is maintained. In the sandy scrub-
Other bird species of great interest from a conservationist point of land, a large number of deer, fallow deer and boar can be found.
view are the short-toed eagle, Bonelli's eagle, the peregrine falcon, For all the above, both the Doñana National Park and the
the glossy ibis, the bittern and the redshank. Nature Park must be understood to play an exceptional role in
Doñana also plays an extraordinary role in the migration of preserving the European vertebrate fauna, as well as the intrinsic
birds, constituting a major staging post on the Western Europe value of their well preserved ecosystems.
migratory route that runs along the Atlantic shoreline.The water- There are very few endemic species in the park. Only 6 taxa of
fowl that winter in the Park's marshes can number almost a million vascular plants (of the 896 species described) are considered
individuals in a good year, with a predominance of ducks: wigeon, endemic, although they are probably also to be found in other areas
shoveler, pintail, pochard, mallard, gadwall, crested coot and greylag close by, as bio-geographic barriers are almost non-existent. The
goose. Another outstanding population is the community of over residual populations of endangered species, expelled from their for-
35,000 pink flamingos.The vertebrate fauna of the Mediterranean mer wider ranges by transformations to their territories, are of
forest is also in a satisfactory state of conservation, because the more interest than the endemic species. This biological legacy of

TABLE 1
Ecosystems of Doñana
The important thing in Doñana is the animal populations and the ecosystems and landscapes as a whole. This table summarises this features, referring solely
to the Doñana National Park. (MaB 1994). Upper/lower case indicates greater/lesser importance.

TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM OUTSTANDING FEATURES

Castañuela Marsh VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU WO VE/ve vegetation

Almajos Marsh VE AN ST EC LA IB EU
AN/an animals, fauna
Shallow ponds (lucios) ve AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU WO
Streams VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU BR/br breeding areas
Permanent lagoons VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU WO
MI/mi breeding areas of migratory birds
Temporal lagoons VE AN EC LA IB EU
Vera grasslands VE AN BR ST EC LA IB EU WO ST/st structuration of space
Monte noble VE AN BR MI ST EC LA IB EU EC/ec important ecological processes for the Park
Monte blanco VE AN ST EC LA IB EU
LA/la singular landscape
Monte negro, heathlands VE AN ST EC LA IB
Cork-oak groves VE AN ST EC la IB important ecosystem within the Iberian Peninsula
Juniper groves VE an ST EC LA IB EU
EU ecosystem of European importance
Prickly juniper groves VE an ST EC LA IB
Pine woodlands VE an ST EC la WO ecosystem of world importance
Mobile dunes VE an ST EC LA IB EU WO

181
 the Doñana countryside acting as a sanctuary is of tremendous THE IMPACT OF WATER ON
conservationist interest. Such is the case of the Iberian lynx (Lynx THE ECOSYSTEMS OF DOÑANA
pardinus), which survives here in larger numbers than the few Each year, with the arrival of the first heavy rains, the process
other remaining populations of the Iberian Peninsula, or the Spanish of recharging the water table begins and the drainage network
imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti).This species used to be comes into operation in the basin. After successive episodes of
abundant in the Iberian Peninsula and in the region rainfall, the phreatic level rises close to the surface. The flow of
around Doñana, but its range has now been reduced water into Doñana during such heavy precipitation becomes flash
and the few breeding pairs of the Parks are essential floods that run along the drainage
In areas where the water table is acces-
for the survival of the species.These two sym- sible to plant roots in summer, there
courses. When they get to the
bolic species have also been great accomplish- are ferns, heather (Erica scoparia and Doñana Marshes, these flash floods
Calluna vulgaris), and myrtle (Myrtus
ments in conservation in Doñana so far. In communis), the famous plant that provoke spectacular waves of flood-
the case of the eagle, its protection dates appeared with the gods of Greek ing that can reach a width of several
th
mythology. In the picture, a water
back to the mid 20 century and this work colour of Calluna painted in Doñana by hundred metres.As winter advances,
continues tirelessly in the park.An exam- Regla Alonso Miura. the marsh basin fills up and a transi-
ple of the work done is that the census- tional world between areas above
es of Doñana's imperial eagle population and below water is identified. In the area around the
are now the longest series Marshes, the hydrological network is more evident.
of data monitoring for a Channels and watercourses are well defined despite the flood-
bird of prey in the world4. ing, but in wet winters, this entire area is dotted with ponds and
The other side of the seasonal pools. So this would be the normal scenario that, put
coin is the number of simply, defines the impact of water on the layout of the different
species that have been ecosystems of the marsh environment.
driven to extinction. One These hydrological features thus determine Doñana's veg-
the earliest of the vertebrate etation. On the dune hills which are always free of flooding, there
extinctions was the brown are patches of pine forest with an undergrowth of halimium
bear, most probably prior to (Halimium halimifolium), thorny legumes (Ulex australis,
th
the 13 century.The extinc- Stauracanthus genistoides, Genista hirsuta), rock rose
tion of the wolf - populations (Cistus salviifolius and Cistus monspeliensis), and berry species
that used to breed in Doñana - like butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus), with red berries set on
th
occurred in the 19 century, although shoots shaped like a pointed leaf, and spurge flax (Daphne gnidi-
the last animal, from Sierra de um).
Huelva, was shot in 1954. It is difficult On lands not so prone to flooding, the vegetation is dominated
to verify the disappearance of bird species by maquis scrub forming large islands of mastic trees (5 - 10 m wide
because there is a lack of old data and the by 3 - 6 m high) associated with pine trees and wild olives.The pres-
very dense data of today identify wandering ence of cork trees and other scrub species varies depending on the
birds of distant origins. Cranes are worthy of substrate and the topography, which determine the level of flood-
mention as birds that used to be abundant, but which no longer ing. In the area, there are specimen of Phillyrea angustifolia, buck-
nest in Doñana (since 1900), as are the swans that used to breed thorn (Rhamnus lycioides), and hawthorn (Crataegus monogy-
th
here regularly before the 20 century. Fish species that have na), and in the less floodable areas Kermes oak (Quercus coc-
become extinct in the estuary include the shad and the stickle- cifera), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), wild pear (Pyrus
back. Shad must have been abundant as the old Roman coins made bourgeana) that was sometimes planted on small plots to support
at the local mint at Coria, on the western banks of the rabbit breeding, and dwarf fan palm (Chamaerops humilis) that
Guadalquivir River, bear a shad on one side.The sturgeon has suf- takes on the appearance of a small palm tree, two to three metres
fered the same fate, with the last conserved specimen dating back in height if there are no great disturbances. In areas where the
to 1973 and a later catch, in 1983, has also been recorded, water table is accessible in summer, there are ferns, heather (Erica
although the Guadalquivir population of the Atlantic species scoparia and Calluna vulgaris), and myrtle (Myrtus communis), the
(Acipenser sturio) is now extinct. famous plant that appeared with the gods of Greek mythology,

182
which delays its aromatic blooming until summer time.
From late spring until mid autumn, shrubs and trees offer a
sequence of edible fruits and berries for mammals and birds. The
wild olives, blackcurrants, dwarf palm dates, acorns and other fruits
and berries from the vegetation listed above provide food
resources.Where there are pines and junipers, pine nuts and cones
complete the list of edible plant resources.
Competing to attract consumers, these fruits and berries are
usually brightly coloured, offering aromatic and nutritious pulp in an
attempt to get eaten and, thus, to spread the genes contained in
their seeds.The great terrestrial ecologist, Carlos Herrera Maliani,
has studied in depth the symbiosis between birds and the
Mediterranean fruit producing scrub in Cazorla Nature Park. Pedro
From late spring until autumn, the shrubs and trees offer a sequence of edi-
Jordano has extended the studies to Doñana. Both areas have ble fruits and berries for mammals and birds.Along with the birds of the
become one of the benchmark systems that enable scientists to scrub and those that nest in the crown or in holes in the trunks, this vegeta-
tion also acts as a refuge, nursery and resting place for mammals like deer,
analyse these forms of symbiosis. boar, lynx, genet, wild cat, fox and badger, and it used to provide shelter
These bushes have lianas like the blackberry (Rubus idaeus, R. for wolves and perhaps bears, although there is no documentation to con-
firm the latter.
ulmifolius), the field speedwell, (Lonicera implexa, L. etrusca), the Photograph by Jose María Pérez de Ayala.

prickly ivy (Smilax aspera), and others like Sherardia arvensis and
Bryonia dioica.The lush fruit-bearing native scrub and maquis scrub those that nest in the crown or in holes in the trunks, this vegeta-
vegetation is very similar to the original mature form of the tion also acts as a refuge, nursery and resting place for mammals
Mediterranean forests of cork trees, evergreen oaks, wild olive and like deer, boar, lynx, genet, wild cat, fox and badger, and it used to
dense undergrowth. This vegetation has a stable structure and is provide shelter for wolves and perhaps bears, although there is no
typically highly productive with a large biomass and an appreciable documentation to confirm the latter.
diversity of woody plants. For vertebrates, it provides seasonal food Along the banks, there are ash trees, poplars, and willows, inter-
resources and it always offers shelter from intense summer heat, twined by "parreños", climbing wild vines that are associated with
strong winds or winter frosts.Along with the birds of the scrub and this gallery type of vegetation.The small grapes of the parreño vine

Setting out from the Doñana shoreline, the inland areas bordering the Marshes are old stabilised dune trains. In this environment, there are juniper groves as
mature vegetation on the higher ground, known locally as "naves". In the picture, a grove of juniper in Las Naves, with “monte blanco”scrub in the foreground.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

183
 cioides, Sonchus oleraceus can grow to two metres in height.
An exceptional situation among Doñana's ecosystems, occurs at
the "Vera" or edge of the Marshes.The proximity of the topograph-
ic surface, and the up-welling of phreatic waters at some points,
characterises this strip of sands that ring the Marshes to the south
and west.The excessive consumption of well water and overgrazing
of the pastures is putting this particular feature of Doñana in seri-
ous danger. During the late summer, the marsh area presents the
very special feature of still being able to provide water, which rises
up around the sandy edges, supporting productive vegetation. Here,
the vegetation is bushy and typical of watercourses, hedges and
riverbank forests, with ash, willow, poplars, Lombardy poplars and
tamarisks.

IMPORTANCE OF THE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Reeds are found in permanently flooded environments. The sequence of
The aquatic ecosystems of the Doñana Marshes encompass
reeds (Phragmites australis) and tamarisks (Tamarix africana, T. gallica and T.
canariensis) also indicate a growing mineralisation and the substitution of shallow masses of water, with abundant macrophyte vegetation and
one species by another.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
a major seasonal development of benthos and plankton.The avail-
ability of seeds, leaves, stems and rhizomes on the one hand, and of
are still used to produce an acid condiment in the province of algae on the other, promotes secondary productivity and an abun-
Cádiz, outside of the protected areas of Doñana.This is used like dance of water insects and crustaceans, supporting trophic systems
vinegar and could be the origin of our ancestral procedure of that provide a food base for small predators, filterers and other
preparing wine.The plaited vines were also used for making rough species that live of the detritus. Fish larvae and fingerlings grow
ropes. In 1985, while studying the pollen register of La Laguna de la quickly in the deeper and longer lasting lucios (shallow lakes) which
Madres near Mazagón, Stevenson found a level formed almost sometimes connect in autumn and winter with the Guadalquivir
exclusively of vine pollen, which he interpreted as a 4000-year-old Estuary or with the Guadiamar, allowing eels, mullet, carp, barbels
vineyard (carbon 14 dating).Yet, the practice that has survived into and other fish to enter as well. Fish rarely reach the sandy lagoons
modern times is pruning the parreños and clearing the scrub to and shallow ponds with softer, less mineralised waters, so they are
promote their production of fruit, so the Laguna de Las Madres ideal for large colonies of amphibian larvae and adults (toads, frogs
sample could well represent the oldest example of harnessing and newts), certain reptiles like the common and the stripe necked
these natural resources4. turtle, and the water snake.
Near the water, we find roundhead bulrush (Scirpus The concentration of birds that use the temporary flooded
holoschoenus) and reeds as well, if the flooding is permanent. marsh and pond environments is overwhelming. There are major
Different vegetation sequences can be seen, depending on how fluctuations between one year and another, depending on rainfall,
long the floodwaters last: the pine forest and the wild olive grove as the rainfall determines the abundance of water and, therefore,
will survive a short temporary flooding whereas the cork trees will the configuration of aquatic environments and availability of food
survive longer periods. Flooding can be almost permanent in the resources. For this reason, the data on bird numbers present are
case of the ash, willow, Lombardy poplar and the tamarisk, which, always only illustrative and refer to the more favourable periods.
in this order, indicate an increase in the mineralisation of the water. The largest populations are of greylag goose (Anser anser) with
The sequence of reeds (Phragmites australis ssp. australis and ssp. 75,000 individuals, and ducks like the teal (Anas crecca) at 50,000,
altissima) and tamarisks (Tamarix africana, T. gallica and T. gadwall (Anas strepera) at 40,000, mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) at
canariensis) also indicate a growing mineralisation and the substitu- 20,000, shoveler (Anas clypeata) at 25,000, pintail (Anas acuta) at
tion of one species by another.Among the thickets of woody veg- 11,000, and tufted duck (Aythya fuligula) at 11,000.There are also
etation on damp silty soils that are rich in nutrients, one finds an other interesting species of waterfowl like the flamingo
herbaceous nitrophilic vegetation that can reach exceptional (Phoenicopterus ruber) that maintain a regional population ranging
heights: Trifolium repens or T. resupinatum that can grow to a between 30,000 and 60,000 over Odiel, Doñana, the Ebro Delta
height of 60 cm, Scolymus hispanicus, Lithrum salicaria, Picris hiera- and the Camargue, breeding mainly in La Laguna de Fuente Piedra

184
in Málaga, where up to 15,000 chicks may hatch in a good year. colonies (one in the managed site of Cerrado Garrido and the rest
The herons are a constant feature of the aquatic environments, in the Doñana Marshes).
like the small cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), the little egret (Egretta A complex mixture of events and environments, in which the
garzetta) and the Squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides). But the grey water is always the point of reference, makes Doñana an explosion
heron (Ardea cinerea), the purple heron (A. purpurea) and the of life and the largest wintering grounds of Western Europe. Each
night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) are the rarest of these birds. stage of flooding creates different scenarios, which will also vary
The populations of these three heron species are the main popu- depending on the specific area.
lations in Spain.The mixing of colonies of storks, herons and cranes After the winter, a large part of the Marshes start to dry out,
is one of the features of Doñana, perched in the cork trees and turning it into an ochre plain, dotted with occasional patches of
poplars of La Vera within the Biological Reserve.This is known as water.The different species segregate in accordance with the habi-
the Doñana "open aviaries".The most important species that nests tat and the kind of resources they need. In breeding colonies, the
in this area is the spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia). availability of shallow water among the vegetation, including bran-
Other species of waterfowl to be found in the marshes and ches and scrub on the edges of the marsh, will determine their bre-
ponds include the marbled teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris), seen eding success.The presence of such large colonies of waterfowl has
occasionally, the red crested pochard (Netta rufina) and the coot an impact on the vegetation, as the rushes and reeds are used by
(Fulica atra). The crested coot (F. cristata) has become scarcer, ducks for building their nests, and the seeds and shoots are food for
while the gallinule (Porphyrio porphyrio), which takes refuge in the many of these birds. In recent years, they have become more preva-
dense fringe of water plants, has become a very frequent sight in lent in the lagoons and, to a lesser extent, in the scrub. Geese have
recent years. Some wandering specimens of the glossy ibis (Plegadis strong beaks endowed with a slight protuberance or nail that they
falcinellus), unseen since the 1960s, started to reappear in the use to dig up the cherry sized chestnut rhizomes from the soils of
1990s and soon began to nest, beating the record in 2004 with a the marsh. Such soils can store large food reserves producing up to
breeding population estimated to be at least 1,100 pairs over six 5 kg/m2. Moving and digging in the marshes mobilises nutrients, an

"The 'pajareras' are, without doubt, the crown jewels of Iberian wildlife. Many European nations would like to have something of the kind on their soil, willing to con-
serve and protect them with all the force of the law. The scientific interest of these colonies is enormous as they are ideal for studying animal biology and psychology
and for practising ringing on a large scale. But contemplating them in ecstasy arouses even more emotion and beauty. They are real national monuments - living
instead of dead - that should also be given every consideration by the Spanish state." (Text by F. Bernis and J. A. Valverde, 1952).
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM files.

185
 The magnificent vertebrate fauna includes species that are highly endan-
gered in Spain, including birds like the the Squacco heron, slender-billed
gull, spoonbill, rednecked nightjar, little bittern, gallinule, crested coot,
marbled teal, ferruginous duck, white headed duck, black shouldered kite
and the magnificent Spanish imperial eagle. In the picture, a gallinule
(Porphyrio porphyrio), a species that has become a very frequent sight in
recent years. An identification ring can be observed on its right leg.
Photograph: CENEAM files.

effect enhanced by the excretions of the birds. Peak production tic vegetation during these periods. The damp beds of the ponds
always comes in spring as the water plants are constrained by low and channels are quickly colonised by annual herbaceous plants
temperatures until mid winter, after which the shoots start to emer- that are resistant to the salinity to various degrees; while it is the
ge from the water. halophyte species that proliferate in the "pastures" as these are hig-
By late spring, the Doñana Marshes have practically dried out, her than the floodwaters. In the northern part of the Doñana
drastically reducing the area of open water throughout the area. If Marshes, and on the higher levees, where the permanent
the water levels fall rapidly and nests are left high and dry, some of macrophyte vegetation is replaced by salt wort, the common name
the chicks and fledglings will never fly. given to the arid, salt-resistant plants of the Arthrocnemum,
As summer approaches, the surviving small and highly eutro- Salicornia and Sarcocornia genera that are resistant to the salt in
phied bodies of water show high primary production and often the water and soil to varying degrees.They are usually accompanied
develop a layer of cyanobacteria over the bottom.The high temper- by a cohort of herbaceous plants that will germinate when the
atures and fluctuations in oxygen and pH levels during the daily water dries out to reveal the soil - forming a short-lived mantle of
cycle, due to photosynthesis, reduce the presence of zooplankton Parapholis, Lolium and Hordeum.
and, hence, insects give way to crustaceans as the predominant Other interesting forms of vegetation associated with the aqui-
group of aquatic invertebrates. The fish that have proliferated fer discharge occur in the abovementioned contact zone with the
thanks to the productivity of the plankton often become trapped sandy formations of Vera-Retuerta and the so-called "eyes". During
in isolated bodies of water, where they die when the pools dry out, the dry seasons, areas of standing water from the sand formations
providing food for the herons, kites, gulls and other birds that seep into the marsh, creating a moist strip that supports vegetation,
exploit this fleeting resource. maintaining the remains of wetlands in cycles of drought that can
The beds of the ponds and riverbeds crossing the marsh, and turn into streams running along surface channels. González
the small sandy elevations, known as vetas, maintain areas of aqua- Bernaldez coined these vegetated strips "crypto-wetlands". El

186
 birds have appeared, including the great crested grebe (Podiceps
cristatus), the red breasted merganser (Mergus serrator), cormo-
rants (Phalacrocorax carbo, P. aristotelis), and sea birds like the
gannet (Sula bassana). Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) is often
seen flying over the Marshes, as is the marsh harrier (C. aerugino-
sus) on the edges, a species linked to the flooding. Moving into the
muddy flats of the estuary at low tide, you can see wading birds in
abundance.
There are large flocks of gulls on the coastal strip of Doñana
and oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus) and you can often see
the sandpipers and plovers on the beach, running back and forth
with the waves.The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) nests
on the actual beach. Pods of whales and dolphins often come in
In the skies of Doñana, there are flocks of flamingos, spoonbills, herons,
storks, magpies, geese, shoveler ducks; small birds like the partridge, close to the shore and, more occasionally, marine turtles too.
robin, lapwing; waterfowl like great crested grebe, kingfisher and the little The presence of the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is also worth
grebe; owls, kites, falcons, short toed eagle and majestic imperial eagles
that find an inexhaustible source of food among so many species. In the mentioning. It is a regular visitor to the Guadalquivir Estuary and
picture, a young kingfisher. inlets. It migrates south from northern Europe to Africa, following
Photograph: CENEAM files.
the Atlantic coastline.
Hondón and El Sopetón, for instance, are large spring-fed ponds
situated on the sandy rim. But this phenomenon can also be detec- THE WORLD OF SANDS
ted, though on a smaller scale, on the edge of the Marshes. In these Sand formations in Doñana surround the Marshes to the west,
strips, a varied vegetation thrives that can iºnclude remains of offering highly structured ecosystems of scrub and forest.Although
woods with ash (Fraxinus angustifolia), poplar (Populus nigra, P. primary productivity is lower in this area than in the marshes, the
alba) and willow (Salix spp.), along with scrub species and heath resources that it offers are available for a longer time. Here we can
land of Calluna vulgaris, Erica scoparia, E. umbellata, Ulex minor and see the Mediterranean woodland in its different modalities, offering
a rim of brambles (Rubus ulmifolius) almost always accompanied by an ideal habitat for many vertebrates, particularly birds and mam-
ferns (Pteridium aquilinum). mals.
The "ojos" (eyes), areas of less than 1000 m2 of open water, The scrub vegetation of the sands occupies what was the ori-
connect the aquifer that is confined by the Marshes with the surfa- ginal forest.The old forests of prickly juniper, juniper and cork trees
ce, crossing the thick layer of silty marsh sediments, using sand and
silt chimneys as conduits for the spring water to flow along. The
ojos are filled with a thin water-saturated sediment.
The dried out Marshes enable larger vertebrates to roam
through them. Fallow deer are common around the edge touching
the sands. Deer, hares and foxes venture further into the interior
of the Marshes. Boars come into this area when the water level is
low, eating the fish trapped in the pools and sometimes destroying
the breeding colonies of flamingos and other birds. In summer time,
in the middle of this drying out process when the aquatic species
leave, steppe birds start to appear, like the pratincole (Glareola pra-
tincola). Records show that flocks of wintering cranes (Grus grus)
could be seen in the Marshes during the mid 20th century and it was
not uncommon to see great bustard (Otis tarda), which can still be The glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), unseen since the 1960s, started to reap-
seen further east, in the cereal fields of Jerez. pear in the 1990s and soon began to nest, beating the record in 2004 with a
breeding population estimated to be at least 1,100 pairs over six colonies
The interface between the Doñana Marshes and the Estuary is (one in the managed enclave of Cerrado Garrido and the rest in the
marked by the presence of other species.There has been an incre- Doñana Marshes).
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
ase in fish species in this area, and other groups of deeper water

187
 have been replaced by individual specimens of these species and a arrangements that make possible the survival of the whole, as in
few groups, forming groves where there are more favourable con- this case described.
ditions.The original forest was followed by maquis scrub and some The most outstanding wildlife in this environment, which have
original scrub with large strawberry trees, mastic trees, myrtle, been mentioned on several occasions, are the Iberian lynx and the
mock privet (Phillyrea angustifolia) and Italian buckthorn (Rhamnus imperial eagle. The diet of these species, and other predators like
alaternus).This scrub has been radically reduced by controlled bur- the badger, mongoose and fox, was largely dependent on the rab-
ning regimes and replaced by the predominant contemporary vege- bit.The reduction in the numbers of rabbits due to a series of dise-
tation, pyrophyte heather scrub in the moister parts, with Calluna ases, from myxomatosis to rabbit haemorrhaging viral pneumonia
vulgaris, Erica scoparia, E. umbellata, Ulex minor, and intermediate (NVHc), has placed a severe limitation on the populations of these
cover where these species are accompanied by halimium predators, of which the lynx seems to have been the worst affec-
(Halimium halimifolium), white rock rose (Cistus salvifolius), ted.The shortage of rabbits redirected pressure onto reptiles, large
Stauracanthus genistoides or Genista species. On dryer surfaces, snakes like the false smooth snake or the Montpellier snake, or
you see thyme, lavender, rosemary and species of Dianthus, Arabis, onto the eyed lizard, which suffered reductions in their populations.
Malcolmia, Cistus, Halimium and Leucojum. On the other hand, pressure increased on rodents, like the field
This scrubland offers an interesting case of symbiotic interac- mouse and the water rat, which started to compete for prey with
tion between three of its inhabitants: the small Plebejus argus but- their own predators, like the short-toed eagle, grey owl, long-eared
terfly, the Lasius niger ant and the halimium (Halimium halimifo- owl, and others. The collapse of the rabbit population has had a
lium), the pyrophyte bush that grows on sandy soils.This descrip- major impact on the populations of many species of predator in
tion was developed by Fernández Haguer in his contribution on the Doñana, modifying the delicate balance typical of ecosystems of this
butterflies of Doñana. It reminds us that the greatest attraction of kind, as described by Valverde in 1962.
Doñana, as regards conserving our natural legacies, is to maintain There is a series of ponds in this kingdom of sands that are dis-
the diversity of both species and populations, with their subtle tributed over both the National Park and the Nature Park.These

An interesting ecosystem associated with the water table discharge occur in the contact zone with the sandy formations of Vera-Retuerta. In dry seasons, water
from the sandy formations seeps into the marshes, creating a moist strip that supports vegetation, maintaining patches of wetland and feeding surface canals.
This allows for the growth of a varied vegetation that may include remains of the typical river bank forest trees and scrub, with heath land and a border of
brambles. In the picture, contact between the shifting dunes and the Doñana Marshes in La Retuerta. This marshy border is a singular ecotone that represents
one of the major assets of Doñana's diversity.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

188
lagoons are interesting for a number of reasons. On the one hand,
they constitute hundreds of bodies of water, usually small ones. For
example, the largest of them, the Santa Olalla-Dulce pond complex
in the National Park, only reaches an area of 1 km2 at times of maxi-
mum flooding. The hydro-geological conditions vary enough to
allow for different behaviour arising from their specific connections
with the water table. For this reason, the number of zooplankton
species is high for this environment as a whole (68), although it is
rare to find more than 30 species at a time in a single pond. The
lack of an impermeable layer on the bottom of these ponds means
that the water mass filters down towards the water table, or that
the water table feeds the lagoons in periods of discharge.The result
is a complex pattern in the nutrient balance, especially in the case
of phosphorus.
Another interesting process concerns the role of the scrub
vegetation surrounding the lagoons.When there is heavy precipita-
tion, polyphenols are dissolved from leaves and branches of the The umbrella pine trees have predominated in the corrales since they were
scrub, creating a run off of richly coloured waters, carrying large introduced in 1805. With the sand dunes advancing by up to 5 m/year, the
pine forests have to be able to colonise the sands at a similar speed. It would
quantities of tannin into the ponds. This dark material interferes appear that the vector for the pines in this fast and successive colonisation
with the penetration of light and the circulation of nutrients until it are the magpies and azure-winged magpies that take pine nuts from cones
and bury them in small reserves, or they lose them in transit over the dunes.
disappears when ponds dry out in summer. In the picture, dune front invading Corral Largo.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
Moving on from the wetlands, we come to another curious
area in the world of sands: the system of shifting dunes. One of the natural interactions in this space, where for centuries natural pro-
most striking aspects is the intense dynamic of the system, with cesses have been inundated with intervention after intervention.
fronts that can advance several metres a year. The distinctive
"corrales" or inter-dune valleys are created in the middle of dune BIODIVERSITY IN DOÑANA:
fields. The scrub vegetation here reproduces all those described INTRODUCED, ENDEMIC AND EXTINCT SPECIES
above in the sands.The highest sandy crests bear no vegetation, in It is worth remembering at this point that biodiversity reflects
contrast with the inter-dune valleys where grasslands with gorse the distribution of the forms of life that exist in the biosphere, and
and heather grow, and temporary bodies of water may accumula- should not be confused with simply the number of species.
te.The natural tree vegetation consists of prickly juniper (Juniperus Biological diversity is established at three main levels of the organi-
oxycedrus ssp. macrocarpa), which is currently scarce. sation of life: ecosystems, species and genes. Up till now, we have
The umbrella pine trees have predominated in the corrales taken a brief look at the different ecosystems in Doñana, illustra-
since they were introduced in 1805. But it is interesting to note ting this with many of the emblematic species that inhabit them.
how this introduced species has become subspontaneous, provi- Taking a closer look at the concept of wealth being measured
ding shelter for doves, pigeons, magpies, azure-winged magpies and by the number of species, it has been calculated that almost 1.9
other species.With the sand dunes advancing by up to 5 m/year, the million species have been described in the biosphere to date and
pine forests have to be able to colonise the sands at a similar speed most of these are insects. Biodiversity estimations for the planet
to avoid their disappearance, an important factor for primary forest suggest that the number of species is at least ten times that. In this
succession. It would appear that the vector for the pines in this fast biological universe, extrapolations show that most of the unknown
and continuous colonisation are the magpies and azure-winged species are insects and, at the other end of the scale, there are very
magpies that take pine nuts from cones and bury them in small poc- few bird species remaining to be discovered. Excluding micro-orga-
kets, or they lose them in transit over the dunes. nisms and fungi, but including algae, the number of reported species
These are just a few sketches of the rich ecosystems to be in the Doñana Parks is over 4,000, of an estimated potential of
found in Doñana. Our knowledge of them is gradually unfolding 10,000.This is, therefore, an appreciable number in the context of
thanks to the work of many researchers in getting to the bottom a living planet that is only just starting to be discovered.
of some of their mechanisms, and offering fascinating examples of Descriptions of the biodiversity of Doñana usually highlight the

189
 The dried out marshes enable larger vertebrates to roam through them. Fallow deer are common around the edge touching the sands. Deer, hares and foxes
venture further into the interior of the marshes. In the picture, male fallow deer in the pastures of La Vera. Their growing horns are covered in skin at this time.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

any given group is studied in depth.The vertebrates, with 530 spe-

cies, are the best-known taxonomic group.Animals are followed by
crustaceans and other zooplankton groups, with some 360 identi-
fied species. Of the marine coastal organisms, in-depth studies from
Portugal to the Mediterranean coasts have been done on the stri-
kingly coloured and shaped opistobranchia molluscs.The 154 spe-
cies found by Carlos Garcia Gomez, from the University of Seville,
highlight the contact between the Mediterranean groups and the
Portuguese and Mauritanian groups to provide a highly diversified
set. 59 species have been reported in the sector between Cabo
The slender mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), in the picture, is one of the Roche and the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Doñana. Nine of these
outstanding vertebrates of Doñana. It is a type of mongoose of African ori-
gin and it is currently causing problems as it competes with the lynx and species have been described in the last twenty years, two of which
the imperial eagle for its basic prey: the rabbit. are exclusive to this stretch of coastline (Cuthona thompsoni and
Photography by Antonio Sabater.
Trapania sanctipretensis). Another two (Trapania orteai and
large number of species that can be found in both the National Lomanotus barlettai) have a geographic range that extends as far as
Park and in the surrounding protected areas.This paradise contains Gibraltar. Pisenotecus gaditanus and Cuthona willani have a range
an extraordinary mammal fauna, with 22 species, and a long list of that reaches as far as Portugal. Aeolidiella glauca, Eubranchus linen-
birds, which the area is most known for, including 400 species sigh- sis and the lovely Flabellina baetica, found on both sides of Doñana,
ted up to January 2004.There is also a large number of reptiles and are probably also found in the Doñana Coastal Sea Protection
amphibians that are being added to the list. Marine turtles coming Zone7.
ashore on the beaches add a further five species and the estuary Obviously, the number of insects is much higher than those repor-
fish that sometimes swim up the channels represent over 70 spe- ted, but this is a group that is not very well known in Doñana. Only the
cies. In the appendix, there is a list of 2,300 species covering a wide rhopalocera, diurnal (daytime) butterflies, have been studied in any
range of biological groups. depth, with total of 56 species found.
Whenever the abundance of species and the biodiversity of Studies of the different families of coleoptera,hymenoptera,orthop-
Doñana are described, there are certainly always surprises when tera and other groups of invertebrates like the continental, aquatic and

190
shoreline molluscs are relatively advanced. Our knowledge of the
remaining invertebrates is quite incomplete.
Finally, among the flora there are 896 vascular species described
(cryptogams and phanerogams),330 plankton and epibenthic species of
algae and some 20 lichens.Little is known,on the other hand,about the
fungi and micro-organisms, although in-depth studies are sure to bring
about surprises.

INTRODUCED SPECIES
In a recent article, Ferrer and Donázar have suggested that
Doñana's zoological gems, the lynx and the imperial eagle, must
have reached the Iberian Peninsular from Asia about a million years
ago, at the beginning of the Pleistocene Period, and have survived
thanks to the abundance of rabbits, their prey of choice. This Studies of the newts Triturus pigmaeus and T. boscai in the Doñana
Biological Reserve over the course of many years have highlighted the
example shows that species evolve, their populations spread or importance of maintaining the temporary pools, which are also important
they are fragmented and become extinct. The ecosystems they for other aquatic life forms.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
form part of change over time and, finally, our distinction between
native and introduced species, surviving and extinct species, When addressing the issue of introduced species, one should
merely reflects the information we have on their distribution in not forget that Doñana has always been on one of the most impor-
the last few centuries. tant cultural and trading crossroads of history, so the transit of spe-
The Mediterranean has been a basin of unceasing exchanges cies should be analysed in both directions. 1492, with Columbus'
and trials, and Doñana is an example of this. In the National Park first voyage taking on supplies at Palos, marked the beginning of a
itself, you can find Canary Island date palms (Phoenix canariensis) grand bio-geographic exchange that took livestock, rabbits, chic-
and ombu (Phytolacca dioica). Castor oil plants (Ricinus communis) kens, fruit trees, wheat and other cereals to the New World.These
and tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) are to be found in the Nature were accompanied by rats, diseases and by accidental wild vegeta-
Park and the surrounding area, introduced species that have beco- tion. Seed and forage was taken to feed cows and horses during the
me subspontaneous. In the areas around the nearby towns and voyage, which proliferated in the first crops, transferring the high
villages, we can find a wide variety of introduced fruit trees and levels of biodiversity found in the pastures and fallow lands of
ornamental plants, including the agaves and prickly pears brought Doñana, western Andalusia and Extremadura to the Americas.
from Mexico in the 16th century to be used as hedges. Once they germinated in the new continent, the Iberian species of
Bromus, Lolium, Hordeum, Agrostis, Taeniatherum, Medicago,
Melilotus, Ornithopus, Crepis and many others, displaced the nati-
ve herbaceous plants, with the help of livestock. And their fruits,
endowed with ridges or thorns to hook onto the hide of the ani-
mals, spread with the herds and flocks throughout the continent,
recreating the pasture lands of their origin. This is a process of
change in the biodiversity of the Americas that is still able to con-
tinue today.The novelties from the Indies were landed in the port
of Sanlúcar, and that is where the Acclimatisation Garden was esta-
blished for American flora. From this spot opposite Doñana, corn
and potato started to colonise Europe.The first description of the
pineapple was made here.Throughout this period, the introduction
In the picture, members of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee and of American animals also covered a broad range, from excellent
directors of the National Park on a visit made during the project. In the contributions like the turkey, to persistent plagues like the species
background, a view of the Doñana Marshes flooded in spring. From left to
right, Carlos Fernández Delgado, Cipriano Marín, Carlos Urdiales, Jesús of American cockroaches.
Casas and Fernando Hiraldo. Certain introductions are of particular interest because of their
Photograph by Maria Ángeles Fernández
origin.The European silk industry suffered epidemics since the 16th

191
 to 1200 kg of the plant each year. But unfortunately, in the damp
winter of 2003-2004, the rise in water levels created connections
between water masses, accelerating its spread once again.This fern
may have become a permanent part of Doñana's flora.
Introduced species can colonise empty environments, where
there are no native equivalents. Spartina densiflora grows on the
tidal mud flats of American tropical and sub-tropical coasts. It rea-
ched Europe, possibly in some shipment, and colonised the mars-
hes of the south of England around the 18th century, and later rea-
ched the Huelva Estuary, from where it spread along the Gulf of
Cádiz, thanks to coastal drift. In the Guadalquivir Estuary, it has
colonised the recent mud flats that do not have their own stable
plant communities: in wet cycles, the reeds and rushes are able to
put down roots and grow in the mud but the salinity of the water
The Doñana Marshes offer refuge and food for the white headed duck kills them off in dryer years. S. densiflora easily tolerates both con-
(Oxyura leucocephala), one of the most endangered species of water fowl. In
the 1950s, the ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis) was introduced from
ditions, forming a dense band, 75-200 m wide and almost one
America and it has since bred with the local duck, the white headed duck, metre high, throughout the inter-tidal areas of the Guadalquivir
which it has displaced. In recent years, a programme for protecting
Oxyura leucocephala and for eradicating Oxyura jamaicensis has been suc- River and the Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre), including some of
cessfully implemented.. the channels that cross La Montaña del Rio.
Photograph by José Luis Perea (CENEAM, Autonomous National Park Authority).
The globalisation of trade and transport will progressively
century that affected the silk worm (Bombix mori). In the search increase the presence of new species, and this introduced diversity
for silk producing substitutes, a moth of Chinese origin was tried, will even be the dominant aspect of some environments. One
the Samia cynthia.The enormous caterpillar of this silk moth, very example of this can be seen in the River Guadalquivir itself, up-stre-
similar to our large emperor (Saturnia pyri), measures some 10 cm am from the Alcalá del Río dam that closes off the Estuary, where
and weaves a large cocoon with a thick silk thread, called “tusa” in there are nine species of fish, six of which are introduced species
the East. The trial was not suitable for industry, but the plant the (crucian carp, carp, black bass, sun fish and gambusia) and three are
caterpillars fed of, the tree of heaven (Ailanthus glandulosa), grew native (eel, bogue and barbel).As a consequence, these six introdu-
wild and has survived as a wild shrub in the area around Doñana, ced fish are listed among the animal species in the National Park.
where the caterpillar can still be found.Another substitute that was Another two aquatic species should also be highlighted because of
tested was an asclepiadaceae, the narrow leaf cotton bush the effect they have on the environment: the red-eared slider
(Gomphocarpus fruticosus), whose fruits are filled with long, silky (Trachemys scripta elegans), an American sub-tropical turtle from
hairs. Once abandoned as a crop, this species also survived as a wild Florida, and the Louisiana crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). The red-
plant and is found in wet meadows, especially around temporary eared sliders inhabit ponds and channels, namely Laguna del
ponds, in the National Park.This is the first plant species that was Acebuche and, in much smaller numbers, some parts of La Rocina.
targeted by a programme to eliminate exotic species in the protec- They can grow to a much larger size than the European pond tur-
ted area. Eradication of species that were introduced in earlier tle (Emys orbicularis) and the Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica),
times is practically impossible.We can also find common brassbut- both of which are native species. It has been shown that the red-
ton (Cotula coronopifolia) on hundreds of hectares of floodable eared slider turtles have appeared because they have been released
areas, and the prickly poppy (Argemone mexicana), which thrives by people who originally bought them as pets.Their owners, having
on sandy soils. tired of their pets, have gotten rid of them by releasing them in
The aggressive water fern, Azolla filiculoides, was first reported what they considered an "ideal" place. Through ignorance, they
close to the Portuguese border, on the banks of the Guadiana. It believe that they are simply "releasing them back into the wild"
has gradually spread through Extremadura and Andalusia, with the when what they are really doing is creating a problem of survival
support of irrigated crops, until it finally reached Doñana, where it for the native turtles.
grows as a floating species on the surface of ponds and canals. A The introduction of the Louisiana crayfish to the Doñana
programme was implemented in the National Park to eradicate this Marshes in 1973 has caused a considerable impact on the amphi-
species also. It has been operating since 1990 and has destroyed up bians of both the protected areas of Park and its surroundings.This

192
The herons are a con-
stant feature of the
Doñana Marshes, like
the night heron
(Nycticorax nycticorax),
the small cattle egret
(Bubulcus ibis), the little
egret (Egretta garzetta)
the Squacco heron
(Ardeola ralloides), the
grey heron (Ardea
cinerea) and the purple
heron (A. purpurea). In
the picture, Squacco
heron, a highly endan-
gered species that can be
sighted in Doñana.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
 decapod has colonised practically the entire marshes, the edges of port. José Antonio Cuesta, of the CSIC Institute of Marine Sciences
the shallow ponds and channels, the riverbeds of rivers even if they in Cádiz, has found Palaemon macrodactylus in the estuary, an
are not continuous, the ponds of the sands, and the rice paddies. oriental species to add to the native species of prawns (Palaemon
Highly aggressive, it hunts amphibians and the larvae of macro- longirostris, P. adspersus, P. serratus, P. elegans). Other, more
invertebrates and also scavenges the carrion of birds and fish. It recent introduced species have also been found, such as
churns over the deposits on the beds of the ponds and digs alco- Rhithropanopeus harrisii, Synidotea laticauda, Eriocheir sinensis9.
ves, where it seeks refuge.The effect on the amphibian population Some of the terrestrial animal introductions date back many
has been significant, as perhaps has the effect on the invertebrates centuries, like the genet (Genetta genetta), probably introduced by
and the bottoms of lakes also.The spread of this freshwater cray- the Arabs, or the slender mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), of
fish is due to the fact that it can move easily out of water, and to African origin.The chameleon (Chamaeleo chamaeleo) too, rare in
human distribution too, since it has become a valuable commercial the protected areas of Doñana but frequent in the coastal dunes of
product. One collateral effect that has amplified the overall negati- Huelva and Cádiz, was introduced from Africa. The azure-winged
ve impact of this species is the fact that it is caught in traps, which magpie (Cyanopica cyanus), originally from the Far East, is cited in
cause often-reiterated management problems:The fishermen place many reports as a species introduced as the result of Portuguese
their traps in the Nature Park's canals and ponds, disturbing the sailors roaming these coasts in the 16th century. But the recent dis-
terrestrial fauna and trapping aquatic life other than the freshwater covery of remains of this bird at a Neanderthal site in two caves
crayfish, like eels, turtles, black necked grebes, coots and even very close to Gibraltar would appear to invalidate the hypothesis
ducks. On the positive side, otters, the white stork and herons in favour thus far12. The Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca ibera) is a
eagerly catch the crayfish. In fact, the increase, in the 1990s, in the case of an ancient introduction that experienced a sharp fall in
colonies of white storks in La Dehesa de Abajo, in Coria, close to population numbers, but then became established again on several
the Parks, has been essentially due to the abundant food resources occasions in the 20th century by means of successive re-introduc-
of these crayfish. tions of specimens from Morocco.
The larvae of other decapods, and even adults, can travel in Other species have arrived thanks to the unintentional help of
ballast waters of ships sailing the Guadalquivir River to the Seville humankind.The sands, silts and trees of Doñana are a hostile envi-
ronment for species that need substrates of stone, walls or cracks.
Yet, houses offer excellent eaves for swallows, swifts and martins,
and cracks for species of bats, and holes and stones for lichen.The
mortar of walls is a lime substrate for hedge mustard. Wellheads,
with their damp stones, are ideal for the fine leaves of maiden hair
(Adiantum capillus-veneris), only found in these enclaves. Another
curious case is the rock rose (Cistus ladanifer), with large white flo-
wers, abundant in the western Iberian Peninsula but infrequent in
Doñana and practically non existent on its dune cover. However, in
the 1970s, an access road had to be built in the Reserve of the
National Park to gain access to the Doñana Palace, using gravel and
silt from outside of the area in its construction. The rock rose
immediately colonised the favourable substrate, spreading in lines
along the ditches on either side, although it has been unable to
penetrate any further into these sandy soils.
Voluntary introductions include, first of all, the fallow deer
(Dama dama), introduced on several occasions, either as semi-
domestic livestock with herders, or for hunting. In 1829, the
Marquis of Villafranca brought camels from the Canary Islands to
There are large flocks of oystercatchers and gulls (yellow-legged gull, lesser
black-backed gull, and Audouin’s gull) on the coastal strip of Doñana, and Cádiz for farm work, but the bad tempered animals proved difficult
you can often see the sandpipers and plovers on the beach, running back
to handle. Giving up his attempts, he released them into the
and forth with the waves. The Kentish plover (Charadrius alexandrinus)
nests on the actual beach. In the picture, a group of oystercatchers. Marshes, where the herd survived, despite periods of flooding and
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
the pressure from neighbouring villagers who hunted them.

194
 The legend says that the cows of Doñana jumped into the ocean in a desperate attempt to find the cattle taken to America, and that the sea returned their bod-
ies on the Piedra de Salmedina. The herds of long horn cows and mustang horses that transformed the resources of America have this distant link with Doñana.
In the picture, a bull of mostrenco breed in the pastures of Doñana showing its "beach" horns.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Chapman came across them in the flooded Marshes in 1883, devo- Tartessus in the Tasks of Hercules, could be a reference to the
ting long accounts to them in Wild Spain (1893) and Unexplored ancient livestock of the Doñana Marshes. The introduction of
Spain (1910) that describe his failed attempts to catch up with marsh cattle to the Americas is well documented, as the Indies
them on horseback. His testimony was initially received with incre- Fleets sailed from Seville, loading freight all along the Guadalquivir
dulity among European zoologists, but their existence was soon Estuary with heavy cargos and animals in Sanlúcar.The herds of long
confirmed. Phillip, Duke of Orleans, read the description and, on the horn and mustang horses that transformed the resources of
17th of June 1893, he sent Chapman a letter with the details of his America have this distant link with Doñana. The connection has
efforts to protect the camels from the "terrible poachers" that survived among the fishermen of Sanlúcar in the legend of the
crossed the Guadalquivir from Trebujena village and sold their meat Piedra de Salmedina, a reef close to the mouth of the Guadalquivir.
as venison. He enclosed some photographs taken in the spring of The legend says that the cows of Doñana jumped into the ocean in
that year, with a pole device to catch a camel from horseback by a desperate attempt to find the animals taken to America, and that
passing a lasso over its head.William Garvey is also mentioned, for the sea returned their bodies on the Piedra de Salmedina. In the
having easily caught up with three camels in the Marshes in 1907, end, there may be an element of truth to the legend, as when the
having chased them by car! The last individuals survived until the Guadalquivir suffered violent flash flooding, barges, huts, trees and
60s. many dead cattle were swept away to the beach of Bajo de Guia. It
The extensive area of grazing offered by the Marshes supports is feasible that some cattle carcasses may have been swept up onto
large flocks and herds in spring and summer, in a productive but the Piedra de Salmedina during these events.
hostile environment that has produced some interesting local bre- There has also been speculation about land animals crossing
eds, like the Lebrija sheep, the retinto or stray cow and the marsh the Atlantic by their own means. In the 20th century, the cattle egret
horse. The legend of the oxen of Gerion, the mythical King of (Bubulcus ibis), so abundant in Doñana and the surrounding area,

195
 to be found here in the form of Asclepias curassavica and
Gomphocarpus fruticosus.
It is also worth mentioning that, in very recent times, 30-cm-long
specimens of serrasalmidae, cousins of the piranha, and the red-bellied
pacu (Piaractus brachypomus) have been caught by the Guadalquivir
Docks in Seville, between 2002 and 2004.They are becoming one of
the latest threats to the area from exotic species.
A fleeting glimpse at tracking species introduction gives us a
general idea of what Doñana is today and, basically, if we wish to
conserve certain environments and ecosystems, then the control
of exotic species is an essential task in the management of pro-
tected areas. Introductions are a "biodiversity time-bomb" that
could explode at any moment, colonising Doñana with non-nati-
ve species.

THE SPECTACLE OF MOTHER NATURE

Herons are a constant feature of the aquatic ecosystems of Doñana. The
grey heron (Ardea cinerea) is the most emblematic species, with its slow, AND THE LONG ROAD TO HER SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION
elegant flight and its unmoving posture in the mudflats. The colony The attraction of a natural space lies in the diversity and
observed by Benis and Valverde in Doñana in 1961 had over 200 occupied
nests and, thanks to the protection afforded to the species in the National uniqueness of its various manifestations: the landscapes, expres-
Park, its presence has spread to other areas, further north. sions of its flora and fauna, the forms of the terrain, its geological
Photograph: CENEAM files.
constitution. It also lies in the possibility of seeing species that are
colonised wetlands and pastures in the Americas. The first disco- rare or nonexistent in other places, the chance to see them sur-
very was apparently in Guyana in 1930, and from there it spread vive, flourish, nest, hunt and defend themselves, or the chance to
through South America. It had reached Florida by 1948, spreading admire large numbers of a single species.Among all the intense, yet
quickly through the United States in the 1950s, with occasional ephemeral and dynamic processes, the ones that exert the greatest
sightings in Canada. In the other direction, the ruddy duck (Oxyura attraction in the end, are those that manage to convey the living
jamaicensis) was introduced from North America in the 1950s, bre- elements of how nature actually works..
eding with the local white-headed duck (O. leucocephala) and dis- It is a kaleidoscope of images that triggers our memories of
placing it. In recent years, a programme has been successfully imple- Doñana: the vibrant "open aviaries" in the cork trees of La Vera; the
mented to protect the native duck in the National Park. flocks of flamingos forming a pink brow over wet surfaces, which
The Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex humilis), from its country of they light up with their reflection when they take flight; the flocks of
origin via the shipping ports, has colonised the middle latitudes. It geese flying to Cerro del Trigo at dawn to eat sand; the terns nose-
has very recently displaced native species in certain areas, without diving into the water for fish; the columns of white storks and black
any possibility of control. With introduced species, there are the kites flying in spirals over the dry marshes when they prepare to
two sides to the coin. In some cases, a species has arrived, to be migrate; the hundreds of dying carp in pools fast drying out, lying
followed later by a predator. For example, the potato beetle prey to the kites; the bellowing of the deer on autumn nights; the
(Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was introduced in Spain much later advance of shifting dunes with sheets of sand that creep forward as
than the potato, its food plant, although it eats other species too. silent wraps to bury the vegetation; the furious flash flooding of
The processes that led the Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexip- Arroyo del Partido that has its delta overflowing and the marshes
pus) to settle in Doñana remain to be seen.This is a large American filling with turbulent and milky waters; the storm that reaches the
danaid butterfly that makes migrations lasting several generations foot of the El Asperillo cliffs, with parts of them collapsing; the first
between Mexico and Canada. It seems to have reached Europe great storm of autumn that floods the parched and cracked marsh-
from America, but the Doñana specimens may have come from es, releasing the aromas trapped by the summer drought to take
migrations seen on the Costa del Sol and originating in the Canary command of the air and trigger a storm of smells...
Islands. Their presence has been confirmed in the National Park, For nature lovers, the spectacle of Mother Nature spurs them
where a large breeding colony of Gomphocarpus was found in to curiosity: the need to know what, when, how, how big, etc.
Marismillas, in 2004. Introduced asclepiadaceae, its food plant, are Thanks to the high degree of conservation of its ecosystems and

196
Santa Olalla pond in Autumn
Author: Regla Alonso Miura
 the fact that the territory is relatively unchanged, Doñana has of cosmography were responsible for cartography and making
always offered excellent potential for answering these questions. instruments. Leading international figures were chosen, often
This seems to be reason enough to see the attraction the National changing Court in the process. The list of these leading names is
Park of Doñana holds for leading scientists to come and carry out impressive, including Amerigo Vespucci, Juan Díaz de Solís and
research here.Thus, it is an important focus for scientific investiga- Sebastian Cabot.
tion. The symbiosis between researchers and the protected area The inclusion of American plants was soon begun and, in 1574
has grown and continues to be reinforced day after day. But, Monardes, from Seville, added descriptions of the sassafras and
beneath all of this, there is an experience that dates back to ancient tobacco plants, detail of dissemination of maize and peanuts from
times, because Doñana is and always has been a difficult and almost Seville, and reports on the pineapple. This excellent beginning ran
incomprehensible space, though always open to knowledge. The aground economically in the 17th century and, unfortunately, cultur-
ongoing discovery of Doñana appears to have unfolded in a series ally and scientifically too, despite the immense potential of relations
of initiatives isolated in time and space, but nothing could be fur- with the Americas for driving knowledge and discovery.Three quar-
ther from the truth. ters of the science books published in the 17th century were includ-
In Chapter 2, Fernando Hiraldo, Director of the Doñana ed in the index of the officers of the Inquisition, like Fernando
Biological Station, provides basic detail of the research done in one Valdés (1612) and Antonio Zapata (1632). The writer Miguel
of the most important natural areas of the world, especially in Delibes recreates the suffocating atmosphere for new ideas during
incorporating the wetlands with their surroundings. But to have the reign of King Phillip IV in El Hereje. In this context, the institu-
gotten this far, one has to admit that we have come a long way:The tions fell into decline and the Hispalense University of Seville,
knowledge, that now enables us to analyse Doñana from so many founded in 1505, followed suit.
angles and in so many fields, is founded in a chain of inherited, and The recovery of science and the appearance of the natural sci-
often little known, efforts. Following this path will also enable us ences occurred through the Enlightenment, which advanced
to fairly assess the biological treasures that have been discovered through Europe and was consolidated in Spain when the House of
to date. Bourbon replaced the House of Austria in 1701. In Seville, a group
of doctors, chemists, priests and "enlightened scholars" maintained
The first steps in the scientific discovery of Doñana the Medical-Chemical Tertulia Hispalense. In 1700, King Charles II
We start our journey at the beginning of the 16th century. Soon approved the statutes of this group as the Royal Medical Society,
after trans-Atlantic voyages began, the Casa de Contratación which were endorsed by King Phillip V a year later.This society was
(Trading Company) was founded in Seville in 1503.This became the founded at approximately the same time as the Cimento Academy
city's leading scientific and technical centre.The Pilot in Chief was of Florence and the London Royal Society.This was the age of sci-
responsible for their education and navigation, and the professors entific revolution; perhaps the most important change in direction in
the history of science.
The Tertulia Hispalense discussion group became ever more
active in its natural fields, especially in medicine which included
medicinal plants. It employed a botanist,Antonio Ramos, from 1776
to 1780, to collect plants from the region and develop the Botanical
Gardens, which would have as many as 300 species. From 1786 to
1800, the Gardens were directed by Pedro Abad, who managed to
create a herbarium of 2000 sheets, 1709 of which have been con-
served in Seville University. The Society became the Seville
Academy of Medicine and Surgery and they ran the Gardens until
the 19th century, when they took over the San Telmo Palace, later
surrendered to the Montpensier family and practically lost when
alterations were carried out in 1913.
In 1804, Godoy sent oil-producing Argania spinosa seeds to the
The dryer areas of the sands of Doñana are the home to thyme, lavender
(Lavandula stoechas in the picture), rosemary and several species of Sanlúcar Economic Society for Acclimatisation.This was the nucle-
Dianthus, Cistus, Arabis, Malcolmia, Leucojum. us of the La Paz Experimental and Acclimatisation Gardens
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
designed by Esteban Boutelou in 1806. The Gardens were

198
 The marine coastal organisms have been studied in-depth from Portugal to the Mediterranean coasts, all along the Andalusia coast. The 154 species of opisto-
branchia molluscs found highlight the contact between the Mediterranean groups and the Portuguese and Mauritanian groups to provide a highly diversified
set. 59 species have been reported in the sector between Cabo Roche and the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Doñana. The knobbed triton (Charonia lampas lam-
pas), in the picture, is a prosobranch mollusc, and one of the endangered species of this coastline that is now protected.

destroyed in 1808 when Godoy fell into disgrace. Esteban returned Hispanicae, visited Seville in 1844, to study the plant collection, of
to Aranjuez and, together with his brother, Claudio Boutelou, he which he described 10 new species and one variety. He also
worked with the Chair of Applied Botany of the Royal Botanical appointed Iberis bouteloui and Tetragonolobus bouteloui to this
Gardens of Madrid. But Claudio was expelled from the Botanical family of scientific accomplishments.
Gardens in the political purges of 1813, and was hired in Seville in As far as we can see, this did not go unnoticed by the scientif-
1819 by the Guadalquivir Company "to take charge of all the ic community of the early 19th century. Mariano Lagasca, a favourite
Agriculture works, plough and plant the lands granted to the pupil of the great botanist Cavanilles, explored the right bank of the
Company with all kinds of trees". He started a nursery in 1826. Guadalquivir in the summer of 1823, from Coria to Coto del Rey,
Hence, Claudio Boutelou designed the abovementioned studying the vegetation of Lomo del Grullo. On this first expedi-
Acclimatisation Gardens in Seville in 1832, in the grounds of the San tion, he found three new species for science that he described:
Telmo Palace.The gardens were endowed with a Chair of Botany, Loeflingia baetica, with the diagnosis that "its corolla is longer than
and Boutelou was appointed professor, a post he maintained until the calyx and it has five stamens", and Malva anodaeformis and
his death in 1842. He was appointed in 1833 to run the Alcazar Ononis subspicata in the same area. Of the Malva, he adds "I have
Gardens, which included the Palacio del Rey in Coto del Lomo de seen it in flower from mid May until the 7th of June and I surmise
Grullo as an annex, which explains his repeated botanical trips to that it will flower until July. I picked it in Coria del Rio, in damp
the area of Doñana, visiting the islands, the marshes and also taking grounds, on my way to the area called Coto del Rey". He indicates
samples from Sanlúcar on the left hand riverbank.This means that two forms: the A, with a single stalk, and the B with a branched
the Doñana area had a professional botanist in the mid 19th centu- stalk. Each of these forms is now considered a different species.A
ry. Claudio Boutelou's grand herbarium (7,000 sheets) includes the is Malva althaeoides, described by Cavanilles a few years earlier in
plants of Doñana and Seville, specimens from the Royal Botanical 1793, and B is Linneaus' Malva hispanica. About Ononis, he points
Gardens of Madrid, from his brother Esteban Boutelou and from out that "it grows in great abundance in sandy areas of the men-
other botanists. Willkomm, author of Prodromus Florae tioned Coto del Rey and especially next to the track. It blooms in

199
 The water crowfoot is
one of the most
showy element of the
fresh water vegeta-
tion. It is a sub-
merged or partially
floating plant wide-
spread all over the
marshes, including
the relatively brackish
areas of Marismillas
and Las Nuevas
Photograph: CENEAM. files.

May and June and it appears to me to be an annual plant. I have seen Seville, including parts of Huelva and Cádiz. Unfortunately, he did
it eaten frequently by the cattle, but I do not know what kind of not tackle Doñana, arguing that "in the Marshes of the left bank of
livestock grazes it". Ononis subspicata is now considered as the the Guadalquivir, not far from Lebrija and Trebujena ... there is a
baetica variety of Ononis baetica, described by Clemente in 1807. diversity of waders and web-footed birds that I have found most
There is another variety of O. baetica, described by Devesa (1986), striking; the right bank of the river is also very abundant in the same
the donanensis variety that is typical of the Doñana dunes.
TABLE 2
The exploration of Lagasca provided the first scientific invento- Inventory of plant species in Coto del Rey drawn up by Mariano Lagasca
in 1823. This is the earliest scientific inventory of the Doñana region.
ry of Doñana. The list of 22 species of vascular plants, three new
ones for science that the author had found in Coto del Rey togeth- 1. Loeflingia baetica
er with the species he describes, is reproduced in Table 2. 2. Malva anodaeformis (=M. hispanica)
The Hispalense University played a fundamental role in this long 3. Ononis subspicata (=O. baetica)
process. In 1857, the Moyano Plan created the Faculties of Exact, 4. Malva hispanica
Physical, and Natural Sciences, with a Department of Natural 5. Thapsia foetida (=Elaeoselinum foetidum)
History. Miguel Colmeiro, Professor of Botany from 1847 to 1857, 6. Seseli ammoides (=Ammoides pusilla)
was responsible for the repeated collection expeditions to Doñana 7. Cachrys sicula
and the Guadalquivir. After he was transferred, Antonio Machado 8. Cistus albidus
Nuñez (1845-83) was appointed Professor of Mineralogy and 9. Cistus crispus
Zoology, and he too organised scientific expeditions to Doñana, the 10. Cistus thymifolius (=Fumana thymifolia)
Marshes and the Guadalquivir. At this time, the Hispalense 11. Lavandula stoechas
University planted a Botanical Garden, with greenhouses, for con- 12. Scorpiurus vermiculata
ducting trials with crops and other plants. In 1864, Machado was 13. Nigella hispanica (=N. papillosa)
sent some eucalyptus seeds from the Ministry of Agriculture, for a 14. Herniaria annua?
trial in the Garden. It is ironic that this early scientific presentation 15. Polycarpon tetraphyllum
of the eucalyptus led to its domination of vast areas of Doñana in 16. Oenanthe peucedanifolia
less than a century. 17. Oenanthe globulosa
Antonio Machado Nuñez, grandfather of poets Antonio and 18. Satureja capitata (=Thymbra capitata)
Manuel Machado, promoted the Natural Sciences and the 19. Ornithopus compressus
University of Seville in general. In fact, he was Chancellor of the 20. Ornithopus nudiflorus?
University. He introduced the ideas of evolution, translating and 21. Corrigiola littoralis
annotating Darwin and other authors. His research work included 22. Festuca alopecuros (=Vulpia alopecuros)
vertebrate collections, which incorporated the data of Antonio
Cabrera, Canon of Cádiz (1763-1827), who had studied the marine The species name within brackets is the name currently in use, if it has changed. Two of
the species are doubtfully identified. Lagasca mentions this list of species as accompany-
flora and birds of the Gulf of Cádiz and published works on the fish ing plants to Malva anodaeformis, but C.littoralis, F. alopecurus and Leoflingia baetica, which
accompanied Ononis subspicata.
in 1817. In 1854, Machado published a Catalogue of the birds of

200
orders, particularly in El Rocío and Almonte, and the Coto de
Doñana, but, as I have not been able to study them sufficiently, I will
leave it for another occasion to provide a list of these...". It is a pity
that his wish never came true.
In 1856, he published Fish of the Guadalquivir and the Gulf of
Cádiz, in 1859, a list of amphibians and reptiles, and in 1869, a valu-
able study of the mammals of western Andalusia that includes an
anthropological essay. Hence, Machado completed the first wildlife
review of the vertebrates of Seville and the surrounding area,
including the Guadalquivir and the Gulf of Cádiz. The area of
Doñana now appeared in the scientific literature. The author
pointed out in his catalogue of fish that "there is a need for teach-
Boars enter the Marshes when the water level is low, eating the fish
ers to gradually disseminate the creatures of each province", fore- trapped in pools and sometimes destroying the breeding colonies of
shadowing by many years what we now understand as environ- flamingos and other birds. Picture of boar hunting with a lance, taken in
the 1940s in La Vera.
mental education. Photograph: Files of the Doñana Biological Station.

The catalogue of fish includes some errors, attributable to the

level of ichthyology of the times, such as classing eels and elvers as ralised animals that came to be known as "The Cabinet". In 1913,
different species. He offers a list of species for the Guadalquivir and Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany were brought together under one
the other rivers and, for the River Guadaira, for example, he lists faculty chair, held by Francisco Barras Aragón, who organised the
the killifish Aphanius baeticus (which used to be considered as the University Herbarium and completed it with new collection expe-
fartet, Aphanius iberus), the most recently described species of ditions that also included Doñana and the banks of the
vertebrate in Andalusia (2002). He mentions the sturgeon, pointing Guadalquivir. Manuel de Paul and Manuel
out that it swims up the Guadalquivir as far as Cordoba, although, Molina Ramos worked with Calderón on
sadly, this species was only to survive about another century after the Cabinet, organising new collection
this mention. He also talks about the Beluga sturgeon (Huso expeditions and re-arranging herbaria,
huso), a sturgeon of the eastern Mediterranean that is re-labelling the sheets and suppressing the
unlikely to be found in the Guadalquivir. Curiously original identifications, which has prevent-
enough, he also mentions the presence of carp "in ed us from discovering the origin of many of these
the water tanks of the Seville aqueduct". Carp plants, including some of the plants collected in
and tench were bred in El Alcázar and in the Doñana. The remains of the insect collection that
pools of La Buhaira Estate, in Seville, both was in the Cabinet in 1970 may be the work of
of which are served by the aqueducts Molina, as he had worked with the great entomologist,
known as Los Caños de Carmona. Ignacio Bolivar, in the Central University of Madrid.
When Machado left, González In the 20th century, the Hispalense University created its
Fragoso took over his post at the Faculty of Sciences and started to set up research centres for
Hispalense University, conducting the the CSIC (Spanish Higher Scientific Research Council). In sup-
first studies of cryptogam plants. In port of conservation biology and molecular biology, the Bachelor
1881, he published a list of medicinal of Science Degree in Biology, created in 1965, attracted an excel-
plants; in 1883, the cryptogams of lent teaching staff and promoted the integration of research in
Seville; and in 1886, the marine Ecology, Zoology and Conservation. Botany took the lead over
algae of the Gulf of Cádiz. Zoology in spreading the word about Doñana. Moreover, the
Salvador Calderón Arana took
over from him in 1884, organis- The hobby (Falco subbuteo) is a small summer hawk that nests
ing the University of Seville's late in the abandoned nests of other birds of prey. It is not
especially abundant in Doñana, where it hunts in the open
excellent collection of min- ecosystems of the marsh and dune scrub, catching small
erals and fossils and the birds and insects on the wing.
Photograph: CENEAM. files.
collection of natu-

201
 ing the journeys of Hemilco, Pliny and Strabon. He offers the first
data on granulometric classifications and apparent density (2.23
g/cm3), along with the mineralogy of the sands, which were domi-
nated by 81% quartz, and he described the deposits of ilmenite and
goethite interspersed in the formation. His experiments on the
absorption of air moisture by the sands, increasing its weight by
12%, were the first to be published on the field capacity of Doñana
sands. His explanation of how the infiltrating water is retained in
the sandy profile is correct. However, the mechanism he proposes
for the advance of the dune front, with the sand crossing the inter-
dune flats with the help of the wind, is incorrect.
To a certain extent, the Doñana Marshes had the appearance of an archi-
In the 1930s, Gavala studied the geology and geomorphology of
pelago, in which the risen vetas on which people built huts and settle- the coastal sector of Cádiz, the dunes and aeolian mantles, and the
ments were the islands. The inhabitants travelled with livestock and
belongings from one to another on horseback through the shallow waters erosive morphology of the Doñana surfaces, in the reports of his
or, if the water was deep, in "cajones" - flat bottomed punts that they Geological Map.The quality of his field work is striking, as his map-
pushed along with a pole. In the picture, Veta Luenga cut off in the flood-
ed marsh. ping is very accurate in the extension and location of the rocky
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.
outcrops, bearing in mind that he did not have the help of aerial
material that was identified was added to the herbariums to finally photography in the region until the mid forties. Gavala was a pho-
form the Historic Herbarium of the University of Seville, where this tography enthusiast and he set up his own laboratory. Because of
great scientific legacy is conserved and studied in depth by this, the extensive archive that helped him to illustrate the reports
Salgueiro González. of the map has been preserved. His greatest contribution is the
Table 3 lists a few of the hundreds of specimens collected in description of the sheets of Geological Map 1:50,000 of El
Doñana during the first series of scientific campaigns, including Asperillo, El Rocío, and Palacio de Doñana, printed between 1936
some collected by Pedro Abat, who had also explored the region and 1956, offering high quality geological mapping.The cartograph-
of Doñana in search of plants. Some of the plants that he collected
are also conserved as part of the Historic Herbarium. E. Boutelou TABLE 3
Examples of pressed plant specimens from historic collection
explored the left bank of the Guadalquivir, collecting samples from expeditions in each sector.
Sanlúcar and indicating the community he was exploring for some EXPLORED AREA DATE AUTHOR SOME OF THE SPECIES
of them: the Guadalquivir riverbank, the beaches and the La Algaida COLLECTED

dune. Other collection expeditions are labelled: the Islands of the

Coto del Rey 1823 M. Lagasca Loefflingia baetica
Estuary (Isla Mayor, Isla Menor), the Doñana Marshes, and many Ononis baetica
others, "banks of the Guadalquivir", without any further details, so Malva hispanica

we do not know if they are from the Doñana stretch of the Estuary Coto del Rey E. Boutelou Limonium ferulaceum
or from collections made further upstream. The area around the Almonte May Colmeiro Juniperus sabina
Palacio and El Coto de Doñana, that borders the Marshes to the 1858 Erica inflata
south, was explored in detail by C. Boutelou, who collected plants Almonte P. Abat Calluna vulgaris
in this area systematically. Colmeiro conducted another expedition Sanlúcar E. Boutelou Atriplex halimus
both to this area and to Almonte in May 1885, reaching the dunes, Sanlúcar coast Barras Althea officinalis
where he collected samples of juniper and prickly juniper in the Lithrum acutangulum
Coto, and characteristic species of the low areas between dunes, Eucalyptus
including many species of heather. Cakile maritima
In the field of Geology, Francisco Lujan published in 1851 a Sanlúcar before P. Abat
structural description of Western Spain from Toledo to Huelva, 1800
where he inserts a description of Doñana and the evolution of the Sanlucar Algaida 1858 Colmeiro Myrtus communis
Guadalquivir Estuary. Marcelino San Miguel de la Camara (1913) Marshes and islands E. Boutelou
described the dunes of the province of Huelva in an historic essay Islands C. Boutelou Frankenia maritima
on their evolution, based on old geographic documentation, includ-

202
ic interpretation of Avieno's Sea Itinerary is an outstanding person- in Spain and to establish common names to make their study easi-
al effort of will that has not won any critical praise.The evolution er. He also launched an ambitious attempt to take a national cen-
that he proposes for the old Lacus Ligustinus up-dates the descrip- sus of the white stork, by correspondence. But, Bernis had heard of
tion of San Miguel de la Camara and has been quoted repeatedly in Doñana and decided to make a visit. He obtained financial support
the literature. However, it is not accurate, as it incorporates a com- for the campaign from a doctor in Lugo and he invited a bird enthu-
plex process that includes advances and retreats of the coastline siast student of his, José Antonio Valverde, to accompany him. In the
and major climate changes in a single episode of erosion fill. González Byass Company wineries in Jerez, he asked the family for
Moreover, some of the present forms have been inherited from their permission to visit the Coto de Doñana, of which they were
preceding glacial cycles and prior eustatic changes as Cary Zazo, co-owners. In June 1952, the three leading figures in the zoological
Joaquin Rodriguez Vidal and other coastal geomorphologists have re-founding of Doñana came together: Paco Bernis, José Antonio
shown. These are summarised in one of the contributions to this Valverde and Mauricio González, who were to work together for
book. half a century, changing the course of history of nature conserva-
tion in Spain.
The first monographs on Doñana In 1952, Bernis and Valverde published a description of the
As can be inferred from the scientific historiography described pajareras (nesting colonies) of Doñana, cork oaks famous for the
above, Doñana does not appear with its own profile in the research enormous quantity of birds that nest in them that they describe as
conducted in the region until the early 20th century.Abel Chapman, the crown jewels of the Iberian wildlife. In the following, and most
in Unexplored Spain published in 1910, devotes several chapters to expressive paragraph, they reflect: "As we write these lines, the
certain species present in Doñana, like flamingos, providing interest- threat of colonisation and industrialisation hang over the famous
ing details on their populations. He found a "mystery" in the flamin- hunting grounds of the Guadalquivir.Will it not be possible to leave
go that he was unable to solve: its reproduction. He spent years even one small corner of this natural wilderness intact forever?"
searching the Doñana Marshes for the breeding colonies until he This important text clearly highlights the urgency of conserving
found them. Yet, he found that clutches of eggs failed to hatch Doñana and planted the seed that was to bear fruit seventeen
because of the weather and chicks only hatched every four years, years later with the creation of the National Park.
which he considered incompatible with maintaining population lev- General Franco, Head of Spanish Government, visited Doñana
els. It was to take almost half a century for the mystery to be solved in 1952 to monitor the success of the eucalyptus plantations that
- by Valverde who discovered that the main breeding ground was the State had imposed on the area. He asked about the impact that
Laguna de Fuentepiedra, in Malaga, and that the parents raised their replanting had on hunting. The González Family thought it worth
chicks by bringing the food they needed from Doñana and else- writing to Franco to explain that if the government continued to
where.The flamingos of Western Mediterranean behave as a single plant eucalyptus, it would put an end to all big game hunting.
large population that is currently growing thanks to the protection
afforded to these enclaves and to the fact that they have established
new breeding colonies, like the one in the Ebro Delta, in 2004.
The Hispalense University botany publications and campaigns,
Machado's study of the fish of the Guadalquivir, Gavala's geological
works, and the forestry study on the dune mantles and their re-
forestation, all these did not focus on El Coto de Doñana. It was
only after 1953 that a series of important scientific publications
appeared that were to lay the foundations of the future of Doñana,
based on research. Francisco Bernis had the honour of starting this
series.Working with Valverde, he ringed birds in the pajareras, the
nesting colonies, in 1952, providing the first censuses and descrip-
tions of colonies, along with an outline of the vegetation, ecosys-
tems and landscapes.
Francisco Bernis Madrazo was a superb naturalist with training Red crested pochard (Netta rufina). The Doñana Marshes shelter most of
the Andalusia population, with an average of almost 2000 specimens win-
in botany and a great interest in birds. In fact, early on he published tering there.
articles on them, aimed at determining a list of species to be found Photography: CENEAM files.

203
 Doñana in Chapman's book, Wild Spain, many naturalists and
ornithologists had attempted to reach this nature sanctuary. The
González family kindly met their requests and, in Mauricio, they
came across an expert in the local fauna. In 1952, Professor
François Bourlière and a group of French ornithologists planned a
trip to the south of Spain, inviting Guy Mountfort and Dr. Roger
Peterson to join them in a small expedition in April of that year.
After exploring La Janda Lagoon, the River Guadalete and other
wetlands, they reached Jerez, where Mauricio helped them to plan
a visit to the Doñana Marshes. Roger Peterson and Guy Mountfort
crossed the estuary and rode with Antonio Chico, Head Warden,
to the Palace, making the First Expedition, lasting a week.The great
diversity of birds and resources convinced them to organise a seri-
ous major scientific expedition, inviting specialists in mammals, veg-
etation and other biological groups and, thus, they managed to put
For nature lovers, the spectacle of Mother Nature spurs them to curiosity:
the need to know what, when, how, how big, etc. Thanks to the high together a outstanding team in 1956, including Mauricio González,
degree of conservation of its creatures and the fact that the territory is rel-
atively unchanged, Doñana has always offered excellent potential for
Roger Peterson and Guy Mountfort, together with Eric Hosking
answering these questions. El Acebuche pond in the Doñana National and a group of six experts in scientific photography and nature
Park.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
documentaries that were starting to become popular at the time.
Lord Alanbrooke, a leading field marshal of the British Army, and
Although they agreed, the other owners did not have the courage his wife formed part of the expedition as documentalists.The sci-
to sign the letter. Mauricio González, with the co-operation of entific results of the Second Expedition were excellent, identifying
Francisco (Paco) Bernis, gave shape to the idea, suggesting that a 171 species of birds, one of which, the masked shrike (Lanius nubi-
protected area be created, offering: "…as long as we remain the cus), was reported for the first time in Spain.
owner of the Estate, we undertake to conserve it, should your The Third Expedition, the most ambitious of all, set out on the
th
Excellency so desire, as a reserve worthy of Spain, as we consider 28 of April 1957, when the advance party reached Jerez. It was
that this unique estate deserves the privileges that national parks made up mainly of members of the earlier expeditions, together
and reserves enjoy". González personally explained the situation with Nobel Laureate, Sir Julian Huxley and his wife, Max
and delivered the report to General Franco who made no com- Nicholson, Director of Nature Conservancy in Great Britain, José
ment, but he did read it the very same day. He did not support the Antonio Valverde, Mauricio González and his wife Milagro, or
idea of creating a Park, but he suspended the order to repopulate "Doña Milagro" as Guy Mountfort called her.The scientific and cin-
Doñana with eucalyptus, saving the area from the death sentence ematographic results of the Third Expedition were also of great
hanging over it. Through this little known part of the history of importance, identifying 168 birds in Coto Doñana and 204 in all,
Doñana, Mauricio González and his father created conditions to its 22 of which had not been found in 1956, and making the first doc-
future conservation. umentaries of the imperial eagle with chicks in the nest. Lynx, rep-
At last, and thanks again to the González family, Doñana was tiles, insects (some 300 species collected by Guy Mountfort) and
presented to the international scientific community in the the vegetation (240 species collected by Julian Huxley), were also
"Doñana Expeditions" of 1952, 1956 and 1957. Guy Mountfort, studied.
one of the participants, has described them in a magnificent book In 1956 and 1957,Valverde published new contributions in which
that we would like to pay tribute to here: Portrait of a Wilderness. he mentions the herons of Doñana and an important article on the
As the author explains so well in his dedication, Mauricio Gordon lynx, also in 1957. In 1958, he published An ecological sketch of the
and his wife Milagro were the heart and soul of the Expeditions, Coto Donana,inspired by the recently published work by Nicholson
enabling their interest in birds to overcome the Customs prob- on the Camargue and Doñana. His description, with profiles and bar
lems that arose with the logistics and communication equipment charts by Valverde himself and photographs by Eric Hosking, is a
in that small ornithological Babel. milestone for the area. In the references, he mentions Portrait of a
Mauricio, a chemist by trade, had shown an interest in Wilderness by Mountfort, the first monograph on Doñana, which
ornithology since his youth. Attracted by the descriptions of was also published in 19589.

204
 The Portrait text follows the tradition of 19th century British
travel books, but it completes the information about the route
with precise scientific detail of species, and excellent sketches and
photographs by Eric Hosking. The accounts of the Coto Doñana
Expedition convey an adventurous image of a team of scientists
overcoming difficulties in the remote south of Spain, filled with pic-
turesque characters like Pepe Menegildo, travelling barefoot, and
uneducated folk attached to their ancestral traditions and inca-
pable of understanding the efforts of science. The text considers
Valverde an excellent zoologist, an absolute expert in vertebrate
wildlife, and it reproduces his diagram of relations for the lynx, and
his ecological profiles. But, in line with the cliché of romantic trav-
ellers in Andalusia, he is presented as a fun loving and entertaining Since 1969 J.A. Valverde has promoted the study of the most emblematic
species of Doñana in the Biological Station. The pioneering group of
figure, unafraid of animals or of the perils involved in catching them researchers conducted highly advanced studies, receiving international
by hand, as he often did with snakes and vipers, taking lizards or acclaim. In the picture, view of the Marshes from El Bolín Laboratory, locat-
ed in the Doñana Biological Reserve.
amphibians out of his pockets at lunch or explaining how he Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

caught a lynx by hand by covering its head with a jacket.According

to the book, the scientists, mostly British, were exploring unchart- the "pajareras" of great size living in a preserved natural environ-
ed territory, about which little was known, offering the contents of ment, and the existence of an exceptional world of dunes, marsh-
Portrait to science.The works of Valverde and Bernis on Doñana es, forest and scrub. It also offered excellent pictures of species
appear in the references to Spanish authors, together with the that had hardly been seen before, like the imperial eagle on its nest
classic works by Cabrera on mammals, the works of Baca on the with chicks. Doñana as a valuable nature sanctuary was consecrat-
birds of Spain the works of the Duke of Almazán on hunting, and ed as such.
little else. This is something that is in sharp contrast, as we have On re-reading the book, one can find interesting information
seen here, with the fact that the flora and fauna had already been about the unique situation of the estuary, marshes, ponds, and
studied for over a century, with surveys of the fish, reptiles, mam- "pajareras", an enormous wolf shot by rangers, the huts of the stur-
mals and birds, and the fact that there were already descriptions geon fishermen on the banks of the Guadalquivir that they visited
and maps of the geology. Corema album, mentioned as a novelty, in 1953, and the last individuals of the camel herds as described by
had already been collected by Clemente around 1880 in Cádiz and Chapman, the descendents of the camels brought in by the Marquis
trials had been done with it as a species for anchoring the dunes of Villafranca in 1829.They are testimonies to a former world that
at the turn of the century. had survived but which was already feeling the impact of new
The principal merit of Portrait was that it validated for zoolo- forces that would lead to its disappearance.To the north, the trans-
gy the presence of a long list of birds, the existence of colonies, formation of the marshes into rice paddies and the projects for irri-

In 1913 Marcelino
San Miguel de la
Camara made a first
geomorphological
description of the
dunes of the
province of Huelva
in an historic essay
on their evolution.
In the picture, an
umbrella pine tree
(Pinus pinea) on a
fixed dune sticking
out from wandering
dunes of Doñana.

Photograph by José María

Pérez de Ayala.

205
 area, and reproduction of these vertebrates, becoming the first
ecological description of the wildlife of Doñana and their ecosys-
tems.The second monograph, published in 1962, entitled Structure
of a community of terrestrial vertebrates, was undoubtedly a land-
mark that rounds off the previous works and makes an in-depth
analysis of the structure of the community, proposing ecological
and evolutionary mechanisms that explain its functional structure.
Neither the foreign scientists, nor Valverde or Bernis, both
from Castile, had contacted the Hispalense University or the
Cabinet of Natural Sciences and its collections, nor were they
familiar with publications on the area dating back more than a cen-
tury. In 1963, Emilio Fernández Galiano was appointed as
Professor of Botany in the recently created Biology Section of the
University of Seville. His experience in the Chair of Botany at the
Complutense University and his time directing the Royal Botanic
Gardens of Madrid meant that he realised the importance of a ref-
erence herbarium for the south of Spain and he located the old
items and organised the return of the material that had been
deposited with the Royal Botanic Gardens of Madrid. He prepared
the Floras of Seville and Cádiz, published the floral novelties and
preserved classic herbaria. Finally, he completed his great contri-
bution to science: The Vascular Flora of Western Andalusia
(1987), magnificently illustrated and published in collaboration
with two of his former students, Benito Valdés and Salvador
Talavera, now appointed to the Chairs of Botany t the University
of Seville.
Fernández Galiano, who had been familiar with Doñana since
the seventies, began the studies of its vegetation.As full Professor
of Botany, he was to play a decisive role in creating the Biological
Reserve as a member of The Marshes Biological Station Board.
Later on, as Chairman of the UNESCO Spanish MaB Committee,
he pushed for the declaration of the National Park as a Biosphere
Malcomia lacera, a member of the Brassicaceae family, grows on sandy Reserve, implementing the first environmental education pro-
soils, sometimes so poor in nutrients that the plant only reaches a height
of an inch. The result is a carpet of flowers covering the desolate area of
grammes in the Park (1981-82). Doñana's contribution to the MaB
sands with colour. programme has certainly been an important one throughout this
Photograph: CENEAM files.
time, compelling the Spanish Committee Report authored by F.
gation in the sands.To the west, extensive plantation of pines and García Novo, to be published in 1993. UNESCO was to later
eucalyptus.To the south, the pressure from the tourist industry to include the National Park to its World Heritage List in 1994.
develop the shoreline. The Guadalquivir, the whimsical god that
invaded the marshes at his will, was losing his power as the dams ICONIC SPECIES AND THE BUZZ OF THE MARSHES
starved him of his waters. Valverde had successfully tried to protect the imperial eagle
Two scientific monographs by Valverde were published between and the lynx in the 1950s, seeking support from the owners of the
the first and second editions of Portrait. The first dealt with The estates to prevent hunting and the collection of eggs from nests.As
Vertebrates of the Guadalquivir marshes, published by the Almería the director of the Reserve and Park, he promoted a sophisticated
Institute of Acclimatisation in 1960, offering an excellent descrip- study of these species in 1969 that won recognition from the inter-
tion of the vertebrate communities, using the food chain as the national scientific community for its authors and collaborators:
common thread. It analyses the diets and habitats, the use of the Miguel Delibes, Fernando Hiraldo and Miguel Ferrer.

206
 The two felines that used to live in Doñana, the lynx and the impossible for young animals. In this context, successive "lynx
wild cat, have suffered declines that has placed them on the edge of plans" were launched after 1988 with actions such as creating
extinction, although with very different perceptions towards them. crossings for lynxes on the roads from Matalascañas to Mazagón
The lynx has been studied in depth and major efforts and extraor- and El Rocío, the release of vaccinated rabbits in the National Park,
dinary resources have been devoted to conserving it.The wild cat the creation of rabbit warrens and treatment of areas to foster rab-
has been lost in a tide of indifference from zoologists and conser- bit population growth, and breeding lynxes in captivity. But, unfor-
vationists. tunately, the lynx continued to decline and there are probably no
The collapse of the lynx population, starting in the second half more than 200 specimens left. Dead animals keep appearing, killed
th
of the 20 century, was so intense that skeletons of dead specimens by hunters, run over by cars, poisoned or caught in traps.
could still be found in some areas. There were many reasons for A broad sector of society is committed to defending the lynx:
this: hunting, poisoned bait, transformation of its habitat for farm- another sector considers that it is responsible for its own extinc-
ing, the construction of roads and the increase in traffic. Sometimes tion and they are opposed to traffic speed limits or to building
a single intervention, like filling in a reservoir, fragmented the area, crossings.This is the tragedy of conservation. Politicians sometimes
triggering a local catastro- make enthusiastic com-
phe. In Doñana, the threats mitments; other times
to them were the draining their pathetic analysis
of the marshes, the traffic explains why certain
on the road to attitudes can accelerate
Matalascañas, clearing fields its disappearance. And
for crops, surrounding the one example of this is
fields with wire fencing, and from a presentation by
the large wells where they the Ministry of the
drowned. The conclusions Environment before the
of the research work done Senate in 2003:
at the time were devastat- "It is true, the sur-
ing: their almost continu- vival of the lynx is com-
ous range that used to plicated, and I think that
cover the Iberian Peninsula you will agree with me
from north to south, was on this. It can also be a
being fragmented into a problem of space,
series of small, discontinu- because we are limiting
ous areas where many sur- its territory.That is why
viving populations were I say that I hope it will
In Doñana, the threats to the Iberian lynx were the draining of the Marshes, the traffic on the road
condemned to extinction. to Matalascañas, clearing fields for crops, surrounding the fields with wire fencing, and the large be intelligent enough to
The species was only left wells/reservoirs where they drowned, as well as the decline of rabbit population, its main prey. adapt to the new cir-
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.
significant areas in the cumstances, because
southwest of Spain. Reality has, in the end, been even bleaker than these things happen in life... Luckily, man is more intelligent and can
the forecasts, and twenty years on, the lynx only survives in two adapt to it. The lynx seems to be quite a lot less smart than we
small areas of its former range: Doñana and Sierra Morena. thought. It may have good eyesight, but then, in its behaviour, it is an
The dangers hanging over the lynx and interest in the results animal that runs very fast, and when running very fast, it sometimes
drove new research programmes with a permanent monitoring of fails to see; it does not stop to see where it is going and so goes
individuals fitted with radio collars. The results revealed that the over instead of under... I believe there must be a factor of adapting
lynxes of the Biological Reserve ranged far and wide, making con- to the environment, as others have had to, to survive, unless there
tact with the lynxes of the rest of the National Park and the Nature are other causes that we are trying to mitigate... I hope we will
Park, and sometimes going much further afield, crossing roads and shortly be able to say, because there aren't many left, that our lynx-
farmland.Their food resources suffered from the decline in rabbit es are adapting to the circumstances, while, of course, helping them
populations, leading them to seek other prey and this was often in everything they need because the Ministry is open to sugges-

207
 a range there or, at least on the periphery of their home range.This
homing effect has a positive result in that it guarantees that dense
breeding areas are maintained in favourable environments like
Doñana, although there have not been more than six chicks a year
of all those counted during the period 1998-2004. The negative
effect of this homing instinct is that these birds are forced to occu-
py marginal areas when the central area becomes saturated.And in
Doñana, the protected core is surrounded by built up areas and
farms, with fewer resources and greater risks.The use of radio col-
lars on some individuals led to a quantum leap in our knowledge of
the movements of the young birds that could be monitored con-
tinually around the region. In some cases, it also meant that their
remains could be recovered, to discover the cause of death: impact
with power lines, poisoned bait or poaching.
These eagles are animals with good longevity, 20-22 years, but
their breeding success for Doñana is modest (0.75
chicks/pair/year). Pre-adult mortality is high: 80-87% per year, falling
to lower figures among adults: 4.8-7.3% per year. Genetic studies
33 species of mammals have been counted in Doñana, including fallow
deer, deer, mongoose, otter, genet and rabbit. In the picture, a genet with its
have now been carried out on the populations and genealogy stud-
young in Doñana. ies have been pursued on many individuals and offsprings. Their
Photograph: CENEAM files.
pathology has been studied, and their diet is well known, as is how
tions, and I hope we will be able to find them in Extremadura, to supplement it during critical periods. Nests are monitored from
because they are to be found in the south of Portugal, and even a the early phase of occupation or construction and measures are
bit further up, if possible, although the environment does not seem taken to prevent activities or car traffic in the area that could com-
as appropriate". promise incubation or the raising of chicks.The key is not so much
As regards the imperial eagle, its breeding habits were closely to increase productivity, but to reduce juvenile mortality. One sin-
monitored, and individuals marked to study their mating habits gle factor, power lines, represents a disaster for population num-
(they are usually faithful to their mate), the chicks that hatched each bers and merely correcting them would enhance the expectations
year and what happened to them.After many close observations of for the species.This would be a worthwhile step because the impe-
their nests, which were started in the Coto Donana Expeditions of
1956 and 1957, detailed information was obtained on the catch of
prey, and the rhythm, selection and size of the prey caught. Along
with the data already known about the presence of rabbits and
some reptiles, the importance of coots and other waterfowl in the
diet of the imperial eagle in Doñana was striking.
The dispersion of the chicks was crucial for understanding how
the territory was used and to establish conservationist strategies.
It was important to increase observations in the surrounding areas
in an increasing radius. Furthermore, by improving the monitoring
in other regions, like Los Montes de Toledo, El Monte de El Pardo
and the Spanish Central Mountain Range, and exchanging records
between areas, a picture started to emerge about the status of the
population and their problems, of which Doñana was just a sample.
The young birds, after leaving the nest, disperse and spend between Black vultures build their nests as platforms in the top of large trees. They
used to be common in the north of Doñana, in Coto del Rey, the ranges, and
one and two years in any available territory, where they perfect even in the olive groves. They now nest in the foothills of the Sierra Morena
their hunting techniques as, in fact, they learn to hunt rabbits.The far apart.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
fledglings return to their original area to mate and try to establish

208
rial eagle currently faces a bleak future. It is not enough to keep a
tiny network of spaces where the eagles can mate in order to
maintain the population, while allowing favourable areas to disap-
pear in the rest of the territory and the risks to multiply.
On the other hand, other resident species of birds of prey in
Doñana face a brighter future: Bonelli's eagle, the kestrel, buzzard
and the peregrine falcon, although the last of these is scarce due to
the absence of crags or cliffs for nesting. The honey buzzard and,
above all, the black kite gather in large numbers during migrations.
In his memoirs,Valverde records the impression that the concen-
tration of kites had on him in 1952: "they formed large colonies in
the pine forests on both banks of the estuary".The same cannot be
said for the short-toed eagle, with a small nesting population in
Doñana (around 2-3 pairs), or the serious decline in the population
The ferruginous duck is a species that is almost extinct in the Doñana
of the red kite (5-6 pairs), made worse by the fact that they are the Marshes; the one in the picture is a captive, maimed bird. The ruddy shel-
only birds of this species in western Andalusia. duck has suffered the same fate, as it has disappeared as a nesting species in
Doñana for over a century and only accidental specimens or specimens that
Finally, the Gibraltar Straits see the passage of hundreds of have escaped from captivity have been observed.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
thousands of birds, from storks to swallows and swifts. For many
waterfowl and scrub birds, Doñana is an important staging post and
it has been calculated that some 6.5 million birds pass through the garious, nest on crags, forming colonies that they sometimes share
park each year. These include the osprey, a determined aquatic with Egyptian vultures and other birds of prey.The protection that
predator capable of catching its prey down to a depth of two they have been afforded in the second half of the 20th century has
metres with its spectacular dives. At the end of the summer, it increased their numbers throughout Spain.They come to Doñana
leaves its territories in the north of Europe and follows the Atlantic on sunny days from the vulture colonies of Sierra de Aracena, Picos
seaboard down to the Doñana Marshes, where it spends a few de Aroche and Sierra Pelada, sometimes flying in long rows of up to
weeks fishing in the canals before continuing its journey south over one hundred birds, in search of dead deer, fallow deer, boar or cat-
the straits.There is a growing shortage of perches in the Marshes tle to feed off. The pecking order for eating the carrion is estab-
and sometimes rows of ospreys can be seen using the telegraph lished according to the hierarchical status of each bird in the flock.
posts of power lines to perch on. It does not currently breed in If there are birds of different species together, the black vultures
mainland Spain, although one individual was seen in 2002, trying to will take preference over the griffon vultures and these will take
build a nest in Doñana, in the restored Algaida Marsh, in Sanlúcar. preference over other birds like Egyptian vultures, kites, rooks,
Miguel Ferrer, heading up a team from the Biological Station, has magpies and azure-winged magpies that will also take turns to feed
done "transplant" trials, transferring osprey chicks to artificial nests, off the carrion.The small wagtails will feed off the insects that are
built on the banks of reservoirs rich in Andalusian fish, to accustom attracted by the corpse, including the fresh generation of maggots
them to their new environment and re-introduce the species.Their that emerge from the carrion after a few days.
efforts have been met with success. González Bernaldez remembered a visit he made in the winter
Other characteristic species to be found in Doñana are the of 1972 to the lower stretch of the Guadiamar, accompanied by
Egyptian vulture, which winters here, and the honey buzzard that Caballero, Professor of Plant Physiology, and Ramon Margalef, the
only migrates through. They migrate along the route through famous limnologist. Some sheep caught in the mud were surround-
Doñana and the coastal mountain ranges to Tarifa and, once they ed by griffon vultures that gradually set siege to them.The natural-
have crossed the Gibraltar strait, they set out on a spectacular ists tried to free the sheep from the mud, but if the animals were
journey, crossing the Sahara to reach their wintering grounds. exhausted or they had injured themselves in their attempts to get
Black vultures build their nests as platforms in the top of large free, the vultures would return for the kill. In the 1970s, after rainy
trees.They used to be common in the north of Doñana, in Coto years or floods, this was a regular occurrence and there was an
del Rey, the ranges, and even in the olive groves.They now nest in abundance of carrion for vultures in the Doñana Marshes and
the foothills of the Sierra Morena, almost 100 Km to the North. watercourses. When the pools dry out, the small ducks, carp and
The griffon vultures, somewhat smaller in size and much more gre- other trapped fish, still attract vultures and black kites. Herons and

209
 In Unexplored Spain Abel Chapman and Walter Buck found a "mystery" in
the flamingo that they were unable to solve: its reproduction. They spent
years searching the Doñana Marshes for the breeding colonies until they
found them. Yet, they found that clutches of eggs failed to hatch because
of the weather and chicks only hatched every four years, which was
incompatible with maintaining population levels. It was to take almost
half a century for the mystery to be solved by Valverde who discovered
that the main breeding ground was Laguna de Fuentepiedra, in Malaga.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.

storks eat the eyes of the fish, along with eels and other small fish. the white headed duck and the glossy ibis that has recently estab-
Excrement-feeding insects and their larvae near the water are also lished stable colonies, recovering a population that had become
eaten by geese.The cycle of life and death is characteristic of the extinct in Doñana years ago.The black stork, a shy elusive bird in
marshes, inseparable from its fluctuating wetland character of flood comparison with the white stork, can also be seen in the Doñana
and drought. Marshes, although in small numbers.And the most spectacular, dis-
After the autumn floods, bird life flocks to the Doñana tinct and iconic sightings of marsh bird life are the flocks of flamin-
Marshes, occupying the different environments according to the gos, the colonies of spoonbills and the abovementioned "pajareras"
depth of the water or, later on, depending on the growth of the over the cork trees and scrub of La Vera. Gulls (the common less-
aquatic vegetation. They come from regional wetlands, or they er black-backed, and the black-headed), common terns, little terns,
have started their migrations from more distant regions, seeking black terns, and oystercatchers, which are keen bi-valve feeders
their wintering grounds in Doñana. In the ponds and somewhat (especially of wedge clams in Doñana), dominate the beaches. In the
deeper waters, we find coot, known locally as gallaretas, common sea off Doñana, there are common scoters and marine ducks and,
mallards, shovelers and gadwalls, pintails, wigeon, shelduck, teals, occasionally, gannet, razorbills, Balearic shearwater, skuas and
garaganey, marbled teal, red-crested pochard, pochard and grebes. petrels. And to round off the continual spectacle on the beach,
In very shallow bodies of water, we find waders. Near the banks, foxes, black kites and even boar occasionally in their wanderings
there are herons, storks, moorhens, water rail and the striking make it down to the beach.The sandpipers and plovers run around
gallinules.The terns feed in pools, canals, lagoons and the estuary. in search of water fleas and other crustaceans, or they approach
Grebes and cormorants leave the Marshes as the water levels the embryonic dune vegetation in search of insects and seeds.
drop, but they can still be seen in the estuary, in the pools and Chapter 7 offers a list of bird species to be found in the Doñana
ponds of Isla Mayor. Marshes, including the most emblematic species. But as observers
The geese form flocks on the open waters, approaching the and recordings have increased, more outstanding birds are added.
banks to feed off the rhizomes, particularly the round castañuela. Chapman and Buck have reported tundra swan and pelican; and
One of the unforgettable sights of Doñana is the image of the geese Marabou stork, also sighted, could either be from zoos or wander-
when they gather at dawn on Cerro del Trigo to eat sand. ing specimens. There are exceptional reports of birds sighted far
The ornithological rarities of Doñana include the crested coot, from their normal range, like Allen's gallinule (Porphyrula alleni) and

210
 the challenge of the eyed lizard or feel the ill humour and snorts of
the Montpellier snake. In the water, the water snake hunted among
the turtles.
It is easy to spot traces of lizards among the bushes, but they
do not venture far from the cover of the vegetation. In the shifting
dunes, it is surprising to find snakes, vipers and slow moving tor-
toises, which move from one corral (inter-dune basin) to another,
covering hundreds of metres of dune front and leaving an unmis-
takeable trail.As with the rabbits, reptiles and amphibians play and
have played an important ecological role as energy transmitters in
the food chain, although they are not part of the group of iconic
species of Doñana. Depending on their size, the amphibians eat fil-
amentous and epiphyte algae, submerged macrophytes, crustaceans
Grebes and cormorants leave the Marshes as water levels drop, but they can and other aquatic invertebrates, insects and their larvae, and they
still be seen in the estuary, in the pools and ponds of Isla Mayor and occa-
fall prey to fish, grebes, herons and storks.And, in larger concentra-
sionally in lagoons. In the picture, a great crested grebe.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority. tions, they attract other waterfowl, foxes, boars and other preda-
tors. Reptiles basically eat insects, and they are the prey of other
the red-necked phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus). Others, previously reptiles, birds of prey, hunting birds like shrikes, opportunists like
abundant, have become rare, like the Hubara bustard, cranes, little kites, blackbirds, magpies, azure-winged magpies and some mam-
bustards and the buttonquail. mals.
The presence of large concentrations of individuals of the same We could continue, in this way, down the flow chart of species
species, which often happens in the Marshes, makes it more difficult and their functions. That is why the same conclusion is reached
to identify other, similar species that accompany them. For exam- every time we embark on describing the iconic species of Doñana:
ple, there may be 80,000 geese flying around in flocks of several that there is nothing unnecessary here and maintaining the area
hundred specimens, forming larger groups of thousands, most of involves being aware of the intricate network of inter-dependencies
which are greylag geese. But there are sometimes specimens of created by all the different forms of life.
greater white-fronted goose, bar-headed goose and snow goose,
and more occasionally, specimens of lesser white-fronted goose,
bean goose or pink-footed goose. These groups sometimes also
include barnacle geese, including the Canadian barnacle goose, well
established in Europe, the white-faced barnacle goose, the black-
faced barnacle goose and, very rarely, the red-necked barnacle
goose.
Testimonies from the 1950s recall the presence of overwhelm-
ing numbers of waterfowl in the Doñana Marshes, the immensity of
the "pajareras", and the clouds of mosquitoes that rose like smoke
at dusk.Yet, they also mention the abundance of reptiles, the con-
centrations of amphibians and the massive migrations of ribbed
newts and spade foot toads leaving the marshes for the ponds of
the sands, accompanied by an amazing number of water snakes. In
a pool, next to the track leading to Palacio de Doñana, you were
The two felines that used to live in Doñana, the lynx and the wild cat, have
able to find newts and after spawning, the water used to bubble suffered declines that has placed them on the edge of extinction, although
with the activity of tadpoles that slid their way with difficulty with very different perceptions towards them. The lynx has been studied in
depth and major efforts and extraordinary resources have been devoted to
through the flooded grass. In the mid 1960s, anyone walking conserving it. The wild cat has been lost in a tide of indifference from
through the scrub of the sands in late spring would constantly see zoologists and conservationists. The greatest threat to this specie in Doñana
is inter-breeding with domestic cats, leaving very few pure-blooded
scaly and red-tailed lizards, and often ladder snakes, false smooth specimens.
snakes and horse shoe whip snakes, too.They would also witness Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.

211
The aquatic systems JULIA TOJA SANTILLANA *
LAURA SERRANO MARTÍN *
of Doñana

he Doñana region includes an extraordinary variety of

T aquatic systems, from salt pans to peatbogs. They are
broadly classified according to their location on either eolian sands
or marshland as their hydrology largely depends on the geomor-
phology of their basins.The permeability of each geomorphologic
unit is very different: the eolian sands correspond to an unconfined
aquifer (with a shallow water table and several flow systems) while
groundwater is confined below the silty-clay deposits of the
Marshes floodplain. Both units composed an aquifer system of
about 3400 km2 bottomed by impermeable marine marls known as
the Almonte-Marismas aquifer36. Groundwater recharge is pro-
duced by rainfall infiltration in the unconfined aquifer66 at an esti-
mated annual rate of 200 mm while it flows at 0.1-1cm in the con-
fined aquifer35.
The contemporary Marshes occupy a vast floodplain of about
23,000 ha, while hundreds of small ponds are scattered over the
aeolian sands during floods.A total of 568 temporary wetlands on
sandy soils have been recorded in the area by the local administra- Studies of the ecological processes of the floodable areas of Doñana have
only recently started to play the role they deserve. The Landsat 7 satellite
tion34. Additionally, salt pans operate on the left bank of the image (2000) shows in false colour, the lower area of the Marshes during
Guadalquivir River, numerous artificial wetlands (about 3000 ha) the floods, rimmed by dune formations and the course of the River
Guadalquivir. The Marshes used to be isolated from the course of the river
are devoted to extensive fish cultures in the estuary islands (Veta by a natural levee, which has now been replaced by what is known as La
La Palma, on Isla Mayor), and tidal marshes are reduced to a nar- Montaña del Río.
Photograph: Landsat 7 (2000). NASA.
row fringe along the banks of Guadalquivir River28. Most running
waters are intermittent streams. Major hydrologic projects have their hydrology and chemical composition29,42, their hydrology and
reshaped the flow of the main rivers, Guadalquivir and Guadiamar substrate18 or their hydro-chemistry and littoral vegetation45. The
that used to drain and flood over the Marshes. Small streams are larger size of Santa Olalla and Dulce ponds made them suitable for
fed by rainfall and groundwater seepage; some of them drain to the many limnological studies37,64,50,57,65,41 compared to the rest of ponds17,
39, 54
Marshes and others to the sea, across the cliffs formed by ancient . Additionally, the relevance of sediment in the functioning of
dune fields (Medano del Asperillo), providing shelter to some these shallow aquatic systems has been brought forward in numer-
hygrophyte species that hold vestiges of Atlantic peatbogs20. ous publications32,33,40,21,15,61. The interaction with their surrounding
Outside its protected areas, Doñana watersheds are severely terrestrial ecosystems has also been studied under different per-
altered by human activities, featuring a wide variety of pressures spectives, such as vegetation-groundwater interactions30, 67, climate
regarding the use and assignment of water resources. Despite its change63 and landscape management47. Research into the processes
significance for wildfowl, research into the limnological processes of that determine the environmental quality of the Doñana aquatic
the Doñana aquatic systems started merely two decades ago.The systems should be the basis for conservation and management
first ecological studies (aimed at relating biological populations to strategies.This approach requires a huge spatial scale and the sup-
environmental variables) were published in the early 80's24,44. The port of long-term studies because the chemical composition of its
water composition of the Doñana marshland and the quality of the waters is influenced by multiple processes: rainfall, evaporative con-
surface waters entering the Marshes were thoroughly studied dur- centration, groundwater discharge, biogeochemical reactions at the
ing the 80's16. Later, the Doñana ponds were typified according to sediment-water interface, and the interaction with soils and vege-
* University of Seville, Spain. tation of the terrestrial systems within their watersheds.

213
 THE MARSHES according to flooding duration, water composition and vegetation23:
The Doñana Marshes are basically fed by direct rainfall on its 1) Lucios in depressions with long flooding periods and no emer-
floodplain and by several watersheds: Guadiamar River (1,180 km2), gent macrophytes (helophytes) though some carophytes may
El Partido stream (300 km2) and La Rocina stream (1,000 km2) develop (Nytella hyalina and Chara canescens).
which are included in the lower sector of the Guadalquivir River 2) Pajas in depressions with long flooding periods where helo-
watershed (57,500 km2). The land is basically occupied by agricul- phytes grow on both caños and margins of lucios. Scirpus mar-
ture and range. itimus and Scirpus litoralis are the dominant annual emergent
The flatness of the vast extension occupied by the Doñana species in either monoespecific or mixed populations. Submersed
Marshes (about 23,000 ha) is altered at a topographic scale of a few macrophytes such as Nytella hyalina and Chara connivens are also
dm creating shallow pans (locally known as lucios) and old levee found.
remnants (paciles) which have the appearance of emerged islands 3) Candilejar in areas with an intermediate flooding period.
(vetas) during floods. Quantitavely less important, but ecologically Vegetation composed of Juncus subulatus and Arthrocnemum
relevant, is the ground water seepage along the ecotone border (La macrostachyum. Submersed vegetation including Chara gallioides,
Vera) that provides soil moisture to grass meadows and hygrophyte Chara canescens, Callitriche truncata occidentalis and Zanichellia
vegetation, feeds small creeks (sotos) and maintains permanent obtusifolia.
sub-surface springs (ojos). The tidal influence from the estuary of 4) Almajar in upper areas with no flooding or very shortly.
the Guadalquivir River on the Marshes is currently impeded due to Vegetation dominated by Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, annual
the construction of a levee (Montaña del Río) that isolates the grasses and no helophytes.
marshland from the estuary. Several outlets along this levee are 5) Estero in upper tidal areas along the coast line of the
provided with floodgates to maintain the confinement of the water Guadalquivir River and its dead arm-river (Brazo de la Torre).
outflow during winter and spring though, occasionally, the levee is Brackish waters with dense Spartina densiflora stands.
overflowed at heavy floods. On the north-western area, surface 6) Salao in elevated dry areas (former levees). Vegetation of
water is supplied by rainfall and the over flood of small streams (La Limoniastrum monopetalum.
Rocina, El Partido, Caño Marín and Cañada Mayor) which drain 7) Tidal areas where vegetation community composition follows
southwards into the Park feeding a large riverbed, the Madre de las the frequency and duration of tidal flow, from Spartina densiflora
Marismas del Rocío channel. On the north-eastern end the and Salicornia europaea (lower areas), Sarcocornia fruticosa and
Guadiamar River used to drain southwards into the Marshes Sarcocornia perennis (intermediate) to Artrocnemum
through numerous small channels (caños). Nowadays, the lower macrostachyum (upper areas). Submersed vegetation is rich
stretch of the Guadiamar River runs between two earthen dikes (Ruppia drepanensis, Chara canescens, Callitriche truncata occiden-
(Entremuros) finally draining to a dead arm of the river (Brazo de talis, Zanichellia obtusifolia and Rannunculus peltatus fucoides), and
la Torre) so most of its water-flow and the drainage of the nearby with some rare species (Tolypella glomerata, Tolypella hispanica,
paddy-fields are presently deviated to the estuary of the
Guadalquivir River. Only a minor flow reaches the Marshes
(Guadiamar channel) passing through both pipes and a complex
canal network.The marked seasonality of flooding periods followed
by summer drought, and the isolation of the Marshes from the
estuary has imposed an endorreic character to the historical
marshes. Freshwater is accumulated in the depressions causing the
solubilization of salts from the top sediment.As the confined water
evaporates, their salts and particulates become increasingly con-
centrated.The resulting ionic composition of the lucio pans is then
dominated by Cl- and Na+, the concentration of salts being depend-
ent on the frequency and duration of flooding in each area19.
Carophytes are particular abundant in the submersed vegeta- The Marshes can be divided into eight environmental units, based on the
tion of the Doñana marshland as only five carophyte species flood regime and the characteristics of the water, each of which is associat-
ed with a certain kind of vegetation. In the picture, view of the Marshes
account for 98.4% of total biomass22.The following environmental from the Doñana Palace.
units, with their local names, can be distinguished in the Marshes, Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

214
 Doñana is famous for its wealth of biodiversity of organisms to be seen, especially the birds, but the wealth of species of organisms that cannot be seen, like the algae and micro-
invertebrates, is even greater. This high level of biodiversity can be explained by the vast ecological wealth of the temporary aquatic systems. Some of these species are endemic to
the area, or they have been described for the first time in specimens collected in Doñana, like Daphnia hispanica and Daphnia mediterranea. In the photograph, from left to right, view
of: D. hispanica male, D. mediterranea female, D. mediterranea ephippial female, D. similis ephippial female and D. similis male.
Photograph by Adam Petrusek, Charles University, Prague.

FIGURE 1 branch, intersection of Guadiamar channel with Madre de las

Sketch showing the hydrological feeding of sandy substrate ponds.
Marismas del Rocío, below-surface springs (ojos) and other sites
with a semi-permanent flooding. Emergent vegetation dominated
by Phragmites australis and Scirpus litoralis; submersed vegetation
by Nytella hyalina and Chara connivens.

THE PONDS ON THE SANDS

The Holocene eolian sand mantle is composed of several dune
generations originally deposited on the beach by marine action. A
system of moving dunes with several dune fronts run parallel to the
coast-line with a NW-SE direction, both within the National Park
limits (max. altitude: 30 m) and along the Asperillo dune system
(max. altitude: 100 m). Within the Doñana Biological Reserve, the
Riella helicophylla and Riella notarisi). sand mantle is mostly covered by Mediterranean scrub (stabilized
8) Carrizal in particular sites, such as the upper stretch of Torre dunes) with a species composition closely following water availabil-
FIGURE 2

Changes in some physical, chemical

and biological variables over 4
hydrological years in the sandy sub-
strate ponds of Santa Olalla and
Dulce. The vertical dotted lines sep-
arate the different hydrological
years. The continuous vertical line
indicates the beginning of a period
of heavy rains, with surface run off.
(according to Toja et al., 1991).

215
 TABLE 1
List of some ponds on a sandy substrate in the Doñana Parks29.

PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY EPHEMERAL PONDS

PERIDUNE PONDS ECOTONE LAS ROCINAS Aquifer discharge Aquifer recharge

AND
LITTORAL ZONE Eutrophic Non eutrophic Eutrophic Non eutrophic
Santa Olalla Hondón Charco del Acebrón Caño Martinazo Acebuche Encinillas Bajas Corral largo 1
Dulce Lucio del Faro Algaida de los Naranjos Alcornoque de las Monjas de las Palomas El Moral Corral largo 2
Taraje Navazo largo Algaida 1 Corral close Navazo del Toro Caño de la Raya La Mogea
Zahillo Llano de Velázquez to Charco del Toro Ojillo El Rico
Charco del Toro Bajada de Martín Pavón Rodrigo Pérez El Pino
Complejo de las Pajas El Caballo Los Pájaros Caño Tio Antoñito
Berraco Tojal del Lobo Las Baquetas
El Brezo Alcornoque
Alcornoque Escobar
La Jabata

ity which, in turn, depends on groundwater flow systems of differ- through time50.They range widely in size (from rain puddles to shal-
ent spatial scales47. In this undulating landscape, hundreds of small low lakes) and in flooding duration (from days to decades), but they
ponds appear when the water table rises above the topographical all have been reported to dry out eventually. Hence, they all are
surface during heavy rains.These ponds are fed by freshwater (rain- temporary water bodies that exhibit wide fluctuations of water
fall, runoff and groundwater discharge), and have no surface or level. Those ponds located at the boundary between the moving
groundwater connection to the sea so they cannot be properly dunes and the stabilised sand mantle are called peridune ponds.
called lagoons (in English) though they receive salts of marine ori- Ponds also appear amid the interdune valleys of the moving dune
gin through airborne deposition.Their groundwater feeding is rela- system, creating a wet-slack formation. Many attempts have been
tively complex due to changes in recharge and topographic bound- made to classify ponds into different categories (permanent, semi
aries that modify their connection to different aquifer flow systems permanent, seasonal, ephemeral), but a short number of observa-
tions have produced contradictory results.As a whole, the Doñana
FIGURE 3 ponds form a system of temporary water bodies of remarkable sin-
Depth distribution and daily cycle (June 1991) of temperature, pH, dis- gularity in Europe due to their abundance, diversity and high pro-
solved oxygen and chlorophyll concentration, in the Las Verdes and
Santa Olalla ponds (according to Serrano et al., 1994). The high concentra- tection status.The density of ponds in the Biological Reserve was
tion of polyphenol compounds in Las Verdes and the protection from the
estimated during winter floods in six ponds per 100 ha (holding
winds afforded by the surrounding vegetation cause the pond to behave
in a polymictic manner, stratified during the day and mixing at night. water for 1-6 months) and one pond in 100 ha (holding water for
Santa Olalla is open to the wind, so it does not stratify, but its hypertro-
phy leads to pronounced variations in Oxygen and pH, depending on the
more than 6 months)30. A few artificial wetlands are maintained by
predominance of photosynthesis or respiration at any given moment. groundwater pumping; another common practice in the area is to
dig water-holes near ponds (zacallones) for wildlife during dry peri-
ods.The only permanent non-artificial aquatic system over sands is
the lagoon of Tarelo, located on the left bank of the Guadalquivir
River, fringing the pine woodland of La Algaida of Sanlúcar. Its basin
was excavated for sand and gravel extraction, became flooded in
1989 by rainfall and groundwater seepage from the estuary of the
Guadalquivir River, and was later declared a protected site of the
Doñana Nature Park for its importance to the white-headed
duck62.
The chemical composition of the unconfined aquifer is domi-
nated by Ca (HCO3)2 and with a salinity usually lower than 0.5
mg/l.The high proportion of NaCl in rainwater due to marine influ-
ence affects the composition of shallow groundwater.The succes-
sive cycles of flooding and evaporation in the discharge areas have
enriched in NaCl the shallow free groundwater (or phreatic) below
the pond basins39. Ca2+ dominates over Na+ only in small depression

216
within the dune tail where recharge dominates over discharge flow Hydro-chemical classifications of ponds based on absolute lim-
and water is temporary deposited. The chemical composition of its have, so far, proved evasive as the ionic composition of the
water filling the ponds results from an interaction of both surface Doñana ponds change widely in time.The change in water conduc-
(rainfall and runoff) and groundwater sources during discharge, but tivity (at 20ºC) recorded in some of the most visited ponds during
general trends are difficult to predict (Figure 1). Firstly because the last two decades (Taraje, Dulce and Santa Olalla) ranges from
water budgets have not yet been elucidated with sufficient resolu- 0.1 to 8.5 mS/cm during wet years, and from 1.0 to 28.4 mS/cm
tion and, secondly because of the impact of sparse local events on during dry years. Low maximum conductivity values corresponded
these shallow systems. For example, heavy rainstorms (>80 mm) to wet cycles while high minimum values to dry years in all ponds,
that only represented 1.4% of total observations in a 7-year but the relationship between conductivity and rainfall was not lin-
record58 disrupted the pond development and reverted it to earli- ear because conductivity also reflected the past conditions of pre-
er succession stages64. A general hydrologic budget for Santa Olalla vious dry cycles: the minimum conductivity values were not
and Dulce ponds estimated that rainfall (and runoff) accounted for attained in 1995/96 despite it was the wettest cycle in the record
48% and 100% of the water input during the rainy season as it had been preceded by several dry years. The conductivity
(October-March) of very dry (<250mm) and extremely wet cycles range was widest in the larger pond of Santa Olalla (0.3 to 28.4
(>1000 mm), respectively.The rest of the water input was due to mS/cm). Its larger watershed ensures a higher contribution of rain-
groundwater discharge (from both the shallow and deep water- fall and the flooding of a considerable extension of soil and vegeta-
tables)49. tion which accounts for the solubilization and leaching of salts
A review of studies on the ionic composition in the Doñana which progressively concentrate in the water as evaporation pro-
aquatic systems reveals the influence of the different scales of ceeds. The higher mineralization of Santa Olalla pond was also
observation in each study.The hydroperiod (or duration of water achieved by the down gradient movement of solutes through seep-
on the surface) and the water origin are relevant hydrologic fea- age from its neighbouring ponds (Dulce and Las Pajas) due to its
tures that influence the ionic composition of water, but their larger evaporative discharge and lower altitude49. During extreme-
assessment is greatly affected by the duration of the study period.
The first extensive survey (47 ponds) of water chemical composi-
tion was performed during the heavy floods of winter 199029.Again,
Na+ and Cl- were the dominant ions in all pond waters. The
Ca2+/Na+ ratio was not a good predictor compared to the Mg2+/Na+
ratio, probably due to the local effect of micro topography and veg-
etation on CaCO3 precipitation. A Mg2+ /Na+ ratio higher than 0.25
(in meq/l) corresponded to discharge areas, and a lower ratio indi-
cated recharge areas where water runoff could be temporary
deposited due to the presence of a high concentration of organic
matter or clay in the sediment.They segregated the ponds in three
discharge groups according to their location, mineralization and
trophic state (Table 1): 1) ponds in Las Naves, 2) those along the
boundary between the moving dunes and the stabilized sands
(peridune pond system), and 3) those between the stabilized sands
and the Marshes (La Vera). Later, this classification was enlarged to
5 groups by including the wet-slack formation of the moving dunes,
and dividing the peridune ponds in two other groups according to
pond size45.Water pH is usually alkaline in the discharge areas due
Doñana's reputation depends to a large extent on the fact that it receives
to the dominance of Na+ over Ca2+, but acidic water (pH 4-5) has
hundreds of thousands of birds every year. The food for these birds comes
been occasionally reported when rainfall is temporary deposited from the aquatic macrophytes, as in most of the refuges that these birds
use. The nutrients they deposit in the environment are also re-cycled by
on rich organic soils. The combination of alkaline waters over the macrophytes, which also organise different habitats, thus contributing
siliceous sand basins makes these water bodies rather singular to maintain the high level of biodiversity.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
compared to other European wetlands54.

217
 FIGURE 4
Concentrations of soluble phosphorous and organic matter that can be liberated by the rain from different components of the terrestrial ecosystems adjacent to
the lagoons, which are flushed out and transported laterally into the lagoons (According to Serrano et al., 1999). Units: mg/kg dry matter weight.

VEGETATION EXCREMENTS
xerophytic scrub hygrophytic scrub pastures cow horse deer
1250.0 455.7 205.1 954.8 409.2 976.5

SOIL
xerophytic scrub hygrophytic scrub pastures sand SEDIMENT
>2mm 2-0.1 mm <0.01 mm >2mm 2-0.1 mm >2mm 2-0.1 mm 2-0.1 mm >2mm 2-0.1 mm

83.7 5.7 25 78.6 10.7 46.8 2.4 0.5 46.4 20.2

651.0 950.0 1500.4 331.7 630.0 756.4 1354.7 961.0 440.2 1097.4

ly wet periods, this pond complex (Santa Olalla-Dulce-Las Pajas) distrophic phases during floods: their water colour was dark and,
behaves as a flow-through floodplain of about 100 ha that evacu- their conductivity and primary production were very low.
ates water and solutes to the nearby Marshes through intermittent
discharges on wide river beds29. Interaction with terrestrial ecosystems
As any other aquatic system, the Doñana ponds are not iso-
Ponds as fluctuating environments lated from their surrounding watershed. Despite rainfall infiltrates
Wetlands are generally fluctuating environments.The variability very quickly in sandy soils, surface runoff develops during heavy
of the Doñana ponds is particularly high, both within and between floods for sufficient time to produce a significant contribution of
years (Figure 2). Daily variations are also drastic in those ponds nutrients and organic matter to the ponds.The concentration of
sheltered from the prevailing winds (Figure 3). Dulce pond illus- phosphate is usually higher in surface runoff water than in
trates an average limnological cycle37. At the beginning of a moder- groundwater discharge, but these differences are brief and can be
ate flooding period, submersed macrophytes and associated algae detected only during heavy rainfall54.A careful study of the P-frac-
start growing on the pond basin. The primary production of the tional sediment composition showed that the incoming phos-
pond is, then, basically benthonic. The biomass of these primary phate was efficiently adsorbed by the sediment during the first
producers reaches a maximum in mid-spring, coincident with a weeks of their filling period21. The Doñana ponds received a sig-
clear-water phase. Submersed macrophytes eventually die and nificant concentration of phosphate from the leaching of soils,
leach nutrients that enhance phytoplankton growth. As water organic matter and vegetation within its watershed during heavy
evaporates, the concentration of both dissolved nutrients and rainstorms after drought58 (Figure 4). In Dulce pond, phosphate
plankton cells increases, and phytoplankton reaches very large den- concentration was 100 times higher in the littoral than in the
sities throughout summer and mid-autumn. If the pond finally dries open-water area (Figure 5). Soil samples from the sandy uplands
up, the organic matter deposited on the dry sediment is photo-oxi- and the floodplain meadow, fresh xerophytic scrub, and cattle
dized and its nutrients mineralized. Smaller ponds will hold water manure leached phosphate concentrations higher than 0.9 mg/g
for a shorter time.Therefore, they go through the different stages dw in distilled-water under laboratory conditions, suggesting that
quicker and annual plants tend to colonise the dry bed more easi- this material was a source of P to runoff water draining to the
ly.This general functioning is not applied to the larger pond of Santa pond.The slow decomposition rate of litter in arid sandy soils of
Olalla because it rarely dries up so phytoplankton prevails and Doñana can explain the accumulation of nutrients in the upland
hypertrophic conditions are usual. During heavy rainfall, all ponds areas of the pond watersheds where leaching of soluble com-
change dramatically which led some authors13 to state that they had pounds from litter can last up to 4 moths after deposition27.The

218
accumulation of organic matter, in turn, accounts for the domi- water depth, would allow the growth of extensive macrophyte
nance of organic P-fractions in the pond sediment61.The contribu- beds. Biomass of submersed vegetation have been reported to
tion of terrigenous lipids to the sedimentary composition32 and reach up to 450 g dw/m2 in Dulce pond37. As the ponds dry out,
the detection of organic P-compounds derived from vegetation in organic matter is partially mineralised on the dry sediment51.
the sediment, such as phytate59, proved the strong influence of the Hence, the concentration of sediment organic matter is inversely
watershed on these aquatic systems. correlated to the duration of flooding33. During dry periods, the
Rainfall itself accounted for the leaching from fresh vegetation vegetation pattern surrounding the ponds changes rapidly: hygro-
of soluble polyphenols such as tannins51. During floods, dissolved phyte species showed regression while xerophytic species
organic matter is washed from the fringing vegetation and carried advanced to lower areas67. A flooding period following a long
by runoff to the ponds where the concentration of DOC can drought, therefore, will produce a larger impact of the watershed
reach up to 120 mg/l, turning the water into a dark brown on the pond water composition regarding nutrient and dissolved
colour52. Although the input of DOC by rainfall and runoff water organic matter concentrations.The variability of the hydro-mete-
is a common process in all aquatic systems, the singularity of this orological conditions in the area ensures the unpredictability of
process in Doñana lies on the unpredictability of flooding events this terrestrial-aquatic interaction. Furthermore, vegetation
under Mediterranean climate. Consequently, the Doñana ponds changes induced by anthropic disturbance in relation to ground-
can exhibit very contrasting conditions in different years with water abstraction, add more uncertainty to this interaction46.The
variable rainfall intensity. Flooding itself produces the dilution of study of both ecological and historical records showed that the
solutes and particulates, bringing about a drastic reduction of the vegetation of Doñana has been deeply affected by management
phytoplankton populations and disrupting their previous succes- practices since the first quarter of the 17th century31. Deep sedi-
sion development64. No direct effect of polyphenols on the pri- ment cores from Dulce and Santa Olalla ponds showed that total
mary production has been proved in the ponds56, despite these P concentrations had increased exponentially since 1960's sug-
compounds are able to chelate micronutrients53.Vertical attenua- gesting that recent changes in land management have contributed
tion coefficients of light in the water of a pond rich in dissolved to their eutrophication38.
polyphenols were similar to those of the hypereutrophic Santa
Olalla pond where chlorophyll a concentrations57 reached up to THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE AQUATIC SYSTEMS
2 mg/l. Flooding is, therefore, the cause of both the polyphenolic Doñana wetlands are famous worldwide for their great impor-
enrichment and the phytoplankton decrease (due to flushing or tance to water birds, but the diversity of microscopic and inverte-
dilution).The perturbation caused by flooding in the ponds is so brate organisms is also remarkable. The heterogeneity of tempo-
extreme that it resembles the flood pulse of tropical floodplains, rary aquatic environments is usually the cause for high species rich-
in which heavy floods can clean water bodies and rearrange the
communities to earlier succession stages.The drainage and vege-
tation pattern in the watershed determines the extent and vari-
ability of the runoff input to each pond during floods30. Xerophytic
scrub dominated by Halimium halimifolium, growing in the upland
areas of the pond watershed leached a higher amount of polyphe-
nols than bulrushes (Juncus spp. and Scirpus spp.) from the flood-
plain under artificial rainfall experiments51. The fate of the dis-
solved polyphenols was also different in each pond till they disap-
peared on the dry sediment52. Dissolved polyphenols are easily
degraded by sunlight so photo-oxidation can account for their
disappearance in the water.The depth of the water column limits
the amount of sunlight that can penetrate in each pond and thus
the extent of the photo-degradation of polyphenols in each
Despite the importance of Doñana as a biodiversity sanctuary, the ecologi-
pond60. cal processes of the marshy areas are only now starting to be discovered.
A detailed knowledge of the bio-geo-chemical cycles of the nutrients and
The expected development of the Doñana ponds during a their relations with organic matter is essential, as these factors determine
moderate hydrologic cycle would be a low concentration of the characteristically high biodiversity of these ecosystems.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
polyphenols in the water which, in combination with a moderate

219
 FIGURE 5 ria, 1 pyrrophyte, 12 euglenophytes, 3 cryptophytes, 1 heteroconte,
Concentration of phosphorous in samples of water taken from Dulce
pond, in the National Park, from the edge to the centre, immediately after 44 diatoms and 45 chlorophytes)37. Fifty-four taxa of ciliates were
a large storm (108.5 mm) on December 15th, 1995 (according to Serrano et
identified in merely 50 ml of water from the littoral of Santa Olalla
al., 1999).
pond48. The number of zooplankton taxa (micro crustaceans and
rotifers) coexisting at a given time in the same pond tend to range
widely, from 3 to 27 species, but the number of species inhabiting a
site over several successive cycles is always larger. Resting eggs pro-
vide the mechanisms for organisms to withstand dehydration and,
at the same time, create a long-time pool of species that will even-
tually develop as the environment changes. Some rotifer species,
unrecorded over 3 successive years, hatched from the pond sedi-
ment incubated in the laboratory55.
Extensive surveys in numerous ponds also accumulate a large
richness: 34 rotifer taxa and 41 micro crustacean species were
ness.The richness of temporary waters is not particularly high at a recorded in a total of 33 ponds43.The study of 7 ponds over 3 suc-
momentary scale though it can be very large when wide fluctua- cessive cycles yielded 71 zooplankton taxa (40 rotifers and 31
tions are taken into account.A list of planktonic species recorded micro crustaceans)25. A new rotifer species, Lecane donyananesis,
in Doñana is presented in Chapter 7. Despite these lists accumu- was described in small pond of merely 30 cm of depth26. Other
late a large number of species (438 for phytoplankton and 205 for endemic species recorded in Doñana include the copepod
microinvertebrates), they are not exhaustive, as they collect the Dussartius baeticus, while specimens collected in Doñana have
results of only a few studies. The more samples accumulate from been used to describe endemisms of the Iberian-Balearic region14.
the same site or from new sites, the more species are identified. The collective richness of zooplankton from both ponds and marsh
During a monthly sampling (1985-87) of Santa Olalla and Dulce is likely to be greater as salinity is a major factor affecting the com-
ponds, 120 phytoplankton species were identified (14 cyanobacte- position of micro crustacean assemblages (Figure 6).

FIGURE 6
Distribution of some species of micro-crustaceans over the course of a flood cycle in 3 sandy substrate ponds and in 3 shallow pools of the Marshes
(according to Furest and Toja, 1981).

220
The ecology of Doñana scrub MARI CRUZ DÍAZ ANTUNES BARRADAS *
MARÍA ZUNZUNEGUI GONZÁLEZ *

oñana National Park is composed of two geological for- (Xerophytic sites), on crests of ancient dunes where soil water
D mations: continental detritic deposits of Pliocene age
covered by Holocene aeolian mantels and recent estuarine
table in Summer was deeper than 4 m, and always lies over 3 m
below the soil surface.The community is dominated by Juniperus
deposits of Guadalquivir river. Based on this geological origin three phoenicea, Halimium commutatum, Halimium halimifolium,
main ecological domains are found in the Park: the floodable plain Rosmarinus officinalis and Cistus libanotis. Standing crop is 500
filled with silt deposits, the mobile dunes and the stabilized sands. g/m2 dry weight (SD 250 g/m2). "Monte Negro" (Hygrophytic sites)
The Mediterranean type climate bears with some oceanic located at depressions, where water table in summer rarely lies 1
influence, resulting in milder temperatures (average16.7ºC), higher m below soil surface and temporary flooding of the ground occurs
air moisture and rainfall (540 mm) than further inland. Under this in winter. Plant community is dominated by Erica scoparia, Erica
climate, the mature vegetation of sandy substrate is the ciliaris, Calluna vulgaris, Ulex minor, Myrtus communis and Cistus
Mediterranean woodland, giving way to scrublands and grasslands salvifolius. Standing crop is 2200 g/m2 (SD 500 g/m2). "Monte
if some kind of disturbance or limitative process occurs. Intermedio" is located on the slopes of the dune ridges with water
The history of Doñana well documented since the XIII centu- table depth in transition and no surface flooding. Community is
ry, recorded the sandy areas covered by woodlands dominated by dominated by Halimium halimifolium and Ulex australis and stand-
Quercus suber, with Arbutus unedo, Myrtus communis and ing crop attains 1300 g/m2 (SD 350 g/m2)71,72 (Figure 1)
Pistacia lentiscus and several species of vines on the humid areas, The sandy soils of Doñana exhibit a low field capacity (13%
Juniperus phoenicea on the dry elevated ground, and Juniperus w/w)76.This implies that plants from the elevated areas have almost
oxycedrus closer to the littoral. no water available during the summer period, while plants from
The destruction of natural vegetation by falling and overgraz- depressions can reach water from the water table the whole year.
ing helped setting in motion the sand mantles largely destroying We were interested to find out how the scrub species stand the
the natural vegetation and even the deeper layers of the organic summer drought conditions under a brilliant sun and a quartz sand
soil profile.Ancient woodlands gave way to scrublands that follow that reflects as much as 30% of incoming radiation. The seasonal
the topography and only remains as isolated spots generally variation of some physiological variables in permanent plants of
around a discharge area of the underground aquifer, survived to the dominant species of xerophytic and hygrophytic communities
the present day. has been monitored seasonality79. Leaf water potential, as a meas-
Three main types of scrub communities are now found on the ure of the water status of the plant, and maximum photochemical
stabilized sands depending on water table depth: "Monte Blanco" efficiency, an indirect measure of photosynthesis and a global phys-

* University of Seville. Spain.

FIGURE 1

Seasonal variation of
groundwater table
depth and approximate
location of main species
of the xerophytic and
hygrophytic communi-
ties in the studied area.

221
 TABLE 1
Leaf water potential of the main scrub species in the xerophytic and hygrophytic areas during the study period.

COMMUNITY SPECIES NOV-98 FEB-99 MAY-99 SEP-99 NOV-99

Rosmarinus officinalis -2.0 -1.8 -1.8 -11.3 -1.8
Juniperus phoenicea -1.8 -1.7 -1.9 -10.6 -1.9
Cistus libanotis -2.0 -2.0 -1.8 -14.6 -1.9
XEROPHYTIC Lavandula stoechas -1.5 -1.4 -1.7 -3.7 -1.4
Halimium commutatum -1.8 -1.9 -2.2 -4.3 -1.7
Halimium halimifolium -1.6 -1.7 -1.7 -4.0 -1.8
Stauracanthus genistoides -1.4 -1.2 -1.3 -1.7 -1.5
Ulex australis -1.4 -1.1 -1.4 -2.7 -1.5
Halimium halimifolium -1.5 -1.1 -1.6 -3.7 -1.5
HYGROPHYTIC Cistus salvifolius -3.0 -2 -2.4 -9.0 -1.7
Myrtus communis -1.8 -1.3 -1.8 -2.5 -2.0
Pistacia lentiscus -1.8 -1 -2.0 -4.7 -1.8
Erica scoparia -1.9 -1.6 -2.3 -4 -1.9

iological index of the plant, were selected as the significant physi- angle and some others physiological mechanisms79. In summer the
ological variables. Leaf water potential presents always negative maximum photochemical efficiency for other species is correlated
values, and maximum photochemical efficiency shows an optimal with the leaf water status of the species, but in winter although all
range between 0.8-0.85. plants present an optimal water status some woodland species,
On dune crests where summer conditions are harsher, some from the depressed areas, showed signs of photoinhibition (pho-
species as Cistus libanotis, Rosmarinus officinalis and Juniperus tochemical efficiency decrease) (Figure 2). Myrtus communis, a
phoenicea suffered a severe water stress (leaf water potential sclerophyll species from the lower areas, presented very low val-
lower than -10 MPa that is a sign of a conspicuous water stress). ues of maximum photochemical efficiency (35% from the opti-
Other species exhibited a moderate decrease of leaf water poten- mum) even though water supply to roots was plentiful this is
tial, with values not lower than -3 MPa as Halimium halimifolium, probably due to cold stress as winter air temperatures in scrub
but the legume species Stauracanthus genistoides did not show may approach freezing point for several days79. In clear winter days
signs of water stress at the end of summer (-1.7 MPa). On the light irradiation in Doñana may be high (1500 μmoles·m-2·s-1 in
depressions almost all the species did not present signs of water clear days), but temperatures were too low for the photosynthet-
stress, except for the small shrub Cistus salvifolius that suffered ic apparatus and thus plant activity decreases. If these conditions
the lowest values of leaf water potential (-8.9 MPa) and a signifi- continue for a long time leaves turn red and they can even be shed
cant leaf shedding (Table 1). H. halimifolium plants present optimal of.
values of their photochemical efficiency the whole year, due the From the evolutionary point of view sclerophyll species belong
leaf pubescence that increases leaf reflectance, the control of leaf to taxa evolved in the Tertiary (pre-Pliocene), under a tropical type

FIGURE 2

Seasonal variations of maximal photochemical

efficiency (Fv/Fm) for all the study species in the
xerophytic area and the hygrophytic area.
Summer time represents the stress period for the
xerophytic vegetation underlined by a drop in
photochemical efficiency.

222
climate before the quaternary glaciations and thus they are more FIGURE 3
sensitive to cold winter days. Relative importance of the plant strategies described in the xerophytic and
hygrophytic areas.
An attribute x species matrix was analysed by a cluster analy-
HYGROPHYTIC SITE
sis to sort out groups related to each one of these strategies.The
results are plot in Figure 3. On the xerophytic community the
main plant strategy (74% of relative importance) is formed by
species that withstand harsh summer conditions, without active
control mechanisms (sufferers), showing unusual values for their
physiological variables (summer leaf water potential of -11 MPa
for Rosmarinus officinalis and -13 MPa for Cistus libanotis), but
they recover very fast after the first autumn rains. On the hygro- Pistacia lentiscus Cistus salvifolius

phytic community the main plant strategy (73% of relative impor-

tance) is formed by species that maintain moderate values (con-
trollers) of their physiological variables (being Erica scoparia the
most representative species).
Wild fires are a common disturbance in Mediterranean Myrtus communis Stauracanthus genistoides
ecosystems. Scrub species from Doñana sands regenerate after
fire either by seed germination (seeders) or by resprouting from
below ground organs (resprouters). These strategies are closely
tied with physiological and morphological attributes77. Lamiaceae
and Cistaceae from the xerophytic areas are obligate seeders and
they experience the lowest leaf water potentials in summer, and
Controllers 72.4% Sufferers 6.7%
their leaf tissues are less sensitive to water stress, while Erica and
Legumes 15.3% Cold stress 5.6%
woodland species from the depressions are deep-rooted or pos-
XEROPHYTIC SITE
sess underground organs and they are resprouters.
In the case of Doñana the destruction of the former organic
soils has transformed the succession after fire in a process of
autosuccession74, because most of the species are present since
the first stages and the successional process does nor occur as a
species substitution.
Halimium halimifolium, a species of the Cistaceae family, is the
dominant species of the scrub of the Monte Intermedio areas on
the stabilized sands, it does not resprout after fire, being an obli- Ulex australis Cistus libanotis

gate seeder. Its seedlings germinate very well with the autumn or
winter rains after fire on the whole topographic gradient on the
stabilized sands. Martin Vicente75 has studied the succession after
fire on Doñana sands and has shown that in the first year after fire
the relative importance of this species is around 90% in both ele-
Halimium halimifolium
vated and depressed areas. It remained with an average figure of
50% on the slopes of Monte Intermedio, but decreases to 10% in
the previous areas after several years post-fire.
H. halimifolium also spreads easily on the surface of dry ponds
during drought periods, but as this species does not tolerate
flooding all individuals will die during a new wet period. This
process originates lateral movements of plant communities, as a
Sufferers 74.1% Legumes 4.1%
result of fluctuation in the phreatic level.Although changes in the
Controllers 21.8%
water regime may originate irreversible changes of plant commu-

223
 nities towards a more xerophytic community, like it has been contained 75% of water from dry weight 77% was composed by
described in the Brezo pond closed to the pumping area of non structural sugars and 8% by lipids and proteins73.The fruits are
Matalascañas tourist resort78. consumed by a number of vertebrates during the summer (rab-
H. halimifolium also withstands a moderate browsing from bits, foxes, wild boars, seagulls) and probably contribute to animals'
cattle and deers mainly in the more humid areas as the border of water balance during the dry season.
ponds and the ecotone between the sands and the Marsh. Field observations and laboratory experiments have shown
Browsing stimulate lateral growth through axyllary meristems. that animals´ consumption favours seed germination68.
This species was subjected to stimulated and natural browsing in Germination occurs after the autumn rains although 99.9% of the
the stabilized sands. In a drier area without herbivores, plants were seedlings die during the next summer.
subjected to different intensities of clipping and were compared Detailed studies on the ecology of Doñana Mediterranean
with control plants. In a more humid area with high herbivore scrubs reveals a surprising diversity of physiological mechanisms
pressure, control plants were isolated using cages.The experiment to stand adverse conditions taking advantage of favourable peri-
showed that biomass removal caused by herbivores has an ods. Each environmental tesela tends to reward the presence of
enhancing effect on shoot growth. some plant characters while punishing others, thus selecting the
On the mobile dune system, especially in the inland fronts and local composition of plant communities.
as isolated plants on the top of the stabilized sands an endemic As short and long-term interactions overlap, what is left is a
species of the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula is found. most diverse occurrence of shrub species, which will change end-
Corema album is a dioecious shrub up to 1 m, densely branched lessly in response to climate change, wildfires and human interac-
from the base, with persistent ericoid leaves. tions.
Fruits are white or pink-white berries (5-8 mm diameter). Fruits and leaves, nectar and pollen, roots and plant debris all
Flowering and fruiting occur from February to August, but fruits contribute to consumers and decomposes thus maintaining the
can be found until November or December. Fruit production is trophic network that supports the extraordinary biodiversity of
high ranging from 4.000 to 13.000 fruits/m2 of plant cover. They Doñana.

Corema album is an endemic shrub of de coastal dunes of Portugal and Atlantic Spain, in Galicia and Western Andalusia. In the picture, a female plant showing
the large number of fleshy round fruits, like pearls, sharply contrasting with the deep green colour of leaves. The twisted stem, sticking from the ground, recalls a
long history of the plant alternatively engulfed by wandering sands and eroded by strong winds.
Photograph by Leonor Alvarez in Asperillo cliffs, Doñana Nature Park.

224
Freshwater algae RAMÓN MARGALEF *

of Doñana

I n recent years, the Doñana Biological Reserve, on the

right hand bank of the Guadalquivir River, next to the sea,
has attracted the converging interest of naturalists and has
tions prevent ecosystems from either becoming too complicat-
ed or from stagnating. Marshes are maintained in a dynamic
state, or, if you prefer, they are stabilised on a fluctuating
become a paradigm for other, equally endangered wetlands regime, by the very mechanism of fluctuation and exploitation,
(the Ebro Delta, for example). Until recently, high mountains governed fundamentally by the physical environment.
and marshlands were the only systems that had not suffered Temporary accumulations of biomass mean that much of the
direct and intense human pressure and we now cling to the transfer of energy at the upper end of the food chain is
illusion that can conserve something of their disappearing attained in the form of detritus, with the intervention of bac-
primitive nature.The dangers overshadowing these ecosystems teria, with little of this energy being harnessed, or it is based on
are many and varied, but they can be summed up in the word the mobility and activity of animals, like birds, that can exploit
"development". Tourists from countries that have obtained a large areas. These systems are relatively easy to conserve and
certain level of local protection, in their countries, can be par- even to reconstruct; they do not require so many years for this
ticularly destructive. as the more complex, more internalised systems, which can be
Fluctuations in the environment are characteristic of described as more mature. Regulating water flows is a serious
marshy areas. Unpredictability is essential for the life of marsh- threat and all drainage works or works that lead to a variation
es, which suffer in their essence if we try to regulate them. in salinity can affect the Marshes.
Their most characteristic organisms are opportunists, defend- The characteristics of the waters of Doñana include a lack
ed by the same irregularity of the living conditions, with little of stability and the continual fluctuations that explain, in part,
water some years and too much water in others.These varia- their high productivity. This is the same principle that the
monks of the Middle Ages learned when they first started
* This chapter has been included as a tribute to its author, Spain's leading ecologist, breeding carp in pools and they would leave these ponds dry
who died in 2004. The work reproduced here was published in Oecologia Aquatica, 2:
72-93, in November 1976. The authors of this publication are grateful for having been
from time to time.At this time, we do not have any exact data
authorised for reproducing this article. on production values, which are indirectly recognised as high.
The interest of the ponds as dynamic temporary residences or
the habitats for creatures at the end of one stage in life should
also be pointed out.They have been highly effective for distrib-
uting a large number of aquatic animals, especially diaptomids
and ostracods.The aquatic vegetation of flowering plants is also
interesting, although here, I will only mention the presence of
Wolffia (Punta Umbría).
In a series of visits to Doñana, made by different people
from the Department of Ecology of the University of
Barcelona (Marta Estrada, María Rosa Miracle, the team
charged with studying Spanish reservoirs, and myself), a certain
number of samples of water and aquatic organisms have been
collected. These samples were not collected systematically;
they were collected randomly from wherever the researchers
happened to be. Having said that, without spending too much
effort on searching for rarities, an examination of the material
Chlorophyceae of genus Spirogyra with their characteristic ribbon-like has easily produced a list of some 300 species that form the
chloroplast rolled into a spiral.
substance of these pages.

225
 Many of these species are common species to be found to the high alkalinity of the waters. Paradoxically, they are also
almost anywhere, but many of them had still not been report- very rich in phosphorous and metals, despite the high oxygen
ed on Mainland Spain, which is not saying very much as very lit- concentration and pH. The nitrogen/phosphorous relation is
tle research has been done in this field in the past. The local extremely low, which can be associated with the periodic
diversification of communities is of certain interest.The ponds development of cyanophyceae, including some very interesting
behind a row of dunes contain plankton with an abundance of ones (Anabaenopsis). In the sediment of ponds there is an
organisms that are siderophile to a varying abundance of silica remains of organisms, such as fresh water
degree, such as Trachelomonas, and sponge spicules, chrysophyceae cysts
other euglenal algae or xantho- (so-called chrysostomataceae) and
phyceae. A more banal flora is to be diatom valves. Moreover, in other
found in the flood waters, with a good ponds, there have been observations
number of diatoms and filamentous of recent deposits of silica on
algae that develop in pulses. The plank- Tribonema filaments and dead
ton in all these waters, in general, is diatom valves, obliterating their
characteristically formed of very small structure. The presence of iron and
elements (nano-plankton) that indi- manganese is evident from the abun-
cates, at the very least, an extreme reac- dance of organisms that precipitate
tivity of the populations, which are capa- these elements in shells
ble of rapidly increasing in a mere few (Trachelomonas), membranes
days. (Oedogonium, Closterium,
Taken as a whole, when all these Tribonema) and sheaths (mainly bac-
species and communities are compared teria).
with those described from other Non quantitative samples of algae
regions of Spain, based on the many were available, collected in small tubes
tables published, often with the name of and preserved in formol, and some
an association or a higher education water samples fixed with lugol. These
centre, in accordance with the customs latter samples have been used for the
of plant sociologists, they fall into the counts presented in table 2, which give
category of communities grouped under an idea of the plankton (nano-plankton)
the name of Tribonemion to be found in the ponds. Analyses of
(Tribonemetum siderophilum in stag- the other samples have made it possible
nant waters, Eunotieto-Fragilarietum in to prepare lists of communities, with an
flowing waters) with a series of highly estimate of the relative abundance,
characteristic components. These include expressed by means of a notation applied
species of Tribonema and other xantho- with personal criteria, from 1 (scarce) to
phyceae, Oedogonium, Bulbochaete, 5 (very abundant). Different lists from the
Eunotia pectinalis, Apiocystis, a variety of same place and date have been merged,
euglenal algae, etc. The influence of the and similar communities have been
salinity is less pronounced than we grouped together in tables, which can be
expected, it can only be seen in the distri- considered representatives of these kinds
bution of Nodularia, Cylindrotheca and of communities (tables 3 to 6). In order to
other diatoms of the genera Nitzschia, Chaetoceros, keep the lists manageable, the rarest species, or those with a
Campylodiscus, etc. very limited presence, have been left out. Table 3 includes the
Unfortunately, no further information was gathered on the most permanent ponds, containing richer life forms; table 4
characteristics of the waters sampled in the visit of January includes the more stable and the poorer ponds; table 5
1973, and the information gathered was only partial. These includes flowing waters and table 6 the flood waters, shallow
waters are very rich in silica, which remains in solution thanks pools and marshes.

226
 TABLE 1
Some characteristics of the waters of several Doñana ponds, according to samples taken on January 28th 1973. One or more samples from each pond.

TORO TARAJE ZAHILLO GRANDE SANTA OLALLA

Temperature, ºC 10.7 9.7-9.8 9.4 9.05-9.22

Oxygen, ml O2/l 8.0 7.80-8.41 8.04-8.79 7.70 7.80-8.54
pH 8.7-9.3 8.6-9.2 8.0-9.3 7.8 8.4-9.4
Alcalinity, meq./l 2.48 2.10-2.17 0.91-0.93 1.65 3.65 , 3.67 , 3.75
SiO4 μg-at Si/l 92.33-95.09 106.12-121.85 304.50 345.44 , 363.44 , 388.81
NO3 μg-at N/l 0.32-0.60 0.22-0.52 1.89 1.08 , 1.74 , 1.84
NO2 μg-at N/l 0.03-0.05 0.02-0.03 0.61 0.49 , 0.55 , 0.58
PO4 μg-at P/l 2.15-2.28 2.31-2.49 9.93 9.89 , 10.64 , 10.78
Chlorophyll, mg/m3 1.29 2.55 1.34 127.80 82.75 , 92.30 , 112.39
Pigment diversity index D430/D665 2.23 2.42 2.15 2.24 2.43-2.50

TABLE 2
Composition of phytoplankton in some of the Doñana ponds. The figures represent the number of cells per ml; in some cases (cyanophyceae and bacteria)
the length of the filaments per ml; they may also indicate the number of colonies per ml. The category "other species" lists the species present in densities of
less than 10 cells/ml.

Laguna del Toro, 30-XII-1968 Laguna del Toro, 28-I-1973

(Bacteria, 500,000-800,000/ml)
Trachelomonas oblonga 27,600 Microcystis aeruginosa 73,600
Actinastrum hantzschii" 23,320 Selenastrum minutum 40,500
Chlorella sp." 6,220 Ankistrodesmus falcatus 22,900
Aphanocapsa elachista 5,125 Scenedesmus quadricauda 19,600
Trachelomonas volvocina 3,040 Chlorella sp. 12,900
Scenedesmus opoliensis 1,545 Scenedesmus falcatus 6,450
Scenedesmus falcatus 1,466 Chroococcus dispersus 5,160
Ankistrodesmus falcatus 667 Sc. quadricauda maximus 2,310
Trachelomonas intermedia 614 Cylindrotheca gracilis 1,680
Fragilaria capucina 614 Tetraedron trigonum 1,550
Phacus pusillus 480 Trachelomonas volvocina 1,162
Euglena sp. 240 Scenedesmus opoliensis 1,033
Phacus psudonordstedtii 160 Flagelados pequeños 1,033
Fragilaria construens 107 Navicula sp. (cf. protracta) 905
Scenedesmus denticulatus 107 Tetraedron caudatum 905
Cryptomonas erosa 95 Nitzschia sp. 905
Cylindrotheca gracilis 50 Chlamydmonas sp. 516
Diploneis elliptica 27 Pediastrum boryanum 516
Anomoeoneis sphaerophora 27 Trachelomonas oblonga 387
Amphora ovalis 27 Fragilaria construens 254
Nitzschia sp. 27 Trachelomonas intermédia 254
Phacus pusillus 129
Gymnodinium sp. 129
Other species: Merismopedia tenuissima, Chroococcus limneticus, Navicula sp. 129
Scenedesmus quadricauda, Tetraedron caudatum, Anabaenopsis tan- Chryptomonas sp. 129
ganykae, Chlamydomonas, Navicula cuspidata ambigua, Euglena sp., Eunotia pectinalis 129
Synedra unita. Synedra ulna 129
Lyngbya limnetica 539 mm
Spirulina labyrinthiformis 3 mm
Pinnularia microstauron 129
Amphora sp. 129

Laguna del Taraje, 30-XII-1968 Laguna de Santa Olalla, 30-XII-1968

Cymbella sp. 258 Anabaenopsis tanganykae(12,750 colonies) 140,300

Navicula sp. 129 A. tang. Recta 12,300
Nitzschia sp 129 Microcystis aeruginosa 21,360
Bacterias filamentosas 1,152 mm
Aphanotece clathrata (241 colonies) 15,400
Other species: Navicula cuspidata ambigua, Gyrosigma sp., iron oxide Pediastrum boryanum 640
bacteria. Pediastrum duplex 240
Scenedesmus acutus (+falcatus) 187
Scenedesmus quadricauda 107
Merismopedia punctata 107
Pediastrum tetras 107
Navicula cuspidata ambigua 80
Legerheimia wratislaviensis 53
Oocystis sp. 53
Glenodinium sp 53
Elakotothrix gelatinosa 27
Cyclotella sp. 27
Nitzschia sp. 27
Surirella ovata 27

227
 Laguna Dulce, 30-XII-1968 El Chorrito, 31-XII-1968

Scenedesmus quadricauda 534 Synedra rumpens 1,001

Pediastrum boryanum 426 Chlorella sp. 213
Navicula sp. 267 Trachelomonas volvocina 93
Trachelomonas volvocina 187 Nitzschia sp. 93
Cyclotella sp. 160 Eunotia pectinalis 93
Thalassiosira fluviatilis 133 Closterium kuetzingii 80
Scenedesmus opoliensis 107 Synedra acus 53
Anabaenopsis tanganykae (80 colonies) 880 Gomphonema sp. 53
Nitzschia sp. Cyclotella sp. 80 Cyclotella sp. 27
Ankistrodesmus falcatus 53 Closterium moniliferum 27
Phacus raciborskii 27 Synedra ulna 27
Lepocinclis ovum 27 Lyngbya maior 8 mm
Cryptomonas erosa 27
Saelenastrum capricornutum 27 Other species: Trachelomonas orenburgica, Trachelomonas verrucosa,
Synedra acus 27 Cryptomonas reflexa, Rhodomonas sp., Gonyostomum sp., Staurastrum pedun-
culatum, Euglena sp., Navicula radiosa, Pinnularia sp., Zygnema sp., Mougeotia
Navicula cuspidata 27
sp., Spirogyra sp., Nitzschia tryblionella, Ankistrodesmus falcatus, Closterium sp.
Cosmarium laeve 27
Eunotia pectinalis 27
Melosira varians 27
Amphora ovalis pediculus 27
Pinnularia sp. 27
Acromatium oxaliferum (bacteria) 27

Other species: Tribonema angustissimum, Rhopalodia gibba, Synedra

ulna, Navicula cryptocephala, Pediastrum clathratum, Phacus pyrum.

TABLE 3
Communities of algae rich in species, with siderophile organisms, typical of longer lasting stagnant waters.
Acebuche Matalascañas, XII - 68

Acebuche Matalascañas, XII - 68

Laguna de Santa Olalla, XII-68

Laguna de Santa Olalla, XII-68

Laguna de Santa Olalla, I-73

Laguna de Santa Olalla, I-73

Laguna del Zahillo, XII-68

Laguna del Zahillo, XII-68

Laguna del Taraje, XII-68

Laguna del Taraje, XII-68

Laguna del Zahillo, I -73

Laguna del Zahillo, I -73

Charco del Toro, XII-68

Charco del Toro, XII-68

Laguna Grande, XII-68

Laguna Grande, XII-68

Laguna del Taraje, I-73

Laguna del Taraje, I-73

Charco del Toro, I-73

Charco del Toro, I-73

Laguna Dulce, XII-68

Laguna Dulce, XII-68

El Chorrito, XII - 68

El Chorrito, XII - 68
Laguna Dulce, I-73

Laguna Dulce, I-73

Trachelomonas volvocina 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 Scenedesmus abundans 1 1 1
Trachelomonas hispida + 2 1 1 2 Scenedesmus opoliensis 1 1 1
Trachelomonas oblonga 2 1 1 2 1 Scenedesmus ecornis 1 1
Trachelomonas intermedia 1 1 1 Thread bacteria Fe oxide 3 2 2 3 2
Trachelomonas orenburgica 1 1 1 1 1 Mougeotia sp. 1 1 1 2
Trachelomonas scabra 1 1 Caloneis silicicula 1 1 1 2
Trachelomonas stokesiana 1 Cocconeis placentula 2 1 1 1
Trachelomonas sp. 1 1 Amphora veneta 1 3 1 1
Lepocinclis ovum 1 1 2 1 Stauroneis phoenicenteron 1 1 1 1
Phacus pl. sp. 1 1 2 1 1 1 Lyngbya limnetica 3 1 4 4 3
Ankistrodesmus falcatus 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 Microcystis aeruginosa 2 1 2 2 4
Navicula sp. pl. 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 Apiocystis brauniana 2 1 1 1 2
Oedogonium sp. pl. 3 2 1 3 3 1 2 2 1 Pinnularia microstauron 1 2 2 1 2
Cymbella sp. 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 Ophiocytium majus 1 1 1 1 1
Eunotia pectinalis 1 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 Navicula dicephala 1 1 1
Pinnularia viridis 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 Amphora ovalis pediculus 3 1 1
Amphora ovalis 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 Nitzschia hungarica 1 1 1
Synedra rumpens 1 1 3 3 2 3 3 Fragilaria construens 1 3 1 1
Nitzschia sp. pl. 3 2 2 1 1 2 Nitzschia amphibia 1 3 1 1
Nitzschia clausi 1 2 2 1 1 1 Stauroneis anceps 2 1 1 2
Navicula cuspidata ambigua 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Selenastrum minutum 2 2 2 2
Eunotia lunaris 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 Pinnularia major 1 1 1 1
Tribonema minus (+ elegans) 1 1 2 2 2 2 Spirogyra sp. pl. 1 2 4
Tribonema aequale 1 2 2 Bulbochaete sp. 1 1 1 1
Tribonema viride 1 Cosmarium laeve 1 1 1
Gomphonema gracilis 1 2 2 1 1 Colacium vesiculosum 1 1 4
Navicula cryptocephala exilis 3 3 2 1 3 Nitzschia subtilis 1 1 1
Cyclotella meneghiniana 1 1 1 1 1 Synedra ulna 2 1 1
Pediastrum boryanum 1 1 1 1 1 2 Monallantus sp. 1 1 1
Achnanthes minutissima 1 1 1 2 1 2 Diploneis elliptica 1 1 1
Scenedesmus quadricauda 1 2 3 2 2 Tetraedron minimum scrobiculatum 1 1 1 1
Scenedesmus quadricauda var. maximus 1 2 2 1 1 Epithemia zebra saxonica 1 1
Scenedesmus falcatus 2 1 1 1 1 Anomoeneis sphaerophora 1 1
S. quadrispina 2 2 1 1 2 Fragilaria capucina 3 1 1

228
 Acebuche Matalascañas, XII - 68

Acebuche Matalascañas, XII - 68

Laguna de Santa Olalla, XII-68

Laguna de Santa Olalla, XII-68

Laguna de Santa Olalla, I-73

Laguna de Santa Olalla, I-73

Laguna del Zahillo, XII-68

Laguna del Zahillo, XII-68

Laguna del Taraje, XII-68

Laguna del Taraje, XII-68

Laguna del Zahillo, I -73

Laguna del Zahillo, I -73

Charco del Toro, XII-68

Charco del Toro, XII-68

Laguna Grande, XII-68

Laguna Grande, XII-68

Laguna del Taraje, I-73

Laguna del Taraje, I-73

Charco del Toro, I-73

Charco del Toro, I-73

Laguna Dulce, XII-68

Laguna Dulce, XII-68

El Chorrito, XII - 68

El Chorrito, XII - 68
Laguna Dulce, I-73

Laguna Dulce, I-73

Staurodesmus dejectus 1 1 1 Spirogyra perforans 1 2
Surirella ovata 1 1 Tetraspora gelatinosa 5 1
Epithemia sorex 1 1 Cymbella affinis 1 2
Synedra acus radians 1 1 2 Pinnularia brauni 1 1
Merismopedia punctata 1 1 1 Phormidium fragile 1 2
Dinobryon sertularia 1 2 1 Melosira granulata 1 1
Oocystis solitaria 1 1 1 Epithemia turgida 1 1
Cylindrospermum stagnale 1 2 Diploneis ovalis 1 1
Chrysostomataceae 1 2 Phormidium tenue 1 1
Cladophora fracta 5 Nitzschia spectabilis 1 1
Navicula hungarica 1 3 Closterium aciculare 1 1
Anabaenopsis tanganykae 5 1 Cystodinium cornifax 1 1
Zygnema sphaericum 5 1 Tetradesmus wisconsinensis 1 1
Anisonema acinum 2 1 Nitzschia sigmoidea 1 1
Gomphonema abbreviatum? 2 2 Glenodinium dybowski 1 1
Cosmarium humile 1 2 Closterium moniliferum 1
Pleurotaenium ehrenbergi 1 2 Closterium leiblenii 1

TABLE 6
Communities relatively poor in species in unsta-
ble waters (Marshes).

Close to Leo Biaggi laboratory, III-71

TABLE 4 TABLE 5

Guadalquivir Marshes, XII-68

Communities of algae poor in species, in Communities of algae with siderophile

Lucio del Palacio, XII-68

Lucio del Palacio, III-71
unstable stagnant waters. Elevated persist- species in flowing waters.

HInojos Marsh, III-71

ence of silica remains.

Guadiamar, III-71
Rocío.V-71L. Duna V-71
Caño Aulaga, XI - 68
Navazo Toro, XII-68

Cylindrospermum stagnale 1 1 2 1 2
Detrás Duna,V-71

Navicula sp. pl. 1 3 3 1 1

L.. Brezo, I-71

Ojillo, XII, 68

Oedogonium sp. pl
L. Duna V-71

1 2 1 2
Rocío.V-71

Spirogyra sp. pl. 1 4 5 1

Anabaena scheremetievi 1 1 1
Navicula cuspidata ambigua 1 1 1 1
Crisostomatáceas, restos cistes 1 1 2 3 2 Eunotia pectinalis 3 2 2 Navicula lanceolata 1 1 1 1
Eunotia pectinalis 2 1 1 2 Melosira varians 3 2 Lyngbya limnetica 1 3 1 1
Pinnularia viridis 1 1 1 1 Tribonema elegans 4 2 Nitzschia sp. pl. 3 2 1 2
Synedra rumpens 2 1 1 3 Tribonema vulgare 3 3 Rhopalodia gibba 3 2
Nitzschia sp. 1 1 1 Tribonema viride 4 2 Gyrosigma acuminatum 2 1 1
Synedra ulna + 1 1 Oedogonium sp. pl. 3 2 3 Mitzschia spectabilis 1 1 1
Navicula sp. 2 1 4 Spirogyra sp. pl. 2 1 5 Surirella ovata 1 1 1
Gomphonema gracile 1 1 2 Spirogyra ellipsospora 3 Anomoeoneis sphaerophora 1 1
Gomphonema parvulum 3 1 1 Pinnularia viridis 1 1 Navicula cryptocephala exilis 2 2 2
Mougeotia sp. 2 1 Ophiocytium maius 1 1 1 Nitzschia hungarica 1 1 1
Oedogonium sp. 1 3 Synedra ulna 4 3 Epithemia sorex 1 1
Scenedesmus falcatus 1 1 Bacterias precip. Fe 5 3 Amphora ovalis 1 1 1
Nitzschia clausi 2 1 Nitzschia sp. 1 1 Cymbella sp. 1 1 1
Lyngbya limnetica 4 3 Synedra acus 1 1 Crisostomatáceas, cistes 1 1 2
Microcystis aeruginosa 5 1 Synedra acus radians 1 2 Amphora veneta 1 1 1
Spirogyra sp. pl. 2 2 Mougeotia sp. 2 1 Zygnema sp. 1 5 2
Microcoleus steentrupi 3 Closterium kuetzingii 1 2 Botrycoccus braunii 2
Eunotia lunaris 1 2 Apiocystis brauniana 2 1 Ulothrix sp. 2
Tribonema minus 1 2 Bulbochaete sp. 1 1 Nitzschia obtusa 3 1
Navicula popula 1 1 Cosmarium laeve 1 1 Eunotia pectinalis 2 1
Pinnularia brauni amphicephala 4 Synedra rumpens 2 2 Nostoc sphaericum 1 2
Zygnema sp. 3 Gomphonema acuminatum 1 1 Apiocystis brauniana 1 1
Spirogyra communis 3 Nitzschia spectabilis 1 Stauroneis anceps 1 1
Tribonema aequale 2 Diploneis elliptica 1 Tetraspora gelatinosa 5
Colacium vesciculosum 2 Stauroneis phoenicenteron 2 Nitzschia tryblionella 2
Pinnularia gibba 2 Gomphonema gracile 2 Nitzschia lorenziana 2
Scenedesmus quadricauda + var. maximus 2 Ankistrodesmus falcatus 1 1 Colacium vesiculosum 3
Cylindrospermum stagnale 2 Cyclotella meneghiniana 1 1 Epithemia turgida 2
Lyngbya aeurugineocoerulea 2 Microcoleus, 2 sp. 3 Cladophora fracta
Stauroneis phoenicenteron 1 1 Gomphonema constrictum cap. 2 Lyngbya maior 2
Oscillatoria formosa 2 Cosmarium vexatum 1 Gomphosphaeria
Phormidium foveolarum 2 lacustrisCosmarium botrytis
Hantzschia amphioxis 2

229
Mallard (Anas platyrhynhos) in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
Birds and Hunting JOSÉ ANTONIOVALVERDE *

only ceasing to be so as I write (in 1973), with the enactment of the

Doñana National Park Use and Management Master Plan...
It is a shame that no documental data remains - as far as we
know - on what hunting in the marshes was like for the ordinary
people. The towns that have lived in close association with the
marshes were those of the eastern bank (Los Palacios, Lebrija,
Trebujena) and those overlooking the river, particularly Coria, La
Puebla and Sanlúcar de Barrameda.The kinds of hunting that took
place must be based on what we know happened last century, and
which is probably also true for the last four centuries.
Bronze plaque, the work of Jose Manuel Diaz Cerpa, as a tribute to Jose The most important use of the marshes must undoubtedly
Antonio Valverde. Valverde was a basic reference for Doñana, as he is con-
sidered the father of most of the initiatives that led to the conservation of
have been the collection of eggs in spring and of coot and duck
this space. He was the founder of the Doñana Biological Station, he pub- chicks in the early summer.The people of the marshes even had to
lished books and articles helping lay the foundations for its conservation,
as well as creating the National Park, of which he was the first Curator
invent a special kind of boat for this, the "cajon", a flat bottomed,
Director. very narrow, very sharp, doubled ended type of punt designed to
open the way through bulrush patches in shallow water. Leaning on
here are a few places in the world, all situated in the two poles, used for propulsion, collectors could move as fast as a
T mouths of large rivers in the temperate zone, that have
always attracted vast flocks of birds that move between the polar
game-keeper on horseback, who could not catch him when the
waters were up to its hocks. Moreover, a "cajon" could be hidden
regions and the tropics.The banks of some of these deltas saw the almost anywhere if necessary.
birth of fabulous nations: the civilisations of the Tigris and the Hundreds of thousands of eggs were collected every year in the
Euphrates, the Nile delta, the Guadalquivir and the Tartessos.These early 20th century, by two teams that supplied the Sanlúcar market.
deltas have also been magnets attracting men, in search of the Each team was made up of half a dozen men, each with a "cajon"
excitement of hunting and relaxation inspired by an open horizon. punt, hunting for eggs beyond Las Nuevas, where they set up their
The great open plains of the Guadalquivir Marshes, where the river headquarters.All kinds of eggs were collected, but mainly the eggs
broadens to a width of several miles, is one of these privileged of the coot (Fulica atra), whose floating nests, half covered by a roof
places. of sheep's fescue bent into the nest, held an average of 6-8 eggs. But
As far as hunting is concerned, the lower Guadalquivir has been although these were the most sought after eggs, they also took
a kind of paradise for as long as the records go back.As soon as it eggs from other birds, like the pochard (Aythia ferina), black necked
was taken back from the Moors,Alphonse X settled his huntsmen grebe (Podiceps nigricollis), moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) and
in the Marisma (marsh), who bought lands in what is now Hato black tern (Chlidonias hybridus). On the islets, next to the clutch-
Ratón, then called Mures (which means mice, or "ratones" in es of several species of ducks (mallard, marbled teal, pin tails, etc.),
Spanish).The Lomo de Grullo Royal Hunting Grounds, or "Coto" they could often find the excellent eggs of the avocet
was established in the same area, which was mentioned in the times (Recurvirostra avosetta), black winged stilt (Himantopus himanto-
of the Catholic Monarchs together with Las Rocinas. The bar pus) and lapwing (Vanellus vanellus).The two great colonies of gull-
between the river and the sea and the north western area of the billed tern (Gelochelidon nilotica) were systematically plundered
Marshes have been a hunting grounds for aristocrats ever since, year after year.
For a month, people from Sanlúcar, Lebrija, Trebujena and Los
* This chapter has been included as a tribute to its author, a leading conservationist, Palacios went out collecting eggs, filling their punts with a confus-
researcher and driving force behind Doñana. The text was published in 1973 in the book
entitled "El Río. El Bajo Guadalquivir", published by Grupo 28. The authors of this pub- ing mixture of brown, white, red and green eggs that they later sold
lication would like to thank Grupo 28 for being so kind as to authorise the transcription of
this chapter from their work. in the shops.There are still many people who consider coot eggs

231
 to be far tastier than chicken eggs, and they would buy them with- You could hunt with the "bulla" method almost every day, at
out a second thought if they came onto the market. They were least you could during the time of calm you find at mid morning and
right too, because they really do have an excellent taste and, as in the afternoon when the wind is going to change direction - from
most birds can lay a second clutch, reaping the enormous harvest an off-shore to an on-shore breeze -, cooling the marshes. But
of eggs from the marshes should not have caused any great harm. when the wind made this method impossible, and especially when
These egg collectors could also distinguish incubated eggs from the the water level was low and the panicky swimming of the birds left
fresh ones at a glance - incubated eggs start to show a shine that is a wake of bubbles and sediment from the bottom, or when the
brought out by the contact with the brooding mother as the incu- pollen from the plants covered the water with billions of yellow
bation progresses, and, when necessary, they test them on the spot. spots, marking the tracks of the birds like a map, then the coots
To do this, they cup the egg in the palm of their hand and gently were hunted using what is still called "el rastro", the tracking
submerge it in the water: if the egg remains horizontal, it is fresh, if method.
it turns fat end up, it is starting to For another month, caravans
incubate. A well incubated egg of men and beasts entered the
almost stands on its pointed end, marshes from every side, hunting
and can even float. young coots that, mixed with the
A month after the second egg fresh eggs of the second clutch,
harvest finishes, they started hunt- make an excellent omelette. The
ing coots and ducks. Now the young coot chicks do not suffer
punts were only used for carrying from the problem of the tough-
the cargo, an incredible cargo col- ened leg tendons, as rigid as
lected by the hunters. bones, that make coot legs so dif-
Men and their horses set out ficult as a meal. Boiled, boned and
from every village each day for the served with scrambled eggs, they
marshes to hunt ducks; this was a are delicious.Taken live to the vil-
unique and exciting hunt. There lages and sold in pairs, they soon
were several forms of hunting, but found buyers.
the most important ones were "la How many coot chicks were
bulla" and "el rastro" (tracks). produced by the marshes in a
The "bulla" method was used In the early 20 century, hundreds of thousands of eggs were collected each
th
good year? It is impossible to cal-
year by teams that supplied the Sanlúcar market. Each team was made up of
when there was no wind and the half a dozen men, with a punt each, which set out to collect eggs beyond Las culate. Probably between 250,000
movement of the birds, transmit- Nuevas, where they set up their headquarters. On the islets, together with and 500,000. There is an incredi-
the clutches of several duck species (mallard, marbled teal, pin tails, etc),
ted to the waving stems of the they could find the excellent eggs of the avocet, black-winged stilt and lap- ble density of coots' nests in the
rushes, easily gave away their posi- wing. In the photograph, a black-winged stilt in the Doñana Marshes. marshes. I finally came to really
Photograph: CENEAM Files.
tion.A family of coots surprised by understand this when erudite
a hunter approaching on horseback or on foot, would fan out in men of science with years of experience told me that they had
their flight and after a short "race" over the water. "Ahí va la bulla" found that this was the most productive biotope known to man in
shouts the hunter: they would dive under the water and hold on shallow fresh waters.The coots, which transformed the grass of the
with their long toes.There they would be found, where the noise bottom into a rich protein, harnessed this wealth directly before
stopped, rolled in a ball with the silver colour of the air around being passed on to the towns of the marshes, for which the
their grey feathers. Marshes had always been the main supplier of meat. Used rational-
The men went out hunting in groups, with their animals fitted ly, the Marshes, with their coots and ducks, would have remained
with large panniers in which the "gallaretos" (large coot chicks) and the most profitable per hectare meat producing zone ever in
"mancon", or crippled ducks (i.e. they could not fly as their wing Andalusia. But it was destroyed by a few short sighted and selfish
feathers were changing) were thrown, tied together in pairs. The men.
teams were often accompanied by poodles, almost always with an The hot summer that dried the pools, saw the arrival of the
eye missing from the evilly aimed pecks of older coots.They were hares from the banks of the marshes. Driven out by the winter
expert hunters that almost doubled the take of a man. floods, the hares returned when the waters dropped, first of all to

232
 With the autumn came hundreds of thousands of ducks and geese from the north, and with the ducks, came the duck hunters: incredible, solitary men who set
out from their villages on horseback, with a gun and a blanket when the October rains started to amass the birds on the "beaches" of the Marshes. In the photo-
graph, a flock of geese flying over Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

the meadows, and later, when the water only remained in channels tary men, who rode out of the villages on horseback, with a gun and
and shallow pools, spreading out everywhere. Good food and a lack a blanket, when the October rains started to accumulate the birds
of enemies guaranteed good breeding and hence the marshes, or at on the "beaches" of the marshes.They used punt guns, "big guns" as
least the higher ground to the north, were full of hares.When they they call them. They made their own powder with a consecrated
started to be exterminated at night, using lamps, the Guardia Civil, formula that is reminiscent of the original musketeers: so many
a rural police for the countryside, stopped the car of a hunter with measure of saltpetre, so many of sulphur and so many of charcoal.
as many as forty hares. It is true that there were lots of them, and They ground this powder in large stone mortars, pounding it with
there would be again if they were left alone. a thick wild olive stick to avoid sparks.They carried the powder in
I think that hunting hares cross country with a motorbike, their bags, slung their gun over their shoulder and off they went
enjoyed so much by the people of the eastern margins of the hunting.
marshes, should be made legal and regulated.After all, it would only They could spend days before they managed to get enough
be a modernisation of a tradition that is probably as old as man's ducks together for a good shot, and enough to make it worth going
encounter with the marshes. I am referring to hunting hares on back to the village to sell their bag. It could rain during the day, with
horseback and with a club, a tradition among the villages of the the rain falling on their large rubber treated ponchos, and it could
marshes, and which started when the first waters packed the ani- rain at night, when they sometimes had to sleep under their horse,
mals together among the islets. I do not think that any local tradi- with the saddle for a pillow. This is what the legend says and,
tion should be killed off by general and uniform laws, and I do not undoubtedly, it was the truth. "I swum across Torre Branch (Brazo
see why greyhounds can hunt, but boys cannot. de la Torre) with the horse to speak to the duck hunter that was
With the arrival of the autumn came hundreds of thousands of on the other side", one told me, relating the story of a day on which
ducks and geese from the north. The Spanish poet Juan Ramón the loneliness and the Marshes got the better of him.
Jiménez pointed them out to his donkey Platero in his famous But there were great days too.When clouds of geese and ducks
book.With the ducks, the duck hunters: these were incredible, soli- had arrived from the north, and when the heavy rains had come

233
 from the south west to flood all the lower part of the marshes,
there were sunny days on which there were crowds of ducks and
duck hunters. Up to three hunters could shoot at the same time
from behind a single horse, one at the hind quarters, another at the
shoulder and a third at the head.Three large bore shotguns as black
as Judas' soul that vomited half a pound of lead among a cloud of
sulphur, leaving the countryside covered with writhing bodies.They
also remember the lucky shots, which are best forgotten now.
Much of the merit of these shots was owed to the training given
to the horse.The horse had to move forward pretending that it was
grazing, with its head down, hiding the man walking behind it in soft
shoes through the freezing water. The horse had to be trained in
summer, getting used to the salvos of gun powder, starting off with The people of the Marshes even had to invent a special kind of boat for
just a few grams of powder in the gun, and then increasing the load, collecting eggs: the "cajon", a punt that was specially designed to open the
way through patches of bulrushes, in the shallow waters. This boat is also
to prepare them for the deafening boom that would explode called a "sornajo" and it could be tied to the tail of a horse that acted as the
around their ears on the day of the hunt. means of propulsion. They were also used for transporting people and
belongings, and sometimes a rough mast and sail were added to cross the
Then they had to carry dozens of the victims, carried in a pan- wetland during the floods. The photograph shows a curious adaptation of
nier that, in turn, they transported to market in Seville or to the a "cajon" in the early 20th century, which has been fitted with a propeller.
Photograph: Archves of Doñana Biological Station.
local markets of the towns and villages.

The duck hunters had their own strange form of accounting that was undoubtedly learned from experience. All ducks were counted in pairs, but a pair did not
necessarily mean two. It was two if they were mallards or pin tails, but three if they were wigeons or shovelers, and four if they were any kind of teal. In the
photograph, a specimen of shoveler duck (Anas clypeata).
Photograph: CENEAM Files.

234
 As far as hunting is concerned, the lower Guadalquivir has always been a kind of paradise, as long as there have been records. They were scarcely re-conquered
from the Moors, when Alphonse X settled his huntsmen in what is now Hato Raton, known as Mures at the time (which means mice, "ratones" in Spanish). In
the same area, the Royal Hunting Grounds of El Lomo del Grullo were established. Centuries later, interest in hunting was replaced by an interest in observing
nature. The Marshes had started to win an international reputation as an area of extraordinary ornithological interest since 1856, when Saunders wrote about
his travels in Spain in The Field.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

These duck hunters had their own, strange form of accounting we spend on importing snails from Morocco now?
that they had obviously learned by experience. All ducks were The platonic contemplation of nature is a recent phenomenon
counted in pairs, but a pair did not necessarily mean two: a pair was in Europe. It probably emerged as a consequence of the Second
two if they were mallards or pintails, but three if they were wigeons World War, which left mankind sick to the stomach of horror and
or shoveler, and four if they were any kind of teal. This yardstick with a new desire for peace of the spirit that could only be found
evened out the shots, because it was not the same thing to wipe out in nature. Moreover, there were several other circumstances:
half a hectare of teals with a shot as it was to bring down a few mal- colour photography had been discovered, and the grand illustrated
lards, or just a few geese. magazines could offer their pages to the photographers that
But it is also true that the large bore duck gun was totally indis- opened the grand book of wildlife and its environment. Moreover,
criminate.The family was back at home awaiting the results, and any the world had become a much smaller place with the impressive
kind of kill, as long as it went into the bag, was counted as a good advances in aviation and the off-road vehicle. Legions of photogra-
shot.When the storks arrived in mid winter, they could get a load phers and film makers set out in search of what the western world
of pink meat by skinning the bodies and cutting off the necks and demanded, and many of them turned their gaze to the mighty River
legs that would betray them. Everything goes into the pot in the vil- Guadalquivir, its marshes and the famous Coto de Doñana that
lages of the Marshes, and I would go as far as to bet that there were forms the upper lip of the mouth of the river.
recipes for stork and flamingo too. The Marshes had started to gain an international reputation as
This is how it was in the immense Marshes for centuries, the an area of extraordinary ornithological interest since 1856, when
cradle of recurring fevers, but also the source of birds and fish Saunders wrote the stories of his travels in Spain in The Field. In
throughout the year.This was the homeland of a few men who lived the following years, the yachts of kings and nobles dropped anchor
there almost from the cradle to the grave. No less than 1,674 in the Guadalquivir, while their owners practised what could be
square kilometres of fishing grounds and bird colonies that bred called scientific hunting, although it was more hunting than science.
ducks, hares, coots and snails. Because collecting snails, an ancestral Thus, the illustrious list of visitors included Prince Rudolph of
rite for man, was of tremendous importance.There were millions Austria, the Duke of Orleans, Lord Lilford - an excellent ornithol-
of snails, (Theba pisana), of different colours on each islet, collect- ogist - and after them, a swarm of egg collectors that discovered
ed by women and children among the reeds up until July or August, and laid waste to the Marshes in the last century and at the begin-
when the white worm starts to kill them. ning of this one (the author is referring to the 19th and 20th cen-
How much does each bunch of reeds produce in snails? And turies).
the Marshes as a whole? Has anyone worked it out? How much do So, with an international reputation, it is hardly surprising that

235
 useful Field Guides was undertaken be a wide circle of Europeans.
This enthusiasm for Nature snow balled and the Marshes, the first
place in Europe that decided to approach conservation with a joint
effort, immediately became a Mecca for Nature Tour Operators.
They came from as far away as the United States from the 60s
onwards, in regular expeditions organised by the Audubon Society.
The Spanish government helped to develop the Marshes for
tourism and for research.
But the most important aspect of the Marshes, even though
both hunting and tourism were important, has been the multiplier
effect. People have come from all over Spain, and from many places
beyond, to photograph the wildlife - an excellent school was creat-
ed here - and to plan scientific and conservationist activities.
Many people now believe that Doñana and its Marshes are an
How many coot chicks could the marshes produce in a good year? It is obligatory visit, as you would visit the Prado Museum, but the truth
impossible to calculate. Probably between 250,000 and 500,000. The densi- is that they are better known than the museum.There is an index
ty of coot nests in the Marshes is truly amazing. In the photograph, a coot.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.
that clearly illustrates the vitality of this issue: the number of hours
that Spanish State Television devotes to it. In this aspect, between
the waters had barely recovered their calm after the world war, the Marshes and the Prado - with an apology for art lovers -, there
when ornithologists started to visit the Marshes, coming in through is just no comparison.
the main gate of Doñana, which Mauricio Gonzalez opened for What really happens is that going out on a Sunday in pursuit of
them.The first expedition, French, arrived in 1952, a few days ahead light and peace in the countryside, or let both of these stream in
of another, Spanish expedition that started an uninterrupted through the little screen, is now a pressing need for society, and this
ornithological work.The first film was made in 1957. oasis of calm waters, with a green sea of waving grasses and a sky
A phenomenon then started for the Marshes that would later in which the only clouds are the birds flying across it, make the
spread to many other places.Through a process of feedback, pho- Marshes - and Doñana - something that we all need at one time or
tographers provided people what they were asking for, and the another.This is the release that we need; to escape, if only for a few
growing interest of these people led to the appearance of zoolog- hours, from the cities that overwhelm use with their overcrowding,
ical tourism - fundamentally ornithological - that with the help of stress and pollution.

Many people consider the Doñana Marshes as an obligatory visit, the same as a visit to the Prado Museum would be, but the truth is that they are much better
known than the museum.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

236
Doñana fish species CARLOS FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO *
threats affecting a community in decline

T he relatively recent origin of the formation, the character-

istics of the climate and the joint effect of winds, tides and
river dynamics have afforded extraordinary environmental hetero-
FIGURE 1
Conservation status of species
found in the National Park of
Doñana and its surroundings.
9%

70%
geneity to the Doñana Ecosystems.The aquatic environment, with
its highly diverse and comprehensive range of permanent and tem-
porary ponds, with or without tidal influence, fresh or hypersaline
waters, isolated or connected, turbid or clear, natural or subject to
intense human activity, is a good example of Doñana's heteroge-
neous nature. Fish have made the most of this heterogeneity and
comprise one of the area's most interesting zoological taxon.Table
Least Concern - Near Threatened (LC-NT) 4
I lists the species found in Doñana and its environs, including those Vulnerables (VU) 30 2%
now extinct. Some of these species complete their entire life cycle Endangered (EN) 1 12%
Critically Endangered (CR) 5
in the area, others only certain stages, and yet others use it only as Extinct (EX) 3 7%
a migratory path between the river and the sea. Diadromous
(migratory) fish species are the most numerous and are divided between highly euryhaline estuarine species (which readily adapt to
into three representative groups: anadromous (which live in the sea salinity changes) and freshwater species, some of which are resist-
and spawn in freshwater), catadromous (which live in freshwater ant to low degrees of salinity. Each group can be subdivided into
and spawn in the sea), and amphidromous (whose movements are indigenous species, most of which are in decline and some already
for trophic and not reproductive purposes). The latter is typical of extinct, and extraordinarily abundant exotic species. Last of all are
juveniles that remain in the estuary during several months to feed the sporadic species caught in the area and which present no
and grow. apparent biological pattern. Most of these species are of marine
Amongst the sedentary fish species, one must distinguish origin and enter the Lower Guadalquivir basin, when freshwater
flow rates are low and tidal inflows are higher.
* Department of Zoology, University of Cordova, Spain. The conservation status of this community varies greatly
(Figure 1). Of the three migratory groups, the anadromous species
present the worst conservation status, with two extinct species,
sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) and shad (Alosa alosa), and two criti-
cally endangered species, sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) and
twaite shad (Alosa fallax). The catadromous and amphidromous
species can be classified as vulnerable.This difference is a clear indi-
cation of the poor conservation status of the riverine habitat. In the
case of the anadromous species, the most complicated stage in
their life cycle - breeding - takes place in the river, whereas the
catadromous and amphidromous species breed in the sea, which is
The Guadalquivir River was dammed in 1930 at the town of Alcalá del a less degraded environment and has a greater capacity to recover
Río, with disastrous effects for the shad and sturgeon whose spawning from human disturbance.
areas were located just upstream from the insurmountable wall. The situa-
tion was seriously exacerbated by intensive fishing at the foot of the dam The conservation status of the sedentary species is also very
during breeding migration periods. The photograph, taken in 1992, shows
poor.The three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus gymnurus) is now
one of the last sturgeons fished in the river.
Photograph by Carlos Fernández Delgado. extinct, whereas the chub (Squalius pyrenaicus) and the killifish
(Aphanius baeticus), recently described as a new species, are on the

237
 TABLE 1
Species found in Doñana National Park and surroundings.

DIADROMOUS SPECIES
ANADROMOUS CATADROMOUS
Sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus Eel, Anguilla anguilla
Sturgeon, Acipenser sturio Thick-lipped grey mullet, Chelon labrosus
Shad, Alosa alosa Thin-lipped mullet, Liza ramada
Twaite shad, Alosa fallax Golden grey mullet, Liza aurata
Leaping mullet, Liza saliens
Flathead mullet, Mugil cephalus
AMPHIDROMOUS
Sardine, Sardina pilchardus Gilthead bream, Sparus aurata
Anchovy, Engraulis encrasicolus Shi drum, Umbrina cirrosa
Africa halfbeak, Hyporhamphus picarti Canary drum, Umbrina canariensis
European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax Meagre, Argyrosomus regius
Spotted sea bass, Dicentrarchus punctatus Transparent goby, Aphia minuta
Bastard grunt, Pomadasys incisus Wedge sole, Dicologoglossa cuneata
Senegal seabream, Diplodus bellottii Senegal Sole, Solea senegalensis
White seabream, Diplodus sargus Sole, Solea vulgaris
Common two-banded seabream, Diplodus vulgaris Bluefish, Pomatomus saltator
Blue butterfish, Stromateus fiatola Blenny, Lipophrys trigloides

SEDENTARY SPECIES
NATIVE SPECIES
Freshwater Estuarine
Barbel, Barbus sclateri Big-scale sand smelt, Atherina boyeri
Chub, Squalius pyrenaicus Black goby, Gobius niger
Moroccan loach, Cobitis paludica Rock goby, Gobius paganellus
Killifish, Aphanius baeticus
Three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus gymnurus
Black-striped pipefish, Syngnathus abaster
Greater pipefish, Syngnathus acus
Common goby, Pomatoschistus microps
Sand goby, Pomatoschistus minutus

EXOTIC SPECIES
Freshwater Estuarine
Goldfish, Carassius auratus Mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus
Carp, Cyprinus carpio
Eastern mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki
Largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides
Pumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus

SPORADIC SPECIES
NATIVE
FRESHWATER
Iberian Nase, Chondrostoma willkommii
Pardilla, Chondrostoma lemmingii
MARINE
European conger, Conger conger Derbio, Trachinotus ovatus
Serpenteel, Ophisurus serpens Mojarra, Diplodus annularis
Lusitanian toadfish, Halobatrachus didactylus Annular seabream, Diplodus puntazzo
Garpike, Belone belone Salema, Sarpa salpa
Small sandeel, Ammodytes tobianus Striped red mullet, Mullus surmuletus
Short-snouted seahorse, Hippocampus hippocampus False scad, Caranx rhonchus
Seahorse, Hippocampus ramulosus , Baillon’s wrasse, Symphodus bailloni
Broad-nosed pipefish, Syngnathus typhle Grey wrasse, Symphodus cinereus
Black-striped pipefish, Syngnathus abaster Five-spotted wrasse, Symphodus roissali
Straightnose pipefish, Nerophis ophidion Ocellated wedge sole, Dicologoglossa hexophthalma
Tompot blenny, Parablennius gattorugine Two-spotted clingfish, Diplecogaster bimaculata
Brown comber, Serranus hepatus Leerfish, Lichia amia
Portuguese sole, Synaptura lusitanica Peacock blenny, Lipophrys pavo
European barracuda, Sphyraena sphyraena Shanny, Lipophrys pholis
Brill, Scophthalmus rhombus Armless snake eel, Dalophis imberbis
Echelus mirus Common torpedo, Torpedo torpedo
Lesser weever, Echiichtys vipera Greater weever, Trachinus draco
Atlantic horse mackerel, Trachurus trachurus

EXOTIC SPECIES
Freshwater
Northern pike, Esox lucius
Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss
Extinct species in the zone Species found in the National Park

238
verge of extinction. Threatened by the introduction of exotic
species and isolated from a larger population of barbels living in the
Guadalquivir River, the reduced population of barbel (Barbus scla-
teri) found in the Rocina stream must be added to this list as well.
Although somewhat more abundant than the previous species, the
Moroccan loach (Cobitis paludica) is also endangered. The black
goby (Gobius niger), rock goby (Gobius paganellus) and pipefishes
(Syngnathus abaster and Syngnathus acus) are classified as vulnera-
ble, whereas, the big-scale sand smelt (Atherina boyeri) and two
goby species (Pomatoschistus microps and P. minutus) are consid-
ered to be less endangered.
The overall conservation status of Doñana's ichthyofauna and
their environs is very poor, with clear evidence of a declining com-
munity.Three species are extinct and 36 (84%) have been listed in
one of the three main threatened species categories (Figure 1). Of
these 36 species, five are on the verge of extinction - three of which
(barbel, chub and killifish) live within Doñana National Park, and
two (sea lamprey and twaite shad), the only surviving anadromous
species, in neighbouring watercourses.
The community's poor conservation status is the result of
anthropogenic transformations of the area's water environment
over the last century, as well as its downstream location from the
human activities taking place further up the river.
The deterioration of the navigational conditions of the Lower The Doñana Marshes, as well as their marine environment, are of great
Guadalquivir gave rise to the implementation of waterworks, that interest not just from a biological viewpoint but from that of commercial
fishing as well, owing to the high market value of many of the species tar-
reduced the navigational distance between Seville and the sea by 50 getted by the fishing industry in the Bay of Cadiz. Moreover, as products
kilometres. These modifications brought about significant changes from the fishing industry constitute one of the main attractions of the
Andalusian coasts, the aquatic communities of the Lower Guadalquivir
in the river dynamics of this stretch of the Guadalquivir, to the take on an important social dimension by indirectly contributing to the
extent that the tidal flow rate is currently higher than in the past. livelihood of thousands of Andalusian families .
Photo by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM files.
Other significant modifications, such as the construction of the
Alfonso XIII Canal (1926) and the canalization of the Guadiamar resulted in the confinement of the Marshes and the loss of the inter-
River (1944) and the Eastern Branch (1964) reduced flooding in tidal habitat with all of the processes and species associated with it.
Seville, and confined agricultural land from the marshes. Currently, Typical estuarine dynamics are currently present only in the
only 27,000 hectares (12% of the original area) are preserved in main channel of the Guadalquivir (approximately 2% of the original
their natural state within Doñana National Park. area) and the lower reach of the Torre Branch.The fauna and asso-
Transformation of the land brought with it the extensive modi- ciated processes (such as diurnal and tidal migrations) characteris-
fication of the natural drainage system of the Marshes as well. Many tic of this type of ecostystem are therefore limited to this area
natural channels within resulting in a high diversity zone with over 70 species of fish, 49
the Marshes (caños) species of crustaceans, 22 species of water insects and 8 species of
dried and silted up, while non-anthropod invertebrates. Given that very few areas, including
others were canalized, terrestrial habitats, in Andalusia present such a high diversity of
deepened and locked species and processes as in the last few kilometres of the Lower
with floodgates. In Guadalquivir, the area in itself can be considered one of the major
The fishing of commercial species such as Doñana, the natural levee hotspots of Andalusia's aquatic biodiversity. Furthermore, the area
elver and prawns is a serious problemaf- was raised resulting in the is of great interest not just from a biological viewpoint but from
fecting fishes living in the estuary during
their juvenile stage. so-called Montaña del that of commercial fishing as well owing to the high market value
Photograph by Carlos Fernández-Delgado.
Río. These interventions of many of the species targetted by the fishing industry in the Bay

239
 of Cadiz. Every year many different species of fish, including
A NEW FISH SPECIES anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus), sardine (Sardina pilchardus), sea
spotted bass (Dicentrarchus punctatus), meagre (Argyrosomus
IN THE IBERIAN ICHTHYOFAUNA regius), sole (Solea vulgaris and S. senegalensis), and prawn
(Melicertus kerathurus) remain in the Lower Guadalquivir for a
span of several months. It can thus be expected that the survival
rate of the fry of these species and the subsequent abundance of
the same in the fishing grounds will depend on the conservation
status of the area. Moreover, as products from the fishing industry
constitute one of the main attractions of the Andalusian coasts, the
aquatic communities of the Lower Guadalquivir take on an impor-
tant social dimension by indirectly contributing to the livelihood of
thousands of families.
Another important anthropogenic impact is the retention of
FEMALE approximately 7,000 hm3 of water in reservoirs throughout the
watersheds, affecting the hydrological system of the estuary and
bringing about its gradual salinisation.The reservoirs retain not only
water, but sediments and nutrients as well with the subsequent
threat of lateral erosion (i.e. loss of territory from a decrease in
alluvial deposition) in the estuary and the progressive loss of pro-
ductivity in the area.The loss of productivity may be offset for the
time being by the high nutrient load of the water draining agricul-
tural fields and from untreated urban waste water.
Even the main channel of the Guadalquivir was dammed in
MALE
1930 at the towns of Alcalá del Río and Cantillana, with disastrous
Until recent times it was thought that the distribution of the “fartet” effects for the shad and sturgeon whose spawning areas were
(Aphanius iberus), a small Cyprinodont fish endemic of the Iberian
peninsula, extended along the Mediterranean coast from Catalonia to
located just upstream from the insurmountable walls. The situa-
Andalusia, and included a few small populations of the Atlantic coast of tion was seriously exacerbated by intensive fishing at the foot of
Andalusia. Nevertheless, a research project financed by the Board of
the dam during breeding migration periods. The eel (Anguilla
the Environment of the Andalusia Government, with the participation
of the Universities of Cordova and Murcia and the National Museum anguilla), a migratory species, was also affected with the resulting
of Natural Sciences (CSIC) showed that the Atlantic populations come loss of the only natural fish predator among the fish species of the
from a different evolutionary line.This difference has been demonstrat-
ed through genetic and morphological analyses of specimen from both Guadalquivir basin.
areas. The two populations could have diverged about three million Human activity in the sub-catchment areas of the marshlands
years ago, after the desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea and its pos-
terior isolation during the Late Pliocene. The new species has been is one of the greatest threats not only to the aquatic communi-
named Aphanius baeticus, in honour of the River Guadalquivir (the ties, but to the whole of Doñana National Park itself. Erosive
Baetis of ancient Romans), because its largest populations are found in
the Guadalquivir’s basin . processes have become predominant in most of the sub-catch-
Eight populations have been found until this moment.The westernmost ments and wide areas are silting up as in the case of the 300
one is localised at Laguna del Hondón within the Doñana National
Park, while the easternmost is found near to Conil de la Frontera hectares of marsh filled in by sediments from El Partido stream.
(Cadiz).The conservation status of the new species is very poor and, Added to this is the threat arising from very poor water quality
according to UICN’s categories, this species has been catalogued as
"Critically Endangered" (CR). with an excessive nutrient load and toxic substances from
An appealing and integrative proposal for its conservation has been untreated urban waste water, farmlands and industrial activities
developed within the framework of the Doñana 2005 project. An
action within this project included an advanced water-treatment plan such as mining and table olive production. Farming activities also
for the villages discharging their wastewater to the Marshes. Taking led to aquifer depletion with a subsequent decrease in the flow
advantage of the outflow canal of the El Rocío treatment plant, the one
with the most advanced treatment cycle, the idea was developed to rates of rivers and the lowering of the water table. The most
create a sanctuary for this species.The treatment process was comple- immediate effect has been the alteration of the natural hydrolog-
mented with a network of canals bordered by vegetation and fed by
the outflow canal, where the fish population can be maintained.
ical regime of the Marshes: with shorter hydroperiods and more
severe droughts. This has resulted in the loss of many bodies of

240
 The large number of exotic fish species is one of the bigger problems to be
faced in Doñana. The first to colonise the area were most likely carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) native to Eastern Europe
and Asia, probably in the 19th century and by natural means. In 1921 the
Eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) was introduced from the United
States to fight malaria. The pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) became the
last American species to colonise Doñana . Above, couple of Eastern
mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki).

surface water, such as the so-called “ojos” (eyes) of the Marshes,

which are points at which groundwater reaches the surface, and
this in turn has affected the vegetation.
Another major problem for the aquatic community is the com-
pletely unregulated fishing taking place along the last 40 kilometers
of the Guadalquivir's main channel. The fishing of commercial
species such as elver and prawns is a serious problem affecting fish-
es living in the estuary during their juvenile stage. They are con-
fronted at the inlet with several thousand square metres of 1mm
mesh fly net used to catch prawns and elver.
Further complicating the matter are the large number of
allochthonous species. The first to colonise the area were most
Typical estuarine
likely carp (Cyprinus carpio) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) native dynamics are currently
present only in the
to Eastern Europe and Asia, probably in the 19th century and by nat-
main channel of the
ural means. In 1921 the Eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbroo- Guadalquivir and the
lower reach of the Torre
ki) was introduced from the United States to fight malaria. Both Branch. The fauna and
native to North America, the largemouth bass (Micropterus associated processes
(such as diurnal and
salmoides) and the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) were tidal migrations) char-
introduced in the 1970s, the first into the Rocina stream and sec- acteristic of this type of
ecostystem are there-
ond into the Marshes.The red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clar- fore limited to this area,
ki), which had such a marked impact on Doñana's freshwater giving Doñana an
extraordinary impor-
ecosystems, also arrived in the 1970s. During the heavy rain sea- tance for fish conserva-
sons in 1996 and 1997 the pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) tion. The image shows
hypsometry of the out-
became the last American species to colonise Doñana. let of the
Guadalquivir’s main
Exotic species will normally replace the native species through
channel into the Torre
competition, predation or parasitism, altering the functional dynam- Branch.
ics of the system. In this specific case, goldfish, Eastern mosquitofish, Image extracted from the Digital
Surface Model of Torre Branch

largemouth bass, and pumpkinseed put pressure mainly on fresh- (Brazo de la Torre).
 Guadalquivir's main channel and of maritime shipping traffic in the
area has not yet been assessed.The hull and ballast water of large
vessels can be an efficient means of transport for exotic fish
species.The risk stemming from these new species in an environ-
mentally vulnerable area is yet to be evaluated. Species such as the
dangerous Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) have complet-
ed their life cycle in this zone and may well be in the adjustment
phase. River dredging and the subsequent increase in sea traffic are
the new threats on the horizon of a territory already threatened
The Black Goby (Gobius paganellus) is one of the oddest fish species living by other activities.
in the estuarine environment of Doñana.
Photograph by Carlos Fernández Delgado. The intention of the two main restoration projects following
the Aznalcollar mining accident is to mitigate some of the problems
water species, whereas the mummichog affects estuarine species. found in the area with a special emphasis on fish communities.
The carp and goldfish uproot submerged vegetation and stir up the Fostered by Spain's central government, the Doñana 2005 project
riverbed, increasing water turbidity and reducing the depth of the aims to regenerate the surface water hydrology of the marshlands,
photic layer. The Eastern mosquitofish predominantly attacks the reconnecting isolated zones and restoring large extensions of
eggs, larvae and fry of other species. Like the carp, it is highly aggres- marshland, such as the areas of Caracoles and Marisma Gallega. On
sive and, thanks to an efficient breeding strategy, it becomes the the other hand, the Guadiamar Green Corridor, fostered by the
dominant species shortly after colonizing a habitat. Conversely, the Regional Government, aims to counteract the effects of the mine
main effect of the largemouth bass and the pumpkinseed arise from tailings spill on the Guadiamar River, the main tributary flowing into
their direct predation upon the adults and juveniles of other the Marshes. Nevertheless, the biological integrity of the system
species. can only be guaranteed if the restoration of the water quality is
Other human activities also have a negative influence on the dealt with to the same extent as habitat restoration has been
estuarine environment. The impact of periodic dredging of the addressed in the aforementioned projects.

Vertical photograph of the marshes in contact with the estuary of the Guadalquivir River, which is coloured in green. The Montaña de Río, a man-made barrier that
substitutes the ancient levee and isolates the Marshes, can be seen close to the river bed, and parallel to it. Higher up, lighter in colour, the inundated “lucios“ (shal-
low lakes). The biggest of them, Lucio de los Ánsares, is in the uppest part of the photo. Lower down, the a-shaped Lucio del Membrillo, and, on its right, the con-
tiguous Lucios of Sanlúcar and of Seville.

242
The amphibians of Doñana CARMEN DÍAZ PANIAGUA *

mphibians have a complex aquatic cycle, since most are highly unpredictable since
A species lay their eggs in aquatic environments, in which
larvae develop until metamorphosis. Later, their juvenile and adult
both are dependant on weather
conditions. However, the charac-
stages usually take place in terrestrial environments. Some species teristic flexibility of the reproduc-
have aquatic habits and are always found in the water or next to tive cycle of amphibians makes it
it, but many adult amphibians are fully terrestrial and only venture possible for them to settle and use
to water to breed. The presence of appropriate water environ- such ponds by adjusting their
ments for their reproduction is therefore necessary for amphibian aquatic phase to the duration of
populations to exist. such environments. Since larvae
Not all aquatic environments are appropriate as breeding can metamorphose under envi-
grounds. Eggs and larvae of most amphibian species are vulnerable ronmental conditions that are
to predators such as fish, typical residents of permanent water Currently, there is a worldwide
inappropriate for their growth and
environments. Only species that have developed defence mecha- decline in amphibian species. development, their metamorphic
The alteration and loss of habi-
nisms against predation usually breed in this type of environment. tats, climate change, increase in period may be shortened or
However, temporary water environments are generally optimal ultraviolet radiation, introduc- extended according to the condi-
tion of exotic fauna, pollution,
for amphibian breeding. Pools and small ponds of this type abound diseases and animal trade are tions of the environment, resulting
in the Doñana area and host the eggs and larvae of a rich and some of the primary potential in a highly variable duration of
causes that may explain this
abundant amphibian fauna. decline. their embryonic and larval stages.
Photograph by Carmen Díaz Paniagua.
Temporary ponds are formed in Doñana in autumn after heavy Eleven species of amphibians
rainfalls. Both the time when they are formed and their duration can be found In Doñana in a wide variety of reproductive habitats.
Species that undergo metamorphosis at smaller sizes, such as the
* Doñana Biological Station. common toad, the natterjack toad and the Portugal painted frog,
 developing relatively large larvae in less than three months, usual-
ly in the autumn/winter period.The characteristic courtship songs
of the males reveal the presence of this species in the Doñana
marshes.The early breeding period of the species probably spare
the larvae from having to compete for food with other amphibian
species.
The amphibian species most frequently found in the sand
dunes of Doñana are those that breed in the countless tempo-
rary ponds that flood in the autumn, reach their maximum pro-
ductivity in the spring and dry out in the early summer.The ponds
are located in small depressions and are frequently surrounded
by monte negro heathland or situated in cork oak groves.These
ponds are the typical habitat of the stripeless tree frog, the
Bosca's newt and the Southern marbled newt.The stripeless tree
frog is a colourful tree-dwelling amphibian, which is capable of
Stripeless tree frog singing during courtship.
Photograph by A. Portheault. climbing up vegetation and usually ventures to the ponds to
breed once the coldest days of winter are over. Its continuous
only need two or three months to complete their larval stage and courtship songs are a typical feature of winter and spring nights
can start their terrestrial phase when they reach the length of 10 in Doñana. Because the tree frogs have a longer egg-laying peri-
mm. The two latter species thus breed in very shallow and od, the arrival of the females to the pond does not take place
ephemeral ponds that are often inhabited by a single species with massively as it does with toads.The male/female couple scatters
few predators and little competition for food resources. the eggs in small groups that stick to plants. Larvae can complete
Natterjack toads lay strings of some three thousand eggs in two their cycle in about three months and, just after completing their
long rows that are easy to detect on the banks of the ponds in metamorphoses, small frogs can be observed over an extended
which they breed. The Portugal painted frog takes advantage of period of time before ponds dry up.
small ephemeral ponds where it can lay its eggs several times a Newts arrive immediately after the ponds are formed to com-
year, i.e. any time heavy rainfalls flood the ponds. However, since mence their charming underwater courtship in which males make
the eggs of common toads contain toxins to prevent them from repetitive movements of their tails to attract females that will col-
being eaten by fish or other predators, this species is adapted to lect the sperm that has been deposited on the bottom of the
more permanent aquatic habitats.The common toad is not a very
abundant species in Doñana but can be found in large permanent
ponds such as the Santa Olalla and Dulce lagoons.
At the other end of the spectrum we find amphibians that
require more stable habitats to complete their larval stage.As the
larvae of Western spadefoot are characterised by their large size,
sometimes similar to that of the adults, the larval stage of this
species is longer.They usually remain in the water from the time
large temporary ponds or even marshes are flooded in autumn
until the ponds are drying up in late spring or early summer.The
same habits are shared by the morphologically different sharp-
ribbed newt, an amphibian of the Urodela group frequently found
in the marshes and other large temporary habitats which allow
larvae to reach large sizes before undergoing metamorphosis.The
larvae of this species prey upon invertebrates and even larvae of
other amphibian species that share their habitat. Another unique
species also found in the marsh area and in the small ponds that Couple of of Iberian parsley frogs in amplexus.
Photograph by A. Portheault.
form on its borders is the Iberian parsley frog, which is capable of

244
pond. Egg-laying does not take place until winter and lasts a long
time as females must lay their eggs by wrapping them one by one
in the leaves of aquatic plants and thus require one to two months
to complete the process. Likewise, larvae can complete their
metamorphosis in around three months but the extended egg-lay-
ing period results in a wide variation of larva ages and sizes with-
in the pond.We can find larvae undergoing metamorphosis during
several months before and up until the time the ponds dry up.
The Southern marbled newt is more common than Bosca's
newt and both use similar habitats. The adults of both species
are very small and Doñana's newts are the smallest of their dis-
tribution area.An adult Bosca's newt, for example, can breed at
just 0.5 grams weight, and a Southern marbled newt at just 1
gram. Very small size is a characteristic of the newts found in
the Doñana area, as the newts even in nearby locations are
larger. This feature could be attributed to the shorter annual
activity period, to their reaching maturity at an earlier age, or
to the greater longevity of the individuals living in Doñana.
Southern marbled newts in this area also have a characteristic
breeding male pattern which is less conspicuous than that of
other populations.
In general, the majority of Doñana's amphibian species char-
acteristically exhibit a smaller size as compared to other pop-
ulations. Some water environments are not necessarily
permanent but do last well into the summer.
Nevertheless, during this dryer period they display A characteristic feature of the Western spadefoot is that its larvae can reach a
large size, sometimes similar to that of adults.
poorer conditions than during the spring, with Photograph by A. Portheault.

less submerged vegetation, a lower concen-

tration of oxygen, higher so forth.This type of medium is used by the Iberian green frog
temperatures, and for breeding. This species lays its eggs later (around April) than
other amphibian species. Its larvae usually do not coexist with
those of other species and thanks to their lungs they can toler-
ate lowoxygen concentrations in water. They are even able to
aestivate and complete their metamorphosis the following
autumn, if ponds did not dry up. Adults have aquatic habits and
are active both day and night and are therefore usually associ-
ated with permanent water environments.
Among the amphibian species found in Doñana
there is one that stands out because of its peculiar
breeding process. This is the Iberian midwife
toad, which is quite rare in the area,
although some individuals have been
found north of the Park. Females lay
20 to 40 large-sized eggs each
which the males collect and
Bosca’s newt larva. place between their legs
Photograph by W. de Vries. after fecundation.The

245
 Scientific and common English names and local populations with unique characteristics, such as their
of Doñana's amphibian species small size. Although the protection level of the Park guarantees
Urodela the preservation of amphibian habitats, the duration of the
Triturus pygmaeus Southern marbled newt
Triturus boscai Bosca’s newt
hydroperiod must be controlled in order to ensure successful
Pleurodeles waltl Sharp-ribbed newt
breeding. Water abstraction in the surrounding areas and the
Anura
inter-annual climatic variability, with occasionally long drought
Alytes cisternasii Iberian midwife tod periods, could affect the dynamics of these habitats and of the
Discoglossus galganoi Portugal painted frog
Pelobates cultripes Western spadefoot amphibians that depend on them.
Pelodytes ibericus Iberian parsley frog
Bufo bufo Common toad Among other threats, the introduction of invasive species
Bufo calamita Natterjack toad
Hyla meridionalis Stripeless tree frog could have a considerable impact, especially during dry years. One
Rana perezi Iberian green frog
of the most significant invasive species is the red swamp crayfish
Endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula.
Procambarus clarkii that was initially introduced into the Marshes
males, which have nocturnal terrestrial habits, then carry the eggs area in 1973, and has since then spread to almost all of the aquat-
during the embryonic stage until they are close to hatching,when they are ic environments in the Park, including temporary ponds. The
placed and released into the water. The larvae will then remain in the impact on amphibian populations has not as yet been clearly ascer-
water until they complete their metamorphosis. tained. However, it has been found that the red swamp crayfish
Currently, there is a difficulty to explain worldwide decline in consume the amphibian eggs adhered to the plants that comprise
amphibian species. The alteration and loss of habitats, climate the crayfish's main food and can pray on larvae and adults.
change, increase in ultraviolet radiation, introduction of exotic Amphibian populations exhibit a large production in spring, pro-
fauna, pollution, diseases and animal trade are some of the primary viding predators (fish, birds, some reptiles and mammals) with a
potential causes that may explain this decline. But none of them large food resource.Their reduction will be felt along the trophic
suffuces to cause the overall amphibian recession. It is the accumu- chain. In former times the migration of toads and sharp-ribbed
lation of small deleterious effects what is driving the whole group newts across the Vera grasslands on the Marshes border, implied
into risk of extinction.There is a public concern among conserva- the movement of hundreds of thousands of animals that almost
tionists that the amphibian collapse was an early warning to the covered the ground, forming an appealing wandering carpet.
foreseeable biodiversity crisis of the biosphere. Nowadays with the regression of these populations also in the
The amphibian fauna of Doñana include both a large number Park grounds, massive migrations ceased, and during drought
of species - among which six endemic Iberian species stand out - intervals surviving populations are confined to some areas.

Eggs of Western spadefoot laid in shallow water.

Photograph by A. Portheault.

246
The uniqueness JUAN FERNÁNDEZ HAEGER *

of marsh butterflies

T he richness of butterfly species in Doñana National Park

is not surprisingly high: 43 species in a 540 km2 area is not
an exceptional amount. In southern Spain, a much larger number
In order to explain this situation, one must pay attention to the
way in which the butterfly's life history develops. This species is
univoltine, that is to say, butterflies emerge from their chrysalis
of species can coexist in other geographical zones of similar once a year, between mid-May and late June. Male butterflies usu-
extension, particularly in mountainous areas. This number in ally emerge before females (protandry), hence there are many
Doñana can be explained based on several characteristics of the more males in proportion to the females at the beginning of the
park.The first of these, is that an important part of the park area season.The newly emerged females are quickly spotted by males
is seasonally flooded marshland and butterflies cannot complete and after copulation lay their eggs at the base of the foodplants for
their life cycles in this kind of habitat. Second, the stabilized sand
dunes that make up most of the park are quite monotonous, lack-
ing the heterogeneity of other areas, with a more varied relief, that
offer a greater diversity of resources and microenvironments.
Doñana National Park was obviously not created with the butter-
flies in mind. Hence we have a clear example of how other species,
namely the vertebrates, have acted as an umbrella species that
protect many others coexisting in the same habitat.
Nonetheless, on the butterfly checklist of Doñana, several of
them stand out because their existence in this geographical loca-
tion is unexpected.These species are the satyride Pyronia tithonus
and the lycaenides Cyaniris semiargus and Plebejus argus. These
three species are usually found in habitats that tend to have more
oceanic characteristics. In the southern Iberian Peninsula they are
mainly limited to the mountainous areas with more favourable
conditions for humidity. The vegetation associated with the shal-
low water table in Doñana probably has played a significant role in
the survival of these species, which undoubtedly should have been
more abundant in southern Iberia during colder and damper peri-
ods.
This species is commonly found in Central and Northern
Europe, whereas in the Iberian Peninsula it mainly inhabits moun-
tain areas. The mountain ranges in Granada are the only other
areas in Andalusia where this species has been found, with some
populations living over 2500 metres above sea level. Particularly
remarkable is the fact that this butterfly is the most abundant
found in the Park, to such extent that there are as many butter-
flies of this species as the sum of all the other 42 butterfly species
combined. It is surprising that this species is so abundant in spite
of being located in the southern limit of its continental distribu- Several of the Doñana butterfly species stand out because theirexistence in
this geographical location is unexpected. These species are the satyride
tion, and at sea level. Pyronia tithonus and the lycaenides Cyaniris semiargus and Plebejus argus (in
the picture).
* Professor of Ecology. Department of Botany, Ecology and Plant Physiology. Photograph by Miguel G. Muñoz Sariot
University of Cordova, Spain.

247
 their larvae. Larvae will not hatch until the following spring and plants. Butterfly larvae have specific food requirements and there-
then transform quickly, within a few weeks, into pupae. Other but- fore they cannot feed on a wide range of plants.They will usually
terfly species, denominated multivoltine, can complete this cycle feed on a small number of closely related plant species with a sim-
several times per year. However, the most unique aspect of their ilar chemical composition. The biochemical and physiological sys-
life history is the relationship that develops between the butter- tem of the larvae is capable of detoxifying the chemical defence
flies and larval foodplants and, in turn, with the ants living on these compounds developed by foodplants, assimilating their nutrients.
This is an evolutionary response to the "chemical war" developed
between plants and herbivores.
In Doñana, the Plebejus argus feeds mainly on Halimium halim-
ifolium, the most common and abundant scrub in the Park. The
abundance of scrublands on which larvae can feed could be the
underlying reason for the abundance of this butterfly species.
However, this butterfly does not inhabit all locations in which
Halimium is plentiful. It is concentrated in specific areas where
another important insect species with which it interacts can be
found, namely the ant Lasius niger. Since the substrate of the
Doñana scrubland is mainly sand, building ant nests in this unsta-
ble medium is not easy. Many ant species therefore use plant roots
as a support structure for their nests. Furthermore, by placing the
nests at the base of the scrub, the ant can create a more
favourable microclimate in terms of temperature and dampness,
particularly during the summer when the surface temperature of
the sand is too high. In addition, ants will not select Halimium
plants situated at locations that are too high above the soil water
table, as they would be too dry, or too close, as they would be
flooded during rainy winters.Thus, ant nests are located in a range
of intermediate heights close to the "monte negro" heathland.
During spring, females lay eggs close to the ground, beneath
the Halimium plants and its leaf litter, selecting plants with ant
nests. The mechanism used by gravid females to detect ants is
yet unknown, however, a combination of visual and chemical
reactions seem to be involved.Ants ignore the eggs as they are
of no interest to them. The mortality rate over the next ten
months until spring, when the larvae hatch from the eggs, is very
high.
After hatching, the ant is attracted to the larvae, and both
species begin to interact henceforth. During their development
stages, or instars, larvae develop several organs that secrete sub-
stances alluring to ants.The button-like organs distributed over
the body, produce chemical compounds similar to the
pheromones used by ants to communicate. Larvae also have a
dorsal nectary organ that develops in the third instar, which
secretes droplets rich in sugars and amino acids upon which the
An interesting case of mutualistic interaction is observed between three spe- ants avidly feed. Lastly, the larvae have a pair of reversible tentac-
cies found in Doñana: the small butterfly Plebejus argus (Lycenid), the ant
Lasius niger and the shrub Halimium halimifolium, very widespread on sandy ular organs that produce substances which excite and alarm the
soils. ants. Thus, there are always several ants around or on top of a
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
larva feeding on a plant. Indeed, given the mimetic nature of lar-

248
 In Doñana, the Plebejus argus
feeds mainly on Halimium
halimifolium, the most com-
mon and abundant scrub in
the Park. There are always
several ants around or on top
of a caterpillar feeding on a
plant. Indeed, given the
mimetic nature of caterpillars,
the best way to locate them on
a plant stem is to look for
ants.
Photograph by Miguel G. Muñoz Sariot.

vae, the best way to locate them on a plant stem is to search for annual reproductive output (flowers, fruits, seeds). Densities of
ants. larvae vary considerably from plant to plant and more than one
The obvious question is: why do larvae endeavour to attract hundred have been counted on a single plant. Such a large num-
ants? Why do they expend so much energy on ensuring that sev- ber of larvae will consume a substantial part of the foliar sur-
eral ants are on or around them while they feed on Halimium? face. Even if a leaf is not completely eaten by the larvae, it will
The answer involves a third party or group of protaganists of this dry up and fall. Due to their defoliation or leaf abscission, plants
story, which are- tiny, parasitic wasps that complete their life cycle that have been attacked by larvae can be easily spotted in early
at the expense of butterfly larvae.These wasps are extremely effi- summer.
cient in locating caterpillars, when they try to deposit their eggs Summertime is the least favourable season for plants in
inside their bodies.The eggs develop very quickly into wasp lar- Doñana.The sandy soil retains very little water and consequently
vae, feeding on butterfly larva tissues. The wasp larvae emerge plants suffer from severe water stress.A plant's capacity to survive
when they have completed their development, consuming the the dry season is related to the balance between root absorption
butterfly larvae which in the end have helped to produce new of water and leaf transpiration. If absorption is reduced to mini-
wasps instead of butterflies.The ants will effectively protect lar- mum levels, transpiration must be reduced correspondingly.
vae from parasitoid attacks, in most cases preventing the assault Defoliation could paradoxically contribute to the reduction of
of wasps. To reduce parasitoid attacks, larvae have the habit of water loss. In September, the water stress of plants to which a
feeding at night; hence, one must wait several hours after sunset known larvae density was applied was lower than the stress of
to find larvae feeding on tender leaves. During the day, larvae equivalent control plants without larvae. Those plants also pro-
crawl down the scrub stems into the ant nests, where they will duced more seed capsules, indicating a higher degree of reproduc-
remain protected until night falls. The transformation from larvae tive success of this seeder species.
to pupae also takes place in the ant nest. The adult butterfly There is definitely a complex interaction across different lev-
emerges from the chrysalis within two weeks, drying and spread- els.The position of the plants with regard to the aquifer will deter-
ing its wings outside, thus initiating a new cycle. mine the presence of ant nests' and, in turn, these will influence the
Consequently, one could think that the presence of an ant presence of larvae, which seek the protection of the ants from
nest beneath a Halimium could negatively affect the plant, given parasitoids. Although in principle the presence of ants, and there-
that there is a great probability that oviposition takes place on fore larvae, would seem to entail a negative effect on the plant, our
these plants. Larvae must complete their cycle on these plants, experience shows that in fact plants were proved to benefit from
feeding on vegetal material (particularly apical leaves) that the this relationship, at least in terms of reduced water stress and
plant itself needs for its own development, especially for its increased reproductive success.

249
Spanish iris (Iris xiphium) in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
The rabbit in Doñana RAMÓN C. SORIGUER *, ELENA ANGULO **
the tale of two different tales

t is undoubtedly the most widespread mammal throughout the years after 1970, Pat Rogers was the first to quantify not only
Ithe Iberian Peninsula. Its high fertility rate is offset by a high
mortality rate. In Spain alone, almost 40 species of vertebrates that
the rabbit populations of the Biological Reserve, but also their spa-
tial distribution and ecological characterisation.At this time, popula-
prey on the rabbit have been reported (Figure 1), apart from man. tions had already been locally decimated in comparison with previ-
They are the basic prey item of two specialist and highly emblem- ous years, although large areas in which the rabbit was very abun-
atic predators of Doñana: the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the dant could still be seen.These areas were close to La Vera and the
Spanish Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti). Few species are capable of pond borders grazing meadows. Other plant communities like the
attaining such high densities naturally, with such a large number of undergrowth were also within their range, although abundance was
predators and bearing in mind that the rabbit accounts for a major very much lower. Rogers observed the extremely low capacity of
part of their diet.

THE HISTORY OF DOÑANA

RELATED BY ITS RABBIT POPULATIONS

The rabbit and the original Doñana

In Doñana, the history of its numeric dynamics is so well doc-
umented that it reveals to us some really unknown features of the
species.The first records were made in historic times, dating back
over 300 years. These records describe the rabbit as abundant in
the hunting grounds and this has been a constant feature over the
last few centuries. From the early years of the 20th century to the
late 50s, the tales and testimonies of old game keepers of El Coto
de Doñana confirm the abundance of rabbits, although populations
were unevenly distributed, as they were far more frequent in
“cotos” and in the forests of cork trees and wild olives with an
undergrowth of mastic, especially among the ferns and meadows of
La Vera and areas around the ponds. They were also abundant in
areas of sage leaf rockrose, bordering on damper depressions. In
the area of the dunes, there were only abundant populations to be
found temporarily in the meadows of inter-dune valleys. Finally, in
the Marshes, they were very rare, limited to an occasional specimen
on the islets, walls or around buildings.
All this changed in 1959, with the appearance of myxomatosis,
which caused a genuine catastrophe: Valverde (1960) calculated a
mortality rate of over 90%. It was also at this time when the true
value of the rabbit was recognised and the importance of its contri-
bution to the stability and wealth of Mediterranean ecosystems. In

* Department of Applied Biology. Doñana Biological Station. CSIC. Seville. Spain.

** Lab. Ecol. System. & Evol. Univ. Paris XI. Department of Applied Biology. Doñana Biological Station. CSIC. Seville.

251
 FIGURE 1 depending on the time of day and time of year. Beatriz showed how
Diversity of rabbit predators (number of species). the generalist predators have a special impact on the rabbits of
Doñana, and that these general predators could come into compe-
tition with the specialist predators. She also showed how rabbits
are most frequently distributed on the edges of moist pastures and
medium cover shrub, although their distribution varies, depending
on the time of year.
A study similar to Rogers', conducted by Rafael Gerschwiz twen-
ty years later (1994), shows us a very different pattern: low abun-
dance figures, more isolated patches of distribution and almost
reaching local extinction in some of the populations identified by
Rogers.
But what has happened in the course of these last twenty years?
the rabbit to colonise the new pine forests and the thick, closed These two decades have witnessed two opposing phenomena: on
bush. He also revealed the importance of ecotonal areas and inter- the one hand, a recovery of populations (although not necessarily in
faces between different plant communities for rabbit populations the same places or to the same levels reported previously) as a con-
and the important role played by soils and the water table depth in sequence of their greater resistance to myxomatosis and, on the
the stability and viability of rabbit communities. The most striking other, a dramatic mortality rate, from the early 90s, due to the
result, however, was the detection of a tendency among rabbit pop- appearance of a new viral infection: rabbit haemorrhaging disease.
ulations to decline in abundance, although in a less spectacular and So what was the situation as we entered the new millennium?
dramatic fashion than the trend shown by Valverde in the previous From 1994 to date (2004), there has been a pronounced change in
decade. As with Valverde, we are once again surprised when the the National Park's conservation policy, because of both the imple-
close association between the distribution and abundance of rabbits mentation of specific recovery plans for some endangered species
and lynxes is demonstrated. and because of more interventionist environmental policies in gen-
In the 80s, M. Beatriz Kufner (1986) analysed the impact on rab- eral. In the course of the last ten years there have been controlled
bits of the different predators of Doñana in the different areas and translocation and re-introduction programmes with rabbits (over
TABLE 1
Clearing the scrub in Doñana National Park. Analysis of the effectiveness of rabbit re-populations and other management meas-
ures in Doñana National Park. Final report. IREC. Nov 2001. RBD: Doñana Biological Reserve.

YEAR TOTAL AREA (ha) AVERAGE AREA (ha) NUMBER OF PLOTS SHAPE METHOD SITE

1985 3 3 1 CLEARING ACEBUCHE

1986 27 2 17 CLEARING AND BURNING ACEBUCHE

1987 19 2 9 CLEARING, BURNING, HARROWING ACEBUCHE, MARISMILLAS

1988 163 3-10 40 CLARING, BURNING, HARROWING ACEBUCHE, EL LOBO

MARISMILLAS, MOGEA,ALGAIDA

1989 53 2-9 15 CLEARING, BURNING, PERIPHERAL HARROWING MARISMILLAS, EL PUNTAL

1990 38 1.5 51 LOBED CLEARING, BURNING, PERIPHERAL HARROWING ACEBUCHE, DBR
NAJARSA, ACEBUCHE
1991 22.5 0.5 >70 LOBED CLEANING, HARROWING AND SOWING DBR, NAJARSA, EL PUNTAL
1992 25 0.2-0.5 >50 LOBED CLEANING DBR
1993 29 0.5 >80 LOBED CLEANING MARISMILLAS, EL PUNTAL
NAJARSA,ACEBUCHE

1994 21 <0.5 70 LOBED CLEANING PINE WOODS MARISMILLAS

1995 16 0.4 40 LOBED CLEANING EL LOBO
1996 >27 0.3 125 LOBED CLEANING DBR, NAJARSA,ACEBUCHE

1998 >20? 0.5 >100 LOBED CLEANING DBR

252
 TABLE 2
Re-stocking actions undertaken in Doñana National Park, data modified in accordance with the PML report, 1998. Figures in individuals

1993 1994 1995 1996 REMARKS

DBR 888 1056 593 248

Acebuche 675 65 Re-stocking in cleaned area. Monitoring through faeces counting until 1999.

Marismillas 712 369 307 Construction of artificial warrens. Monitoring through faeces counting in 1998.

El Lobo 248 311 823

La Algaida 160 160 Research Project. Radio-monitoring to prove efficacy.

Najarsa 115 17
El Puntal 158 485
La Rocina 235
La Mogea 243
Yearly total 2275 2266 2256 1075

8000 releases), thousands of hectares of pines planted in the 50s Park and at different times and in different areas.There was no seri-
have been cleared, dozens of plots have been pruned to favour rab- ous and exhaustive monitoring of any of these trans-locations in
bit habitats and hundreds of rabbit warrens have been dug (Tables the long term. In 1999, rabbit abundance of the re-stocked areas
1 and 2). was compared with other areas close by or with similar habitats,
The decline in the rabbit was attributed to a series of changes and it was observed that re-stocking had no long term effects.
in the ecosystem; in particular, the abandonment of traditional prac- The conclusion of these studies was that the recovery of rabbits by
tises, like the prescribed fire regime and clearing the brush. In 1985, means of trans-locations is characterised by concentrating manage-
interventions started in the form of clearing scrub on plots, ment efforts in a few, and never isolated, plots.The history of rab-
schemes that were honed with the results of research conducted. bit re-stocking work, in Doñana and in the rest of Spain, shows us
In the early years, these plots were large and square, and in patch- that it is a tool of limited use; it is controversial and should only be
es of the same kind of scrub. In the early 90s, the effectiveness of used in specific situations. Like medicine, it can have unwanted side
this clearing was seen to depend on the quality of the habitat. Since effects.
then, clearing is usually accompanied by either sewing herbaceous
seeds or improving herbaceous plants to enhance the availability of The rabbit in Doñana today
food for the rabbits, and these operations were carried out in eco- Despite the lack of efficacy of most of the actions carried out,
tone zones, where two different habitats meet. It was also discov- there has been a slow but continued trend for rabbit populations
ered that the rabbits only use the edges of these plots, so the opti- to increase in Doñana today. This tendency would probably have
mum size and shape of the areas to be treated were defined (lobed been observed anyway, or may even have been stronger, as in
plots of no more than 50 metres between any of their sides, ben- other rabbit populations nearby, where no trans-locations have
efiting the lynx' predatory strategy; stalking). These clearing oper- been done.
ations and their effectiveness in Doñana were weighed up once The difference from previous decades is not the kind of spatial
again in 1999, and it was found that there was still a positive effect distribution, but the lower abundance of rabbits on these plots
(greater abundance) in most of the areas that had been targeted today.This patchwork system is not a static one; on the contrary,
since 1988, although maximum effectiveness appeared to occur it is highly dynamic in both time and space, adapting very efficient-
three years after the intervention. ly to changes in the physical environment (soil and vegetation), abi-
Stocking with rabbits has been a frequently used strategy in otic factors (climate) and epizootes. The rabbit's extraordinary
Doñana National Park, despite the fact that it is not contemplated capacity to grow and breed, together with the fact that it is so
in the Park's management plans or in the initial plans for address- adaptable, has changed the situation slightly in 2002 (see Figure 2).
ing the problems of the lynx and the Imperial eagle1. A pronounced increase was observed in the area of Las
After the first studies were conducted, 8,000 rabbits were trans- Marismillas and El Puntal, and isolated populations appeared in
fered to Doñana between 1993 and 1996 (see Table 2), using main- Monteruelos and Los Sotos.The juniper forests remained the habi-
ly rabbits from areas a good distance away from Doñana National tat in which rabbits abounded, and the re-planted pine trees, Las

253
 FIGURE 2
Naves and El Matorral, once they were cleared, started to show a
Spatial distribution map of rabbit abundance (faeces/ha) in Doñana
National Park. gradual increase. On the contrary, El Coto del Rey and
Developed by Soringer and Fandos, 2003.
Matasgordas, although they sill maintain remarkable densities, are
showing a decline. The Marshes, most of which is a habitat that
excludes rabbits, is showing the presence of major rabbit warrens,
and although these are restricted to the islet meadows and build-
ings, and although they have not to date been very striking, there
have been more and larger colonies observed in the course of the
last year and they seem to be more active since they have been
protected from trampling by large herbivores.
The spectacular increase in grazing in the Park between 1992
and 2001 (with over 4,000 head of large livestock) is increasingly
considered as an element that disturbs the viability of rabbit pop-
ulations, as they concentrate in higher areas (preferred by rabbits
for building their warrens), collapsing rabbit warrens. Fortunately,
the Livestock Plan of 2001-2002 has rationalised this situation to
a certain extent.
The real causes of the changes in abundance of rabbit popula-
tions remain unknown.Working hypotheses currently being given
consideration include both the local intensity of predation,
changes in the structure and distribution of the habitat, changes in
the water level regimens and the length of the floods as a conse-
quence of modifications made to the marshes drainage system.

Spectacular scene of a lynx hunting a rabbit in Doñana.

Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

254
The Iberian lynx MIGUEL DELIBES DE CASTRO *
rescuing a species for Doñana and for the world

he Iberian lynx is a highly endangered species and it is

T known to breed only in two small areas of Spain: Doñana
and the mountain ranges of Sierra Andujar and Sierra Cardeña.This
makes conservation of this species, now restricted to Spain, a top
priority objective for Doñana.
Many hunting stories mention the killing of lynxes in Doñana in
the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Some skins and
skulls from this time, deposited in different European museums,
seem to bear witness to the fact that the Iberian lynx was an abun-
dant species at the time. But things may not have been quite as
clear as they seem.The authors who have devoted most effort to
this issue are undoubtedly English authors Abel Chapman and
Walter J. Buck, who wrote at least two books in which Doñana was
the main, but not only, scene (Wild Spain, published in 1893, and
Unexplored Spain, in 1910). These enthusiasts of El Coto de
Doñana, which they considered "a fragment of the wild loneliness
of Africa (...) in this corner of Europe", talked of catching live lynx-
es, shooting bullets (successfully or not) or shot at the great cat, a
variety of methods for drawing to the guns, etc. But, although they
say that the lynx is "even common" in the southern provinces of
mainland Spain in their first work, in the second, they claim, with
apparent surprise, that "it is difficult to explain why an animal
whose only enemy is man can be so scarce".
Was the lynx ever abundant in Doñana? Undoubtedly it was
abundant locally, but maybe less so than we are tempted to imag-
ine. After his first visits to the area, in the 1950s, Jose Antonio
Valverde was pessimistic about the survival of the lynx, postulating
that only a few pairs probably remained in the district, so few that
they could be counted on the fingers of one hand. Around 1967,
now working in the Reserve and with rangers and ringers conduct-
ing a detailed register of all observations, he was a little more pos-
itive in his opinion: "In Las Marismillas, only a single pair from
Although the Iberian lynx has been able to survive in Doñana for over half
Doñana remained in 1956, and we do not know whether it will sur- a century with numbers scarcely larger than the current ones, the small
vive.There are probably no more than ten pairs in Doñana, possi- existing population is extremely vulnerable.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.
bly not even half that number.According to the rangers, in Coto del
Rey, there was still one pair in the summer of 1958. Around the Ratón, no pairs remained, as the last ones had been killed shortly
same time, the Head Game Keeper of La Rocina claimed that only before. Nor are there any lynxes in La Juncosilla, or further east of
one other pair remained in his estate. In Hato Blanco and Hato Hato Ratón, so the population can be calculated as no more than
about fifteen pairs, if there are any pairs on State lands". These fig-
* Doñana Biological Station, CSIC. ures are clearly higher than now, but not much.

255
 Between 1984 and 2000, dozens of lynxes have been tracked in Doñana and we have got to know their habits well. Only the territorial females breed, and their ter-
ritories, which they will not share with other females, vary in size between 300 and just over 1000 hectares.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

I reached Doñana in late 1972, and soon the dunes and the lagoons. Even though myx-
became fascinated by the lynx, which I did not omatosis had been affecting rabbits since the
manage to see. For months, I had to limit my seventies and the disease had not yet reached
work to collecting its faeces, which I analysed Doñana, rabbits had become frankly scarce in
enthusiastically, and to describing the bodies of these zones between 1970 and the first half of
some fawns and young bucks that had been the eighties.
brought down by the predator.Thus, I managed Between 1984 and 2000, we radio tracked
to get an idea about which areas of the dozens of lynxes in Doñana and we have even
Reserve the lynx frequented. My impression, at got to know their habits well. We know that
the time, was that the protection given to the only the territorial females breed, and that
district and to the species for the last ten years their territories, which they will not share
had been a success. Inside the National Park with other females, vary in size between 300
(the boundaries of which had still not been and just over 1000 hectares. We also know
extended, 35 ha at the time), there seemed to that males may overlap the territories of more
be lynxes more or less all over the place. A than one female, that the cubs are usually born
decade later, however, when we started putting in mid to late March and that the females usu-
traps to catch and tag the lynxes with radio ally give birth to a litter of three cubs. Three
collars, I was deeply disappointed: there only months later, however, only two cubs usually
seemed to be stable pairs in La Vera, near the Many hunting stories mention the death of accompany the mother in her wanderings. At
lynxes in Doñana at the end of the 19th century
edge of La Marisma Marshes, and there were and at the beginning of the 20th century.
an age of between one and two, the young
none, in contrast, in the countryside or near Photograph: Doñana Biological Station Files. leave their maternal range and disperse.

256
Leaving their home range, which represents a great danger for the peripheral populations of the exterior are easily extinguished and
young, allows animals born in the National Park to colonise the few require re-colonisation every so often.
favourable areas outside of the protected terrain (if they manage to So, what can we do to prevent the lynxes of Doñana from
survive the traffic, guns and traps). In recent years, there seems to becoming extinct and to increase their numbers and, thus, their
be a slight increase in the number of territories in the Nature Park, chances of survival? We know the solution, but applying it is more
in the area of El Abalario. difficult: we need to increase the numbers of lynxes, and they have
As we have reported to the Board of the Nature Park, in 2002, to enhance their breeding success, inside the National Park, and at
apparent signs of breeding have been detected for at least nine the same time, the mortality rate outside the Park has to be
females, although it has not always been possible to confirm the reduced. Increasing breeding and survival of the cubs in their first
posterior survival of the young (i.e. successful breeding). In the case months of life requires that we enhance the availability of food (rab-
of six of these females, their litters were either directly observed bits or alternative prey items) in the regular breeding grounds.We
or photographed.The largest breeding colony was in Coto del Rey even need to resort to artificial feeding points or "exclusive restau-
(within the borders of the National Park), followed by La Vera rants for lynxes", as is now done in the Biological Station, spon-
colony (Puntal-Reserva-Algaida, inside the National Park). Other sored by BP and under the direction of Paco Palomares. On the
females bred outside the National Park and sometimes, outside of other hand, new breeding grounds must be made available outside
the Nature Park too (Acebuche, Rocina and Hato Ratón). Lynx the Park and, above all, we have to prevent lynxes from getting run
tracks were also observed in Las Marismillas (where no breeding over by cars, or shot or trapped by hunters. Building traffic calming
has been detected), inside the National Park and beyond its bor- measures, like speed bumps to force cars to slow down is undoubt-
ders, in Torrecuadros, Mazagón, Bonares and several areas of El edly a good idea, but it is no good if the construction of black top
Abalario and the upper reaches of La Rocina.The total number of roads continues in the district at the rate it has over the last twen-
adult and sub-adult specimens (excluding yearling cubs) has been ty five years.
estimated at just over Coming back to the
forty. beginning, a century
Even though it has ago, two English trav-
managed to survive for ellers, romantic hunters
over half a century with who had found their
population numbers "heaven on Earth" in
that are barely higher Doñana, warned us that
than those of today, such the lynx were inexplica-
a small population is bly scarce. We now
extremely vulnerable. know not only that they
The situation is even are scarcer now than
worse if we consider then, we also know that
the fact that it is not a if they disappear alto-
continuous population. gether, they will disap-
The breeding specimens pear for ever and from
are located in scattered the entire world. But,
areas. We call this a moreover, we now have
meta-population, which the explanations that
is merely a "population they did not, and, there-
of populations" con- fore, we can fight
nected by the dispersing against the motive for
specimens. The most their scarcity. In the
persistent nuclei of the The Iberian lynx is a highly endangered species world wide. In fact it is only known to breed in 21st century, that
two small areas of Spain: Doñana and the mountains of Sierra Andujar and Sierra Cardeña. This
meta-population are makes its conservation a top priority objective for Doñana. The penetrating stare of the lynx has makes the salvation of
located inside the become proverbial. the lynx an inexcusable
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM Files.
National Park, while the mission.

257
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1987. Organización del territorio de Doñana y su Lecane donyanensis n. sp. (Rotifera: Monogodonta, Lecanidae) from the
entorno próximo (Almonte) siglos XVIII-XX. Monografía 49. ICONA. Doñana National Park (Spain). Hydrobiologia, 284: 235-239.
Ministerio de Agricultura. Madrid. 459 p. 27. GALLARDO, A. & J. MERINO. 1993. Leaf decomposition in two
2. MENÉNDEZ AMOR, J., FLORSCHÜTZ, F., 1964. Resultados del análi- Mediterranean ecosystems of Southwest Spain: influence of substrate quality.
sis paleobotánico de una capa de turba en las cercanías de Huelva Ecology, 74: 152-161.
(Andalucía). Estudios Geológicos 3-4:183-187. 28. GALLEGO-FERNÁNDEZ J. B. Y F. GARCÍA-NOVO. 2003. Bases ecológi-
3. STEVENSON, AC., 1984, 1985. Studies in the vegetational history of SW cas para la restauración de marismas de régimen mareal en el estuario del
Spain Journal of Biogeography 11:527-551; 12:293-314 Guadalquivir. Rev. Soc. Gad. Hist. Nat. 3: 243-249.
4. STEVENSON, AC., MOORE, PD. 1988. Studies in the vegetational histo- 29. GARCÍA-NOVO, F., D. GALINDO, J.A. GARCÍA SÁNCHEZ, C.
ry of SW Spain IV Journal of Biogeography 15:339-361 GUISANDE, J. JAUREGUI, T. LÓPEZ, N. MAZUELOS, J.C. MUÑOZ, L.
5. CONSEJERÍA DEL MEDIO AMBIENTE, 2004. El pino piñonero (Pinus SERRANO & J. TOJA. 1991. Tipificación de los ecosistemas acuáticos sobre
pinea L.) en Andalucía. Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla. 261 p. sustrato arenoso del Parque Nacional de Donana. Actas III Simposio del agua
6. LAMA GUTIÉRREZ, G., 1951. Diez años de trabajos forestales. Montes en Andalucía. Córdoba. Vol. 1: 165-176.
39 (mayo-junio): 195-201 30. GARCÍA-NOVO, F., M. ZUNZUNEGUI, J.C. MUÑOZ-REINOSO, J.B.
7. CONSEJERÍA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, 2004. Las poblaciones GALLEGO-FERNÁNDEZ & MC DIAZ-BARRADAS. 1996. Surface and
andaluzas de vid silvestre. Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla. 173 p. groundwater control on ecosystem development: the case of Doñana National
8. OCETE, R., LARA, M., PÉREZ, M.A., ROMERO, R., PÉREZ, J., 1996. Park (SW Spain). In: J. Cruz-Sanjulián & J. Benavente (eds.) Wetlands: a multi-
Prospección del estado sanitario de Vitis vinifera sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi approach perspective. University of Granada, Spain: 81-101.
situadas en el entorno del Parque Nacional de Doñana (Huelva y Cadiz) y 31. GRANADOS-CORONA, M., A. MARTÍN-VICENTE & F. GARCÍA-NOVO.
en el Parque Natural de la Sierra Norte (Sevilla). Bol.San.Veg.Plagas 22(2): 1988. Long-term vegetation changes on the stabilized dunes of Donana National
433-441 Park (SW Spain). Vegetatio 75: 73-80.
9. MOORE, P., GARCÍA NOVO, F., STEVENSON, A., 1982. Survival of a 32. GRIMALT, J. O., I. YRUELA, C. SAINZ-JIMÉNEZ, J. TOJA, J. W. LEEUW
wilderness. New Scientist 96(1331): 352-355 & J. ALBAIGES. 1991. Sedimentary lipid biogeochemistry of and hypertrophic
10. STEVENSON A.C., 1985. Studies in the vegetational story of SW Spain II alkaline lagoon. Geoch. Cosmoch. Acta 55: 2555-2577.
Palinological investigations at Laguna de las Madres SW Spain. Journal of 33. JAUREGUI, J. & J. TOJA. 1993. Dinámica del fósforo en lagunas temporales
Biogeography12: 293-314 del P. N. de Doñana. In: L. Cruz-Pizarro, R. Morales-Baquero, P. Sánchez-
11. GARCÍA GÓMEZ, J.C., 2002. Paradigmas de una fauna insólita. Instituto Castillo & P. Carrillo (eds.). Actas VI Congreso Español de Limnología.
de Estudios Campo Gibraltareño. CEPSA Cultural. Algeciras. 397 p. Granada, Spain: 99-106.
12. KRYUKOV, A., IWASA, M.A., KAKIZAWA, R., SUZUKI, H., 34. JUNTA DE ANDALUCÍA. 2002. Plan andaluz de humedales. Consejería de
PINSKER, W., HARING, E., 2004. Synchronic east-west divergence in Medio Ambiente, Sevilla, Spain.
azure-winged magpies (Cyanopica cyanus) and magpies (Pica pica). J. 35. KONIKOW, L.F. & J. RODRÍGUEZ ARÉVALO. 1993. Advection and diffusion
Zool. Syst. Evol. Research 42 (2004) 342-351. Blackwell Verlag, Berlin. in a variable-salinity confining layer. Water Resources Research, 29: 2747-2761.
36. LLAMAS, R. 1990. Geomorphology of the eolian sands of the Doñana National
Park (Spain). Catena Supplement IS: 145-154.
THE AQUATIC SYSTEMS OF DOÑANA 37. LÓPEZ, T., J. TOJA & N. A. GABELLONE, 1991. Limnological comparison of
two peridunar ponds in the Doñana National Park (Spain). Arch. Hydrobiol.
13. ALLIER, C.L., L. RAMÍREZ-DÍAZ & F. GONZÁLEZ-BERNÁLDEZ. 120: 357-378.
1974. Doñana: Mapa Ecológico. Publicaciones del CSIC, Seville. 12 p. 38. LÓPEZ, T., J. ROMAN & J. TOJA, 1993. Diatomeas de los sedimentos de las
14. ALONSO M. 1998. Los Crustáceos de la España Peninsular. Limnetica 15: 1- lagunas de Santa Olalla y Dulce (P.N. Doñana). In: L. Cruz-Pizarro, R. Morales-
176. Baquero, P. Sánchez-Castillo & P. Carrillo (eds). Adas VI Congreso Espanol de
15. ÁLVAREZ, S. E., M. C. GUERRERO & C. MONTES. 2001. Descomposition Limnologia. Granada, Spain: 291-298
of Juncus maritimus in two shallow lakes of Doñana National Park. Int. Rev. 39. LÓPEZ, T., N. MAZUELOS & J. C. MUÑOZ, 1994. Spatial and temporal vari-
Hydrobiol. 86: 541-554. ations in chemical characteristics of groundwater in the Biological Reserve of
16. ARAMBARRI P., F. CABRERA & R. GONZÁLEZ-QUESADA. 1996. Doñana (SW, Spain). Verh. int. Verein. Limnol. 25: 1438-1444.
Quality evaluation of the waters entering the Doñana National Park (SW Spain). 40. LÓPEZ, T. N. A. GABELLONE, J. JAUREGUI & J. TOJA. 1997.
Sci. Total Environ. 191: 185-196. Paleolimnological studies at Santa Olalla and Dulce ponds in Doñana National
17. BERNUÉS, M., 1990. Limnología de los sistemas acuáticos del Parque Park. In: F. García Novo, R.M.M. Crawford & M.C. Díaz Barradas (eds.). The
Nacional de Doñana. Ph.D. Thesis. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. 242 p. Ecology and Conservation of European Dunes. Serv. Publ. Universidad Sevilla,
18. BRAVO, M. A. & C. MONTES. 1993. Inventario de las formaciones palustres Spain:229-236 p.
del manto eólico del Parque Nacional de Doñana (SW España): 31-44. In: L. 41. LÓPEZ-ARCHILA, A..L, S. MOLLA, M.C. COLETO, M.C. GUERRERO &
Cruz, R. Morales, P. Sánchez, and P. Carrillo (eds.) Actas VI Congreso Español C. MONTES. 2004. Ecosystem metabolism in a Mediterranean shallow lake
de Limnología. Facultad de Ciencias, Granada, Spain. (Laguna de Santa Olalla, Doñana National Park, Sw Spain). Wetlands 24: 848-
19. CLEMENTE L., L. V. GARCÍA, & P. SILJESTROM. 1998. Suelos del Parque 858.
Nacional de Doñana. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Madrid. 42. MANZANO, M. 2001. Clasificación de los humedales de Doñana atendiendo a
20. DÍAZ-BARRADAS, M.C. & J. C. MUÑOZ-REINOSO. 1992. The ecology of su funcionamiento hidrológico. Hidrogeología y Recursos Hidráulicos XXIV:
vegetation of the Asperillo dune system, southwest Spain. In: Coastal Dunes. 57-75.
Carter et al (eds.): 211-218. Rotterdam, The Netherlands. 43. MAZUELOS, N., J. TOJA & C. GUISANDE. 1993. Rotifers in ephemeral
21. DÍAZ-ESPEJO, A. L. SERRANO, & J. TOJA. 1999. Changes in sediment phos- ponds of Doñana National Park. Hydrobiologia 255/256: 429-434.
phate composition of seasonal ponds during filling. Hydrobiologia, 392: 21-28. 44. MONTES, C, J. AMAT & L. RAMÍREZ-DÍAZ. 1982. Ecosistemas acuáticos
22. ESPINAR J. L. 2000. Distribución espacial y temporal de las comunidades de del Bajo Guadalquivir (SW España). Variación estacional de los componentes
macrófitos acuáticos de la "Marisma salada" del Parque Nacional de Doñana. físico-químicos y biológicos de las aguas. Studia Oecologica3: 159-180.
Master Thesis, University of Seville (Spain). 126 p. 45. MUÑOZ-REINOSO, J.C. 1996. Topología de las descargas sobre arenas de la
23. ESPINAR, J. L. 2004. Ecología de las comunidades de grandes helófitos de la Reserva Biológica de Doñana. Limnetica 12: 53-63.
marisma de Doñana. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Seville. 214 p. 46. MUÑOZ-REINOSO, J.C. 2001. Vegetation changes and groundwater abstrac-
24. FUREST A. & J. TOJA. 1981. Ecosistemas acuáticos del Parque Nacional de tion in SW Doñana, Spain. J. Hydrology 242: 197-209.
Doñana: Distribución del zooplancton. Actas I Simposio sobre el Agua en 47. MUÑOZ-REINOSO J.C. & F. García-Novo. 2005. Multiscale control of vege-
Andalucía: 151 -167. tation patterns: the case of Doñana (SW Spain). Landscape Ecology 20: 51-61.
25. GALINDO, D., N. MAZUELOS, A. J. MATA & L. SERRANO. 1994a. 48. PÉREZ CABRERA, J. & J. TOJA. 1986. Introducción al conocimiento de las
Microcrustacean and rotifer diversity relating to water temporality in dune comunidades de ciliados en la zona de la laguna de Santa Olalla (P.N. de
ponds of the Doñana National Park. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 25: 1350-1356. Doñana). Oxyura V: 5-29.
26. GALINDO, M.D., L. SERRANO, H. SEGERS, & N. MAZUELOS, 1994b. 49. SACKS, L. 1989. Seasonal dynamics of groundwater-lake interaction at

258
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

Doñana National Park Spain. Master Thesis. University of Virginia, US. 173 p. 71. GARCÍA NOVO, F., ZUNZUNEGUI, M., MUÑOZ REINOSO, J.C.,
50. SACKS L.A, J. S. HERMAN, L.F. KONIKOW & A. L. VELA. 1992. Seasonal GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B. & DÍAZ BARRADAS, M.C. 1996 Surface
dynamics of groundwater-lake interactions at Doñana National National Park, and groundwater control on ecosystem development: the case of Doñana
Spain. J. Hydrology 136: 123-154 National Park (SW Spain). Wetlands: A multiapproach perspective (eds J. Cruz
51. SERRANO, L. 1992. Leaching from vegetation of soluble polyphenolic com- San Julián & J. Benavente), pp. 81-101. Universidad de Granada. Granada.
pounds, and their abundance in temporary ponds in the Doñana National Park 72. GARCÍA NOVO, F. & MERINO, J.A. 1997 Pattern and processes in the dune
(SW, Spain). Hydrobiologia 229: 43-50. system of Doñana National Park, Southwestern Spain. Dry coastal ecosystems.
52. SERRANO., L. 1994. Sources, abundance and disappearance of polyphenolic Part C. General aspects (ed E. van der Maarel), pp. 453-468. Elsevier.
compounds in temporary ponds of Doñana National Park (South-western Amsterdam.
Spain). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 45: 1555-1564. 73. HERRERA, C.M. 1987. Vertebrate-dispersed plants of the Iberian Peninsula: a
53. SERRANO, L. & C. GUISANDE. 1990. Effects of phenolic compounds on phy- study of fruit characteristics. Ecological Monographs 57: 305-331.
toplankton. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 24: 282-288. 74. MERINO, J. & MARTÍN VICENTE, A. 1981 Biomass, productivity, and suc-
54. SERRANO, L. & J. TOJA. 1995. Limnological description of four temporary cession in the scrub of the Doñana Biological Reserve in Southwest Spain. In
ponds in the Doñana National Park (SW, Spain). Archivfiir Hydrobiologie, 133: Components of productivity of Mediterranean-climate regions. Eds. N S
497-516. Margaris, H A Mooney. pp 197-203. Dr Junk Publishers, The Hague.
55. SERRANO, L. & J. TOJA. 1998. Interannual variability in the zooplankton 75. MARTÍN VICENTE, A. 1982. Sucesión tras el fuego del matorral en las arenas
community of shallow temporary pond. Verh. Internal Verein Limnol., 26: 1575- estabilizadas de la Reserva Biológica de Doñana. Phd Universidad de Sevilla.
1581. Spain.
56. SERRANO, L. R. SEMPERE, L. TORRES & J. TOJA. 1993. Efecto de com- 76. SILJESTRÖM, P. 1985 Geomorfología y edafogénesis de las arenas del Parque
puestos polifenólicos naturales sobre el crecimiento de Chlamydomonas sp. en Nacional de Doñana. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Sevilla. Sevilla , Spain.
lagunas del P.N. de Doñana. In: L. Cruz-Pizarro, R. Morales-Baquero, P. 77. TRABAUD, L. 1981 Man and fire: impacts on Mediterranean vegetation. In
Sánchez-Castillo & P. Carrillo (eds). Actas VI Congreso Español de Limnología. 'Mediterranean-type shrublands' (Eds F di Castri, DW Goodall and RL Specht).
Granada, Spain: 245-252 p. Pp. 523-537. Elsevier Sc. Pub., Amsterdam.
57. SERRANO L., R. M. LAMELAS, J. JAUREGUI & J. TOJA. 1994. Daily vari- 78. ZUNZUNEGUI, M., DÍAZ BARRADAS, M.C. & GARCÍA NOVO, F. 1998.
ations in two ponds of different mixing dynamics in the Donana N. P. (SW, Spain). Vegetation fluctuation in Mediterranean dune ponds in relation to rain fall vari-
Verh. Int.. Verein Limnol. 25: 1345-1349. ation and water extraction. Appl. Veg. Sci. 1:151-160.
58. SERRANO, L., M. D. BURGOS, A. DÍAZ-ESPEJO & J. TOJA. 1999. 79. ZUNZUNEGUI, M.; DÍAZ BARRADAS, M.C.; AIN-LHOUT, F.; CLAVIJO,
Phosphorus inputs to wetlands following storm events after drought. Wetlands, A. Y GARCÍA NOVO, F. 2005. To live or to survive in Doñana dunes: Adaptive
19: 318-326. responses of woody species under a Mediterranean climate. Plant and Soil
59. SERRANO L.5 M. REINA, E. DE VERD, J. TOJA & H.L. GOLTERMAN. 273:77-89
2000a. Determination of the sediment phosphate composition by EDTA method
of fractionation. Limnetica 19: 199-204.
60. SERRANO, L., P. PÉREZ-ROMERO, A. PLAZUELO, A. TORRES & J.
TOJA. 2000b. Microbial degradation of dissolved polyphenolic compounds in
sesonal ponds. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 27: 3252-3259.
61. SERRANO, L., I. CALZADA-BUJAK & J. TOJA. 2003. Variability of the sed- DOÑANA FISH SPECIES
iment phosphate composition of a temporary pond (Doñana National Park, SW
Spain). Hydrobiologia, 429: 159-169. 80. DEL MORAL, L., 1991. La obra hidráulica en la cuenca baja del
62. SERRANO L., M. REINA, A. ARECHEDERRA M. A. CASCO & J. TOJA. Guadalquivir (siglos XVIII-XX). Gestión del agua y organización del ter-
2004. Limnological description of the Tarelo lagoon (SW Spain). Limnetica 23 ritorio. Ed. Consejería de Obras Públicas y Transportes. Ministerio de
(1-2): 1-10. Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación. Universidad de Sevilla.
63. SOUSA A. & P. GARCÍA-MURILLO. 2003. Changes in the wetlands of 81. DOADRIO, I. (ed.) 2001. Atlas y Libro Rojo de los Peces Continentales de
Andalusia (Doñana Natural Park, SW Spain) at the end of the Little Ice Age. España. Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza, Madrid.
Climatic Change 58: 193-217. 82. DOADRIO, I., CARMONA, J. A., FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., 2002.
64. TOJA, J., T. LÓPEZ & N. GABELLONE. 1991. Succesional changes in two Morphometric study of the Iberian Aphanius (Actinopterygii,
dune ponds (Doñana National Park). Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol., 24: 1556-1559. Cyprinodontiformes), with description of a new species. Folia Zoologica
65. TOJA, J., T. LÓPEZ & N..A. GABELLONE. 1997. Limnology of the permanent 1(51): 69-79.
dune ponds in Doñana National Park. In: F. García-Novo, R. M. M. Crawford 83. DRAKE, P., BALDÓ, F., CUESTA, J.A., GARCÍA-GÓNZALEZ, D.,
& M. C. Díaz-Barradas (eds.). The Ecology and Conservation of European SILVA-GARCÍA, A., ARIAS, A.M., RODRÍGUEZ, A., SOBRINO, I.,
Dunes. Serv. Publ. Universidad Sevilla, Spain: 221-228 p. FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., 2002. Spatial and temporal variation of
66. VELA, A. 1984. Estudio preliminar de la hidrogeología e hidrogeoquímica del the Nekton and Hyperbenthos from a temperate European estuary with
sistema de dunas móviles y flecha litoral del Parque Nacional de Doñana. regulated freshwater inflow. Estuaries 25 (3): 451-468.
Master Thesis. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 221 p. 84. FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., DRAKE, P., ARIAS, A.M., GARCÍA, D.,
67. ZUNZUNEGUI M., M. C. DÍAZ-BARRADAS & F. GARCÍA-NOVO. 2000. Peces de Doñana y su entorno. Colección Técnica, Organismo
1998. Vegetation fluctuation in Mediterranean dune ponds in relation to rain- Autónomo Parques Nacionales, Madrid.
fall variation and water extraction. Applied Vegetation Science 1: 151-160 85. GARCÍA-NOVO, F., MERINO ORTEGA, J., RAMÍREZ-DÍAZ, L.,
RODENAS-LARIOS, M., SANCHO-ROYO, F., TORRES-MARTÍNEZ,
A., GONZÁLEZ-BERNÁLDEZ, F., DÍAZ-PINEDA, F., ALLIER, C.,
THE ECOLOGY OF DOÑANA SCRUB BRESSET, V., LACOSTE, A., 1977. Doñana, prospección e inventario de
ecosistemas. Ministerio de Agricultura. Monografía 18. ICONA. Madrid.
68. CLAVIJO, A., DÍAZ BARRADAS, MC, ZUNZUNEGUI, M., AIN-LHOUT F., 86. CONSEJERÍA DE MEDIO AMBIENTE, 2001. Corredor Verde del
ALVAREZ CANSINO, L., CORREIA, O. & GARCÍA NOVO, F. 2003. A con- Guadiamar. Abril 1998-Abril 2001. Junta de Andalucía.
servaçâo de Corema album no litoral Atlântico da Península Ibérica; A influên- 87. MONTES, C., BORJA, F., BRAVO, M.A., MOREIRA, J.M., 1998.
cia de dispersores animais na regeneraçâo natural. Revista de Biología 21: 43- Reconocimiento biofísico de Espacios Naturales protegidos. Doñana, una
56 aproximación ecosistémica. Consejería de Medio Ambiente. Junta de
69. CLEMENTE, A., REGO F.C. & CORREIA, O. 2005. Growth, water relation Andalucía.
and photosynthesis of seedlings and resprouts after fire. Acta Oecologica 27: 88. SAURA MARTÍNEZ, J., BAYÁN JARDÍN, B., CASAS GRANDE, J.,
233-243. RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI, A., URDIALES ALONSO, C., 2001.
70. GARCÍA NOVO, F. & MERINO, J. 1993 Dry coastal ecosystems of Documento Marco para el Desarrollo del Proyecto Doñana 2005.
Southwestern Spain. Dry coastal ecosystems (ed E. van der Maarel), pp. 349- Regeneración hídrica de las cuencas y cauces vertientes a las marismas
362. Elsevier. Amsterdam. del parque nacional de Doñana. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Madrid.

259
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

THE RABBIT IN DOÑANA

89. ANGULO, E., 2003. Factores que afectan a la distribución y abundancia

del conejo en Andalucía. Tesis doctoral. Universidad Complutense de
Madrid.
90. ROGERS, P.M., ARTHUR C.P. Y SORIGUER, R.C., 1994. The rabbit in
Continental Europe: 22-63. In: The European wild rabbit": the history of
a successful colonizer. Thompson & King. Eds. Oxford Univ. Press. 245
p.
91. SORIGUER, R.C., ROGERS, P.M., 1981. The european wild rabbit in
mediterranean Spain.(600-613).: Proc. I World Lagomorph Conference.
Univ. Guelph, Canada.
92. SORIGUER, R.C., 1981. Biología y dinámica de una población de cone-
jos (Oryctolagus cuniculus, L.) en Andalucía Occidental. Doñana, Acta
Vertebrata, 8(3): 1-379.
93. SORIGUER, R.C., 1977. Mixomatosis en una población de conejos de
Andalucía Occidental. Evolución temporal, epidemia invernal y resisten-
cia genética.
94. VALVERDE, J.A., 1967 . Estructura de una comunidad de vertebrados
terrestres. Monografías, 1. CSIC. Madrid. 219 p.

260
The context of restoration
and the new paradigms of Doñana

B efore facing the challenges of restoring the hydrology of

Doñana and its catchment areas, it is useful to first recog-
nise the perceptions that have been held about this space from a
on the survival of this gem, and the final form that it takes. It should
not be forgotten that we are talking about a natural area situated
at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River Basin and, therefore, it is
number of perspectives.This is a district of 2,700 km2, the heart of affected by almost everything that occurs throughout the region.
which is the National Park, enveloped within the embrace of pro- The same is true of the Doñana Marshes watershed and the
tected areas like the Nature Park and extensive lands that border recharge surface of Aquifer 27, the water reservoir beneath
settled districts. These areas make up what is known as Greater Doñana soils.These are areas in which practically all human activi-
Doñana and cover an extensive natural region of 53,958 ha that ty is reflected in the water that finally wells up or drains into the
crosses ten municipal districts in the provinces of Huelva, Seville Marshes.
and Cádiz. All of these natural areas are closely interrelated with Another important feature is that Doñana is one of the last
the National Park's ecosystems.They are surrounded by a fringe of major unspoilt coastal territories in Europe, in which temperature
land that has been heavily influenced by human intervention, where and sunshine conditions and the sandy nature of soils form a foun-
there are many activities with direct impact on the natural systems dation and valuable support for intensive farming and for other
of Doñana. economical activities like tourism.These conditions have generated
Water is the backbone of the relationship between Doñana and conflicts of use and a temptation in the past to build on the coast-
its surroundings. It is a dynamic vector that makes up the dialogue line and to continue to do so. In the broad sense of the term,

Articles and descriptions of Doñana usually start with the tales of the travellers that visited the area out of some sort of scientific interest and who spread the word
about its wildlife, or they presented it as an out-of-the-way spot full of surprises. In the picture, a lynx attentively follows a prey from the base of a cork oak.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

263
 In less than two hundred years, the Doñana region has changed its appearance and uses surprisingly often. Each time, the changes have been driven by the
prevalent thinking of the time, a process that has not always been either linear or without conflicts. In the photograph, umbrella pine trees on sandy soils in the
Biological Reserve.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

where intensive, highly productive farming (rice fields and strawber-

ries) coexist with more extensive and traditional farming (vineyards
and olive groves)1.
In less than two hundred years, the Doñana region has changed
its appearance and uses surprisingly often. Each time, the changes
have been driven by the prevalent thinking of the time, a process
that has not always been either linear or without conflict.The pro-
tected areas have been successively extended since the conserva-
tionist movement began, while intensive uses of the land were
becoming increasingly widespread and enormous building develop-
ments appeared with the growth of the tourist industry. While the
pressure on groundwater resources increased in some areas, in
The beginning of the 20th century marked the destiny of the land owners in others, like El Abalario, restoration work was done on the wet-
Doñana, consolidating their estates. On the death of José Garvey in 1912,
half of the Coto de Doñana passed to his niece Maria Medina Garvey. Maria lands. Doñana grew into a protected natural area by means of the
Medina bought the other half of the Coto from the Count of Niebla. Her transformation of hunting estates into what have become real lab-
husband, Carlos Fernández de Córdoba, Duke of Tarifa, was a dynamic per-
son who built the Marismilla Palace and repaired the Doña Ana Palace, as oratories for science and for the observation of nature.
well as building houses for the game keepers and installing the metal plates
During each stage, a specific model or paradigm for Doñana has
marking the boundaries. The planting of pine trees, started by Garvey, con-
tinued, and magnificent hunts were organized in both Palaces. The King of arisen, which permeates how it is seen. There was the romantic
Spain Alphonse XIII attended on several occasions up until 1931, usually on
the 25th of January, to shoot deer, birds, and even lancing boar. He even
view, the "productivist" approach, the speculative and development
presided over the Council of Ministers in Doñana. There are photographs of views, the nature conservation view and, more recently, the appear-
the King moving around the Doñana Estate with the aid of the latest tech-
nology of the time, such as the one above showing a half-track “Citroën” ance and implementation of ideas on sustainable development. Each
vehicle that has been adapted to the sands of Doñana. of these perspectives marks a different stage, sometimes over-lap-
Photograph: Archives of the Doñana Biological Station.
ping in time and space.A review of these ideas and the actions they
Greater Doñana is a territory characterised by an extreme polar- have upheld enables us to gain a better idea of the multi-faceted
ization between natural uses - nearly 60% of this area is made up perception of Doñana in the great debate on the best approaches
of marshes, river banks and forest of great ecological and environ- to its conservation and restoration, especially in the area of water
mental value - and urban and agricultural uses that make up 36%, resources.

264
THE ROMANTIC VIEW: data on Doñana to appear in the travel books of the time, includ-
PARADISE IN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ing geographic descriptions and reports on the local customs that,
Articles and descriptions of Doñana usually start with the however, deal with issues in a way that is, at times, more insulting
tales of travellers who visited the area, inspired by a particular than harsh.An example of such is the chapter "The Hurdes and the
scientific interest. They spread the word about the area's wild tribes that inhabit them" found in Unexplored Spain. These
wildlife, or they presented it as an out-of-the-way spot full of works remained un-translated for years and were little known in
surprises. These tales formed part of a tradition known as the Spain, but in Europe, they became basic reference books for duck
"Grand Tour" among upper class youth of Great Britain and and big game hunters in Doñana and other parts of the Iberian
northern Europe. Such formative travel involved a romantic Peninsula. In the end, they were the stories that wrapped the Coto
interest in Spain in general and in Andalusia in particular. In Doñana in an aura of myth that helped to drive later initiatives.
1976,Alderich compiled 124 travel books on Spain just from the For Chapman and Buck, Doñana transcended the hunting
first half of the 19th century, by English authors, some well- estate to become a legend. Late in life, in his memoirs, Chapman
known, like Saunders, George Borrow, Robert Murray and recalles "For us... it has always seemed like a fragment torn from
Richard Ford, who came to Seville and took trips to Sanlúcar. In some wild African solitude and especially prepared for our person-
a letter dated January 1st, 1831, Ford relates that he had taken al benefit in this remote corner of Europe... Beyond the far edges
part in a hunt in the Coto del Rey, at the invitation of the of the known world... For us, field naturalists and lovers of the wild,
Asistente Arjona, describing Doñana as "magnificent country Doñana represented nothing short of Heaven on Earth"4.This quo-
for hunting, full of wild cocks", and he reproduced the Coto del tation immerses us in the perceptions of Spain that were held by
Rey Palace in one of his illustrations2. travellers from Great Britain and central Europe in the late 19th
In the late 19th century, the Coto de Doñana (Doñana game century, filtered by their romantic ideal, "Le pays de l´imprévu". It
reserve) attracted hunters, some with a defined naturalist interest, was a time in which the Andalusia of Washington Irving's Tales from
who have left us some interesting descriptions. Abel Chapman the Alhambra was more believable than the real thing. Doñana
(1851-1929), merchant, hunter and traveller to many countries, and embodied the naturalist version of the romantic ideal, where the
amateur naturalist, published Wild Spain in 1883, which was to be exotic was represented by the prodigious and incredible wildlife,
followed by other books.The recurring references in many of these described as "African" to highlight just how extraordinary it was. It
publications included the difficult access, the harsh landscapes of
shifting sand dunes and the inhospitable nature of the wild marsh-
es for mankind, made worse by their isolation at the time. In the
spring of 1883, Abel Chapman wrote a frank entry in his diary:
"There are no comforts. Spanish tobacco. No meat. Strong, dry, salt
cod and other repugnant things.All wet, no fire and no hope of get-
ting dry. Nobody speaks English. Nothing to read, drink or sit on!"3
Walter J. Buck (1843-1917) was British Vice Consul in Jerez, the
capital of a rich Sherry producing region of Spain and close to
Doñana. A keen hunter, Walter Buck founded in 1969 the first
Pigeon Shooting Society, setting a precedent that was to become
highly popular in Spain. In 1910, together with his friend Abel
Chapman, he published Unexplored Spain. Along with Alexander
Dingwall Williams and the Marquis of Torresoto de Brivieisca,
Chapman and Buck formed the group of "escriturarios" (scrip-
turals) that leased out the hunting in Coto de Doñana to the suc-
cessive owners between 1872 and 1912. Wild Spain and
Unexplored Spain combine an interest in hunting with a descrip-
tion of nature in a lifestyle that highlights adventure and exotic sit- The recovery and restoration of the aquatic ecosystems of Doñana and its
surrounds has become one of the main challenges faced in the framework
uations and which evokes images of incredible shoots with hun-
of the new conservation and sustainable development strategy that has
dreds of ducks brought down by one hunter in a single day's hunt- gradually taken hold in the area.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
ing. These works, written almost thirty years apart, offer the best

265
 "Without seeing them, it would be hard to believe that the shifting sands
of Sanlúcar were endowed with the fertility they have. It would appear
that, in ancient times, the sea has bathed most of the beaches and sandy
lands, now used for growing vines. The remains of shells, zoophytes and
other marine produce, mixed with the sand, provides evidence of its
ancient origin".
Esteban Boutelou 1807. Memoria sobre el Cultivo de la Vid en Sanlyucar de Barrameda y Xerez de la
Frontera.Imprenta Villalpando Madrid 160p. Edición Facsimil de la Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca, Junta
de Andalucía.Sevilla 2001.
Photograph: CENEAM files.

was an extremely difficult place to get to and the wildlife was hid- wharfs in Europe had been built in the Huelva Estuary, the work of
den in the immensity of a flat landscape. Eiffel. Seville was an important city, and in it the Court of
The version of Doñana as a "paradise" has lasted almost up to Montpensier, a noble family of pretenders to the Throne of Spain,
the present day, and a proportion of its visitors, estimated at 7%, was to incorporate the latest European cultural and artistic trends.
come here for what is almost a mystic experience.Threats, like the From a scientific point of view, the Doñana region had been an
mining accident of 1998, have been reported by conservationists as object of study by botanists and zoologists from Seville.
a transcendental assault capable of converting this protected area
into a "Paradise Lost". THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE DUNES
But the reality of the Greater Doñana area and the River Some of the motives that prompted the waves of reforestation
Guadalquivir estuary as perceived from its region Andalusia, and of the coastal area were attempts to bring the wasteland into pro-
from its capital Seville, was very different at this time. First of all, we duction by "exploiting Doñana".This is the case of the battle against
should not forget that, centuries earlier, the discovery and explo- the dunes that began in the 19th century.
ration of the Americas and the Philippines meant the arrival of ani- The period of climate fluctuation in Modern Age known as the
mals, plants, minerals and other natural objects totally unknown to "Small Ice Age" lasted from 16th to 19th century. From 1830 to 1870,
Europeans, turning this region into one of the major gateways to a period of heavy precipitations did take place with intervals of
the new worlds. But during the same decades as the romantic view severe drought, such as that of 1850-53.The wet period gave way
was being forged, this district was seen as an area for livestock, fish- to a progressively more arid interval during which the wind-borne
ing and forestry, a centuries-old hunting ground, along with other layer of sand that had stabilised and been colonised by vegetation
similar ones, situated in a dynamic region open to world trade.The again during the wet phase, once again became instable and start-
paddle steamer Real Fernando had been sailing up Guadalquivir ed to shift.At the end of the 19th century, shifting sand dunes invad-
River in a regular line between Seville and Cádiz with a stopover in ed farmlands in the Spanish coasts of Galicia to the North and of
Sanlúcar facing Doñana since 1817, just 10 years after Fulton's boat Catalonia and Murcia on the Mediterranean coast, and they threat-
sailed up the Mississippi. In the second half of the century, the rail- ened some settlements.This was a time in which there were sev-
road networks spread over the region, connecting Seville with eral active dune fields in the coast of the South of Spain such as in
Jerez, Puerto de Santa Maria and Sanlúcar. Mining in the Sierra Huelva and Cádiz provinces; in Barbate, the dune front even
Morena had caused a thick web of railway lines to spread out, reached the first rows of houses.
which reached Niebla and the Tinto River, and the largest mineral The "threat" of the dunes mobilised the public authorities.The

266
Directorate General of Agriculture appointed a commission of animals, or animals turned wild, like deer, lynx, rogue bulls7, stray
experts in 1887, to stabilize the SW coastal dunes from River asses and water fowl, such as the brightly coloured flamingo and the
Guadiana to River Guadalquivir mouths.The chairman, Luis Heraso, geese and ducks; a district wanting in all resources...." p262.
presented a study in 1889 and the South-West Dunes Afforestation "...the appearance of everything to be seen in the 70 square kilo-
Commission was established in 1892. Measures were implemented metres that the dunes occupy in these parts is that of a sea of sand,
in the 20th century: 1902, Isla Cristina; 1905, Puerto de Santa María almost completely devoid of vegetation, with many places giving the
and Barbate; 1906, Vejer; 1924, Odiel (Moguer and Palos); 1938, appearance of snow-covered land or of a desert. One would say, on
Almonte.After these stabilizing schemes, the planting of pines and seeing the monotonous surface of this region, that it had been the
eucalyptus continued until it reached 30,000 ha by 1948. scene of a great catastrophe, as the accidents that show up in this
In the Revista de Montes in 1900, Luis Heraso published a doc- zone appear before one's eyes to be in complete disorder..." p285.
umented study of the Almonte dunes6 and their stabilisation, which Heraso also includes two interesting historic details concerning
was the first scientific description of the Doñana dunes. He the Torre La Higuera. He mentions that the ruins of the Tower
describes the region as an immense 20,000-ha wilderness, dotted (Torre) were situated on the dune, from where it fell into the sea.
with fouled lagoons and ponds, and with a vegetation of pines, This was apparently based on an account from oral history,
poplars, oaks and cork oaks, referring to shifting sand dunes with although there is a report of 1855 confirming the evidence. Heraso
little vegetation and the remains of pine forests "from 40 years also mentioned that the Poleosas ponds formed a tributary, a
ago".This must have been the afforestation which started in 1850 stream called the Arroyo de la Higuera, at times of high water,
on the outer stable dunes of the system. He estimated that the area which drained into Arenas Gordas by the Tower, although the
covered by the dunes was 8,397 ha, including what is now El movement of the sands had blocked its course. He records that the
Asperillo and El Abalario in the Nature Park of Doñana to the east. Santa Olalla pond had lost half its basin to the invading dunes
He describes the morphology as 4 or 5 major dune fronts separat- between 1860 and 1890. He then completes his analysis with mete-
ed by "corrales" or small interdune valleys, and in several sectors orological data on Sanlúcar (1888) and the well water temperature,
he made the first estimates in measuring the dynamics, getting val- as an estimated average temperature of the area. It comes very
ues for the dune advance of between 1 and 25 m/year, which are in close to the values accepted nowadays: Sanlúcar at 17.2º, and the
line with more accurate studies conducted in the 1970s that gave first known data on the waters of Doñana: 18º to 19º for the Los
values of 3-6 m/year with an observed range of1-15 m/year. Carabineros and Charco del Toro wells.
In contrast with the current idea of Doñana as a World
Heritage Site, it is worth reproducing here the terrible impression
that the dunes and the sandy areas of Doñana left on Heraso6:
"..the dune band ...stretches down to the sea, and to give it a bleak-
er appearance, it runs into the poor land of flying sands and one
part that covers 80,000 ha. It has unvarying vegetation that forms a
mass of scrub comprising gorse, heather, mastic, rock rose and
liquorice, and only insignificant remains of the magnificent pine
forests that covered it 40 years ago. Furthermore, countless fouled
lagoons and ponds can be observed dotted over about and they fill
the atmosphere with unhealthy marshy emissions. And in another
one next to the sea, the most complete bareness, with only the
pure white surface of sand in continuous movement to be seen,
whirling around on the wind, forming dunes, which advance unceas-
ingly, which invade and sterilise everything, which block up the nat-
Water is the backbone of the relationship between Doñana and its sur-
ural courses of the water, generating new hubs of infection, and roundings. It is a dynamic vector that makes up the dialogue on the sur-
which present an image of an African desert throughout the length vival of this gem, and the final form that it takes. It should not be forgot-
ten that this natural area is situated at the mouth of the Guadalquivir and,
of this place.To complete the picture, it is suffice to say that this is therefore, it is affected by almost everything that occurs throughout the
region. The photograph shows a view of the mouth of the River
a zone in which the only thing usually to be found is the odd herd
Guadalquivir with the arrow of dunes, hosting the Marismillas pine for-
of goats guided by sallow-faced goat herders, their faces marked by est, ending at Punta del Malandar.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.
fevers that have not left them since childhood, a few groups of wild

267
 which Prof. Bernis had published in his handbook called Prontuario
de las aves de España, Mauricio González took on the task of trans-
lating Peterson's "A field guide to the birds of Britain and Europe",
published in 1953, transliterating the song of each species into
Spanish phonetics. Moreover, in 1954, Mauricio González, Pedro
Weickert, Rubio Recio, José Antonio Valverde and Francisco Bernis
together created the Spanish Ornithological Society, which com-
memorated its founders in 2004. The Andalusia Regional
Government awarded its Environmental Award to the first three of
these in 2004.
Valverde's active participation in the Third Expedition (1957)
allowed him to contact leading scientists. Max Nicholson invited
him to visit reserves in Great Britain and this experience proved to
be a catalyst for his efforts to create a Biological Reserve in
The idea of that wild Doñana described by romantics, completely isolated
from civilisation, was very different from the truth. In the same decades as
Doñana. In 1959, he prepared a summary on the decline of the
the romantic view was being forged, this district was seen as an area for Doñana Marshes wildlife for the IUCN and, in 1960, he document-
livestock, fishing and forestry, a centuries-old hunting ground, along with
other similar ones, situated in a dynamic region open to world trade. The ed the decline of the Spanish imperial eagle which, in light of agri-
paddle steamer Real Fernando had been sailing between Seville and Cádiz cultural changes, could have been driven to extinction. He saw that
with a stopover in Sanlúcar, since 1817, just 10 years after Fulton's boat
sailed up the Mississippi. In the photograph, the homonimous boat that is the conservation of this bird, in the end, depended on the owner
now used to visit Doñana, leaving from Sanlúcar de Barrameda. of the land and that a change in ownership or a change in land use
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
could easily wipe out the endangered population. He saw the
He also did research into analysing replanting techniques that answer to conserving the eagles and other threatened species was
would be applicable to the dunes and potential species to be used, to buy a large enough area of land in the heart of the Doñana
discussing their behaviour in terms of plant physiology, photosyn- Marshes and to create a research centre there.
thesis and nutrients, and showing a good scientific background. His He agreed to buy in the core part of the Marshes the Estate of
suggested candidates for planting the shifting dunes included Las Nuevas, from the Marquis del Mérito. To raise the necessary
European beach grass (Ammophila arenaria), Leymus arenarius, finance, he set up in London in 1961 an international fund for the
broom, gorse, salt cedar and Corema album. Tree species include protection of nature, which later became the World Wildlife Fund,
the umbrella pine tree and the pinaster pine. As a technique, he with the collaboration of Max Nicholson, Peter Scott and Guy
gives a detailed description of the "navazos"8 (orchards excavated
in the sands) of Sanlúcar, pointing out the early use of cat's claw to
stabilize sand walls. All the work was done by hand using animal
power, and it must have been extremely hard for men working on
sandy soils in the summer months.The author calculated that an ox
cart covers an average of 20 km per day with a load of 500 kg and
a man can walk 30 km carrying a 20 kg bundle. In 1900 and 1912,
Castro documented the advances made in replanting the Huelva
and Cádiz dunes and he supplies a long list of species used for sta-
bilising them, including eucalyptus, acacias and pine trees.

THE CHALLENGE OF CONSERVATION

With the help of Mauricio González, Doñana was present-
ed to the international scientific community in 1953. Since With the help of Mauricio González , Doñana was presented to the interna-
then, a wave of information on the enclave has begun circulat- tional scientific community in 1953. Since then, a wave of information on the
enclave has begun circulating around Europe and the world, always high-
ing around Europe and the world. lighting the exceptional bird life. In the photograph, a bean goose (Anser
Famous expeditions to Doñana bore important fruits. In order fabalis) in the Marshes of Doñana.
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
to promote the unification of common bird names around Spain,

268
 Doñana was created as a 35,000-ha Park in 1969, under pressure from the north by the intensive farming of the Almonte-Marismas Plan, to the east by processes
of change implemented in the Marshes, and to the south by tourist developments, whose driving idea, based on what was known as the Fraga Act of 1963, was
to convert the magnificent beaches of Doñana into an uninterrupted strip of development from Sanlúcar de Barrameda to Matalascañas. In the photograph, an
early view of Matalascañas, a tourist resort set between the sea and the National Park.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

Mountfort, in London in 1961. In Spain, the Board of the Biological lands to the north, as well as absorbing large cultivated areas in the
Station of the Marshes was created, which remained in operation "pre-park" zones, which were given a new protection status within
from the 17th of January 1962 to the 22nd of December 1964. In the Doñana Nature Park in 1982, increasing the protected surface
December of 1963,Valverde, the Secretary of the Board, negotiat- area to over 1000 km2.The role of research was key to the success
ed with the González family the purchase of 6,974 hectares bor- of the conservationists, as the scientists accepted the controversy,
dering the Doñana Marshes, with funds coming from the WWF and fostered environmental education and communication and used
a similar contribution from the Spanish State. The Biological international scientific forums to great success in their famous
Reserve was handed over to the Council for Scientific Research on "Save Doñana!" campaign.
the 22nd of June 1965 and the Council created the Doñana
Biological Station in Seville the following year.This initial core was THE HOPES AND DREAMS OF TOURISM
to act as a nucleus for creating the 35,000 ha of National Park that Sun, sea and sand tourism burst onto the scene in the 1960s as
was declared as such in 1969, in response to the question asked by the great panacea for the development of the Spanish coastline and,
Professor Bernis twelve years before as to whether it would be of course, Doñana was not to be left out of this tide of urbanisation.
possible to conserve this natural paradise or not. The entire coast of Doñana suffered a wide range of attempts to
The scientific community, government and society now recog- build tourist rersorts at this time.These were the years when every-
nised the existence of Doñana, but the new Park was surrounded one thought that the magic wand of tourism guaranteed prosperity.
by initiatives that could have been its death toll: the Almonte- The tourist development point of view was even more powerful, if
Marismas Agricultural Plan, the coastal road and beachfront urban- that were possible, than the "utopia" of agricultural development
isation. In the seventies, Spanish society, during its transition advocated by the Almonte-Marismas Plan. Even today, it is still sur-
towards democracy, after General Franco death in 1975, was to prising that the coastal road in pursuit of this goal was never built,
witness a stubborn fight put up by scientists and conservationists although it was planned, as was the case along most of the virgin
against developers, speculators and "experts" in the service of an coasts of Spain.
out-of-date administration. In 1979, Doñana National Park was In 1986, on the western corner of the National Park that bor-
extended to the south coast and pushed back the irrigated farm- ders the coast, Matalascañas resort was declared a Centre of

269
 For Chapman, Doñana transcended the hunting estate to become a legend.
Late in life, in his memoirs, Chapman writes "For us... it has always
seemed like a fragment torn from some wild African solitude and espe-
cially prepared for our personal benefit in this remote corner of Europe...
Beyond the far edges of the known world... For us, field naturalists and
lovers of the wild, Doñana represented nothing short of Heaven on
Earth.”
Photograph: José María Pérez de Ayala.

National Tourist Interest, an enclave like Mazagón, located on the of General Franco in 1975 and the new Constitution of 1978 cre-
same coast and close to Huelva.At the time of the declaration, the ated a more favourable climate for integrated conservation in
tourist industry was limited to a few summertime vacationers, Doñana and, as a highpoint of the decade, the National Park was
mainly from the bourgeoisie of Seville's Bajo Aljarafe who, since the extended to reach the sea in 1979, including a maritime-shoreline
1920s, had been renting the ranches that farmers and hunters had area along its coastal front to the Gulf of Cádiz. It was also extend-
built along the coastal strip.The case of Mazagón is somewhat dif- ed north to protect other areas.
ferent, being associated with the infrastructure that came out of the
reforestation process of the 1940s. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND DOÑANA
Matalascañas, however, is now a built up wedge that literally As was to be expected in a naturally and socially dynamic zone
borders on the National Park, where there are summer peaks of that was always on the edge of controversy, Doñana was early early
300,000 visitors and residents. Like most of the major operations identified as a potential area for sustainable development. Ideas on
of this kind at the time, so called tourist development did, in fact, sustainable development generated in the eighties, with the
become real estate operations in which construction was the main Bruntland Report (1987), led to the creation of an International
aim.Yet, the buildings were for second residences rather than for Committee of Experts in 1991 with Prof. Manuel Castells as its
the tourist industry. Much of the present effort is focused on Chairman. In 1992, the Committee published a report entitled
attempts to integrate this development into the surrounding area. "Basis for the Sustainable Development of Doñana and the sur-
Hence, Doñana was created as a 35,000-ha park in 1969, under rounding area". Based on their estimates, in December 1993, the
pressure from the north by the intensive farming of the Almonte- first Plan for Sustainable Development was approved by the region-
Marismas Plan, to the east by processes of change implemented in al Andalusian Government for the Greater Doñana area.
the marshes, and to the south by tourist developments, whose The Plan for the Sustainable Development of Greater Doñana
basic idea, based on what was known as the Fraga Act of 1963, was took the shape of eight action programmes with general objectives
to convert the magnificent beaches of Doñana into an uninterrupt- that focussed on resolving the issues of natural heritage conserva-
ed strip of development from Sanlúcar de Barrameda to tion and establishing the foundations for compatible social and eco-
Matalascañas, supported by a coastal road.The end of the dictature nomic development. In an area of such extremes, this experience

270
and the intentions of the programme have produced one of the stant reduction in the quality of the waters and a widespread pollu-
most exhaustive known exercises in social debate and project tion that is difficult to assess. Nevertheless, the most notable point
implementation in the area of sustainability, a concept so difficult to is that the systematic monitoring of water quality conducted after
put into practice.The programmes dealt with an the integrated man- the accident of 1998 has enabled experts to learn that all catchment
agement of water, farming, environment, tourism, road equipment areas draining to the Nature Park now have some disfunctions to
and infrastructure, the development of economic activity, education, be addressed.
cultural heritage, planning and management. The problem lies in the fact that once a policy is established to
The starting point for the International Committee of Experts solve a local problem (or because it has been promised by politi-
was to raise a model of sustainability for the Greater Doñana cians), new amendments are often assayed as new options where
encompassing over 2,700 km2 of area of influence. There are very none exist. In order to avoid affecting Doñana aquifer today, the
few cases of regional planning in which a protected area exercises politicians are discussing transferring water from the Guadiana
direct influence over such an extensive area, and fewer still in which catchment basin some 200 km apart. But, at the same time, other
the natural area is the leading player. Greater Doñana was forty alternatives have arisen within the original scope of the Plan and
times the size of the initial area of the Biological Reserve set up by have been successful. For example, the Doñana 21 label provides an
Valverde and three times the size of the protected areas to date ecological quality certification system for farm produce and servic-
included in the National Park and Nature Park.This is perhaps the es that has been a clear success since it was promoted by the
most important aspect and it has left its mark on the last twenty Doñana 21 Foundation. Innovative developments like the Dune
years of Doñana's history. It involves the whole territory, even Park, which has, in fact, acted as a buffer against the urban spread of
where it does not contain relevant natural value, and it marks the the Matalascañas tourist resort, are now a reality. Such is the case of
turning point in the destruction of the marshes and natural areas the long awaited Maritime Museum and the CICEMA, a research
that was proceeding at an average rate of over 500 ha/year.The Plan centre of the University of Huelva. The Museum exhibits the sea
for Sustainable Development not only slowed down this process, it mammal collection that José Antonio Valverde campaigned so long
also increased the rate of recovery and restoration over and above
the rate of destruction.What is more, it recognizes water as the key
asset in the new definition of the territory. The initiative was ten
years ahead of its time: this was the central concept of the World
Parks Conference, held in Durban in 2003, "Benefits before
Boundaries".
However, the same cannot be said of the ambitious programmes
that the Plan attempted to implement because, among other rea-
sons, it is still too early. Concerning the integrated management of
water resources, the balance is somewhat poor, with the exception
of the two major initiatives in course, Doñana 2005 and the Green
Corridor of the Guadiamar River, whose driving force was the
Aznalcóllar mine tailings accident of April 1998.Water continues to
be drawn from the Aquifer 27 at the same rate.The number of wells
and the total volume drawn has increased since the ruling was
made.The International Committee of Experts recommended not
irrigating rice with water from this aquifer. But, for example, the
"Hato Blanco" concession has maintained the same rate of water
consumption (around 10 hm3/year), causing a significant drop in the
phreatic levels year after year, mainly in Vera Norte, the northern
boundary of the Marshes of the National Park. El Arroyo de la The banks of the Guadalquivir River have been often re-shaped and
altered, being saltworks among the oldest man-made interventions. In the
Rocina stream has lost some of its original flow because of the wells above photograph, remains of the Levante saltworks, located within the
that have been dug for the intensive farming that is practised National Park opposite to Sanlúcar de Barrameda. Although salt exploita-
tion has been abandoned, they are preserved for the important ecosystems
throughout the headwaters of the catchment basin.The basic meth- they support.
Photograph: Ayesa.
ods of intensive farming have hardly changed, which means a con-

271
 Landscape Reconstruction, a large number of ponds and other
wetlands on sandy substrates of an extraordinary interest that
is dealt with in depth in this chapter, and the ecological restora-
tion programme for La Algaida Marsh of Sanlúcar, a clear illus-
tration of the potential opened up by restoring a tidal marsh10.
The banks of the Guadalquivir River Estuary, where La Algaida
is located, have been re-shaped with every flood, leaving visible
remains of former lucios (shallow lakes), cut-off river branches,
tidal marsh channels and levees that have had tracks, walls, chan-
nels, salt flats and erosion defences built on them. Since 1985, four
million cubic metres dredged from the shipping channel have
been dumped in the tidal marsh along an 8 km stretch of the left
bank, most of which belongs to the Nature Park. The dredged
material was dumped in a series of enclosures that measured 250
m wide by up to 500 m long, raising the mounds to 3 m high. For
this reason, the Ministry of the Environment has included in the
Doñana Sustainable Development Plan the restoration of 52 ha of
After La Algaida marsh was restored, monthly censuses of the birds have enclosures from the Martin Ruiz channel.
been carried out by 2000, which show an increase in diversity, reaching 91
The first phase consisted of removing the disposed dredged
species in 2004. Given the characteristics of the area that belongs to the
Nature Park, the potential diversity could be as high as some 200 species. material (some 600,000 m3) that was to be used to improve farm
In the photograph, an avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta).
Photograph: Spanish Autonomous National Park Authority.
holdings in the neighbourhood.The Ecological Restoration Project,
carried out by Francisco García Novo and Juan Bautista Gallego of
for, ever since he began to realize that the boundaries of the Doñana the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the Seville
concept did not stop at the beach.Will this be the new Doñana par- University, was implemented in 2000, and the follow-up pro-
adigm? gramme, run by the Ministry, was implemented over the four-year
period 2001-2005. The Andalusian Regional Government has also
THE RECOVERY OF DOÑANA: funded the monitoring of vertebrates, an important aspect as it
BEGINNING A CULTURE OF RESTORATION involves the Doñana Nature Park.
The recovery and restoration of the aquatic ecosystems of A panorama of the area to be restored, including the tidal
Doñana and its surrounds has become one of the main chal- marsh of the estuary, was that of vegetation dominated by Spartina
lenges faced in the framework of the new conservation and densiflora (a highly aggressive introduced species) and bunches of
sustainable development strategy that has gradually taken hold Phragmites australis and Scirpus maritimus reeds, with a poorly
in the area.The first stage, basically aimed at conserving species diversified vegetation cover.The initiative also faced an added chal-
and ecosystems, and including new protected areas, especially lenge, as the conditions of this part of the marsh meant that con-
the development of the "pre-park" zones. Experts have now servation had to be compatible with the public use of the area.
turned to addressing the main challenge: to recover, restore Hence, three restoration options were considered: 1. Ecological
and rehabilitate outstanding aquatic ecosystems that were in restoration to re-establish ecological functions and processes and
an advanced state of degradation.This policy received an enor- the characteristic species and communities of the area, all in a self-
mous boost after the Aznalcollar accident, in which, after clear- sufficient regime. 2. Rehabilitation to recover elements of the
ing up the pollutants, two major projects were tackled: Doñana degraded ecosystem with a view to conserving species and
2005 (restoration and regeneration of all the water drainage processes under a regime of artificial regulation. 3. Re-building, con-
basins) and the Green Corridor of the Guadiamar River (func- structing different habitats from pre-existing ones, designed to
tional and ecological restoration of the watercourse). Apart maintain certain species.
from these major projects, however, another two earlier ones The ecological restoration applied was aimed at recovering the
should also be mentioned, as they have allowed scientific ecosystems associated with tidal marshes, which had been reduced
understanding to amass and they act as benchmarks in restor- to a very small area in the Guadalquivir Estuary, with actions being
ing a range of different ecosystems.These were the El Albalario focused on the basis of four criteria: to increase biodiversity,

272
restore tidal flow, promote the self-organisation of the system and After this stage was completed, a monitoring programme was
facilitate public use.Two restoration methods were applied, dividing established, including: a system to regulate the flow of the tide,
the zone into two areas: the north (22 ha), with intensive interven- measuring of the rate of sedimentation and erosion, and the mon-
tion, and the south (30 ha) with moderate intervention and a high- itoring of physical, chemical and biological variables in the water, the
er degree of self-organisation (see Figure 1).The use of cement or plant succession, and the use of the different habitats by wildlife. In
metallic sluices was ruled out, in order to maintain a natural accordance with the model of adaptive management, small modifi-
appearance of a dendritic marsh landscape, with undulating chan- cations have been when the succession or the regime of floods on
nels and giving rounded shapes to the contours of ponds and the Guadalquivir River made it necessary.
islands. This follow up has shown that the re-vegetation of the area has
The intensive intervention on the north area maximised water occurred very quickly, with colonisation by typical tidal and non-
renewal and the maintenance of 0.5 m of water or more in 20% of tidal marsh species. Most of these are Chenopodiaceae (Salicornia,
the surface area.To study this system, a simulation programme was Sarcocornia, Atriplex, Salsola, Suaeda, Halimione), apart from other
used with fluctuating tidal levels in the estuary, and trials were done genera like Spartina, Mesembryanthemum, Spergularia and others.
with different channel lengths and cross sections, and opening two These species have distributed in varying numbers and cover, with
mouths, each one 13 m wide, to connect to the estuary, and exca- greater alpha diversity in the higher marshes and lesser diversity in
vating 2,060 m of channels. Removable gravel sluicegates were the lower marshes. On the sandy islands, the pasture is similar to
installed in the mouths.The material removed (30,000 m3) was used
FIGURE 1
to build three islands, each of which stood up to 0.5 m above the La Algaida Marsh Restoration Project.
surface of the surrounding areas.Two of them have had 0.15 m top- Designed by the Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the
University of Seville. 2000.
soils added from areas nearby. In order to import propagules to the
“islands”, submerged deposits of sand and gravel were prepared, in
order to offer an array of substrates to aquatic organisms.
In the southern area, the moderate intervention consisted of
opening small channels and three wide mouths into the estuary.
The tidal flow facilitated the self-organisation of channels, generat-
ing a typical tidal marsh dendritic network that made a diversity of
habitats possible. Access was opened up to the species from ter-
restrial and aquatic environments, enhancing connectivity with the
help of tidal flow, letting species move into the zone.
The result of this is a highly diverse system in terms of the
diversification of habitats.The hydrology was the main factor that
defined the zoning of animal and plant species. This was attained
through introducing variations in the height and the slope of the
surfaces.Along with the tidal cycle, it has determined the extension,
depth and duration of the flood, thus, in turn, facilitating the coloni-
sation of the area by different communities of plants, macro-inver-
tebrates and ground fauna, an essential resource for water fowl,
mainly wading birds. The channels are a suitable habitat for algae,
water plants, fish and decapods, and they also provide food
resources for herons, cormorants, geese, terns and other water-
fowl. On two of the islands, the introduction of seed banks and
propagules from neighbouring sandy pasture lands was opted for.
These came in the sandy soil that was brought in, which already
contained insects and other soil invertebrates. As they are free
from flooding, these islands have allowed fully terrestrial communi-
ties to develop, and have also acted as breeding grounds for some
birds.

273
 the original small hills with gramineae (Lolium, Pholiurus, Hordeum, out, which show an increase in diversity, reaching 91 species in
Phalaris) and legumes (Meliloltus, Medicago, Trifolium) and 2004. Given the characteristics of the area, the potential diversi-
Arctotheca calendula, an introduced species.Together these form a ty could be as high as some 200 species. In the lower and mid
diverse community (up to 15 sp/m2) with a good vertical structure marsh areas, there is a constant abundance of waders like dunlins,
(up to 40-60 cm in height). redshanks, greenshanks, ringed plover, little ringed plover, Kentish
In the southern area, the water moss Riella helicophylla made plover, grey plovers and godwits. In areas of shallow waters, avo-
its appearance in crystal clear waters in 2002 in a very few sites in cets, black-winged stilts, spoonbills, flamingos, great white egrets,
Doñana, creating a community that has multiplied in 2003 and mallards, red-crested pochard, European pochard and whistling
2004, suggesting that the restored marsh acts as a secondary dif- ducks are in abundance. In the interior channels, there are grey
fusion centre for the species in the estuary. Other rare or critical herons, purple herons, egrets, cormorants and several species of
species in the Doñana Parks and their surroundings may also find terns. Marsh harriers, black and red kites fly over the area. But
in the restored zone a base to support their presently endangered one of the great surprises that came out of the restoration of La
survival. Algaida has been the presence of several ospreys that stop to fish
The area was used by wildlife immediately after the first the channels for several weeks during their winter migration.
flooding, with fish appearing in the channels and birds throughout Three years after the restoration, the marshes have been
the marsh, coming here to find resources and refuge. Rabbits and functionally zoned, according to the frequency of flooding and the
moles appeared on islands and pastures, along with the fox, which colonisation (that has followed water, aerial and land routes) by
immediately learned how to reach the islands. During the process all groups of organisms to be found in the zone.The diversity of
of monitoring the fish life between February and December 2002, the communities has, in the first instance, been structured with
8,831 specimens of 22 different species were caught - a very high dominant species or groups, Fundulus heteroclitus in fish, waders
number bearing in mind that the potential diversity of estuary fish in birds, Salicornia perennis and Spartina densiflora in the vegeta-
is 60 species. Fundulus heteroclitus was the most abundant tion, diatomaceae and green-blue algae in floodable areas, and so
(75.6%), followed by Liza saliens (11.5%) and Pomatoschistus on.
microps (7.7%). Monthly censuses of the birds have been carried Restoring unusual environments like permanent tide water
channels, temporary clean water masses with low salinity, or poor
substrates like porous rocks, perches and roosting sites, has pro-
moted the introduction and presence of typical marshland
species that were previously absent in the area, and typical
species of marine water environments, like pitchers, put into in
the gravel of the sluicegates that close the mouths. Vegetation
planting accelerated some of the system characteristics (primary
productivity, accumulation of nutrients in the necromass, struc-
turing), favouring higher trophic levels and the presence of later
species in the succession.The downside is that it initially creates
communities with reduced diversity, because of the colonising
effect.
Taken as a benchmark for the new way of seeing Doñana, this
intervention, along with others, has allowed scientists to gain
experience in the restoration initiatives for the marshes of the
National Park, that are being implemented within the framework
Talking of Doñana always revives a kaleidoscope of images in our memo-
ry: the vibrant pajareras, nesting colonies of herons perched on the cork
of the Doñana 2005 Plan. In this latest view of Doñana, the chal-
oaks of La Vera, the flocks of flamingos forming red eyebrows over the lenge is no longer just to conserve and protect. Science, society
water line of the Marshes and lighting it up with their reflection when
they take flight; the enormous flocks of geese flying to Cerro del Tigre at and the administration have now all joined in an alliance to
dawn to eat sand; the columns of white storks or black kites flying in cir- reverse the process of aggravation that Doñana has been subject-
cles over the dry marshes preparing their migration; the hundreds of
dying carp in a pond as it dries out, food for herons and kites, the bellow- ed to in the past. In this emblematic Biosphere Reserve, one of
ing of the deer in the autumn nights… the world's most impressive living laboratories in the recovery of
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.
wetlands has been established.

274
The agricultural J C V OSEFINA RUZ ILLALÓN *

development in the surroundings of Doñana

spatial and landscape changes

he circumstances of the area surrounding Doñana stand between the Condado and the Marshes, of rural settlements
T in contrast to the trend of progressive decline of farming
activities that took place in Europe over the 20th century. While
typical of the Andalusian countryside.These towns and villages,
including Aznalcázar, Pilas, Hinojos, Almonte, Moguer,
the area was agriculturally marginal and non-productive at the Villamanrique de la Condesa, and later Isla Mayor and El Rocío,
beginning of the last century, it later became a target of intense were the farthest outreaches of human settlement into the
agricultural transformation, especially during the second half of the marshes.
1900s.Today, upon viewing the composition of gross income, agri-
cultural employment and even the influx of immigrant farm work- THE PRIMARY CHANGES IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
ers, Doñana continues to be agricultural territory in both eco- Afforestation
nomic and social terms.This is truly disconcerting if we consider Through the years, Doñana and its surrounding area have been
that rather than being located in a remote rural area, Doñana is the target of a variety of afforestation plans, with varying degrees
the centre of the most important population triangle in the south- of intensity, extent and results. The year 1737, for example, can be
western Iberian Peninsula. In addition, the surrounding metropoli- considered an emblematic date as this was when the first umbrel-
tan areas -Huelva, Cadiz and, especially, Seville- put a great deal of la pine trees were introduced onto the private estate of
pressure on the territory in demands for recreational, tourism and Marismillas, close to the stuary of Guadalquivir River. However, the
residential land uses. afforestation schemes that had the greatest impact on the trans-
formation of Doñana's territory and landscape were the public ini-
THE PRISTINE STATE tiatives implemented since the early years of the 20th century.
If one could speak of a pristine state regarding Doñana's Afforestation was mainly the result of public intervention
surrounding areas, this could be considered to have lasted until motivated by a productivist frenzy and the need to remedy the
well into the 20th century, despite the attempts at transforma-
tion carried out in the second half of the 19th century. Up until
then the landscape of Doñana and its surrounding area was
dominated by the Marsh of the Guadalquivir. The marshlands
extended along both banks of the river downstream of Seville
all the way to the sea and included the large sandy coastal areas
in the western area and the strip of consolidated Tertiary soils
that characterise the countryside in the southern Condado
region.
The soils in the marshlands sustained a wide array of pro-
ductive uses, such as hunting, fishing and pasture for livestock
grazing, in an area that had undergone very little change with
minimal human presence. The wide expanses of sand plains
were considered to be "sterile by nature". In contrast, the
Condado region sustained traditional Mediterranean dry farm-
ing such as cereal, olive groves and vineyards. This was con-
ducive to the establishment, distributed all along the border

Forested areas
* Professor of Human Geography at the University of Sevill,.Spain. Protected areas
Member of the Doñana National Park Board.. Member of the International Experts Boundary of the Doñana region
Commitee (Sustainable Development Plan for Doñana)

275
 Agricultural production has been refocused responding to the market
demands, being the significant expansion of citrus groves and strawberry
plantations around El Rocio a good example of it. In the picture, view of
El Rocío shrine from the Marsh.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. Ceneam files.

dearth of supply in the Spanish timber industry, and to a lesser in preserving Doñana's ecosystems and as buffer zones that miti-
degree, from the need to stabilise the dunes that threatened the gate human impact on the Parks and their associated landscapes.
towns along the south-western coast of the peninsula. Between
1904 and 1924 the Seville-Huelva District Forest Brigade carried Transformation for agricultural purposes
out an intensive transformation of nearly 17,000 hectares in the In following with the trend taking place in other European ter-
wilds of Almonte, Hinojos and Aznalcazar. Nonetheless, the most ritories of similar characteristics, and in the strictest sense of
significant transformation took place after 1940 and was imple- "cleaning them up" and "improving" their value, since the 19th cen-
mented by the National Forest Heritage Authority. tury there have been several attempts at draining the Guadalquivir
Although they peaked in the 1950s, the activities of the Marshes and turning it into arable land. Nonetheless, due to a lack
Heritage Authority lasted well into the 1970s and were not limit- of financial or technical resources, all attempts failed and the
ed to afforestation, but also involved a resettlement process that marshes thus remained in their semi-natural state until well into
led to the construction of several forestry villages (Bodegones, the 20th century.
Acebuche, Abalario, Cabezudos, etc.), built to host the working Rice farming was successfully introduced in the 1920s under
population.This is an excellent indicator of the demographic vac- private initiative on what were once the central islands of the
uum that existed in the area. However, these population settle- Guadalquivir river. The industry was bolstered by support from
ments neither endured nor changed the prior settlement system. the incoming authorities during the Spanish Civil War (1936-39),
They only survive today as testimonies of the aforementioned after General Franco's rebel forces took the rice-producing areas
afforestation schemes and they might play a complementary role from the control of the Republican government. Currently, the
in the tourist model for Doñana's surrounding areas. Guadalquivir rice fields comprise the largest and most productive
Pursuing rapid growth rates of trees, the area was afforested rice farming area in Spain, with a total surface area of about 35,000
with eucalyptus and to a lesser extent with umbrella pines. The hectares. With the exception of some that have been pumping
current trend in public policy is to replace eucalyptus with pines water from the aquifer in direct conflict with preservationist inter-
and cork oaks, in programmes aimed at environmental improve- ests, most rice farmers use surface water from the Guadalquivir
ment and the regeneration of native vegetation.Whereas the ini- River. As the farmers have increasingly taken up measures to
tial drive behind afforestation was the productive value of forests, rationalize herbicide and pesticide use, it can be affirmed that rice
today greater value is placed on the role that forested areas play farming not only peacefully coexists with the Parks, but helps to

276
sustain the population of migratory birds as well. The survival of
rice faming is conditioned by the availability of scarce water
resources, which is in turn determined by the granting of water
rights by the Guadalquivir River Basin Authority, by periodical
droughts, and by the subsidy policies of the European Union
regarding rice crops.
From the perspective of spatial development, the agricultural
colonisation of the central islands of the Guadalquivir estuary
entailed human settlement as well and the construction of farming
villages, whose original names (Alfonso XIII, Queipo de Llano,Villa
Franco del Guadalquivir) are clear indications of the historical
time period in which they were founded, the first half of 20th cen-
tury.The firmly established humanisation of this territory, directly
resulting from rice farming, became patent on an administrative
level when the village of Villa Franco del Guadalquivir, until then
administratively dependent on the town of La Puebla del Río, was Doñana and its surrounding area have been the target of a variety of
afforestation plans. The year 1737 was when the first pine trees were intro-
granted independent status as a municipality in 1988.Villa Franco duced onto the private estate of Marismillas, now within the National Park.
changed its name to Isla Mayor in 2001, with a population of over However, the afforestation schemes that had the greatest impact on the
transformation of Doñana's territory and landscape were the public initia-
6,000 inhabitants. tives implemented in the 20th century. In the picture, prearation of a charcoal
The marshes situated on the Guadalquivir's left bank were suc- pit in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala. CENEAM files.
cessfully transformed into arable land as a result of a government
intervention project targeting over 70,000 hectares of which permanent.The project divided the area into geometric plots and
33,000 were marshlands. Starting in 1960, the publicly funded caused profound spatial and landscape changes. Due both to its
"Irrigation Area of the Lower Guadalquivir" project entailed the location on the left bank of the river and to the fact that the irri-
construction of several colonisation settlements that later became gation water comes from reservoirs that are external to the water
resources affecting the Parks, there is an increasing trend to disas-
sociate this area from the so-called "surroundings of Doñana".
However, it must not be forgotten that a large part of this area is
the result of the draining of ancient marshes on the left bank of
the Guadalquivir River.
On the right bank of the Guadalquivir River, and based on FAO
(Food and Agriculture Organization) reports regarding the exis-
tence of a large aquifer in the area, the Spanish government began
transforming the sandy plains of the Doñana surroundings into
irrigated farmland in 1971. The initial project intended to trans-
form a total surface area of 46,000 hectares into irrigated farm-
land, estimating that 160 hm3 could be abstracted from the aquifer.
But from its very inception, the story of the Almonte-Marismas
Irrigation Plan is a story of controversy and redesign.This was evi-
denced as Doñana Park became embattled in formal disputes on
two fronts that were interconnected to each other. The first dis-
pute focuses on water resources: the planned volumes of irriga-
tion water were reduced as knowledge of the true conditions of
the aquifer increased, leading to the conclusion that its capacity
Dry-farming fields
Rice fields had been initially overestimated. At the same time, the relation-
Almonte-Marismas irrigable area
Other irrigated areas
ship between water abstraction for irrigation and the lowering of
the piezometric levels inside the Parks became better understood.

277
 North-east of the National Park the Marshes meet the rice fields and the
of water per year, are in direct contact with the natural protected
farms previously dried to grow cereals. In both photographs it is possible
to see the Finca de Caracoles, included in the National Park in 2004 for its areas. Agricultural production has been refocused according to
restoration. The above aerial photo clearly shows the outline of the
Travieso channel after a period of flooding: the Marsh is claiming it back.
water availability - with new extensive irrigation crops and, in the
Photograph: CENEAM files. case of Villamanrique, even dry-farming - or responding to the
market demands in recent years, resulting in a significant expan-
sion of citrus groves and strawberry plantations around El Rocio.
Finally, also beginning in the 1970s, the farthest reaches of the
western sector of the National Park have undergone substantial
changes with the development of strawberry farming in areas that
up until then had been unproductive, forested or used for dry-
farming. Strawberry farming was introduced experimentally on a
private farm and owing to its high economic returns and labour
requirements spread in a very fast and uncontrolled manner.The
phenomenon has even involved illegal occupation of public land by
local landless agricultural workers (in Palos, Moguer, Lucena and
Bonares to the west of the National Park) who saw it as the solu-
tion to their depressed economic situation.
The uncontrolled occupation of public land seems to have
The second dispute is related to the evolution of the Park's slowed down in recent years. For this very reason, now is the time
boundaries and of the irrigated area: the larger the extension of to undertake a public initiative aimed at reorganizing the territori-
the Park, the greater the reduction in irrigated farmland. al changes caused by the spontaneous and irregular phenomenon
Currently some 15,000 hectares are being irrigated with of anarchic land use.This public initiative could include legal nor-
groundwater, nearly 10,000 of which were transformed for agricul- malization of land property and water abstraction rights, improv-
tural purposes under the Almonte-Marismas Plan, while somewhat ing and organising rural trails and, above all, controlling the differ-
over 5,000 are located outside the boundaries of this scheme. ent types of waste and pollutants that are endangering Doñana
These two areas, which together consume between 55 and 60 hm3 and its heritage.

278
Currently the Guadalquivir rice fields outside the National Park comprise the largest and most productive rice farming area in Spain with a total surface area of
some 35,000 hectares.
Photograph: CENEAM files.

279
Co-existence of livestock JUÁN CALDERÓN RUBIALES *

in the Marshes of Doñana

One of the largest concentrations of equids in Spain, a long-held tradition called the “saca de las yeguas” (The Mares' Roundup), takes place every year on the 26th
of June.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

S ince time immemorial domestic livestock has ranged the

Doñana Marshes under an extensive grazing system. At
present, the livestock herd is comprised of three native races: the
tion closely linked to horses is the Rocio pilgrimage, which stems
from the deep devotion of the people of the surrounding towns to
Our Lady of El Rocio, a title of the Virgin Mary.Thousands of devo-
Doñana cattle (vaca mostrenca), the Retuertas horse (caballo de tees journey, mostly on horseback, to the village where the shrine
Las Retuertas) and the Andalusian churra sheep (oveja churra lebri- is located at the very edge of the Marshes.
jana).The bulk of the herd is comprised of cattle and horses, which, Because they are Doñana's largest herbivores, cattle and hors-
from several perspectives, play an important role in the area. es play an important role in marshes and dunes by modelling the
On the one hand, we find highly significant pre-existing histori- vegetation. Their presence has been an overriding factor in
cal-cultural components. There are strong indications it was from Doñana's vegetation being what it is today. In addition, the way in
here that the first horses and cattle were taken to the New World which they graze makes certain foodplants available to the small
in the early 16th century. In addition, every year on the 26th of June herbivores (rabbits, small rodents, etc.) that are so very important
a long-held tradition takes place, called the "saca de las yeguas" to Doñana's ecosystems given that they in turn are preyed upon by
(The Mares’ Roundup), which is one of the Spanish largest concen- the wide array of raptors and other carnivores.
trations of equids. The horses that graze in Doñana Marsh are Still, it is essential that the delicate balance between the grazing
herded together and then driven to the town of Almonte where load of the cattle and horses and the vegetation that they consume
their manes and tails are trimmed and their foals are sold before be maintained. Care must be taken that their presence does not
they are herded back to the countryside. Another cultural tradi- endanger their own survival nor that of the other herbivores (rab-
bits, hares, geese, ducks, deer, fallow deer, and so forth) during pro-
* Doñana Biological Station longed droughts.The Livestock Plan recently came into force with

281
 the intent of achieving this balance even under the most adverse
conditions.
Another important role played by livestock is that of food for
carrion feeders, among which we find vultures, Egyptian vultures,
foxes, imperial eagles, kites, and others.These animals have an ever
more difficult task of finding places in which large herbivores are
left in the countryside when they die. Doñana is now one of the
few natural feeding grounds for vultures, for whom fallen livestock
is the main source of food.
The particular manner in which livestock exploitation is carried
out in Doñana has created a remarkably close bond between the
inhabitants of the surrounding area and the protected area. In fact,
it has led many nature-loving livestock breeders to become fre-
quent visitors of Doñana, creating an emotional bond with the area
at the same time it affords them financial benefits. Nonetheless,
social benefits constitute the primary value that the National Park
obtains from livestock. Maintaining this, without increasing the
upsetting movement of people carrying out these activities within
the park, is the main challenge of the Livestock Plan, which is the
result of consensus between management and livestock breeders
associations in the surrounding area.
On the other hand, recent analyses are starting to reveal that
Doñana cattle and the Retuertas horse have genetic singularities
worthy of preservation. It would not be surprising to discover that
limited human intervention in selection processes has given rise to
two races that are superbly adapted to the environment with a high
It is essential that the delicate balance between the grazing load of degree of genetic richness. Confirmation of preliminary impres-
the cattle and horses and the vegetation that they consume be sions would afford further biodiversity, in this case to domestic ani-
maintained, avoiding possible impacts on the complex marsh
system. mals, to Doñana's already privileged domain of biological variety.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

Doñana cattle (vaca mostrenca) present genetic singularities worthy of preservation.

Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

282
Reconstruction of the PABLO GARCÍA MURILLO *

Abalario landscape
a referent model for environmental restoration in Doñana

"...the land is used exclusively for hunting, it is unsuitable for agri- FIGURE 1
Setting of the study area.
culture and is permanently and on the most part comprised of dunes
and unhealthy marshes"
Executive Decree, September 3, 1941 (BOE 265 of 22 September)

ntil just a few years ago, the landscape of Doñana National

U Park stood in stark contrast to the panorama viewed
upon crossing its western boundaries.The idyllic landscape of the
famous protected area gave way to a bleak territory; an immense
space, mostly arid but covered by monotonously endless eucalyp-
tus plantations at its most northerly reaches, and by rickety pine
trees in the areas nearest the coast.The area presented numerous
ponds and dry washes covered over with a tapestry of eucalyptus
leaves, ghost villages and an endless array of paths that led
nowhere.
Although the area targeted for restoration lay within the
National Park
Natural Park, for reasons of landscape coherence the team of Nature Park
Limits of the study area
botanists conducting the restoration expanded the study area
beyond the limits of the Protected Area26. Specifically, a surface area that the organisational pattern of autochthonous vegetation could
of nearly 25,000 hectares (Figure 1) was included, enclosed not be clearly established.
between the Rocina stream (northern boundary), Castilla Beach Broadly speaking, the zone's vegetation cover could be divided
(southern boundary), the C-445 motorway (eastern boundary) and into two well-differentiated parts (Figure 2):
the wildlands known as “Montes Propios de Moguer” (western - The northern half and the pond complex, where the soils were
boundary). moister and the ancient pond basins were occupied by huge
Apart from climate factors and focusing on the physical medi- masses of dense eucalyptus groves that in many places had
um, the area presented two basic features that characterised the grown spontaneously from seeds.
landscape. In the first place, the substrate was very poor, comprised - The southern half, which was comprised of the area with the
mostly of sandy sediments of relatively recent origin (from the lowest soil moisture, was populated with often stunted pine
Quaternary eolian mantle), a product of the successive appearance trees which in many places afforded minimal cover.
of a number of dune fronts. Secondly, the very low relief of the area, The native vegetation had been reduced to poor ephemeral
which is altered only by the presence of the Asperillo sand cliff to pastures and open and occasionally sparse scrubland, correspon-
the south, with elevations exceeding 100 metres. ding to the subserial stages of the former native forests.
Additionally, although a few ponds formed following the rainy sea-
THE LANDSCAPE IN 1993 son, there was virtually no aquatic vegetation owing to the basins
The study zone had undergone little change in recent decades. being occupied by the eucalyptus trees and to the effects of the ter-
Preliminary surveys clearly revealed the difficulties to be overcome penic compounds from their leaves (Figure 2).
in interpreting the vegetation cover of the landscapes, which had Among the difficulties encountered in analysing the vegetation
been so highly modified as a consequence of afforestation activities cover, as there were not sufficient samples of either palustrine or
land vegetation, the team of botanists decided to combine tradition-
*
University of Seville. al techniques of floristic (plant survey and collection) and vegetation

283
 LANDSCAPES OF ABALARIO IN 1993

FIGURE 2
View of the village and surroundings of the
Eucalyptus forest plantations in the northern Eucalyptus in the Ribatehilos ponds.
Abalario, where the umbrella pine plantations
zone and the masses of eucalyptus trees can be
observed around the ponds.

organisation of the different plant communities of the zone were,

MAP OF LAND USES IN 1987
apart from afforestation activities, soil moisture and time.
Data from a diachronic study of aerial photographs (from over-
flights in 1946, 1956 and 1987), as well as satellite images from
Landsat TM (1986 and 1990) and Spot (1989) were then added to
the results obtained in the vegetation study.The maps enabled sur-
face area measurements of the recognised vegetation units and the
afforested zone (Table 2) to be taken, thus enabling the magnitude
of change to be quantified.
Through the analysis of aerial pictures, it was possible to note
important changes in the surface drainage network as well as in the
surface area associated to the wetlands. In the same way, in order to
FIGURE 3
obtain a better perspective on the changes, diverse historical maps
were used together with current maps to carry out an exhaustive
Preliminary surveys clearly revealed the difficulties in interpreting the
vegetation cover, which had been so highly modified as a consequence of toponymic study that proved to be highly useful in the landscape
afforestation that the patterns of native vegetation could not be clearly analysis19,29. Once compiled, the data were used to draw up an array
established.
of thematic maps among which we highlight those of vegetation,
(transects surveying and analysis of aerial photography and satellite afforested areas, surface drainage and the evolution of the surface
imagery studies) with techniques more in line with history and areas of the ponds (Figure 3).
geography disciplines, such as the search for documents offering
information on the area's landscape in the past, testimony from for- HISTORY OF THE LANDSCAPE AND ITS ECOLOGY
mer inhabitants, studies of land use, toponymy and study of the sur- Finally, with the information that had been compiled, the
face hydrology. changes that had taken place in the Abalario were reconstructed
With the information gathered via both channels, the group was from a chronological viewpoint following the evolution of its land-
able to sectorise the space according to natural vegetation types. scape.The result was the identification of three well-defined stages,
The different plant communities observed were grouped into vege- each with a vegetation cover clearly distinguishable from the oth-
tation units. In most cases the units were related to the most promi- ers and reflecting the different land uses of the zone: Stage 1 (17th
nent woody communities and usually included various communities century?-1930), Stage 2 (1940-1970) and Stage 3 (1993-2005).
that were identified following phytosociological methods, with the
purpose of facilitating comparisons to other studies.A summary of Stage 1 (17th century?-1930)
the recognised units can be found in Table 1. In addition, bearing in This period was characterised by a landscape with little human
mind how environmental factors and afforestation had influenced intervention in which the vegetation cover presented maximum
the vegetation, functional models of the acknowledged vegetation complexity.This was possible owing to the marginal nature of the
units were elaborated in relation to different environmental param- lands as its soil was not suitable for agriculture, not good for live-
eters. The conclusion was that the most influential factors in the stock and situated in an area that was seasonally flooded and con-

284
sidered to be a focus of malaria. Due to this, human settlements in
EVOLUTION OF THE PEAT BOGS (1956-1987)
the zone of study were very few and isolated and roads were
practically non-existent.This stage corresponds to the periods of
communal ownership (18th and 19th centuries) and private owner-
ship (1855-1940).The vegetation landscape during this period was
articulated around three distinct formations:
Sclerophyllous woodlands: situated in the areas with moist soil
and comprised of cork oaks and wild olive trees, with irregular
cover; abundant lianas and a quite diverse and developed array of
woody strips located in the northern half of the territory.
Psammophilous communities: Located on the most sterile sub-
strates, mobile and with a very low degree of moisture in the soil;
cover was minimal and the mature communities were charac-
terised by the presence of Phoenician juniper (Juniperus
phoenicea subsp. turbinata), accompanied by xerophytic scrub
such as Halimium halimifolium and gorse (Stauracanthus genis-
toides). Broadly speaking, their location corresponded to the area
forested with pine groves.
Pond and palustrine formations: undoubtedly the wide scattering
of ponds is one of the most unique features of the Abalario land-
scape.Together with the cork oak groves, the pond and palustrine
formations were the landscapes most damaged by human inter-
vention in the following stage. Among the diverse types of palus-
trine environment that were present in the zone, especially rele- FIGURE 4
vant were the peat bogs, that were extremely abundant during this The high number of scattered ponds was undoubtedly one of the singular
elements of the Abalario landscape.
period but are today restricted to an very reduced surface area
(Figure 4).
company, and with their fast-growth tree plantation experience in
Stage 2 (1940-1970) Indonesia. He saw in the eucalyptus plantations a solution to Spain's
This stage, coinciding with the period of widespread afforestation, dearth of national products, and as a source of products for which
underwent the most considerable amount of change.As a result of there was a strong national and international demand (pulp for
the dearth of raw materials following the Spanish Civil War (1936- paper, essential oil, wood for timber, etc.). He therefore ordered a
1939), a new model of intensive environmental exploitation was massive reforestation of these trees, primarily Eucalyptus globulus
tested and put into practice. Immediately following the declaration and E. camaldulensis, and built the network of infrastructures
of southwest Huelva as a Region of National Interest in 1941, fast- (roads, villages, work shops, tree nurseries, and so forth) required
growth forest plantations were tested and developed by the for their exploitation.
Patrimonio Forestal del Estado (National Forest Heritage By the late sixties, the forest plantations covered most of the
Authority) and these marginal "wastelands" were turned into a Department of Forest Resources lands, 24,316 hectares (Table 2);
model, both in Spain and abroad, for forestry actions.The activities most of the ponds had been targeted for the task and the
were overseen by the chief engineer of the Huelva Forest Brigade, autochthonous woody vegetation had been virtually eliminated.
Gaspar de la Lama Gutierrez, whose imposing personality pervad-
ed his colossal task. Stage 3 (1993-2005)
De la Lama, who began by following the directives of the 5th There was a fall in the yield of the plantations after the seventies.
Forest Hydrology Division, radically changed his forestry policies Advanced age, a plague of Phoracantha beetle, low timber prices
when he became deeply impressed by the 1930s Coto Cabezudos and a rise in maintenance costs caused a plunge in the high market
(to the north of the territory) operations of the Dutch company value that had characterised the territory. At the same time, the
Handelmaastchppij Ibérica, owners of the Forestal de Villarejos rise of environmental ideology led to an increasing trend towards

285
 TABLE 1

Native vegetation types in 1993

UNIT CHARACTERISTIC COMMUNITIES LOCATION

Intertidal zone Cakilion aegyptiacae-Ammophilion australis Sandy coasts.

Semi-stable coastal sand-dunes Rubio longifoliae-Coremetum albi Elevated parts of the sand-dunes.
Phoenician juniper groves Osirio quadripartitae-Juniperetum turbinatae Base of the coastal dune range.
Abalario scrubland Halimio halimifolii-Stauranthetum genistoidis Found between the Phoenician juniper grove,
& Erico scopariae-Ulicetum australis strawberry tree and western scrubland units.
Western scrublands Halimio commutati-Cistetum libanotis Western zone.
Peat bogs Erico ciliaris-Ulicetum (minoris) lusitanicus Center of the zone,
in places called Ribatehilos and Peladillo.
Lowland scrub Erico scopariae-Ulicetum australis & Lonicero hispanicae-Rubetum ulmifoliae North to the zone of study.
Atlantic streams Lonicero hispanicae-Rubetum ulmifoliae & Viti viniferae-Salicetum atrocinereae Streams crossing the sandbanks.
Strawberry tree (Arbutus) groves Phyllireo angustifoliae-Arbutetum unedonis Bordering the most southern reaches
of the peat bogs.

FIGURE 5
The Ribatehilos peat bog is an exceptional example of the successful restoration work conducted at the Abalario ponds.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

286
 FIGURE 6
Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) groves on
the south side of Ribatehilos pond.
Photograph by P. García Murillo.

rejection of this type of plantation.

Thus, in a manner more in accord with the environmental signifi- TABLE 2 Evolution of the surface cover of planted groves
cance of the territory, its management underwent a change in
course after the Junta de Andalucía's Environmental Agency took DATE PINE TREES EUCALYPTUS TOTAL FOREST
charge of its administration. Under its mandate, work on the
1936 1245.5 1245.5
restoration of the Abalario ponds started and was later continued 1940 1245.5 1245.5
by the Ministry of the Environment, which presently administers 1941 100 1245.5 1345.5
1942 508.1 1248.7 1756.8
the zone. 1943 968.1 1955.2 2923.3
In this context, the most significant work has been the: 1946 968.1 1955.2 2923.3
1947 7041.1 4567.8 11608.9
- Supresion of eucalyptus plantations
1948 7282.6 6060.3 13342.9
- Remediation of the pine groves 1950 7301.3 8089.2 15390.5
- Restoration of the Ribatehilos peat bog and ponds 1951 7410.3 8127.7 15538
1952 7643.6 11143.4 18787
- Restoration of the temporary ponds 1956 9414.2 8966.6 18380.8
- Increase in the level of protection of the most sensitive zones: 1966 13672.3 8591.3 22263.6
1968 6550
ponds, peat bogs, the Asperillo Sand Cliff, the Loro Ravine.
1987 14522.2 4571.8 19094
The restoration tasks developed with remarkable success
(Figures 5 and 6):The "sea" of eucalyptus trees has been cleared;
the Ribatehilos peat bog has recovered and presents a notable
sheet of water with significant populations of singular plants such
as Erica ciliaris, Potamogeton polygonifolius, Pinguicola lusitanica,
Genista ancystrocarpa and Sphagnum inundatum, all virtually
extinct in the area in 1993; the Phoenician juniper population is
rapidly recovering and the entire zone has become a key area for
such rare and valuable animal species as the water rat and the
Iberian lynx.

287
The Guadiamar Green Corridor CARLOS MONTES *, FRANCISCO BORJA **
a research programme, example of science's social responsibility.

The fact that researchers and managers, and sometimes NGOs like ADENA/WWF, have worked together has been essential for the general success of the Green
Corridor project, both in controlling pollution and in the functional restoration of its ecosystems.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

he greatest ecological catastrophe seen to date in remediate the metal pollution, but this was not the final objective.
T Andalusia happened in April 1998. Six million cubic metres
of pyrites sludge and acid waters from a mine tailings repository in
Advantages can arise from crises, as they drive change and create
opportunities. And that is exactly what was done, going beyond
the Boliden mines of Aznalcollar spilled into the River Guadiamar. merely recovering the sludge and abating impacts.An integral man-
The mines were located in the middle of Guadiamar River, a tribu- agement project was implemented for the entire basin, allowing the
tary of Guadalquivir River, which fed water to some of Doñana ecosystems that had been destroyed by the mine spill to be
Marshes.As a consequence of the mine spill that contained a high restored, and helping to regain the basin's function as an ecological
concentration of heavy metals, a 62 km stretch of the river, as far corridor between Sierra Morena ranges to the North and the
as Doñana National Park, was polluted with mine tailings, covering Doñana coastal plains to the South.This also helped restoring eco-
a surface of 4,634 ha of the water course, alluvial plain and the nomic activaties in the area, improving the quality of life of the
Entremuros Marsh. inhabitants of the basin.
The Urgent Measures Plan designed by national and regional The Action Plan known as The Guadiamar Green Corridor
environmental authorities was implemented, basically aimed at Strategy was designed as a Demonstration Project that could be
removing the sludge and treating the polluted waters.The Regional applied to other areas of Andalusia and the Mediterranean. The
Environment Authority of Andalusia started implementing a project project highlighted the fact that maintaining the functionality of the
called the Guadiamar Green Corridor as a long term response to ecosystems of Guadiamar basin, due to its relations with Doñana,
the Aznalcollar catastrophe. The top priority objective was to was compatible with meeting the economic demands for attaining
a good living standard for its inhabitants. In the end, the aim was to
break away from the traditional sectorial and water-tight approach-
* Inter-University Department of Ecology. Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain.
** Department of History II (Area of Geography) University of Huelva, Spain. es to tackling environmental problems, moving towards a new style

289
 of management based on inter-disciplinary scientific knowledge, plementary languages that enable us to discover and interpret
education, environmental training and environmental sustainability. nature and its relations with human beings. Science and manage-
Thus, the project was designed, right from the beginning, as a ment are are two different worlds that are trying to answer the
test bed to put into practise advanced procedures and strategies same questions, but, unfortunately, the world of science and the
concerning the integral management of ecological-economic sys- world of management have organised separate living and learning
tems. From this viewpoint, and given the complexity of the original spaces that have caused us to loose our global view.
problem, it was understood that the Project should be developed With the Green Corridor and its Research Programme, an
on the basis of a wide multi-disciplinary scientific knowledge of the attempt has been made to lay the first stone for the foundations of
natural and human systems of the Guadiamar basin. Hence, the a genuine scenario of a scientific-technical mix in addressing the
Guadiamar Green Corridor Research Programme (PICOVER, its mine spill. A forum for discussion and debate in which managers,
acronym in Spanish) was created in 1999, and implemented in two government experts and researchers from a range of professional
stages: PICOVER-I (1999-2001) and PICOVER-II (2002-2003). fields, languages and expertise have worked together in a search for
integrated knowledge, planning and management models that will
pave the way for the environmental sustainability.A merger, a com-
bination of science and regional management, has been promoted
to generate an idea of the two concepts as expressions of a uni-
quereality, rather than as different realities.
Science with a conscience and committed management have
much to offer and to share, with regard to how to address environ-
mental problems and how to tackle them in a society like today's
society, subject to fast, profound and globalising changes for which
most of society's institutions are not ready. Dialogue on this issue
has to act as a catalyst for creating a new, integral and integrating
environmental discourse like the discourse initiated with the Green
One of the greatest ecological disasters to occur in Spain happened in Corridor.The PICOVER programme has attempted to show how
April 1998: six million cubic metres of pyrite sludge and acid waters from the scientific and management discourses are complementary for
Boliden mines in Aznalcollar (Seville) spilled into the River Guadiamar,
reaching the very boundaries of the National Park. addressing the Aznalcollar catastrophe and to pave the way
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.
towards the best possible sustainability model for the affected area.
It has been essential for researchers and managers to work
The PICOVER programme, with a budget of almost six million together, and sometimes with NGOs like ADENA/WWF too, for
Euros, was the largest multi-disciplinary research programme that the Green Corridor project to be successful in both controlling
has ever been set up in Spain to address an environmental prob- pollution and in attaining the functional restoration of its ecosys-
lem. Nearly three hundred scientists from all the universities in tems. It is true that dialogue between research and management is
Andalusia and many of the Higher Spanish Scientific Research easier at times of crisis and that the acid test for this combination
Council Centres covering a broad spectrum of fields from natural lies in what relations are like during times of "environmental
sciences, social and health sciences, technology, etc., have been peace". Obviously, the aim must be to promote science to avoid,
incorporated. They have provided know-how to develop the differ- rather than solve catastrophes.That is, we must promote a preven-
ent lines of action included in the Green Corridor Strategy, reduc- tative, rather than a curative Science, one that is above a science of
ing the room for uncertainty and developing Management environmental crises or disasters.
approach. Scientific and technological research then became one of Several lessons can be learned from the five years that
the basic traits highlighting the Green Corridor Project. In this con- researchers and managers have been working together, to act as a
text scientists, government experts and environmental NGO’s foundation for future projects:
worked together, sharing responsibilities and easing decision mak- Lesson 1. Scientific know-how has to be present from the beginning
ing with regard to the management of a territory in crisis. and at all stages of the design and development of management
The PICOVER succeeded in avoiding the dialectics that con- projects and programmes, and not an element to be brought on
fronts the world of science to the world of management, that has board at a later stage, once these programmes have been elaborat-
separated them, each going his own way, when they possess com- ed, as happens so often.

290
Lesson 2. Given the complexity involved in solving environmental tems, it is essential to have the funds to finance long term research.
problems, they usually have to be addressed from an inter-discipli- Once the PICOVER programme finalised in 2003, the Regional
nary point of view, including the areas of natural, social and techno- Environmental Authority of Andalusia started a new research pro-
logical sciences. gramme for implementing the Eco-Regional Monitoring Plan for
Lesson 3. It is essential to have a conceptual reference for provid- the Green Corridor (SECOVER, its acronym in Spanish).This new
ing meaning to these projects and to provide a common thread Plan focuses on evaluating the socio-ecological state and the ten-
running through all the actions included in a project. In this sense, dencies to change that have started in the Gudiamar ecological-
every attempt must be made to avoid projects drawn up as a cat- economic system as a consequence of the major direct and indi-
alogue or a mere list of more or less independent and insufficient- rect interventions that have taken place in the course of recent
ly articulated actions. years, either to their natural or man-made systems, through the
Lesson 4. It is essential to translate the results of the research into application of the Guadiamar Green Corridor Strategy. One of the
specific management proposals, couched in simple and direct lan- aims of the new Research Programme is to provide continued sup-
guage. port for a dialogue between scientists and managers, creating an
Lesson 5. It is important to adjust the times of research to those inter-disciplinary space for discussion, opinions and decisions, to
of the development of technical projects. That is, we must try to move forward in designing specific future projects that will mobilise
harmonise the co-ordination to avoid the pressures of urgency public awareness to promote a scientific culture that will enable us
generated by management and the knowledge generated by scien- to understand the social role played by science in general and
tific research. demonstration programmes like the Guadiamar Green Corridor, in
Lesson 6. Given the uncertainty inherent in management pro- particular. In other words, we need a civic Science, rather than a
grammes, especially programmes related to Mediterranean ecosys- selfish Science that locks up scientists in their research laborato-

The aim of the Green Corridor of River Guadiamar and its Research Programme (1999-2003) has been to lay the foundations of a mixed scenario of scientific and
technical approaches. A forum for discussion and debate in which managers, government experts and researchers from different professional areas, languages and
expertise have worked together in the search for integrated knowledge, planning and management models to pave the way towards environmental sustainability for
the area.
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

291
 The Guadiamar
River Green
Corridor project is
a creative response
to the Aznalcollar
mine spill of 1988.
It went beyond the
clean up of the
sludge from the
river bed to the
integral manage-
ment of the basin
strip to restore the
ecosystems
destroyed by the
mine spill and to
recover its function
as an ecological
corridor between
Sierra Morena and
the coastal plains
of Doñana. The left
picture shows a
mosaic of aerial
photographs of the
Guadiamar Green
Corridor, taken in
April 1998, August
1998 and January
1999.
The dark shadow
of pirite sludge is
very noticeable in
the April picture.
After a strenuous
effort, the area was
again clean by
January 1999.
Photograph:
Junta de Andalucía.

ries, totally isolated from the problems and concerns of society.

As a final thought, the PICOVER programme has attempted to
develop a new way of addressing large scale environmental prob-
lems like the Aznalcollar crisis. The new approach has turned its
back on the mechanistic scientific approach that promotes a secto-
rial, compartmentalised and over analytic approach, to move
towards a holistic, mixed, preventative, civic, scientific approach,
aimed at solving environmental problems. A science that accepts
uncertainty, the unpredictable, the undetermined, i.e. nature in all its
complexity. From gauges to clouds, as Karl Popper used to say.
Anyone taking an interest in what has been done in the last five
years, in the conceptual and methodological context of the Green
Corridor Project, will most probably find few definite, complete
and final answers to their initial questions. But, we hope and trust
that, once they have finished examining what has been done, that
they will ask new questions that will stimulate and challenge their
creativity and that will motivate them to participate actively in
developing the current project and apply its best aspects and expe-
riences elsewhere. Should this happen, then the adventure of the
Guadiamar Green Corridor and its Research Programme has been
worth while.The important thing is the journey…

292
Doñana and its district, ALBERTO RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI *

on the same path.

It is practically impossible to guarantee the functional viability of large areas of land if the ownership is fragmented and their management is based on criteria
other than the conservation of their natural assets. In the picture, a flock of avocets flying over the Marshes.
Photograph by Jose Maria Perez de Ayala.

THE WEIGHT OF EIGHT CENTURIES OF HISTORY

T here are few simpler things in Doñana than the region in
terms of municipal districts and the distribution of the
ownership of the land among a handful of proprietors. These cir-
Time and time again, many authors have suggested that one of
the keys to the excellent degree of conservation of Doñana was
cumstances date back at least to the year 1293, when the Crown, the fact that so little of the land has been shared out in the last
embodied in the figure of King Sancho IV, know as “the Brave”, eight centuries, apart from the unhealthy conditions and the isola-
granted these lands, then belonging to the County of Niebla, to tion that reigned over Doñana during this long period. The idea has
Don Alfonso Perez de Guzman surnamed "El Bueno", the good, a a certain logic, although it sometimes provides support for the the-
concession that was truly made effective for his son,Alonso Perez ory of a virgin Doñana, cut off from its surroundings and from the
de Guzman, by King Ferdinand IV in 1309. Most of traditional action of man, which bears little relation to reality. The works of F.
Doñana lands have belonged to a very small group of families ever García Novo,V. Granados, J. Casas, J. F. Ojeda and many others have
since, apart from the local authorities of the municipal districts of made it perfectly clear that everything, or almost everything, has
Hinojos and Almonte. been affected by man in Doñana and that the changes in the lands-
* Director of Doñana National Park. cape until it attained its present appearance, run in parallel with

293
 The value of the traditional uses of the land is not limited to their quantitative importance, high in itself. It is founded on a deep rooted historic base. For exam-
ple, La Saca de las Yeguas (Doñana Mares' Roundup), the leading exponent of horse breeding activity in the region, celebrated its five hundredth anniversary in
2004.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.

human intervention in a wide variety of forms. Does this all mean the recurring points of confrontation since at least 1628, with the
that nothing is original in Doñana? Does the fact that it has lost its latest episode in this long running battle, being the livestock inva-
virginity mean that its ecosystems are worth any less? Or that sion of 1993. In short, isolation of the ownership of the land in
there is something wrong with its state of conservation? Not at all. comparison with the social environment in which Doñana is sub-
We must not get into discussions that have very little to do with merged, has historically provoked a long series of tensions and pro-
the idea of a permanent human presence in Doñana and, moreo- blems of very different kinds, maintaining a flank or perennial con-
ver, which do not fit easily into the framework of the analysis of the frontation between Doñana and its inhabitants throughout this
Mediterranean ecosystems, which have suffered the intervention of time.
man throughout their history.
Returning to the idea of the concentration of the ownership of A NEW SCENARIO,
Doñana over the centuries, there are records that show that, his- THE DE-PRIVATISATION OF THE LAND.
torically, there have been endless episodes of tension among the The conservationist history of Doñana starts in the year 1964,
inhabitants of the neighbouring towns, as they sought to appropria- when the State bought the lands of the current Biological Reserve
te lands that they felt they had the a right to as they had exploited from the Marquis of Merito. Five years later, by 1969, the National
them for so long.The aim of this contribution is not to analyse pro- Park was constituted, with just over 35,000 hectares and the
blems caused by these ambitions, although a general overview forestry administration that managed the area made perfectly
would be appropriate: The municipal ownership of properties of clear their wish to buy any properties that may come on the mar-
Almonte in Doñana were based on a one hundred and fifty year ket.This policy has been maintained and practically all the land in
conflict between the Council and the Duchy over the ownership of question has now been de-privatised. In fact the Gonzalez family,
the lands in question, while Hinojos would support its claim to the historic owners and earliest advocates for Doñana conserva-
ownership of the Marsh of Hinojos with another court case in tion, is currently the only private landowner, holding a few small
1961, in this case a suit brought against the public administration. properties. The logic behind this de-privatisation was overwhel-
Livestock - and other traditional resources - has been another of ming, based squarely on the recommendations of the international

294
conservation doctrine for National Parks. It is practically impossi- tion of sponsoring sporadic relations or an encounter between
ble to guarantee the functional viability of large areas of land if Park and District. First of all, we need to ensure fluid communica-
ownership is fragmented and management is based on objectives tions and a degree of participation in the management that will
other than the conservation of their natural assets; even in these trace an unequivocal path of mutual trust and the conviction by all
conditions, conservation is a difficult and, above all, costly task. parties concerned that without close co-operation, we will not
Doñana is a luxury and, as such, it must be paid for. Imagine what make it. As with marriages in the past, a bunch of flowers from time
it would cost if the land was in private hands, or subject to the to time makes life easier and adds beauty to the relationship, but
principles of profitability! the evolution of centuries of history in common is something far
deeper, something that should come to the fore in each of the
DOES DOÑANA BELONG TO EVERYBODY? thousand situations and problems that arise every day.
But we run a risk. Doñana is a singularly fragile and accessible
environment - in fact, with a 4 whhel drive vehicle, you can drive FINDING THE WAY AS WE GO
round the National Park twice in a morning -, so any conservation Despite the above hindrances, if we want the discourse to
caution is justified. If the transition of the land from private to translate into specific results, it is essential to develop well articu-
government hands is not done cleanly, the local inhabitants may not lated lines of work, taking a mid and a long term view. In this sense,
see any difference, generating a risk that the society of the area the National Park, together with the main stake-holders of the
around the Park may think that nothing has changed, that, in fact, it District, headed by the local authorities, is developing a battery of
is six of one and half a dozen of the other. This situation would lines, which, at times, may appear to be heading in different direc-
maintain the deep divide between the Park and the social environ- tions, but at a closer look will show that they are merely different
ment it is situated in, undoubtedly generating a confrontational manners of addressing the same objective. Below is a summary of
dynamic that would be incompatible with conserving the assets of the content of these lines of work and how they affect relations
this space. This is a hypothetical situation that is not desired by between the Park and the District.
anyone and to prevent it from happening, the directors of the Environmental education is the principle line of work, aimed
National Park have to practise a clear, transparent and participati- mainly at young people, but also dealing with singular groups of
ve management. Now more than ever, it is a question of persuading adults. In the case of the former, the objective is that every child of
and finding allies.The more people and groups that are interested the District has at least two formal contacts with the National Park
in the conservation of Doñana, the better. In the district, Doñana in the course of his formal education, articulated around six diffe-
should be considered as a collective mission under the auspices of rent activities under the umbrella of the Doñana-Surroundings
sustainable development. Doñana has to be seen as a common inte- Programme. Such an ambitious objective translates into high annual
rest of almost all, so that we all have something to gain in the mid
and long term if the area maintains its vital pulse and its privileged
position in the international context.
However, how can we attain a change in attitude of the magni-
tude required in the social environment of Doñana? As we have
said before, in Doñana, we are fighting against a historic view that
has prevailed for the last eight centuries. How can we get the inha-
bitants of the district to appreciate Doñana as a part of their world,
as something to be proud of and a source of welfare for each and
every one of them?
There is no single answer to this question, as no single line of
action can obtain the desired result.The search for the right rela-
Developing different sectorial policies for traditional uses is one of the
tion between Doñana and its District should be a constant in all
main planks of the joint work with the District. For example, the total
policies developed in the National Park.We need to be well aware number of livestock breeders in Almonte and Hinojos is over 600, making
them the largest group with a direct interest in the National Park. By the
that we are not talking about a third party, with nothing to do with same token, collecting coquina shells, a local clam considered as a delicacy
the Park, that requires an enhanced level of communication. This in the region, creates jobs for nearly two hundred people, while bee-kee-
ping is becoming increasingly profitable. In the picture, traditional hand
approach is wrong, despite the fact that it can sometimes lead to collection of coquina clams on the beaches of the National Park.
gestures that take us forward along the right path. It is not a ques- Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

295
 The 1978 National Park Reclassification Act was a pioneer in the field of Conservation. Concepts that are now familiar to us - like peripheral protection zones,
Master Plans and Park Boards - first appeared in Spain on this occasion. Moreover, it was the precursor of an essential aspect in the current concept of sustaina-
ble development: the need to drive active employment policies to off-set any possible limitations that the area could generate. In the picture, umbrella pine trees
backlit by the sunset.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

numbers of young people participating in the scheduled tasks: one case, and it is about to be attained in two others. However, the
around 3,500 students per year and over 500 teachers.When these new planning instrument establishes that the area of Relations with
figures are multiplied for the more than ten years that the the District Surrounding the Park should be located physically in
Programme has been running, the magnitude of the work done can Almonte, the largest settlement ariound the Parks, reinforcing com-
be appreciated. This work is already bearing fruit; young people, mon lines of work and bringing the reality of the Park to the peo-
new blood, are the best guarantee for the future of Doñana. ple of the District.
In the case of the adults, there are three different programmes The subsidies offered by the National Park as a contribution to
that bring in two thousand, five hundred people a year to Doñana the sustainable development of the municipal districts involved are
National Parks, from the municipal districts in which Doñana is another important tool to work with.At this time, these subsidies
situated. It is striking to see that this Programme is often providing represent an annual budget of 800,000 Euros for Doñana, paid
people of an advanced age with their first chance to discover directly to a selection of projects presented by councils, non-profit
Doñana first hand. In reality, more is said about Doñana than is making associations or individuals. If we do not wish to empty the
known from experience. essence of these subsidies of their meaning and content, we must
The new Use and Management Master Plan goes even further not forget that they are designed to help projects that can contri-
along this road. The previous document established that the bute to the sustainable development of the District, and by no
National Park should have information points in the towns of the means as mere compensation for hypothetical loss of earnings.This
districts covered by the Park. This objective has been attained in second path is difficult to justify - as said losses are real and the

296
benefits are not usually quantified - and, in any event, they would area could generate.The idea was a basic one and remains just as
not create any satisfaction in the District, which would rapidly valid today: nobody discusses the convenience and the authority of
become accustomed to contributions that would always be consi- the government to actively drive the protection of an area, but this
dered insufficient. line cannot generate a space that is empty of all economic activity
Developing the different sectorial policies for traditional uses is and employment, because this would place the conservationist bur-
one of the main planks of working together with the District. Some den directly on the inhabitants.There is a certain tendency in the
figures will help to illustrate their importance: the total number of District to judge that Doñana has developed this line of work satis-
livestock breeders in Almonte and Hinojos is over six hundred, factorily, both with the consolidation of its own staff and because
making them the largest group with a direct interest in the Park. In of the jobs that are generated by its investments.
the same way, collecting coquina shells, a local clam considered as Many years ago, the expression "parachute Parks" became
a delicacy in the region, provides work for 170 people, while bee- popular, referring to protected areas that were totally closed off
keeping is becoming increasingly profitable. One challenge that and isolated from the social and natural dynamics of the surroun-
remains to be met is to apply the criteria of organic production to ding area. This could not be further from the reality of Doñana.
these cottage industries, including the collection of pine nuts. There currently exists the conviction that Doñana should extend
The importance of traditional farming and gathering industries its borders in a friendly and cordial way if it intends to guarantee
is not limited to their quantitative importance, high per se.They are its conservation.We are not referring to a physical extension of its
founded on a long standing historic base; La Saca de las Yeguas, the administrative boundaries, which cannot be ruled out either, but
Doñana Mares' Roundup, the leading exponent of horse breeding rather of attaining a friendly surrounding that is non-aggressive to
in the region, which celebrated its five hundredth anniversary in the Park.This concept has two aspects: a direct one on the ground,
2004, although it is not always exempt of controversy and long the leading exponent of which are the works in course to regene-
standing litigation. Moreover, these activities are part of the area's rate the water cycle of the National Park; and the other refers to
living culture, understood as the personal experience that many the social environment and is associated with the fundaments and
people still have of ways of life that have never been completely actions explained in greater detail above. The final objective pur-
abandoned. And this is their true importance, forming part of the sued really, has a name and a form: the materialisation of new sus-
common imagery and the common path that has been shared by tainable development models for the District that strike a long
the inhabitants of the District for centuries. sought after social balance, while guaranteeing the future integrity
The most important economic resource that the National Park of one of the most emblematic zones of Europe: the Parks of
has now, and the one with the best potential for the future, is, Doñana.
without a doubt, the development of services aimed at the public
that visits Doñana. Doñana, perhaps driven by the fact that the envi-
ronment is so fragile to the presence of man referred to previously,
pioneered the development of forms of guided tours inside the
Park area that, while offering an attractive chance for visitors to dis-
cover the Park, also promoted the creation of local active tourism
companies with the consequent job opportunities.This model pro-
ved to be a success and was exported to other places in Spain.The
new Use and Management Plan significantly reinforces this line of
work, and also covers one deficit that has yet to be addressed:
horse riding tourism, very popular in the District because of the
exceptional conditions for horse riding offered by the Village of El
Rocio, just in the North boundary of the National Park.
The 1978 National Park Reclassification Act was pioneering in
many aspects. Concepts that are now familiar, like Peripheral
Protection Zones, Master Plans and Park Board, were first seen in How can we get the inhabitants of the District to appreciate Doñana as
part of their world, something to be proud of and as a source of welfare
Spain at that time. Moreover, the content was the precursor of the for each and every one of them? In the picture, an azure winged magpie
current concept of sustainable development: the need to drive acti- feeding its chicks.
Photograph : CENEAN Files.
ve employment policies to off-set the possible limitations that the

297
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. POTAD, 2003. Plan de Ordenación del Territorio del Ámbito de Doñana. RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ABALARIO LANDSCAPE:
Consejería de Obras Públicas y Transportes. Junta de Andalucía. A REFERENT MODEL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION IN DOÑANA.
2. ALDERICH, J., 1976. Del Támesis al Guadalquivir. Antología de viaje-
ros ingleses en la Sevilla del siglo XIX. Publicaciones de la Universidad 19. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2000. Los topónimos
de Sevilla Colección de bolsillo. Sevilla 257 p. como indicadores de los cambios territoriales y la percepción del Paisaje:
3. Tomado de MOUNFORT, G., 1958. Portrait of a Wilderness. The story of el Caso del Abalario (Parque Nacional de Doñana, Huelva). Serie
Coto Doñana Expeditions. David & Charles: Newton Abbot. p.67. Cuadernos de Almonte nº 49. Sevilla. 80 pp. Edita Ayuntamiento de
4. CHAPMAN, A., 1930. Memories p 169. Tomado de López Ontiveros A. Almonte.
1988. Introducción en CHAPMAN, A,. BUCK, W.J., 1989. La España 20. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTIN, A., 1996. Vulpia fontquera-
inexplorada. Ed. Consejería de Obras Públicas de la Junta de Andalucía y na Melderis & Stace (Gramineae). ¿Endemismo Gaditano-Onubense?.
Patronato del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Sevilla. Anales Jard. Bot. Madrid 55: 174-176.
5. GARCÍA NOVO, F., 1993. A trip to Doñana National Park- to a Paradise 21. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTIN, A., 1999. El Paisaje vegetal
Lost?. Sitter-Liver, B., Sitter.Liver, B. (Eds.) Culture within Nature/ de la zona oeste del Parque Natural de Doñana (Huelva). Lagascalia 21:
Culture dans la Nature. Swiss Academy of Humanities and Social 111-132.
Sciences/UNESCO:315-329. 22. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTIN, A., 1997. Vegetation chan-
6. HERASO PIZARRO, L., 1890. Estudio sobre la fijación de las dunas ges in Abalario (Natural Park of Entorno de Doñana, SW of Spain.
situadas en el Término municipal de Almonte en la Provincia de Huelva. Lagascalia.19: 737-744.
Revista de Montes 14 (322). 23. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2001. Restauración del Complejo Palustre del
7. Mufíe, es un término que se aplicó a los musulmanes solitarios huídos de Abalario: la reconstrucción del paisaje. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente
las expulsiones de los moriscos. Según el profesor Angel Martín, proba- (Ed.) 1ª Reunión Internacional de Expertos sobre la Regeneración Hídrica
blemente se usaba esta voz en Almonte para los animales solitarios expul- de Doñana. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente: 117-130.
sados de la manada, conocidos más tarde como “toros abochornaos”. 24. GARCÍA MURILLO, P., SOUSA MARTÍN, A., FUERTES, E., 1996.
8. Los navazos son explotaciones en forma de cubeta que permiten el riego Sphagnum inumdatum Russ., nuevo para Andalucía. Anales Jard. Bot.
autónomo por el ascenso capilar del agua del acuífero. El sistema, de ori- Madrid 53: 245.
gen árabe, tiene un fundamento físico inverso al empleado en el “enarena- 25. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2002. Méthodologie pour
do” de Almería, y fue ampliamente generalizado en el siglo XVIII. Su l’étude des effects du petit age glaciaire dans le Parc Naturel de Doñana
estructura se enmarca en unos bardos de arena laterales dispuestos a modo (Huelva, Espagne). Essai de reconstitution des formations palustres et du
de cortavientos y que se empleaban para el cultivo de hortalizas, con la drainage superficiel. Publications de l’Association International de
capa freática de agua dulce localizada a poca profundidad. Climatologie 14: 359-367.
9. Alauda, 1960. 26. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2003. Changes in the
10. GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B, GARCÍA NOVO, F. 2002. Restoration wetlands of Andalucía (Doñana Natural Park, SW Spain) at the end of the
of tidal marshes in Gudalquivir River estuary (SW Spain). Zaldis, E., little Ice Age. Climatic Change 58: 193-217.
Crisman,A., Gerakis,A. (Eds). The restoration of Mediterranean 27. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 1998. Cambios históri-
Wetlands. Hellenic Ministry of Environment: 213-228. cos en el avenamiento superficial y la vegetación del Parque Natural de
11. GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B., GARCÍA NOVO, F., 2003. Bases eco- Doñana (Sector Abalario), Huelva. Ería 46: 165-182.
lógicas para la restauración de marismas de régimen mareal en el 28. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 1999. Historical evolu-
Estuario del Guadalquivir. Revista de la Sociedad Gaditana de Historia tion of the Abalario lagoon complex (Doñana, Natural Park, SW Spain).
Natural 3:243-249 Limnetica 16: 85-98.
12. GARCÍA NOVO, F., GALLEGO, J.B. 2003. Restaurando las Marismas 29. SOUSA MARTÍN, A., GARCÍA MURILLO, P., 2001. Can place names
del Guadalquivir. Medio Ambiente 43: 52-55. Junta de Andalucía. be used as indicators of landscape changes? Application to the Doñana
Sevilla. Natural Park (Spain). Landscape Ecology.16. 391-406.
13. MUÑOZ PÉREZ, J.J., BORRERO VILLALÓN, A., GOLDARACENA
MUÑOZ, J., GALLEGO FERNÁNDEZ, J.B., GARCÍA NOVO, F.,
GÓMEZ PINA, G., 2004. Metodología para el diseño hidráulico de la
restauración ecológica de la Marisma de la Algaida (Sanlúcar de
Barrameda,Cádiz). Ingeniería Civil 133:27-35.

THE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE SURROUNDINGS OF

DOÑANA: SPATIAL AND LANDSCAPE CHANGES.
14. COMISIÓN INTERNACIONAL DE EXPERTOS SOBRE EL DES-
ARROLLO DEL ENTORNO DE DOÑANA, 1992. Dictamen sobre
estrategias de desarrollo socioeconómico sostenible del entorno de
Doñana. Junta de Andalucía / Consejería de Obras Públicas y Transportes.
15. CRUZ VILLALÓN, J., 1988. La intervención del hombre en la Ría y
Marismas del Guadalquivir. Eria, 16: p. 109-123.
16. CRUZ VILLALÓN, J., 1995. Conservación y desarrollo en el Parque
Nacional y su entorno. Actes de les Jornades sobre aiguamolls litorals
mediterranis. 79-88.
17. MENANTEAU, L., 1984. Evolución histórica y consecuencias morfoló-
gicas de la intervención humana en las zonas húmedas: el caso de las
Marismas del Guadalquivir. Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Urbanismo.
18. OJEDA RIVERA, J.F., 1987. Organización del territorio de Doñana y su
entorno próximo (Almonte), siglos XVIII-XX. Ministerio de Agricultura,
Pesca y Alimentación.

298
The Doñana 2005 Project

he Boliden mine tailings in Aznacóllar, to the north of the Andalusian Regional Government to prevent the waste waters
T Park, burst its banks on the 25th of April 1998, spilling some
6 hm3 of water, with a high content of arsenopyrite, pyrolusite and
from flowing into the National Park. The Doñana Marshes were
saved. Some 4 hm3 of polluted waters flowing through the Aguas
other minerals in suspension, into the River Agrio and, from there, Mínimas canal were held up in Entremuros for several months until
into the Guadiamar River. The sludge ran over forty kilometres a new treatment plant was built in the marsh and waters were tre-
along these water courses, depositing the minerals on an area of ated before being discharged into the Guadalquivir Estuary.
2,600 ha of the Guadiamar river bed spreading to neighbouring The need to save Doñana mobilised all the environmental
farms. Another 2,300 ha of agricultural lands were contaminated by authorities, many people and various associations in an unprece-
mine waters rich in dissolved metals, reaching the Nature Park and dented effort to organise a mega-operation that included treating
posing a serious threat to the National Park. Immediate interven- the waters held in Entremuros, and removing all the contaminated
tion by the Conservation Directors of both Parks managed to con- soils.The collection of sludge and earth contaminated by the slud-
fine the polluted water to Entremuros, the walled course of the ge started immediately in a joint operation conducted by the
River Guadiamar, on the very edge of the National Park, spilling the Andalusian Regional Government and the Spanish Ministry of the
polluted waters into the Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre), and Environment through the Guadalquivir Water Board.
from there, into the Guadiamar River estuary.The destructive tide The catastrophe of Boliden mine acted as a wake up call for all
was eventually stemmed on the 28th, never entering the Doñana the administrative bodies.The confirmation of such a serious risk
Marshes, due to earth banks that were rapidly built by the anticipated in scientific reports for several years, changed attitudes
Basic documentation extracted from the reports of Benigno Bayán. Guadalquivir
with regard to the protection requisites for the protected area and
Hydrologic Basin Authority. Project and Work Manager of the “Doñana 2005 Project”. their effectiveness. Hence, after solving the main problem of the

The Doñana National Park contains more than just biological diversity and landscapes. Its edges have forged traditions and uses that reaffirm its identity.
But, as with the El Rocío Pilgrimage, its collateral effects have to be monitored; an aspect that is included in the Action Plan of the Doñana 2005 Project.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

301
 View of the Rocina stream before it reaches El Rocío, which can be seen in the background, on the edge of the Doñana Marshes.
Photograph: Paisajes Españoles S.A.

heavy metal pollution of the River Guadiamar water bed and era- area.The Andalusia Regional Government, nevertheless, presented
dicating the main threat of the sludge, a new awareness concerning an "Action Plan" in July 1998, to deal with the effects of the Boliden
the hydrological restoration of Doñana began to take shape, based mine accident. This also marked a significant step forward as it
on the ideas that were already being discussed by managers of pro- included ambitious goals like buying-off the farmland that had been
tected areas and the scientific community.The lesson was learned: affected, so that it would no longer be considered as an agricultu-
global view, minimum human intervention in the area of the ral area, and the creation of an ecological corridor on the polluted
National Park and an ambitious action plan in all the basins and banks of the Guadiamar River.This corridor, born out of the catas-
water courses of the surrounding areas were needed to return to trophe, was to link Doñana Nature Park with Sierra de Aracena
Doñana the water, the lifeblood that feeds its marshes. Nature Park to the north. The corridor was re-named the
On the 16th of May 1998, the National Park Board adopted a "Guadiamar Green Corridor" and was declared as a “Protected
proposal that included a request for the Ministry of the Landscape”.
Environment to assess the situation and to restore the water cycle But before coming to the Doñana 2005 Project and the new
to guarantee sufficient water resources, in terms of both quality philosophy that underpins actions aimed at restoring the water
and quantity, to cover the needs of Doñana and its marshes.Thus, balance, it is worth turning the attention briefly to some well-mea-
on the 22nd of May, the Council of Ministers adopted a package of ning, but somewhat unfortunate, background measures that cast
urgent measures to deal with the mining accident, which also inclu- light on how marsh water projects should not be dealt with. The
ded the foundations of an ambitious water cycle regeneration pro- new ideas and projects designed for Doñana had been based on the
ject called "Doñana 2005".The scope of this project, the National accumulated experience of previous actions aimed at restoring lost
Park and its drainage basins, went far beyond the decontamination balances, though they did not take a global view of the problem.

302
Instead, they sought to cure the symptoms of a disease that affec- tenure from the neighbouring farmland.
ted the entire hydrological system of the Park region. These results highlight the fact that any intervention must be
It is now known that it is difficult to restore an ecosystem that able to guarantee the results it seeks to obtain and that the objec-
has been altered for centuries, and it can only be attained in part. tive pursued has to be fully defined before action is taken.
In the case of restoring river or marsh ecosystems, a detailed
understanding of their structure and how their physical, chemical ACTIONS OF THE DOÑANA 2005 PROJECT
and biological processes work is required.The restoration process With all this background, and with a solid foundation of expe-
also includes a wide range of actions and measures designed to rience in managing the National Park and its surrounding protec-
allow the Guadiamar River corridor and the Doñana Marshes to ted areas, the Doñana 2005 Project established a set of integrated
recover their dynamic balance and function and to be self-sustai- actions implemented with a global approach, some of which were
ning in this processes.The first and most critical step in implemen- genuine pilot projects that will act as a research resource and labo-
ting restoration is to put a halt to the disturbances that have cau- ratory for other interventions in the future.
sed degradation or that prevent the system from recovering1. The proposed restoration actions cover an ample scope in sup-
These considerations fully apply to areas like Doñana, where porting this holistic view.They cover actions such as those aimed
the disappearance of wetlands, the reduction of water bodies and at restoring the characteristic water dynamics of the Doñana
courses, the encroachment of sands, pollution, and the decline of Marshes and providing the necessary water in terms of both quan-
aquatic species have been a concern for the managers of the tity and quality; and other actions such as those aimed at regenera-
National Park ever since it was created. From these considerations, ting areas that have been altered by crops, experimenting with
the early "solutions" have ben attempted.We are referring to the natural filters, treating spill waters, recovering the tidal regime of
Water Regeneration Plan that was initially implemented in 1984, of the channels, and restoring watercourses to curb the input of sedi-
which there is a detailed analysis in Chapter 3.The three solutions ments.
provided by the Plan in retrospect highlighted the difficulties invol- The new vision for restoration promoted by the Doñana 2005
ved in restoring the Doñana Marshes if the underlying causes of its Project also offers a number of fundamental initiatives.The first of
degradation were not tackled within a broad holistic overview. In these is to put in place a permanent system to assess, monitor and
the Montaña del Río dyke, a 14-km silt levee that separates the follow all actions and projects, with a view to correcting decisions
Marshes from the Guadalquivir estuary in order to return water before they have an irreversible impact on the well-being of the
in the Marshes for a longer period. In this case, the solution has marshes.This is followed by an ambitious programme of associated
produced the collateral result of raising the water level in excess, research (Table 1). The second initiative is to create a Scientific
thus flooding some areas of high ground (grazing pastures and Committee to validate interventions and anticipate their effects,
islets) for much longer than they would be in natural conditions. and even to advise against interventions if there are reasonable
They would normally only be flooded for a few days at a time, and doubts concerning the processes that they might trigger. It will defi-
then only if there were exceptionally heavy rains coinciding with
very high tides. Another example is the "Centre-South" solution,
aimed at regenerating the southern area of the southern area of
the Marshes around the Travieso channel (Caño Travieso) by allo-
wing waters from the Guadiamar river to flow down into the
system during floods.This did not work either. One of the reasons
for its failure was the sudden appearance of uncontrolled volumes
of water outside of their natural courses, due to the build up occu-
rring at the Entremuros end, which caused a loss of relief within the
marsh system, and water levels became the same throughout.With
this came a reduction in diversity. Finally, there was the "Centre-
North" solution, designed to transfer waters from the River
Guadiamar, taking it from a bend called Vuelta de La Arena to the
Guadiamar channel, replacing the earlier inputs to this river. But this
Sand deposits in the overflow fan of the Mimbrales canal. El Rocío and the
solution did not achieve its aims either, as the water put in, which Marshes in the background.
Photograph: CSIC Follow-up team.
came from the Aguas Mínimas canal, contained an excessive salt

303
FIGURE 1
Localisation of the Doñana 2005 Project actions.
 View of El Rocío marsh. Two actions of the Doñana 2005 Project focus on its restoration.
Photograph: CSIC Follow-up team..

ne the range of uncertainty and, above all, forge new alliances bet- ted is still protected and a full environmental restoration is con-
ween science and management. Finally, one of the objectives of the ducted on a wide zone bordering the Doñana Nature Park and
Project is to provide essential instruments and resources for National Park.
enhancing our knowledge of the Doñana hydrological system. - Action 4 is aimed at restoring the Gallega marsh in the Nature
These include, for example, the design of a "Numerical Park. It consists of restoring the original features of this zone,
Hydrodynamic Model for the Doñana Marshes" in the National eliminating the artificial drainage network and walking trails,
Park, based on a precise digital version of a terrain that is highly dif- restoring the profile of the Guadiamar channel and re-establis-
ficult to represent because of the lack of variation in heights and hing the hydrological continuity between the marshes of the
levels.Thus it will require accuracy to within a few centimetres to
model the behaviour of the surface waters correctly.
With the support that comes with forecasting and protection,
the Doñana 2005 Project designated a series of high priority
actions, as listed in Figure 1:
- Action 1 addressed the recovery of the Soto Chico and Soto
Grande streams and the Laguna de los Reyes stream.The inter-
vention included the expropriation of 310 ha of the "Los
Mimbrales" estate to restore their natural functions, the resto-
ration of the courses of the streams and the building of two
naturalised ponds.The objective was to avoid erosion and the
deposit of sandy sediments in El Rocío marsh and to recover
an especially important marsh environment.
- Action 2 consists of attaining a maximum level of treatment for
the wastewater of El Rocío that formerly drained into the
Doñana Marshes, untreated.
- Action 3 addresses the restoration of El Partido stream by con-
trolling the processes of erosion, transport and sedimentation El Partido stream by the Ajolí bridge. The photo shows the state of the
in the basin, thus curbing the advance of the stream alluvial fan eutrophic waters in the summer and the silting up of the water course.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.
into the Doñana Marshes.The farmland that is not expropria-

305
 Working session of the Scientific Committee focussing on restoring the Gallega marshes. The actions are explained by Benigno Bayán, member of the
Committee and representative of the Guadalquivir Water Board.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.

National Park and those of the Nature Park. - Action 6 involves restoring the Travieso channel, both morpho-
- Action 5 is aimed at recovering the Guadiamar channel that logically and functionally, from Vuelta de la Arena all the way to
would feed water into the northwest of the Doñana Marshes its mouth in the Los Ánsares pond, thus recovering water input
from the River Guadiamar. This action consists of recovering (in quality and quantity) for the Doñana Marshes. This action
the Marshes' surface water inputs from the Cigüeña, Almirante, also includes restoring the Caracoles estate, a property that has
Sajón and Juncosilla streams. become part of the National Park and which has been subject
to an integral environmental restoration.
- Action 7 proposes recovering the fluvial and tidal function of
the Torre Branch, as far as Vuelta de la Arena, hence restoring
it to the course where it receives the normal flow of the River
Guadiamar. Its tidal regime will be restored, with implicit gains
in biodiversity to go with it.
- Action 8 is designed to monitor and allow seepage between the
Doñana Marshes and the Guadalquivir River, the Torre Branch
and Entremuros. It was initially designed to prevent contamina-
ted waters or sediments bearing pyrite sludge from the River
Guadiamar from entering the Park.This has been a temporary
measure and the data collected from the monitoring program-
me suggests that pollution has been eliminated from the
Guadiamar River, so the levees built to prevent flooding can
now be removed.This action also includes monitoring the func-
tionality of the Montaña del Río dyke and treating it accordingly.
View of Cerrado Garrido, an area that forms part of the Jose Antonio
Valverde Visitors' Centre, on the edge of the Gallega marsh restored area. The most important aspects of these actions to restore
This is an artificially restored site encompassing three ponds, separated Doñana are described below, highlighting their interconnectivity
from the rest of the Marshes and regulated by pumping water from a well.
Photograph: CENEAM files. and the role they play as milestones in the process of re-building
and conserving this area for future generations.

306
SOTO CHICO AND SOTO GRANDE
THE DIALYSIS OF THE STREAMS
The construction of a drainage system in the Mimbrales estate
in 1963 completely transformed the natural hydrology of the stre-
ams that drained the area into the final stretch of the Rocina stre-
am, part of the National Park's Protected Zone, causing a serious
alteration to its hydrological regimen. The estate drainage system
intercepted the drainage basins and courses of these streams, drai-
ning waters into the Mimbrales canal, to the detriment of these
streams. In consequence, the hydrological regimen of the streams
that drained into the marshes of the National Park (mainly the Soto
Grande and Soto Chico streams) became highly seasonal, as their
average flows had been significantly lowered.
The ecological problems for Soto Grande and Soto Chico stre-
ams was a decline in their riparian vegetation and the silting-up of
El Rocío marsh with sandy sediments, thus creating a barrier effect
for wildlife and a noticeable impact on the scenery.
To tackle these problems, the artificial drainage network of the
estate was suppressed, including the final drain, and two ponds
were built: Los Mimbrales and Los Guayules, providing room for
flash floods and for their sediments to be deposited, and allowing This image, obtained with the Digital Surface Model, shows the large allu-
vial fan of El Partido stream (above). The lower picture shows the sand
for a partial self-depuration of incoming waters. Naturalised water- deposits caused by the old Mimbrales canal. These are being tackled by
courses were built with very shallow sloping levees.The expropria- Action 1.
Image: Doñana 2005 - Ayesa.
ted estate in general, and the riverbanks in particular, were planted
with native species to accelerate the natural process of colonising
the affected area. The entire area in which this intervention has discharge of untreated wastewaters into the marsh until very
taken place has now been included in the Doñana National Park, recently. Furthermore, El Rocío is the destination of a famous pil-
which, in itself, counts as added value.These actions would be more grimage, one of the most important cultural events in Andalusia,
effective, however, if the quality of inflowing water were improved. attracting hundreds of thousands of pilgrims for one week. This
This would require a change in farming practices and community seriously increases wastewater flow and it explains why the capa-
agreement to make it possible. city of the treatment plant had to be adapted to deal with these
The Laguna de Los Reyes stream, separate from the other stre- sharp peaks in wastewater production with the help of a storage
ams and very close to El Rocío, has the problem of depositing sandy and pre-treatment reservoir. Moreover, the plant was located three
sediments in the Doñana Marshes. For this reason, this action inclu- kilometres from El Rocío, next to the Marin channel, in order to
ded a connection between the Laguna de Los Reyes and Rocina prevent the water works from having an impact on the scenic
streams, filling the artificial channel and re-building the former aspects of the marshes.The plant has been operating since 2004.
course and planting the banks of the final section of the stream But a new mentality that upstages the Doñana 2005 Project
with native vegetation. As a general criterion, the natural topo- means that the objectives had to be far more ambitious. In order
graphy of the entire sector concerned was to be restored, with to attain a greater and much needed environmental integration of
special consideration given to the areas of ponds and to the natu- this action into its surroundings, bearing in mind the proximity of a
ral drainage.As a result, in 2002-2003 the waters once again flowed, very valuable natural area, the Doñana National Park, wastewaters
with sufficient quality, as they had decades earlier, before the area from El Rocío had to undergo tertiary treatment with chemicals. to
was transformed for farming2. abate nutrient concentration, especially N and P, in effluents. The
treated out-flow provides excellent quality water, a resource that
THE WATER OF EL ROCÍO has become scarce in Doñana. For this reason, this treated effluent-
El Rocío is seated on the very edge of the marshes of the will feed a small wetland of low nutrient waters that will act as a
National Park, causing serious pollution problems because of the clear water refuge for native species.These include the little Iberian

307
 7

5 6

4
FIGURE 2
Action 4 - Restoration of the Gallega marshes.

1 Permeabilisation of the FAO wall.

2 Suppression of the drainage network and restoration of the profiles and sections of the original channels.
3 "José Antonio Valverde" Visitors’ Centre
4 Original Guadiamar river bed (Guadiamar channel)
5 Rosalimán channel
6 El Lobo pond
7 Connection with Action 5, aimed at recovering the former Guadiamar river bed and its connection with the Guadiamar River.

toothcarp (Aphanius iberus), an endemic fish of Andalusia whose appropriate vegetation for the ecological conditions of the site and
range extends as far west as Doñana. characteristic natural species of the area, such as ash, willow and
Action 2 has eliminated the spill of polluted waters into the rushes.All the vegetation to be used to create a green filter will be
Doñana Marshes, allowing a threatened environment to be resto- subject to genetic control to monitor its origin and to prevent the
red also helping to maintain populations that are in a critical state. invasion from undesired species or the spread of plagues.
Future plans include a remodelling of the topography of the The project's characteristics have made it a point of reference
Marin channel that receives the treated effluents, to recover the for all actions in the area of water treatment in the Doñana region,
original lay out of both its meandering course and its longitudinal showing us the future path to follow in developing a culture of co-
and transversal profiles. This includes the planting and sowing of existence with the Park.

308
 banks to cover the flood plain by means of a network of minor,
inter-connected courses. This network was extensive enough to
slow down the passing water, so that it did not longer carry sus-
pended sandgrains that were deposited. Hence, El Partido stream
flowed on from its washout fan back into Las Garzas river bed as
flowing water, almost free of sands and only carrying some silt and
clay materials. In former times El Partido stream was flowing under
the Ajolí bridge in a narrow and deep trench surrounded by a
dense vegetation.
El Partido stream was included in Sector II of the General
Transformation Plan for the setting up of an ambitious scheme of
irrigated lands. Because of the transformations, the former course,
with its narrow meandering channels and broad flood plain, was
replaced by a straight channel, with no flood plain, as this land was
turned to agricultural land. As such, the water flow from flooding
caused by heavy rains is concentrated in the new channel.Within
The above Digital Model image clearly shows how the Gallega marshes
change with the progressive elimination of the drainage network and by it, the turbulence water increases due to the greater speed caused
restoring the profile of the channels. by the new profile, leading to intense pitting of the bed and a
remarkable increase in the water's capacity to pick up and trans-
CURBING THE SANDS IN THE DOÑANA MARSHES port solids that were deposited in the small channels and marshes
El Partido stream is one of the main watercourses that drain of the National Park where the water slows down.
directly into the Doñana Marshes. Its catchment basin encompas- These sand deposits disrupt the Madre de las Marismas river
ses 307.66 km2, 74% of which is farmland, recently turned to inten- bed with an appreciable volume of 3 hm3 of sand that covers appro-
sive farming, with its associated soil losses. Significant erosion and ximately 300 ha, most of which extend over El Rocío marsh. For
massive sand deposits, however, only started with the construction this reason, the top priority of this action is to prevent soil loss in
of a new river watercourse in 1986.This was when the formation the catchment basin and to control the erosion processes in the
of the outwash fan on the marshes started in connection with a final stretch of El Partido stream, with a view to slowing down and
process of erosion much aggravated with the floods of December curbing the silting of El Rocío marsh.The current behaviour of this
1987. Since that time, the watercourse has suffered severe erosion stream was described in detail in Chapter 3.
on its banks and its bed, which has dropped by almost 4-5 m in Based on studies conducted by Professors Mintegui and
some points. The erosion and ensuing transport have created a Robredo, the solution to the problem created in El Partido stream
sandy outwash fan that is now quite visible, covering some 300 ha.
This is the current situation, but it is worth remembering that,
until recently, the sedimentation area was much wider, spreading
from the Matanza bridge to some 7 Km up river never attaining the
Ajolí bridge, also known as El Rey bridge as it was on the Royal trail
that goes from El Rocío to the Coto del Rey Palace.The drainage
channel, known as Las Garzas, was a narrow channel that connec-
ted El Partido stream with El Rocío marsh, carrying a reduced sus-
pended load. Once in the marshes, the water flowed to reach the
Madre de la Marismas bed, the main watercourse of the Doñana
Marshes that is fed by the Rocinas, Sotos and Partido streams.
Prior to 1981, the course of El Partido stream remained stable
The Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee mission to the Everglades in 2003
due to the redistribution of sediments that were washed down enabled members to compare different approaches to restoring large
during flash floods.The gentle slope on the sedimentation fan made wetlands on the ground. In the photographs: Carlos Fernandez Delgado,
to the left, and the authors of this book, Cipriano Marín (foreground) and
water flow in braided channels during flash floods, the water flow Francisco García Novo, to the right.
Photograph: Doñana 2005.
exceeding the capacity of the main course and overflowing its

309
 3

2
FIGURE 3
This orthophotograph shows the scope of Action 6. The main
areas marked in the image are:

1 The Caracoles estate, formerly ploughed for crops, has

now been expropriated and included in the National
Park for restoration and to convert it back into
marshland.The former bed of the Travieso channel
can be distinguished on the estate.This is also being
recovered, and now starts working again as a channel.
2. Stretch of the canal known as Entremuros, confining
much of the Guadiamar River and part of the Travieso
channel.This action also includes demolishing the wall
running along the boundary of Los Caracoles in order to
fully restore the function of this canal
3 The Vuelta de La Arena will recover its connection with
the Torre Branch that, once again, will
receive the ordinary water flow from the Guadiamar
River, as this is one of the ojectives of Action number 7.
4 Torre Branch. 4

has taken the form of action performed globally on the basin, sup- achieved by implementing reforestation programmes, especially in
ported by specific interventions on the course of the stream itself. the basins of Calancha and Cárcava, together with initiatives to pro-
Hence, the planned actions are basically aimed at attaining the follo- mote hydrologically appropriate farming practices (planting by con-
wing goals: tour lines, planting in strips or terraces). Planting vegetation along
- Reduction of the erosion of solids from El Partido course. the watercourses and their banks will reduce transfer of solids and
- Control of the processes of transport and sedimentation; slo- generate a diverse ecosystem that would rise the ecosystem con-
wing down the building up of the outwash fan in the marsh to nectivity for wildlife.
bring the siytuation back to its former equilibrium. To achieve the second goal, the project includes the construc-
- Regeneration of the ecosystems of the area that has been tion of two steps, one on the bed of El Partido stream and the
transformed by farming projects and by sand deposits, restoring other in the Cañada del Pinar, which will cause the main watercour-
the ecological function of the Northern sector of the National se to deviate some of its flow to the floodable plain in high waters.
Park. This will recover the broad flood plain between the Marin channel
Reducing the flow of solids transported from the basin can be and the Cañada del Pinar stream, where the future sand sedimen-

310
 ginal state have consisted of filling the drains using material from
the service roads that have been eliminated and from material that
had accumulated in the marshes from the time that these drains
were opened. There were several natural channels in the Gallega
marsh that had to be recovered.To this end, special care was taken
in areas in which drains crossed these natural channels. The sup-
pression of the FAO dyke was also considered. However, in the
end, an agreement was reached to maintain it as a livestock trail,
but with a battery of pipes crossing underneath to connect the two
sides of the marshland area5.
Members of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee during a visit to the
National Park. From left to right: Benigno Bayán, Félix Manuel Pérez The over eight-kilometre long main drain in the Guadiamar
Miyares, Eva Mª Alonso, Mariangeles Fernández, Andy Green, Fernando
Hiraldo and Cipriano Marín.
channel has been filled in to restore its natural features and lands-
Photograph by Juan Mintegui. cape. But the original channel and its profile have only been partially
recovered (to a height slightly below that of the adjacent land), in
tation will occur.Thus, the natural function of the watercourses will order to be able to assess and monitor the measures taken and also
be completely restored and abandoned farmlands turned over to to allow small elevations and shallow pools to be created.These will
conservation. help facilitate the growth of vegetation and attract ecologically inte-
resting species, and also to preserve some of the new habitats that
THE GALLEGA MARSH have evolved during the long interval (50-years) when the transfor-
NATURALISED MARSHES med marshland was neglected.
The 2,200 hectares of the Gallega marsh are situated to the
north of Doñana National Park, within the Nature Park. Before it THE ORIGINAL COURSE
was restored, the Gallega marsh formed part of the Almonte- RESTORING THE GUADIAMAR RIVER BED
Marismas irrigation zone. To prepare this area for farming, a net- Historically,the water feeding into Doñana National Park from the
work of drains was opened, dessicating the natural marshland.This different branches of the Guadiamar river during the floods, including
network of primary and secondary drainage channels carried the Guadiamar channel,accounted for over half the total water flowing
waters into the original Guadiamar river bed, which was deepened into the Doñana Marshes before they were altered. Moreover the
and its appearance was completely changed. Moreover, several ser- Cigüeña stream drained directly into the Guadiamar channel through
vice roads were built. Unfortunately, both for nature and for the an interconnected system of small ponds.
economy, the land was never farmed. While this situation remained, But, once again, the Almonte-Marismas Transformation Plan
the drainage system artificially dried the soils and started changing diverted the waters from the River Guadiamar and the Cigüeña
its chemical properties in the Gallega marsh. stream into Entremuros, in order to irrigate the cleared lands for
Hence,Action 4 was aimed at recovering this area of transfor-
med marshes hydrologically and environmentally, including the
Guadiamar channel section, restoring its original shape and restruc-
turing these lands, that had been altered and drained for almost fifty
years, bringing them back to marshes once again (see Figure 2).
A transversal dyke known as the FAO wall had been built bet-
ween the Gallega marsh of the Nature Park and the National Park,
marking the northern boundary of the National Park for the lives-
tock risers of Hinojos and Almonte villages and for tourist trips to
the "Jose Antonio Valverde" Visitors' Centre. But this dyke also pre-
vented waters from rivers and streams like Cañada Mayor, Molino
and Cerrabarba channels from reaching the Gallega marsh. The As a consequence of channelling the lower sector of the Guadiamar River
for farming in the area, the Torre Branch, a former branch of the
Guadiamar channel connection, via a sluice gate, was too small for
Guadalquivir River, has become clogged up and reduced to a trickle of
the flow of a sufficient volume of water. shallow waters, covered with reeds in its upper reaches.
Photograph: CENEAM files.
The measures taken to return the Gallega marsh to their ori-

311
 and morphologically restored as a result of Action 4.
With regard to recovering the water input from the
Guadiamar river bed, it should be pointed out that the aim is not
to raise the flood levels of the Doñana Marshes above the natu-
ral heights.This currently happens in years of above-average flo-
oding due to the Montaña del Río which acts as a dyke, causing
the flooding of higher parts of the marshes (local elevations
usually performing as islands) that would not occur if waters
drained naturally into the river. This problem should be tackled
at the same time as the Montaña del Río dyke extension is remo-
ved (phase II of Action 8).The aim of this action is two-fold. On
the one hand, it is to reduce the frequency and intensity of dry
periods, which have a very negative effect on the ecological func-
New dykes were built to seal off the Doñana Marshes after the
Aznalcóllar mine accident of 1998, thus preventing serious impacts tion of the marshes of Doñana National and Nature Parks. On
on the Park and allowing the restoration material to be removed in
the other, it is to recover the traditional hydrological function of
the future.
Diagram: Ayesa - Guadalquivir Water Board. the remaining marshes, including the areas that have been resto-
1 Doñana National Park
red, or remain to be restored under the Doñana 2005 Project.
2 Only access to sacatierras (excavation pond) This is to promote a gradual circulation of waters through the
3 Pile of organic soil
4 Torre channel Marshes with a predominant north-south flow, and in synchrony
5 Protection dyke with re-establishing the natural connection with Guadalquivir
6 Sacatierras (excavation pond)
7 Stretch of dyke assigned to the excavation pond River and the Torre Branch.
A secondary objective is to improve the environmental inte-
crops. With this transformation, the Doñana Marshes lost water gration of the area corresponding to Sector III of the Almonte-
inputs from the channel, although the receiving surface area was Marismas Irrigation Zone.This involves ecological and landscape
considerably reduced as well. The marsh water deficit problems restoration actions also capable of creating areas that can be
are especially pressing in dry years and in a sequence of successi- opened up to the public, or devoted to environmental education.
ve dry years, when tributaries would only provide about 50% of
their natural debit during the year.This, together with the fact that RESTORING THE TRAVIESO CHANNEL:
these dry years are relatively frequent (around 30% of the hydro- A GUIDE TO GOOD PRACTICE
logical series of the last 55 years), means that the Marshes face The scope of this restoration action also addresses the pro-
dry periods more frequently and for longer than before. The blems caused by the Almonte-Marismas Plan draining parts of the
result is a significant shortage of water with an appreciable impact old marshes. One of the greatest impacts at the time was to divert
on the marsh ecosystems. the Guadiamar River water flow, which was channelled along
On the other hand, the water quality of Guadiamar River has Entemuros to allow the former wetlands to be torned to farmland
fallen significantly and continuously over recent decades as a (Figure 3).
consequence of wastewater draining into the river, diffuse pollu- The right hand wall of the Guadiamar channel crosses the natu-
tion from agriculture and acid waters high in metals from mining. ral bed course of the Travieso channel, so this traditional input of
This process reached an extreme importance with the Boliden water into the Doñana Marshes was cut off.The first stretch of the
mine accident of 1998. The lower the water flows, the more natural bed of the Travieso channel, 5.5 kilometres long from where
obvious the River Guadiamar's water quality problems become. it rises in Vuelta de la Arena, has been channelled in the Entremuros
Contamination was tolerable under average flow of River area. The second stretch of the natural bed, 7.8 kilometres long,
Guadiamar, because of dilution effects. flows through the Caracoles estate, a property surrounded by
So, the objective of this action was to restore the water input earth walls along its perimeter.The third and final part of the natu-
from the Guadiamar river bed into the Gallega marsh, in terms of ral river bed of the Travieso channel runs through Doñana National
both quality and quantity. These waters come from the River Park and it is in a good state of conservation, despite the fact that
Guadiamar catchment basin and the Cigüeña stream, an area that it had no water flow for several decades.
belongs to the Nature Park and has already been environmentally The objective of the first phase of Action 6 is to recover the

312
natural watercourse of the Travieso channel in the Caracoles esta- kish water into the Guadiamar marshes. This intervention will be
te and to restore the entire zone to becoming a natural marshland based on:
once again, as an extension of the Doñana National Park Marshes - Setting back the left stretch of Entremuros between Vuelta de
around it.This operation is one of the greatest technical and scien- la Arena and the holding known as Veta de Alí. This will reco-
tific challenges addressed by Doñana conservationists in recent ver a significant area of its former flood plain north of the rice
decades because of the complex and experimental nature of resto- paddies of Cantarita, so that its ordinary flow there (that pre-
ring such a large area to its natural state. sently run along the minimum water canal) and part of the
The first step towards this objective was to expropriate the flood waters from the Guadiamar river will be channelled into
Caracoles estate (in September 2003), which used to grow barley the former course of the Torre Branch.
crops and was used for hunting up until that time.This recovered - Sufficiently dredging the currently silted up riverbed to allow
an area of 2,680 ha of drained marshes.The estate is roughly squa- tidal waters in at this point, which will link with the Marshes via
re in shape and had a dyke running around its perimeter to pre- the Travieso channel.
vent flooding. Inside the estate, there is a drainage network con- Once the traditional hydrological function has been restored,
nected to a pumping station that, to date, has pumped surplus the vegetation, habitats and landscape of the Torre Branch course
water into the Entremuros area. The project includes plans to will recover. For this reason, hydraulic and tidal studies and rese-
demolish all the auxiliary buildings and facilities on the estate and arch are vitally important.The extending of the tide along the Torre
to remove the southern and western walls, which will provide a Branch will need to be simulated, based on research, to provide the
connection with the surrounding National Park marshes. best solutions for restoring basic ecological processes like the
The network of main and secondary drains will be filled in, as recovery of brackish water vegetation and enhancing the biological
with the Gallega marsh, to restore the original landscape of the diversity with the introduction of fish.
area and its natural water flow.The lower part of the drains will be
filled in with earth from the Travieso bed excavation and from the
excavation of new shallow ponds.
At the same time, it will be connected to the Travieso channel
(Entremuros stretch - Figure 3), and this stretch of the channel will
be restored as far as Vuelta de la Arena. It will also be connected
with the Torre Branch and, of course, the right hand wall of
Entremuros will be suppressed7.
THE TORRE BRANCH
THE TIDAL INFLUENCE OF THE MARSHES
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Torre Branch, the wes-
ternmost marshy branch of River Guadalquivir, was an important
waterway for barges because of the tidal influence and large water
flow. But successive regulation of the Guadalquivir,“The Big River”
(from the Arabic: Wadi al-Kabir, the “Guadalquivir”), cutting and
dredging the main shipping channel, together with the loss of water
input from the Guadiamar River, has reduced the importance of the
Torre Branch to the point of converting it into a clogged water-
course at its head waters, and one of shallow waters that are cut
off from the influence of the tides lower down.As a result, the tidal
function of the Doñana Marshes' water system has been lost, inclu-
ding water inputs in summer with the high tides (botamentos), and
water from the Guadiamar river breaking its banks and providing
water along its connection with the Travieso channel in Vuelta de la
Arena. Stretch of the extension of the Montaña del Río dyke where the sacatierras
(excavation areas) from the construction work can be seen between the
Hence, the objective of this action is to recover both the fluvial Torre Branch, and the Los Ansares pond.
and tidal hydrological functions of the Torre Branch, bringing brac- Image: Ayesa.

313
 twenty years ago, at the request of the Doñana National Park
Board, as it was alleged that the natural levees that marked the
boundary with the Guadalquivir were being eroded by wave action
due to shipping in the estuary. This is a typical example of the kind
of decision that should be weighed up carefully in the new stages
of restoration.This was the hand of man that intervened, for good
or for bad, depending on the variables used, in an attempt to
correct losses in a natural system but that could have undesirable
effect on the Marshes.
In this new scenario, modelling the water function of the
National Park and other associated research work has provided
guidance for new proposals solidly founded on scientific evidence.
Meeting of the Doñana 2005 Project Scientific Committee chaired by Félix
Manuel Pérez Miyares.
Photograph: Doñana 2005 Technical Office. DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY
The series of actions and initiatives that have or which remain
REMOVING THE BARRIERS to be implemented, in projects like Doñana 2005 and the
Action 8 arose initially in response to 1998 Boliden mine acci- Guadiamar Green Corridor, should be based on the fact that, des-
dent and helped to seal the Doñana Marshes from the acid waters pite the enormous volume of information, research and qualified
of the toxic spill.The dykes did their work as the spill was contai- human resources dedicated to Doñana, this area remains an extre-
ned beyond the boundaries of the National Park. Once it has been mely complex system in which there is a high degree of uncertainty
confirmed that the sources of the pollution have been almost com- and many points that are still unexplored territory for science.
pletely eliminated from upriver, the dykes and levees will be disman- Experience of restoring the water and ecological systems of these
tled, allowing the original connection between the Doñana Marshes marshes in previous decades clearly shows this, as we have seen in
and the Guadiamar river considered in Action 6. the course of this publication.
However, this process has reignited the debate on whether Yet, there is another, equally important factor. Doñana was, is
the Montaña del Río should be removed or not, and to what extent and will continue to be an extremely dynamic and changing system.
it should be permeable, as a continuation of the process of making Both these points of view imply that restorative actions must be
the Marshes permeable to both river and tide flows.This barrier to flexible.That means the restoration process must be considered, in
the Guadalquivir River was built as one of Doñana's defences over essence, as an experiment providing opportunities to use the feed-
back obtained; an experiment that can enhance our understanding
of processes and one in which further changes will be made, depen-
ding on the responses of the system. For this reason, monitoring
and the associated research plan form an integral part of the hydro-
logical and environmental restoration projects from the very begin-
ning. They are interconnected parts of the same bodye, analysing
how the system as a whole responds to the changes made to
external environmental variables and how the internal processes
evolve.
The new stage of restoration that has commenced in Doñana
basically implies re-connecting fluvial and marsh ecosystems, and
re-building lost natural connections among different habitats.
Therefore, in a case of this kind, it is more productive to seek spa-
After the decontamination of River Guadiamar that started immediately
after the Aznalcóllar accident, the watercourse has not only been returned tial heterogeneity than homogeneity as an intervention premise,
to its normal state, it will also recover its original function of feeding the which will allow for more and better results and reduce the risk of
Doñana marshes and will act as an ecological corridor to the protected
areas of the northern area, as the river has become a basic objective of the failure.
“Doñana 2005” and “Guadiamar Green Corridor” projects.
There are clear limitations inherent in the different restorative
Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

projects launched. But these limitations can be either ignored, seen

314
TABLE 1
Evaluation and Monitoring Plan of the Doñana 2005 Project

AREA OF MONITORING OBJECTIVE STUDY ZONE

Underground waters Identify the impact of actions 1 and 3 Soto Chico and Soto Grande streams
of the Doñana 2005 Project on the (Action Zone 1)
aquifer-streams and aquifer-ponds relations. El Partido stream (Action Zone 3)

Phytoplankton and Physically and chemically characterise Scope of all the actions
zooplankton communities of water bodies and assess
and the physical and the abundance of phytoplankton
chemical properties and zooplankton species
of waters. Monitor changes in the physical and chemical variables
of waters over time, and the zooplankton and
phytoplankton communities, assessing the results
of the action.

Aquatic Flora Analysis of the submerged and emergent Gallega marsh (Action Zone 4)
and vegetation. vegetation of streams and water bodies Guadiamar channel (Action Zone 5)
in the study zone. Travieso channel(Action Zone 6)
Determine the distribution of Brazo de la Torre - Torre Branch (Action Zone 7)
endangered species and invading plant species Entremuros (Action Zone 8)
of the study zone.
Draw up a theoretical reference framework
to explain the dynamics of the vegetation
in the study zone in relation to water flow and inundation.

Hydro-geomorphology Analyse changes to the alluvial fan Gallega marsh(Action Zone 4)

in El Partido stream. Guadiamar channel (Action Zone 5)
Diagnose future trends of the alluvial Travieso channel (Action Zone 6)
fan of El Partido stream. Torre Branch (Action Zone 7)
Analyse and describe the behaviour of the flow Soto Chico and Soto Grande streams
provided by the Guadiamar River on entering (Action Zone 1)
the Marshes and estimate the area affected.To be extended El Partido stream (Action Zone 3)
to analyse the flows of the Cigueña and Pescador streams.
Impact on the Marshes of variations in water
flow entering the area.
Identify the layout and profiles of the original
river beds, particularly the former Travieso river
through the Caracoles estate.

Changes Draw up an inventory of existing biodiversity in the Soto Chico and Soto Grande streams
in fresh water water courses that are the scene of interventions. (Action Zone 1)
macro-invertebrate Monitor changes in the macro-invertebrate El Partido stream (Action Zone 3)
communities. communities. Gallega marsh (Action Zone 4)
Using biotic indexes based on the Guadiamar channel (Action Zone 5)
abundance of macro-invertebrates, Travieso channel (Action Zone 6)
evaluate actions intended to improve
the biological quality of El Partido
stream waters.
Monitor macro-invertebrate community
of Gallega marshand assess the
community changes that will occur after
connection between the River Guadiamar
and the Gallega Marsh.

Changes in estuarine Monitor fish populations Actions involving estuarine and Torre Branch waters
macro-invertebrate in the restored water courses.
and fish communities. Analyse macro-invertebrate
communities in restored areas.
Study changes in the communities of
macro-invertebrates and fish that could be
established in different bodies of water
within the Marshes as a result of
recovering their tidal function.

Monitor the Document modifications that occur in Scope of all actions involving terrestrial vegetation.
terrestrial vegetation the vegetation of the area affected by the
on restored areas. Doñana 2005 Project.
Monitor the effects Map the vegetation in each Action.
of Doñana 2005 Project Monitor the areas of restored vegetation.
on the vegetation of Create a data base of the spontaneous vegetation
National and Nature Parks. and the vegetation restored in these Actions.
Describe changes in the terrestrial vegetation
Associated with the water regeneration work.
Create an observation network for future ·
monitoring of the response of the
terrestrial vegetation to the modifications in
the water regimen of the Doñana area.

315
 TABLE 2
Research projects associated to ecologic restoration of the marshes of the National Park - Doñana 2005.

RESEARCH PROJECT ENTIDAD INVESTIGADORA AND COORDINATION

ANALYSIS OF GEOMORPHOLOGIC RISKS AND EVALUATION OF EROSION University of Huelva.

PROCESSES IN THE PARTIDO STREAM BASIN . Coordinator: Francisco Borja Barrera

MONITORING OF CONTAMINATION AND ITS BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS THROUGH University of Córdoba and University of Huelva
MOLECULAR BIO MARKERS AND CHEMICAL SPECIATION. Coordinator: Juan López Barea. Subproject managers: J.L. Gómez Ariza,
C. Pueyo de la Cuesta, S. Garrido Moreno
RESTORATION ECOLOGY OF THE FAUNA AND FLORA IN THE CARACOLES ESTATE, Doñana Biological Station. Spanish Higher Research Council (C.S.I.C.)
INTEGRATED IN AND ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK Coordinator:Andy J. Green

FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DOÑANA MARSHES AND THEIR SURROUNDINGS: Doñana Biological Station. Spanish Higher Research Council (C.S.I.C.)
DOÑANA 2005 PROJECT.
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS AND PROJECTION OF THE EFFECTS OF THE Coordinators: Miguel Delibes, José M. Paruelo and Néstor Fernández

CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON HEAVY METAL, FERTILIZER, Natural Resources and Agrobiology Institute of Seville
AND PESTICIDE CONTAMINATION IN AIR, WATER, SOIL, SEDIMENTS AND ORGANISMS Spanish Higher Research Council (C.S.I.C.)
IN THE BASINS FEEDING DOÑANA AND THE GUADALQUIVIR MARSHES. Coordinator: Francisco Cabrera Capitán

LIMNOLOGIC STUDY OF THE LAGOON FORMED IN EL ROCÍO MARSH. University of Seville

Coordinator: Julia Toja Santillana

STUDY OF CURRENT SITUATION AND MONITORING OF THE BASIC PARAMETRES University of Seville
OF CONTAMINATION OF THE WATERS FLOWING INTO THE MARSHES OF DOÑANA NATIONAL PARK, Coordinator: José González Delgado, José Manuel González Limón
FROM A PERSPECTIVE OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN THE AREA.

STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VEGETATION AND THE ALMONTE-MARISMAS AQUIFER Aquatic Ecology Station (University of Seville - EMASESA)
IN THE DOÑANA PARKS. Coordinator: Francisco García Novo

as a problem or considered as opportunities. In the present situa-

tion, it has been decided to regard these limitations as opportuni-
ties.This is the case of the Caracoles estate, where the limitation
lies in the fact that, from the restoration point of view, the starting
point is a uniform area, flat and homogenous, an area that has been
artificially drained for years and used for growing cereals. If this area
were merely flooded in its current state, it would probably produ-
ce a uniform community of plants, although the specific type would
be difficult to predict. For this reason, this initiative plans to resto-
re a more natural topography, and, therefore, restore more natural
cycles of flooding, all of which will be achieved by restoring the ori-
ginal profile of the Travieso channel, filling in the artificial drainage
canals and restoring the original contours of the marshes also cre-
ating small artificial ponds. In this way, the diversification of habitats
will promote more diverse communities. The strategy could even
be extended to create a series of different topographies within the
Caracoles estate (different types of plots with depressions and ele-
vations), to guarantee a far more heterogeneous marshland as a
result.
Hence, the initiatives taken work within the context of these
uncertainties, which clash with the laudable desire of many sectors of
society and the scientific community to return Doñana to a state of
completely natural systems, as it was in the past. But this is no longer
The Marshes cover an area of 26,572 ha in Doñana National Park, plus the possible. One has to face the fact that major and irreversible changes
2,627 ha of the Caracoles estate that are being restored, the lands of the
have been wrought, both due to external impacts and to internal pro-
Nature Park to the east of Entremuros as far as the Torre Branch and the
Gallega marsh restored area. The Digital Terrain Model constructed for cesses, and Doñana is a highly dynamic system in terms of both geolo-
the Doñana Marshes, superimposed over a satellite photograph, clearly
shows the floodable area and the main elevations and depressions that
gical and ecological time scales. It cannot recover its pristine conditions,
form the lucios (shallow lakes) and vetas (elevations). but measures can be taken to return it to a state that is close to this
Source: Carlos Urdiales.
impossible objective, and preserves a rich diversity.

316
EL PARTIDO STREAM BASIN broad inter-fluvial plain where they would deposit their sandy load,
RETURNS TO ITS NATURAL STATE before entering the Park free of sands to feed La Madre de las
Action number 3 is being implemented in the lower stretches of Marismas channel.
El Partido stream basin,just downstream from the Matanza bridge.The This model requires flooding a large area of 1500 ha in periods of
aim of this action is to prevent the building-up of an alluvial fan in the maximum debt.This has led the authorities to expropriate the affected
Marshes with sediments from the Marin channel, when it receives area, which was in private hands and used for agricultural crops and
waters from El Partido stream.The sandy delta that has quickly formed pasture.But,apart from the water system,the lands,most of which are
covers a valuable marsh ecosystem with a grassland vegetation that is inside Doñana Nature Park and to the North of the National Park,
quickly invaded by tamarisks and which is of little value for conserva- need ecological restoration.
tion. The restoration project has been developed in the Aquatic Ecology
The hydraulic solution put forward by Professor Mintegui for the Station (Estación de Ecología Acuática), a joint research centre belon-
water system to avoid it silting up, as outlined in detail in Chapter 3, ging to the University of Seville and to EMASESA, Sevilla Water Supply
consists of diverting most of the flood waters from the stream to a Company. A team of scientists from the Universities of Seville and
FIGURE 4

Vegetation type and treatment map

(2005) of El Partido stream restoration
project.

Ecological restoration map drawn up by

Daniel García Sevilla of El Partido stream
Ecological Restoration Team, as part of
the Doñana 2005 Project.
Aquatic Ecology Station, University of Seville.

317
 to 4 m between annual cycles.
The soil has been studied (texture and profile) in the area to be
restored and a piezometric network has been installed to monitor the
levels in comparison with El Partido stream.The remains of woody
vegetation in the restoration target area have been described and
mapped.At other points in this intervened area,seeds,berries and soil
samples have been taken in order to study the germination of the seed
bank.Trials have also been conducted in depositing mulch soil covers
for re-planting the new banks built for the water projects.
The use of the area by vertebrates has been analysed in the res-
toration analysis.The results of an in-depth study of the distribution of
rabbits conducted in 2004 by Sacramento Moreno,Sonia Cabezas and
Raquel Moreno, from Doñana Biological Station, have also been taken
on board. The abundance of prey makes this area an ideal hunting
ground for lynx and Spanish imperial eagle.The basic premise for this
initiative is that restoration should foster these functional aspects in
particular. It should favour the movement of larger mammal species in
the northern area of the National Park, preventing them from ente-
ring the areas of intensive farming under the Almonte-Marismas Plan.
Using the semi-natural vegetation that can be recognised in pho-
tographs from the 40s and 50s, and the vegetation series from the
area, an ecological restoration project has been developed. This is
False-coloured satellite image of the Marshes of of Doñana during flooding. based on the reconstruction and consolidation of existing specimens
Image: Landsat 7 (2000).
and patches of woody vegetation, the regeneration of areas in which
Extremadura, made up of Professors José Carlos Escudero, Ángel the natural dynamic can restore the original formation (such as the
Martín Vicente, María Cruz Díaz Barradas, Juan Bautista Gallego, María banks of the watercourses) and planting thickets of woody vegetation
Zunzunegui, Daniel García Sevilla, Mari Paz Esquivias Romero, Raquel in the rest of the areas, and two patches of woodland in areas that
Fernández Lo Faso, Luciana Carotenutto,Adalgisa ALves,Alberto Troca used to bear them.
and Francisco García Novo. Some large trees (umbrella pine trees over 6 m high) will be plan-
Before addressing the restoration itself, the available data from the ted to cover the scarcity of perchs for birds,along with cork trees with
area was analysed.These include old maps, aerial photographs dating holes in the trunk, with a view to attracting other groups of vertebra-
back as far as 1946, ownership maps and documentation on the eco- tes. The restoration project also eliminates the tracks and rights of
logical history of Coto del Rey studied by Professor Ángel Martín way, high-tension cables and the abandoned irrigation facilities.A new
Vicente from the University of Seville. On the other hand, the local peripheral path has been built to link up with the paths that lead to
vegetation and its changes during the 20th century have also been stu- Raya Real, a traditional staging post connecting El Rocío to
died, to build up successive sets of data and determine the objectives Villamanrique village.
by means of vegetation types as reference. This restoration model consolidates the surviving vegetation and
Once the restoration model of scrub species to be found in the attempts to foster the system dynamics towards greater structuring,
area had been defined in 2003, a planting trial was conducted on an bearing in mind that the irregular climate makes it impossible to fore-
experimental plot of one hectare, located in the National Park, at El cast possible floods or guarantee the survival of new plantations.
Rocío. Planting trials were conducted with scrub and trees and the The vegetation thickets follow the morphology of local woody
survival and growth rates of the plants and the composition and pro- vegetation, the structure of which is dominated by patches, combining
duction of semi-natural vegetation were monitored from 2003 to one or few trees and a dense undergrowth of large shrub: Pistacia len-
2005. Rainfall and piezometric levels were recorded once a month. tiscus, Phillyrea angustifolia, Myrtus communis, Rhamnus oleoides,
The data from the experimental plot meant growth rates were Crataegus monogyna, Pyrus bourgeana, Daphne gnidium, Ruscus acu-
documented and they helped in selecting planting techniques, bearing leatus, Quercus coccifera and Chamaerops humilis.The smaller,flowe-
in mind the variation of the water table depth, which fluctuates by up ring shrubs are planted around the edges, consisting of thyme, laven-

318
der, rock roses (Cystus spp.), Genista spp. and Halimium halimifiolium. the parks' tour programmes, once the restoration is complete.
The structure, diversity and dynamics of these formations have been Strictly speaking, this is not an ecological restoration; it merely
studied, as has their relation with the soil characteristics, which have moves things in that direction, facilitating the self-organisation of natu-
been reproduced during the restoration.The thickets to be planted, ral systems and pushing them in the right direction, allowing natural
between 12 and 20 metres in diameter, combine a nucleus of trees, a succession to play its part.
rim of other berry producing scrubs and a periphery of flowering The growth data obtained in the experimental plot have been
shrubs.The nuts and berries will attract vertebrates, which, in the futu- used to simulate the behaviour of vegetation in different scenarios,and
re, will help these species to spread to the rest of the area.The flowe- the transformation of the landscape,diversity and habitats.A program-
ring shrubs will attract flying insects and the thicket as a whole will pro- me has been developed to monitor the vegetation, wildlife, water,
vide structure, resources, diversity and support for wandering animal landscapes and such, since Action number 3 of the Doñana 2005
species and will encourage the progressive incorporation of other spe- Project was implemented.
cies to the restored area. Raquel Fernández Lo Faso, member of the restoration team, has
The composition of these thickets will vary depending on the developed a landscape mapping system that represents the shift from
degree of flooding that is foreseen and the soil texture. The sandy artificial and intervened areas (red) to natural and conserved areas
areas, invaded by shifting dunes in the 16th and 17th centuries, will be (green) in a sequence of colours. She has used this code to map these
planted with open scrub and stands of trees.At lower levels, the com- landscapes before these actions were implemented (2002) and after
position of the patches of vegetation will vary from north to south and the lands were expropriated (2005), and she has simulated the next
from east to west, progressively denser and with larger species to the two stages,as can be seen in Figure 5. The first stage will be taken once
east and south, where patches of pine woodlands have survived, and the hydrological intervention and the ecological restoration were
where the larger species of wildlife currently seek refuge. At even completed (2006) and the second landscape simulation stage will
lower floodable heights,a thicker vegetation and rivr bank will be plan- occur ten years later (2016).As the images clearly show, this sector of
ted, in line with the surviving vegetation to be found in Cañada Mayor. Doñana, once restored, will recover both the landscape and the eco-
These actions will be supported by creating an area of mixed forest logical function that it lost in the 1970s.
(oak, cork, wild olive and umbrella pine trees) with native scrub run- Two major ecological restorations of aquatic systems have been
ning in continuous strips so that it can act as a temporary refuge for carried out in Doñana over the last ten years: the Abalario wetlands
vertebrate fauna.There will also be a broad band of open grazing pas- and the Algaida marsh of Sanlúcar, as described in previous chapters.
tures dotted with small thickets (5 m) with one tall tree as a perch and A further two are currently on course, and are also focussed on
a refuge for vertebrates. water:ecosystems and landscapes:the recovery of the Caracoles esta-
In order to create a barrier to prevent species invading the site te in the Doñana Marshes (Action 6) and the restoration of the basin
from the farmlands to the west of the restoration ground, an area of of El Partido stream. The remaining actions of the Doñana 2005
unfertile washed sand will be maintained.This is to be followed by ano- Project are working in the same direction. In all of this, Doñana has
ther area of dense and highly diverse scrub,which completes this diver- undoubtedly become a European benchmark in ecological restoration.
sity "filter", holding back the invasion of species from the areas suffe-
ring from change, and thus protecting the restored area. Initial situation of
landscapes (2002) befo-
Figure 4 shows a map of the ecological restoration work drawn by re the restoration of El
Partido stream basin.
Daniel García Sevilla of the restoration team. The different patches The natural condition
show the different zones of vegetation and the small circles represent of the area to be resto-
red varies from violet
the location of the thickets to be planted, with all their variations (in (more artificial) to
size, composition, etc.).The blue lines represent the flow concentra- green (well preserved
area).
tion, along which the water will run at times of flooding, depositing
Mapdrawn up by Raquel Fernández
most of the sand before reaching the road running from El Rocío to Lo Faso and Diego García Sevilla.

Villamanrique, which will be covered with water and cut off during flo-
ods.The parallel lines to the west represent the diversity barriers.
Two experimental areas are to be established to the west, where
the plant material will be prepared and restoration and regeneration
trials will be conducted. On the other hand, there are no plans for far-
ming or livestock rearing in the area, although part of it will be used by

319
 2002

2005

2006

2016
FIGURE 5

Scenarios showing the landscape evolution with restoration of

El Partido stream basin. The sequence of colours that indicate
the progression from artificial (violet) and altered (red) lands
to natural (yellow) and conserved (green) lands. This criterion
has been used to map the landscapes before these interven-
tions (2002) and after they were expropriated (2005), followed
by a simulation of the next two stages. The first stage after
completing the hydraulic intervention and the restoration
(2006) and the second stage, ten years later (2016).
Maps drawn up by Raquel Fernández Lo Faso.

320
THE NUMERICAL HYDRODYNAMIC MODEL OF THE MARSHES mm

AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE MONTAÑA DEL RÍO CASE*

In the context of the research programme associated with the
Marshes restoration project, the Doñana 2005 Scientific Committee
saw the need for a modelling tool to provide greater accuracy to sup-
port scientific theories and for monitoring and evaluating the actions
implemented in this outstanding area of the Parks.
The numerical hydrodynamic model of the Marshes, as explained
in Chapter 3, makes it possible to simulate the flow of water inputs
from the watercourses that drain into the National Park and how
water levels vary over time in the Doñana Marshes. These are also
affected by how the water drains and whether this drainage is artificial
or natural.
years
The objective was to develop a hydraulic model that would enable
scientists to simulate the present hydrodynamic conditions of the Park, Evolution of rainfall accumulated in the different agricultural years
(September-August) from 1970 to 2003. The simulation generated by appl-
in order to calculate with greater accuracy the impact of restoration ying the Model for wet years, such as the 1995-1996 period, is excellent.
measures and any other factors that could determine the distribution The modelling also takes on board other basic values like available evapo-
ration-transpiration data, the flow of Guadalquivir River, including water
and flow of waters.This model was developed by the UTE made up of levels at the mouth, and data sets of the four main watercourses that drain
WL/Delft Hydraulics and AYESA, using the SOBEK software model as into the Doñana Marshes.
The bottom photograph shows a view of the right bank of the
a base.The model allows a 1D combination of designs for the flows Guadalquivir, in the Doñana National Park, by Punta de los Cepillos,
along channels, and 2D combinations for surface flows.This necessary between Brenes and Caño Nuevo, showing an area of maximum erosion
of the levee. The photograph was taken during a serious flooding
combination arises from the fact that 2D analyses are less appropriate recorded in January 1996.
for modelling hydraulic structures and the effect of channels and other Image and data source: AYESA

watercourses in the Marshes environment. Hence, the surface flow,

including the obstruction effects of dykes and natural slopes, can be
simulated in 2D with equations (the greater Marshes area), while the
channels and hydraulic structures have been modelled in 1D

(Guadalquivir River, the Torre Branch and the small channels close to
sluice gates).
The 2D surface run-off model, in turn, rests on the foundation of
the Terrain Elevation Model (TEM), which was constructed using data
obtained with LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technology for
measuring distances with Laser.Another important aspect for deter-
mining water flows in 2D was to determine the roughness of the
water, which was obtained by digitalising an Ecological Map of Doñana
with some data on vegetation,making it possible to estimate the range
of values of the friction co-efficient with water.
The bathymetric information provided by the Port of Seville
Authority and new surveys carried out within the Doñana 2005
actions, served as a base for the single dimensional flow. Furthermore,
The image shows a simplified version of the components used to calibrate existing structures, such as the sluices of Brenes, La Fuengirola, Los
the hydraulic model. The pink squares are water inputs. The red triangles Rompidos, Montaña del Río, Cherry, Carajola, those of the Guadiamar
are functional water connections with the 2D grid. The green triangles
represent hydraulic structures. channel and the hydraulic infrastructures created after 2000, like the
Source of the image: AYESA
Molino and Cerrabarba channels, have been incorporated.

321
 The scenarios analysed
Once the model had been calibrated, the first operational stage
addressed the task of simulating a range of different scenarios repre-
senting the restoration work conducted in the Doñana Marshes,inclu-
ding the Doñana 2005 project.The scenarios analysed were as follows:
Scenario 0 or baseline:This scenario is the situation in 2003, including
existing waterworks structures.The reference inputs for rainfall and
evaporation are taken from the water cycle of 1995-1996, which sho-
wed a good fit with the model.
Scenario 1. Elimination of the original Montaña del Río and its exten-
sion as protection against the effects of the Boliden mine accident.
Scenario 2. The actions to recover the Travieso riverbed and Torre
Branch are included in the base line case.
Scenario 3. The input from the Cigüeña stream, after restoration, is
added to the above.
Scenario 4. Elimination of the original Montaña del Río while maintai-
ning the extension along the Torre Branch.
Scenario 5.Elimination of the current situation of Montaña del Río and
the extension from the estuary to Entremuros,lowering the rest of the
dyke.
Scenario 6.The same as scenario 5, but this scenario includes the eli-
mination of the south and west walls of the Caracoles estate, the con-
nection with the Travieso riverbed and the Cangrejo Grande pond.
Water roughness depends mainly on vegetation. The above map high-
lights the most common types of vegetation to be found in different areas
of Doñana.

Upper zone
A. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum in the higher, central parts of the Doñana
Marshes, between riverbeds.
B. Scirpus maritimus in low-lying areas.
Central zone
C. Juncus subulatus in the depressions in the higher ground of the Marshes.
D. Scirpus litoralis in palaeo-channels of the lowest part of the Marshes.
E. Scirpus litoralis in depressions in the lower ground.
Low zone
F. Arthrocnemum macrostachyum in the higher part of the central zone of the
Marshs, between riverbeds.
G. Juncus subulatus in the depressions in the lower-lying ground.
H. Depressions with no helophytic vegetation in the lower-lying ground.
Source and vegetation map: AYESA

Above: Cherry sluice gate and the dyke with a flood water level of 1.96 m
Calibrating the model with the reference year 1999-2000 has been (20/12/2004), close to the natural holding capacity of the Marshes reservoir.
Below: Cherry Canal with a flood water level of 1.82 m (12/04/2004), an
far from simple.The calibration process highlighted some of the weak exceptional level of flooding for this time of year, due to the spring floods
points in the model. In some years, it was in line with events, but in of 2004.

others, there were noticeable differences. An in-depth analysis has

shown that the fundamental problem lay in the inconsistency of some
of the data sets, highlighting the fact that numerical models are highly
dependent on the protocols and the rigour of data sets entered into
them. Validations that have been done for data sets from the years
2000-2001 and 1995-1996 showed a good fit. Even so, as in any simu-
lation process,the developers of the model will not consider it as a clo-
sed and definitive instrument. It remains permanently open to refine-
ments based on successive approaches.

322
 Accepting that this action is both feasible and advisable, once La
Montaña del Río is virtually eliminated, other scenarios were introdu-
ced into the model that took into consideration the drainage capacity
of the ponds into the Torre Branch and the Guadalquivir River, assig-
ning different sections for channel types. The final conclusion is that
flood levels and duration are within recommended targets, which ena-
bles us to validate the proposal of suppression.Moreover,it shows that
View of the final stretch of the Brenes channel. The Numerical the tidal influence reaches to the Marshes, which have always been
Hydrodynamic Model of the Marshes highlights the importance of sup-
pressing the Montaña del Río dyke as far as the mouth to the estuary. affected by the tides, without causing any excessive saline intrusions. In
Photograph by Carlos Urdiales.
this case, there is an additional benefit, as mentioned in Chapter 3,
because, once the peak of the floods has passed, fish and other aqua-
One of the most striking aspects after applying the model is that tic life forms from the estuary shall enter the Marshes following the
the current levels of the Montaña del Río dyke and its extension (the former natural and naturalised channels, or by swimming over the
baseline situation) are too high for the Marshes to work properly from levee at very high tides. Increased connectivity between estuary and
a hydraulic point of view, and in accordance with its natural behaviour Marshes will be highly valuable for aquatic biodiversity, as the restora-
prior to the major changes that they have suffered.These levels are dif- tion of the Algaida marsh of Sanlúcar has shown.
ferent from the ideal levels set by Doñana National Park and the As a corollary to this strategy of recovering the function of the
Biological Station. The recommendations, included in the "Proposed edges of the Doñana Marshes,the possibility of naturalising the current
Management Model for attaining a biologically optimum situation in the deep channels that lead to the present outlet sluice gates has been
Doñana National Park Marshes", set an objective for floodwater surfa- considered.These were built by the Guadalquivir Water Board, based
ce levels never to exceed 2.2 m at any time, and that the duration of on old sluices and canals, in different stages between 1983 and 1989.
time that they rise above 1.90 m should only be during flash floods. They followed an agreement adopted by the National Park Board that
The levels reached in 95-96 were considered too high at the time. was justified on the grounds that the loss of capacity of the Marshes
The vetas (islets) and paciles (elevated surfaces) remained flooded for
prolonged periods, with water levels higher than previous records. In
the baseline scenario, the water level in the Doñana Marshes reaches
2.5 m and remains above the 2 m mark for some three months, in
comparison with the 2.3 m maximum water level for 95-96.
The results clearly show that the height of the present dykes that
separate the Doñana Marshes from the Torre Branch and the
Guadalquivir river, along with the limited drainage capacity of existing
sluices, make it impossible to meet the recommendations in the case
of flooding.The present system, therefore, has to be made permeable
to avoid that maximum water levels during flooding exceeded target
levels.
Hence, the proposal suggested by the model depends on elimina-
ting the function of the Montaña del Río from the Torre Branch as far
as the Brenes channel, which would make it possible to reduce the
peaks of flooding and the duration of maximum flood water levels in
the Doñana Marshes.This action implies eliminating the channel of low Channels with their associa-
ted sluice gates in the
waters filling it in so that it did not drain the Marshes and, therefore, Montaña del Río dyke
preventing unwanted draining of water out of flooded areas. For the system and its 1999 exten-
sion: Carrajola, Cherry or del
rest of the dyke, south of Casa de Brenes, with little significance in the Buentiro, Las Nuevas, Nuevo
modelling of the hydraulic system,it should be made permeable,rather or del Lucio de los Patos
Reales, Brenes, Figuerola and
than eliminated.The reason for this is that, basically, it is important to Los Rompidoss.
maintain this access for management activities in the southern area of
Image source: Carlos Urdiales
the National Park.

323
 circumstances, so that dry surfaces remain above floodwaters at all
times.
- The drying out process or sequence for the Doñana Marshes should
adjust to the volume of flooding recorded for that year, and the pat-
tern followed by the receding waters in the flooded areas should be in
line with the natural pattern defined by the topography of the terrain.
- The regimen of flooding in the National Park marshes should be reco-
vered and should tend to bring forward and prolong the period of flo-
oding in comparison with the floods recorded in similar years in recent
decades (since the hydrological alteration of the Marshes), to shorten
the annual dry period, even accounting for the natural fluctuations due
to rainfall.
- A stringent plan should be drawn up for monitoring the quality of
waters entering the Marshes, both in terms of sediment content and
pollutants in general. These checks should be even more rigorous
during flash flooding.
- It is important to recover the hydrological function in the area within
the gully defined by El Lobo and Marilópez ponds and the function
should be as similar as possible to the original situation.
Land in the east of the National Park marshes with a flood water level 1.90 A specific monitoring and early warning protocol should be drawn up
m above sea level. The highest part of the Guadalquivir-Torre Branch
natural levee and the course of the Montaña del Río dyke can be clearly
to cover extraordinary summer mortality in the Doñana Marshes and
seen. The excavated canals are shown in dark blue, the locks that regulate an action plan to implement the appropriate solutions for each and any
them (all currently operative) are marked with a green circle. The old
naturalised channel and natural channels are marked in light blue and the cause that may be identified as the origin of these processes.
small 1984 locks, not currently operative, are marked with a red circle. - Permanent contact and exchange of waters and aquatic life between
Image and data source: Carlos Urdiales
Marshes and estuary is fundamental for the Doñana system to func-
tion correctly.
was due to the progressive deterioration of the Montaña del Río dyke - To make the system as natural as possible, it is advisable to eliminate
because of the erosion of this bank caused by the river.Images,like the or modify the present deep channels that drain the Marshes and the
aerial photographs taken by the American flight in 1956,clearly illustra- sluice gates that regulate them.This is even more important in the light
te how a canal like La Carrajola (without any sluice gates to regulate it of any possible modification to the Montaña del Río dyke or the exten-
and directly open to the influence of the tides from the Torre Branch) sion from its current layout.
had developed a well-established dendritic drainage pattern that is * The contents of this section have been taken from the works of Carlos Urdiales Alonso,
conducted as part of the Doñana 2005 Project.
typical of tidal channels and creeks.To this end, a series of proposed
actions presented by the National Park have been modelled.The base-
line scenario, used for checking the extent differences occur, is scena-
rio number 6, with all the Doñana 2005 actions taken on board.

Proposed Management Model for attaining a biologically optimum

situation in the Doñana National Park marshes
Some of the most important stipulations presented by the National
Park and the Doñana Biological Station as the terms of reference for
the Doñana 2005 actions and for modelling work, are llisted below:
- In conditions of significant flooding, the water level should only exce-
ed the maximum flooding levels of the elevations (1.9 m above sea
level) for short periods of time during the arrival of flash flooding, and
to a maximum level of 2.2 m. Flooding should not exceed the level of
2.2 m above sea level at any point in the Doñana Marshes under any

324
Caracoles LUIS SANTAMARÍA *, ANDY J. GREEN **
RICARDO DÍAZ-DELGADO ***
a new laboratory for science MIGUEL ÁNGEL BRAVO ***
ELOY M. CASTELLANOS ****
and wetland restoration

A ction number 6 of the Doñana 2005 Project, aimed at

restoring an area of marshes ("marismas") that had been
turned into farmland in the 1960s, and to restore the hydrology
the estate borders on to the Marilopez "lucio" and the Travieso
Nuevo canal. It also borders with El Lobo "lucio" to the west and
with the FAO wall built in the 1970s to the north. In preparation
of the Travieso channel (Caño Travieso), is one of the most far- for planting cereals, the marshes were drained by installing a
reaching scientific and experimental challenges that the National drainage system of permeable pipes one metre below ground all
Park currently faces. The Almonte-Marismas Transformation Plan over the estate. These drained into the network of drainage
diverted the waters of the River Guadiamar, channelling them canals visible in aerial photographs.
along the Entremuros canal and, as a result, draining the Caño The full restoration of these 27 km2 is one of the largest wet-
Travieso channel and the adjacent flood plains, including the Los land restoration projects in Europe. It is an initiative that will
Caracoles estate, for farming. restore the water cycle based on ecological criteria and, at the
The estate is on the northern boundary of the National Park, same time, develop restoration models that can serve as tools for
bordered by the Entremuros canal and the Cangrejo Chico and other restorations in coastal and estuarine environments.
Cangrejo Grande "lucios" (shallow, seasonal lakes). To the south, The restoration of wetlands of this kind has to meet two
basic requirements: recover the functional, hydrological and eco-
* Mediterranean Institute of Advanced Studies (IMEDEA). logical functions and to establish spatial distribution patterns for
** Doñana Biological Station.
*** Monitoring Team of Natural Processes of the Doñana Biological Station. habitat types and biodiversity. The results of the actions to be
**** Department of Environmental Biology and Public Health, Faculty of Experimental
Science, University of Huelva. undertaken must ensure that the new spatial structure can opti-

1.38 m 1.50 m 1.70 m

1.80 m 1.90 m 2.00 m

Sequence of rainfall-induced flooding of the marshes in the Caracoles estate, based on the Digital Terrain Model. The depths quoted are the depths at point N28
in the Los Ánsares "lucio".
Images: Monitoring Team of Natural Processes/R.Díaz-Delgado

325
 1956 1972 1999
Historic transformation of Caracoles in a series of photographs taken in October 1956 (first American flight), May 1972 (panchromatic images from the CORO-
NA satellite) and July 1999. This short history shows the process of clearing the original marshes for farming and the channelling of the Guadiamar River, with
the consequent elimination of the Travieso channel. In the 1972 image, the start of construction work on the perimeter wall around the estate and the
Entremuros Canal can be seen. Fifty years later, the waters are starting to return to their original channel.
Images kindly supplied by Laboratorio de SIG y Teledetección-EBD/R. Díaz-Delgado.

mise the ecological function and the biodiversity of the aquatic to prevent a repetition of the mistakes made in the past, the
ecosystems, while at the same time minimising the need to fur- underlying philosophy behind this restoration should be that the
ther manipulate the hydrological function in the future. Moreover, restoration per se is a challenge full of uncertainties.These uncer-
tainties encompass how the water behaves in the marshes, the
dynamics of the sediments and the new role that the different
species will play in this restored area.
To strike this balance, both the design of the restoration and
the posterior management of the restored area have to take into
account the basic functional features that characterise marsh
ecosystems. The aquatic ecosystems of the Doñana Marshes
oscillate in an instable fashion between two alternative states of
equilibrium: "turbid waters" (caused by sediment in suspension
and the development of phytoplankton) and "clear waters", when
there is sufficient submerged vegetation to prevent the suspen-
sion of sediments in the waters9.The water cycles modulate the
Vetas (small sandy elevations) Bulrush formations
Paciles (pastures) with saltworts Lucios (shallow ponds) relative dominance of each of these states in the different marsh
Areas between quebradas and pacil Travieso channel outline wetlands, as both excessive depth and early desiccation will
Quebradas (depressions) Channels
encourage the persistence of turbid water states. The spatial
Photogrammetric reconstruction of vegetation and topography in 1956 by
mosaic of wetlands, with varying depths and sizes, guarantees the
ESPN/M.A. Bravo, based on the first American flight.
Source: Teledetection as a tool for restoration (Ricardo Díaz-Delgado, 2004). large scale resilience of the system from this locally unpredictable
factor by allowing some of the wetlands to remain in a clear
0.90 - 0.95 a.s.l.
0.95 - 1.00 a.s.l. water state at all times. Herbivorous waterfowl are another key
1.00 - 1.05 a.s.l.
1.05 - 1.10 a.s.l. element in the dynamics of these aquatic ecosystems because, by
1.10 - 1.15 a.s.l.
1.15 - 1.20 a.s.l.
eating the water plants at the beginning of the spring cycle, they
1.20 - 1.25 a.s.l. can destabilise the clear water state10; whereas, by dispersing plant
1.25 - 1.30 a.s.l.
1.30 - 1.35 a.s.l. propagules and aquatic invertebrates, they foster the re-colonisa-
1.35 - 1.40 a.s.l.
1.40 - 1.45 a.s.l. tion of the wetlands when these are in a turbid water state11,12. For
1.45 - 1.50 a.s.l.
1.50 - 1.55 a.s.l.
all these reasons, any attempt to identify an "optimal" flood cycle
1.55 - 1.60 a.s.l. for these marshes in general is a mistake.
1.60 - 1.65 a.s.l.
Current knowledge suggests that maintaining a highly diversi-
Localisation of the new pools with different shapes and sizes. The image
has been superimposed on the Digital Terrain Model of the marshes. fied spatial structure and guaranteeing exchange and connection
The topographic variation along the transversal profile is of about 20 cm. between the wetlands that make up the marshes is the best way
Source: Carlos Urdiales. Doñana National Park.
to optimise the resilience, diversity and ecological function of the

326
 that make it easier for species to disperse and to settle, or by
manipulating the residual drainage structures.
The hydrological analysis necessary for designing the restora-
tion has been hard work, in which the images provided by remote
satellite sensing over the last fifty years have played an essential
part. To evaluate the flooding regime, a time series of Landsat
satellite images was used (1973-2003) provided by the Doñana
Biological Station Remote Sensing Laboratory, aerial photos from
a 1956 American flight, images from a range of panchromatic cam-
eras installed aboard the CORONA satellite (used by U.S.A. in
the early seventies as a spy satellite, whose picture have recently
been declassified) and all the different images and orthopho-
tographs taken over the last ten years13. This material, together
Flooding as shown by a radar image from the RADARSAT satellite with a Digital Terrain Model constructed for Doñana with a hor-
(December 1996). The blue shows the levels of flooding in the Caracoles
izontal spatial resolution of 2 m and a Numeric Hydrodynamic
farm in this exceptionally wet year, where the original bed of the Travieso
channel is clearly visible. The average maximum flood levels are in green Model for the Marshes, has made it possible to develop a broad
and the minimum levels in red.
Source: LAST/R.Díaz-Delgado and Aurensa.
range of scenarios, providing a solid foundation for designing the
restoration and experimental work.
aquatic ecosystems of the Doñana marshes. What was initially an unjustifiable encroachment on the
Bearing in mind this available knowledge, the restoration faces Marshes has become a vitally important laboratory for the future
uncertainties like deciding the best combination of sizes and of Doñana and similar areas. It should not be forgotten that one
depths of the restored wetlands, and the most appropriate spatial of the objectives of the Caracoles project was to ensure that
structure to foster the dispersal of propagules by different vec- whatever actions were taken should provide systematic informa-
tors (birds, water or wind). The range of uncertainties also tion on the ecology of both the natural and restored wetlands in
includes dimensions that we do not know enough about and that the Doñana Marshes, i.e., to learn as much as possible as as to
we cannot control sufficiently, such as the possible effect of fish benefit many future restoration and management actions.
entering from the estuary, exotic species, herbivores (waterfowl,
livestock, horses, deer, hares) and flamingos on the stability of
clear water states. Work on a restoration design of this kind
includes aspects that are in their first steps of development, such
as determining ideal wetland profiles (size, depth, bank morphol-
ogy) that will attract waterfowl in order to accentuate their dis-
persal function.
For all these reasons, the research team and scientific institu-
tions responsible for the design of this project recognised the
need to adopt an "adaptive management approach", avoiding iden-
tifying an optimum design a priori and then monitoring the result.
Instead, they opted for a robust and flexible design that seeks to
clarify present uncertainties experimentally and progressively
optimise the restoration work. In practise, this approach trans-
lates into the need for a broad diversity of sizes and shapes of
wetlands, distributed over the spatial gradient of the area being
Before connecting the Caracoles area with the rest of the National Park,
restored. During the restoration, apart from monitoring the pools that will provide the foundation for much of its future diversity and
ecosystem of the restored area, experiments will also be carried will act as a laboratory to enhance our knowledge of the marshes have
been built. At the same time, work began on the task of eliminating the
out (for example, manipulating the colonisation rates or exclud- effect of the drainage systems that were installed to prepare the land for
ing herbivores).These criteria are also applicable to the emerging farming..
Source: ESPN/Hector Garrido
vegetation and to the marshes, for instance by creating structures

327
Extending Doñana MARIA ANGELES FERNÁNDEZ *

an important step towards regenerating the water system

n February 2004, the Council of Ministers agreed to extend

I the boundaries of Doñana National Park to cover a further
3,531 hectares, representing a 7% increase in the area of this pro-
tected natural area, rising its total area to 54,251 hectares8.
The Park has been extended thanks to the Doñana 2005 proj-
ect, which expropriated most of the extra land, through the
Guadalquivir Water Board, to guarantee the implementation of the
actions aimed at regenerating the National Park's water system and
resources.
The extension of the National Park has focussed basically on
three neighbouring pieces of land which could be included in the
protected area as the uses they had been zoned for did not include
any that would have prevented their inclusion.All these lands main-
tain a real or potential environmental continuity with the National
Park.They also meet the five requisites laid down by the National
Park Network Master Plan: they help to make the National Park
more representative Park; they imply a territorial readjustment that
could enhance their capacity to sustain ecological processes in the The latest extension of Doñana is a major victory in the long civil and sci-
entific battle to defend a unique and changing space, a rough diamond
National Park; they are in a good state of conservation, or can be
with defects in the process of polishing, that is the legacy for future gener-
restored to said state in a short period of time; the general conti- ations.
Photograph by Cipriano Marín.
nuity of the National Park is maintained physically and environmen-
tally; these areas do not include inhabited centres and, as a result of
the extension, they improve the environmental permeability and The newly re-classified area now covered 50,720 hectares. Since
the continuity of ecological processes between the National Park then, the boundaries have not been modified, despite pressure from
and its surroundings. many sectors. In fact, there was a wide spread consensus about the
The reasons for extending the Park have focussed on solving advantages of increasing the area of the National Park to bring in
some of the most important problems concerning the regenera- some of the surrounding land, especially the western triangle.
tion of the water cycle in Doñana and, at the same time, address With the extension implemented in this first stage, some ambi-
one of the most complex and ambitious wetland recovery and tious objectives were met, like solving some of the anomalies of the
restoration projects undertaken to date. boundaries, thus endowing the National Park with a more coher-
ent lay out that was more recognisable and in line with the real sit-
AN HISTORIC MOMENT uation; strengthening a framework of stability between the National
Doñana was declared a National Park in 1969, covering an area Park and its surroundings, and even helping to consolidate the pop-
of 35,000 hectares that included most of the original Coto de ulations of some outstanding species.
Doñana hunting estate and part of the neighbouring Guadalquivir
Marshes. In 1978, it was extended to take in coastal strips of dunes, RECOVERING THE MARSHES AND THE
sands and pine forests, plus marsh areas and the neighbouring Coto FUNCTIONALITY OF THE WATER SYSTEM
del Rey hunting estate to the north of the Guadalquivir Marshes. The actions encompassed by the Doñana 2005 project includ-
ed a series of expropriations that were necessary to be able to take
* Doñana 2005 Project. action on lands that up to that time had been in private hands.Two

329
 of these estates, "Cortijo de los Mimbrales" (310 hectares) and The marshland area included in the 2,665 hectares of Los
"Los Caracoles" (2,665 hectares), have provided the project with Caracoles estate had been cut off from its surroundings with
additional interest as, by becoming part of the National Park, they perimeter walls and transformed with a network of artificial
increase its surface area. Most of the rest of the lands expropriat- drainage channels to drain the estate to provide new lands for
ed under the Doñana 2005 project become the property of the farming, although it was only used for extensive livestock farming.
Ministry of the Environment. Environmental criteria will now be The project for recovering the Travieso riverbed (action number 6
used in the management of all these lands. of the Doñana 2005 Project) will eliminate the artificial drainage
Such is the case of the 310 hectares that were part of the channels and the crops grown on the farm for years. Restoring this
Cortijo de Los Mimbrales estate, in the western triangle. These estate and recovering its former marshes is one of the most ambi-
lands were used in part for growing irrigation crops, and partially tious conservation actions in Doñana, representing a real scientific
for dry-land farming and cork tree plantations. The estate had an challenge.
artificial drainage system that collected the surface run-off from the The 142 hectares of flood plain of the El Partido stream includ-
rainfall and the surplus irrigation water from the farm and from ed in the extension were expropriated by the Guadalquivir Water
higher ground.This drainage system transformed the natural hydro- Board in order to address restoration work on this stream. The
logical system of the Soto Chico and Soto Grande streams, with restoration work is designed to maintain control over the process-
the consequent negative effects on the local native vegetation.The es of erosion, transport and sedimentation in the stream basin, thus
restoration work undertaken as part of the Doñana 2005 project curbing the advance of the overflow fan and situating this on the
eliminated these drainage canals and the eucalyptus plantations flood plain.This action also includes an environmental restoration
from the estate.The land has been replanted with native vegetation of the basin of the stream bringing it back to the ecological func-
(cork oak, kermes oaks, ashes, etc.). tioning of Doñana Parks.

Doñana is embarking on a new journey full of uncertainties, but in the knowledge that it has overcome the main difficulties in the process of recognising its
identity.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

330
Monitoring and Evaluation JOSÉ JUAN CHANS *
RICARDO DÍAZ-DELGADO **
the key to the Doñana 2005 Restoration Project

E valuating the success of the Doñana 2005 hydrological and

ecological restoration project requires an extensive mon-
itoring and follow up programme that, first of all, allows scientists
to identify the state of the system prior to the project, during the
project and, then, to provide information on the response of the
natural system after these interventions.To this end, Doñana 2005
has a monitoring and evaluation programme that will be imple-
mented by different teams of specialists39, who will study aspects
considered important for the natural dynamics of the Doñana
Marshes.
Of the abiotic factors, attention will focus on hydro-geo-mor-
phological changes in the area affected by the project and water
quality. On the other hand, and as part of the biotic factors, both
land and water communities of plankton and plants will also be
studied, together with fresh water and estuarine macro-inverte- The invasion of introduced species is one of the causes for the reduction
and extinction of native species. Apart from the carp, an early introduc-
brate communities: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, tion, and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), the exotic species that are caus-
hence including representatives of most of the links in the food ing the greatest ecological damage in Doñana are the eucalyptus, the
Louisiana crayfish, the ruddy duck, the water fern Azolla filiculoides and
chain of the marshland biocenosis. the Florida red eared slider (Trachemys scripta) are potential dangers. In the
At the same time, information will be made available from photo, a specimen of the common pond turtle (Emys orbicularis), which is
being displaced by the red eared slider.
other research and monitoring projects in course that may pro- Photograph: CENEAM files.

vide additional information on the dynamics of the surface and

groundwater, pollutants transported in by water flowing into the currently impeded and, later on, a favourable response from the
Doñana Marshes and changes that may occur to landscapes. biological communities.With all this, and apart from the objectives
The final success of the restoration project depends on set, any restoration intervention implies uncertainties that can be
obtaining favourable results in ecological and biological terms, by reduced by research and monitoring, but they cannot be eliminat-
eliminating the main processes of degradation that are identified. ed totally, basically because these natural systems are so complex.
In this regard,Wetlands International establishes spatial reduction,
alteration of the water regimen, reduction of water quality, the MAIN PROCESSES OF ECOLOGICAL DEGRADATION
introduction of exotic species, unsustainable use and management AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
and restoration as the main processes that lead to the deteriora- Reduction of the area of wetland
tion of wetlands globally, and which also affect the Doñana Transforming the lands for farming, forestry, industry, urban
Marhses41. development and the shipping traffic to Seville in the Lower
Eliminating the processes of degradation and their associated Guadalquivir River has led to a considerable loss of natural marsh-
stress factors and impacts, which affect natural processes and bio- land area, which is the main origin and source of the impacts suf-
logical communities, is the priority objective of the restoration fered by Doñana for over two centuries.
project, in order to work towards a final scenario offering a dou- This loss of area has had a direct and decisive influence on the
ble result. Initially, the recovery of ecological processes that are loss of habitat, with the natural marshland ecosystem being
* Vice-director of the Doñana Biological Station. Spain.
reduced from 1780 km2 to some 300 km2, and thus constraining
** Monitoring Team of Natural Processes of Doñana Biological Station. Spain. the abundance and distribution of plant and animal communities25.

331
 It has also indirectly determined key ecological aspects like the TABLE 1 Main interventions of hydrological restoration in
water regime and quality. the Doñana National Park - 1973-1998.

Before restoration started within the Doñana 2005 Project, a

total of 557 ha and 17.5 km of water courses (Sotos 307 ha, Year RESTAURATION UNDERTAKING

Partido 950 ha, Gallega marsh 1800 ha, Caracoles 2665 ha and
1974 Marilópez, Lobo and Almajal wells. Artificial flooding.
Torre Branch 17.5 km) were cut off from Doñana's natural system,
1981 Hydrological regeneration.
either fully or in part, thus generally affecting the marsh ecosys- 1984 Restoration of Montaña de Río levee
tems as a whole and some of the areas of stable sands. New sluices built.
South-North intervention.
With regard to the Gallega marsh and Torre Branch (Brazo de 1986 Travieso Nuevo Canal
la Torre), isolated from their natural systems, the rest of Doñana 1986-1990 Old riverbeds regain flow.
Restoration of Cangrejo Chico pond.
marshes and the River Guadalquivir respectively, they have suf-
Control of trenches in levees to Estuary.
fered a loss of biological potential in comparison with the estuary 1998 - Doñana 2005 Project.
environment, in both cases, because they have been cut from these Guadiamar “Green Corridor” Project.

and the flooding dynamics have been altered23. Recovering or

restoring these areas will increase the area of marshlands in a nat-
ural state, which should generally favour their biological communi- branches of rivers, Brazo del Noroeste and the two branches that
ties. formed the Guadiamar channel, has gradually been reduced. In the
1950s, the inputs of water that spread out through the northern
Altering the water regimen, restoration and management part of the current marshlands of the National Park were elimi-
Human activities and the loss of space, together with restora- nated, so they now flow basically along the Entremuros canal, built
tion and management activities undertaken in the protected area to drain the waters into the sea as quickly as possible.
since it was first created, have had a notable impact on altering the Since the National Park was created, different restoration
regimen of both surface and subterranean waters.The most obvi- projects (Table 1) have been undertaken to off-set the negative
ous consequences are the increasingly severe floods and droughts, effects caused to the area of protected marshland by the transfor-
with higher levels of flooding of larger areas in winter, shorter mation work done on the Lower Guadalquivir.
periods of flooding during the mating and breeding season in the Until 1973, the main water inputs flowing into the Marshes of
National Park and a reduction of rains and water resources in gen- the National Park came from Entremuros, to the south of the
eral, during spring and autumn outside the National Park. Cangrejo Chico pond, the channelled part of the Guadiamar and
With regard to the surface waters, since the Doñana Marshes the Gallega marsh, Cañada Mayor, El Partido and La Rocina
were first transformed, the influence of the floods of the main streams and the channels flowing from the stabilised sands to the
west of the National Park.
Three wells were dug in 1974 to flood Marilopez and Lobo
ponds, situated in the Guadiamar Reserve, with water from the
aquifer. At first, the wells were used in autumn and late spring to
extend the floods, but they were later used only in autumn. The
large flocks of birds attracted in these years have had a decisive
influence on the area by almost completely eliminating all the veg-
etation from the ponds.
The reconstruction of the Montaña del Río levee in 1984 is
presented as "The Natural Mountain" and described by Bayan and
Delibes17 as "an elevation of the land scarcely one metre high,
that, on the one hand, closed off the Marshes, preventing them
from draining into the Guadalquivir (with the exception of a few
Hunting of water fowl in the Doñana area may be affecting endangered canals) and, on the other, in the opposite direction, made it impos-
species like the marbled teal and the crested coot, as they are often misiden-
tified because they are very similar in appearance to other species that can sible for the salt waters of the Lower Guadalquivir from penetrat-
be hunted, like the teal and the coot. In the photograph, a crested coot. ing into the Marshes in any great quantities when the tide came
Photograph: CENEAM files.
in".

332
 Restoration experiences in areas as complex and sensitive as wetlands indicate that success is closely linked to the development of an evaluation and monitor-
ing system that enables managers to correct undesired causes and effects in real time. For this reason, and in order to guarantee the hydrological and ecological
objectives of the "Doñana 2005" restoration project, an extensive monitoring programme has been designed that, first of all, makes it possible to identify the ini-
tial state of the system, its state during the actions and later, it provides information on the responses of the natural system to the interventions. In the picture, a
partial view of the area of action concerning the control and creation of new connections between the Doñana Marshes and the neighbouring River
Guadalquivir, the Torre Branch (Brazo de la Torre) and Entremuros.
Phoograph: AYESA.

The destruction of the river levee must have happened due to demics that could have a disastrous effect on the waterfowl.
the combined effect of several factors: the erosion produced by On the other hand, the Doñana Marshes have almost com-
major floods in wet years, as larger amounts of water were con- pletely lost the influence of the flooding from the River
fined in the south of the Doñana Marshes along Entremuros, the Guadalquivir, although they do have a decisive effect on the water
effect of large ships sailing along the Guadalquivir and the dredg- dynamics, especially in wet periods, as they prevent the Marshes
ing of the river20. from draining when the water level of the river is too high.
The Travieso Nuevo canal was finished in 1986, which will feed Concerning the groundwater, pumping for domestic and agri-
a considerable flow of water into Doñana Marshes in wet years, cultural uses is causing the water table to steadily fall, which, in
from south of Cangrejo Grande pond, which caused damage to consequence, reduces the water input from the ecotone (La Vera)
the Montaña del Rio levee due to the action of wind, opening into the Marshes and from La Rocina stream21 (Committee of
breaches and hence draining the marshes easily and without con- Experts 1992). Moreover, a widespread loss of natural up-welling
trol through these breaches. points (ojos) has also been recorded in the Marshes, which used
Penetration of the Montaña del Rio levee has caused an exces- to be a refuge for fish, amphibians and reptiles during the summer,
sive elevation of the height of the water level with widespread making natural droughts to be more severe44.
flooding throughout the Marshes, including islets and elevations, The transformation of the water network and harnessing the
and an acceleration of the silting up process37. As a consequence, aquifer seem to have shortened the wet season of the Marshes.
the huts of wardens have been flooded in the Marshes, something Although this has to verified quantitatively, the consequences can
that had never happened in the past. In the period 1986-1990, the already be detected in the marsh biocenosis.
canals were finally restored and cleaned, and new ones built, to The combined action of reducing the area of the Marshes,
allow the Marshes to drain rapidly in the event of botulism epi- altering the water dynamics and restoration actions taken global-

333
 Excessive grazing
in the National
Park has reduced
the vegetation in
some areas, affect-
ing birds and
mammals. Some
researchers sug-
gest that the water
rat's distribution
has been limited
in La Vera, an
area of contact
between the
Marshes and the
Sands, as there
are no reeds for
the rats to spread
through, because
these have all
been trampled
down by live-
stock. In the pic-
ture, a magnifi-
cent Mostrenca
breed bull.

Photograph by
José María Pérez de Ayala.

ly, have had repercussions on the water regimen of the Doñana spending the winter here was observed, especially among the
Marshes. On the one hand, this combination has produced exces- geese, which was attributed to the high level of flooding35. The
sive flooding, especially in the winters of wet years, and, on the mammals, especially buck and hares, suffered a high mortality rate
other, it has shortened the period of flooding in spring-summer, as in years with extremely high levels of flooding, such as in the 89/90
the connection between ponds to the north of the Marshes, now and 95/96 seasons. Furthermore, excessive levels of flooding
transformed, and those to the south, have been lost. Some indica- seems to have a negative impact on breeding among birds, with
tions provided by an analysis of the presence of some species of birds delaying the moment they lay their eggs, which reduces the
water fowl in the Marshes of the National Park, suggest that the mating season.The flamingo population has seen a fall in the num-
Marshes dry out earlier since the canals have been restored. ber of nesting pairs trying to breed, which suggests that they have
A digital analysis of the time series of satellite images will give been affected by the high levels of flooding in wet years, during the
us more accurate information on the changes that have occurred period between the opening of the Nuevo Travieso canal (1986)
to the duration of the wet season in winter and spring and the and the construction of the extension of the Montaña del Rio
area that is flooded in the Marshes. But, with the existing informa- (1998).The crested coot also has also shown a tendency to post-
tion about the flood area, the height of the water column and time pone the moment to lay its eggs when flood waters are too high
taken for the Marsh to dry out7 (National Park Reports 1997, (Field Diaries of the Doñana Biological Station).
1998 and 1999), it can be said that the level of the water and the The changes in the duration of the winter and spring floods
area of flooding have a negative impact on the biological commu- have also had a negative effect on plant communities, with an
nities of the Marshes. increase in mortality among shrubby sea bright and a reduction of
In the period 1986-1998, it has been found that the high level the cover of submerged macrophytes being observed in wet years
of flooding had a negative impact on the wintering bird colonies as with high levels of flooding36,42.
a whole, as well as harming some mammal communities. In the Shortening of the flood period seems to be responsible for at
95/96 and 96/97 seasons, a decline in the total number of birds least some of the changes in the bird life and the vegetation.

334
Valverde38 described the vegetation of the channels in general for a large number and variety of herbivore waterfowl. Large
terms, recording the presence of bulrushes, a species that indicates amounts of sediment in suspension also limit the growth of
the period of flooding, as it requires a prolonged period of swampy macrophytes, hence affecting the entire food chain of the wet-
ground and, although it can survive short periods of drought, it land ecosystem.
needs to keep the roots damp to maintain its population numbers. Improving water quality is the aspect that creates the great-
Sanchez, in 1974, recorded the presence of bulrushes in Caño est uncertainty in the restoration project. On the one hand
Travieso38 and there are also records, in the field diaries of the there appears to have been a clear improvement in water qual-
Doñana Biological Station, of breeding colonies of purple herons ity in the El Rocio Marsh, after the waste water treatment plant
in the bulrushes of the Guadiamar channel.This species has disap- was brought into operation, and one would expect that water
peared almost completely from the natural channels of the conditions will improve in a similar fashion throughout the
Marshes of the National Park, and only maintains large populations Doñana district in the near future. But, on the other hand, it has
in artificially managed sites. proved impossible to date, to eliminate the transport of sedi-
With regard to the birds and the shortening of the period of ments in suspension into the marshes from Los Sotos and
floods, the marbled teal, a globally endangered species, has been Laguna de los Reyes streams.With regard to the behaviour of
observed to lay its eggs early and has had lower breeding success agricultural pollutants, to date, the impact that the input from
rates in comparison with the rates observed in periods in which Entemuros will have since it has been restored and re-connect-
flooding occurred later26. ed with the Doñana Marshes, is unknown.
The planned interventions, like recovering Caracoles estate
and its connection to the Travieso channel and making Montaña UNSUSTAINABLE EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES
del Rio permeable to tides and water discharge to estuary, should Although the exploitation of resources does not form part
reduce the level of the flood. of the Doñana 2005 Project, these activities can affect the state
of some biological communities that are among the objects of
Reduction of the water quality the project.
In Doñana, all river courses have brought in some kind of con- There is unsustainable fish farming in the Torre Branch and
tamination to a greater or lesser extent15. Heavy metal pollution around Doñana, which is particularly serious with regard to the
directly affects and limits the abundance and living conditions of capture of young fish, causing an inevitable affect on the popu-
the aquatic flora, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, birds and mam- lation dynamics of several species18.
mals. Some heavy metals and pesticides bio-accumulate, so they Hunting of water fowl in the Doñana area is also affecting
can move up the food chain to higher levels, thus increasing their endangered species like the marbled teal and the coot18.
area of influence to include other species16,22,24,32,34,40. Overgrazing in the National Park has reduced the vegeta-
An excessive inflow of nutrients, particularly of N and P, stim- tion in some areas, affecting birds and mammals. The distribu-
ulates the growth of phytoplankton to the extreme that it causes tion of the water rat in La Vera - a contact zone between the
harmful explosions of algae that can be extremely toxic and can Marshes and the scrubland - seems to be limited as there are
kill birds and mammals19,27. In Doñana, the high mortality rate no reeds for them to disperse through, as they have all been
among water fowl is well known, put down to epidemics caused trampled down by the livestock37.
presumably by botulism. But one should not rule out the influence
of toxic algae in these events. INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC SPECIES
Water fowl have been described as important vectors of nutri- The introduced species that are causing most ecological
ents into aquatic systems16. Certain indications of this phenome- harm in Doñana are the eucalyptus, the Louisiana crayfish and
non occur in Doñana in late spring, when the birds tend to con- the ruddy duck.There is also a potential danger from the water
centrate in the few places where the flood waters remain.A con- fern Azolla filiculoides and the Florida red eared slider
centration of birds during the process of changing their feathers (Trachemys scripta).These latter two species could affect both
promotes the explosion of blooms of toxic algae. the abundance of submerged macrophytes and the populations
The submerged aquatic vegetation is a key factor in a whole of native turtles.
range of natural processes, due to the roles it plays in the ecosys- The introduction of the Louisiana crayfish in 1974 has
tem, like stabilising and immobilising sediments, as primary produc- wrought a change in the Doñana Marsh food chain, benefiting
ers and as habitats-refuges for fish fingerlings, and providing food and increasing the populations of its predators (herons, sea

335
High mortality rates among water fowl are well known in Doñana. These have been put down to epidemics caused by botulism, but one should not rule out
the possible influence of toxic algae in these deaths, and in the deaths of birds of prey that are often found during the breeding season. In the picture, the
courtship of a pair of avocets in Doñana.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

gulls, glossy ibis, spoonbills, storks), most probably to the detri-

ment of other herbivorous species like ducks and coots, and pos-
sibly to small wading birds that suffer from greater competition
from these other crayfish consumers28.
The ruddy duck may endanger the white headed duck.
Fortunately, control programmes seem to be limiting the spread of
the species.

SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS

OF THE DOÑANA 2005 RESTORATION PROJECT
During this initial period of the Project, endangered species
that had disappeared almost completely, or which only nested spo-
radically and in small numbers have been recovered as nesting
species.The bittern disappeared as a nesting species in the 60s, but
it returned to nest in the Marshes of the National Park in the
springs of 2002 and 2003, with 7 and 8 breeding areas being locat-
ed respectively. The crested coot has undergone a spectacular
recovery, with 40-42 pairs nesting in 2002 to between 68 and 74
pairs in 2003. The marbled teal, a globally endangered species,
seems to have started the process of recovering its breeding pop-
ulation numbers, with an estimated 86 to 103 breeding pairs iden-
tified in 2002 and between 68 and 84 in 2003.
The negative aspects detected in this period include the
The potential nesting sites of some birds are limited as the vegetation has
appearance of the exotic fern species Azolla filiculoides, which is
been decimated by overgrazing. This is the case of the purple heron that spreading alarmingly in the Doñana Marshes.
started nesting in Juncabalejo as soon as a herbivore exclusion area was cre-
ated. In view of the favourable results, at least for some endangered species On the other hand, there was an elevated mortality rate
and for communities of macrophytes included in the objectives of the among flamingo chicks born in Doñana in 2000, caused by them
Doñana 2005 project, it can be deduced that precautions should be taken to
avoid excessive flooding of the marshes after restoration, and that special eating toxic algae14, hence confirming the danger that cyanobacte-
attention should be paid to the quality of the inflowing waters. ria can represent for the biological communities, highlighting the
Photograph CENEAM.
importance of water quality in this project.
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. BAYÁN, B., CASAS, J., RUÍZ DE LARRAMENDI, A., SAURA, Niveles de metales pesados y arsénico en las aves de Doñana y su entorno
J.,URDIALES, A., 2001. Documento Marco de Desarrollo del Proyecto tras el vertido de las minas de Aznalcóllar. Efecto a nivel de individuo e
Doñana 2005. Regeneración Hidrológica de las cuencas y cauces ver- impacto en las poblaciones. En Corredor Verde de Guadiamar, 2003.
tientes al Parque Nacional de Doñana. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Ciencia y Restauración del Río Guadiamar. Consejería de Medio
2. BAYÁN, B., 2001. La Diálisis de los Arroyos. Revista Doñana 2005. Ambiente.
Noviembre nº 1. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. 17. BAYÁN, B., DELIBES, M., 1986. Doñana, con el agua al cuello. Cauce
3. BAYÁN, B., 2002. El agua de El Rocío: Claves de la actuación nº2: 2000, 5: 72-77.
Depuración de las aguas residuales de El Rocío. Revista Doñana 2005. 18. CALDERÓN, J., RAMO, C., CHANS, J.J., GARCÍA, L., 1996. Plan de
Abril nº 2. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. gestión cinegética para el ánsar común en las marismas del
4. BAYÁN JARDIN, B., CASAS GRANDE, J., RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI, Guadalquivir. Convenio Cooperación IARA-CSIC, 224 p.
A., SAURA MARTÍNEZ, J., URDIALES ALONSO, C., 2001. Proyecto 19. CARRILLO, E.; FERRERO, L.M.; ALONSO-ANDICOBERRY, C.;
Doñana 2005: Restauración hidrológica de las marismas y cuencas ver- BASANTA, A.; MARTIN, A.; LÓPEZ RODAS, V., COSTAS, E., 2003.
tientes a Doñana. Ed. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Interstrain variability in toxin production in populations of the cyanobac-
5. BAYÁN, B., 2002. La Marisma al Natural: Claves de la actuación nº 4: terium Microcystis aeruginosa from water-supply reservoirs of Andalusia
Restauración de la Marisma Gallega. Revista Doñana 2005. Noviembre and lagoons of Doñana National Park (southern Spain). Phycologia
nº 3. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. 42(3).
6. BAYÁN, B., 2003. Fase I. Frenar las arenas: Claves de la actuación nº3. 20. CASAS, J., URDIALES, C., 1995. Introducción a la gestión hidraúlica
Restauración del Arroyo del Partido. Revista Doñana 2005. Abril nº 4. de las marismas del Parque Nacional de Doñana (SO de España). En:
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Bases ecológicas para la restauración de humedales en la cuenca mediter-
7. BAYÁN, B., 2003. Claves de la actuación nº 6: Restauración del Caño ránea. Consejería de Medio Ambiente, J.A.:165-189.
Travieso. Fase 1. Revista Doñana 2005. Noviembre nº 5. Ministerio de 21. CASTELLS M. (Coordinator), CRUZ J., CUSTODIO E., GARCIA
Medio Ambiente. NOVO F.,GAUDEMAR J.P., GONZALEZ VALLVE J.L., GRANADOS
8. RESOLUCIÓN de 6 de febrero de 2004, del Organismo Autónomo V., MAGRANER A., ROMAN C., SMART, M., VAN DER MAAREL, E.
Parques Nacionales, por la que se hace público el Acuerdo del Consejo de (International Commission of Experts appointed by the President of
Ministros de 6 de febrero de 2004, por el que se amplían los límites del Parque Anadalusia Regional Government), Dictamen sobre estrategias para el
Nacional de Doñana por incorporación de terrenos al mismo. BOE nº47, de 24 desarrollo socioeconómico sostenible del entorno de Doñana.1992. E.,
de febrero de 2004. 131 p.
22. DELIBES, M., JIMÉNEZ, B., RIVILLA, J.C., ALÍS, S., GONZÁLEZ,
M.J., 2003. Metales pesados y arsénico en heces de Nutria (Lutra lutra)
del Río Guadiamar tras el Vertido Tóxico. En Corredor Verde de
CARACOLES Guadiamar, 2003. Ciencia y Restauración del Río Guadiamar. Consejería
A NEW LABORATORY FOR SCIENCE de Medio Ambiente.
AND WETLAND RESTORATION 23. FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., DRAKE, P., ARIAS, A.M., GARCÍA, D.,
2000. Peces de Doñana y su Entorno. Organismo autónomo de Parques
9. SANTAMARÍA, L., 1995. Ecology of Ruppia drepanensis Tineo in a Nacionales. Ministerio de medio Ambiente.
Mediterranean Brackish Marsh (Doñana National Park, SW Spain). A 24. FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., DRAKE, P., ARIAS, A.M., GARCÍA-
Basis for the Management of Semiarid Floodplain Wetlands. Balkema, GONZÁLEZ,O., BALDÓ, F., MORENO, R., GORDILLO, M.J.,
Rotterdam, the Netherlands, 243 p. SÁNCHEZ, GARCÍA, P.J., C., ARRIBAS, C., GARCÍA, D. 2000.
10. SANTAMARÍA, L., MONTES,C., HOOTSMANS, M.J.M. 1996. Efectos del vertido tóxico de las minas de Aznalcóllar sobre la fauna pis-
Influence of Environmental Parameters on the Biomass Development of cícola del río Guadiamar y Estuario del Guadalquivir. En Programa de
Ruppia drepanensis Populations in Doñana National Park: The investigación del Corredor Verde del Guadiamar. PICOVER 1999-2002.
Importance of Conditions Affecting the Underwater Light Climate. Junta de Andalucía.
International Journal of Salt Lake Research 5: 157-180. 25. GAVALA Y LABORDE, J., 1931-1952. Memoria explicativa de la hoja
11. FIGUEROLA, J., GREEN, A.J. AND SANTAMARÍA, L., 2002. nº 1002 (Dos Hermanas), 1017 (El Asperillo), 1018 (El Rocío), 1033
Comparative dispersal effectiveness of wigeongrass seeds by waterfowl (Palacio de Doñana-Las Marismillas) del Mapa Geológico de España
wintering in south-west Spain: quantitative and qualitative aspects. 1:50.000. IGME, Madrid 1-23; 1-48; 1-68;
Journal of Ecology 90: 989-1001. 26. GREEN, A.J., 1998. Clutch size, brood size and brood emergence in the
12. FIGUEROLA J., GREEN A.J., SANTAMARIA L., 2003. Passive internal Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris in the Marismas del
transport of aquatic organisms by waterfowl in Doñana, south-west Spain. Guadalquivir; southwestern Spain. Ibis 140: 670-675.
Global Ecology and Biogeography 12: 427-436. 27. HAVENS, K., BARRY, H., 1999. Draft Lake Okeechobee conceptual
13. DÍAZ-DELGADO, R., GREEN, A., SANTAMARÍA, L., GRILLAS, model. En Central and Southern Florida project comprehensive Review
P.,FERNÁNDEZ-DELGADO, C., CHANS, J.J., BRAVO, M.A., study.
CASTELLANOS, E., URDIALES, C., BAYÁN, B., 2003. La teledetec- 28. HIRALDO, F., TABLADO, Z., 2003. Efectos del Cangrejo americano sobre las
ción como herramienta de restauración en la Actuación Nº 6 del Proyecto comunidades de Vertebrados de Doñana. Informe final. Octubre 2003.
Doñana 2005 (Finca de Los Caracoles). En: Actas de las VII Jornadas de 29. Instituto de la Juventud, 1988. Recuperación del patrimonio cultural de
la Asociación Española de Ecología Terrestre. Ed. CREAF. Universidad Doñana y su entorno. Ministerio de Cultura.
Autónoma de Barcelona. 30. KITCHELL, J., SCHINDLER, D., HERWING, B., POST, D., OLSON,
M., 1999 Nutrient cycling at landscape scale: The role of diel foraging
migrations by geese at the bosque del Apache national Wildlife Refuge,
MONITORING AND EVALUATION New Mexico.Limnol. Oceanogr., 44 (3, part 2):828-836.
THE KEY TO THE DOÑANA 2005 RESTORATION PROJECT 31. MANNY, B.A., JOHNSON, W.C., WETZEL, R.G., 1994. Nutrient addi-
tions by waterfowl to lakes and reservoirs: predicting their effects on pro-
14. ALONSO-ANDICOBERRY, C., GARCÍA-VILLADA, L., LÓPEZ- ductivity and water quality. Hydrobiologia 279/280: 121-132.
RODAS, V., COSTAS, E., 2002. Catastrophic mortality of flamingos in a 32. MERINO, J.A., MURILLO, J.M., CABRERA, F., MARAÑÓN, T.,
Spanish national park caused by cyanobacteria. Veterinary Record 151: LÓPEZ, R., MADEJÓN, P., MARTÍNEZ, F. & LAZO, O. 2000.
706-707. Evaluación de los efectos del vertido de las minas de Aznalcóllar sobre la
15. ARAMBURU, P., CABRERA, F., GONZÁLEZ, R., 1996. Quality evalu- concentración de metales pesados en las especies más significativas
ation of the surface waters entering the Doñana National Park (SW desde el punto de vista trófico. En Programa de investigación del Corredor
Spain). The Science of the Total Environment 191: 185-196. Verde del Guadiamar. PICOVER 1999-2002. Junta de Andalucía.
16. BAOS R. BLAS, J. HIRALDO, F. GÓMEZ, G., JIMÉNEZ, G., 33. MONTES, C. Y OTROS, 1998. Reconocimiento Biofísico de Espacios
GONZÁLEZ, M.J., BENITO, V. VÉLEZ, D., MONTORO, R., 2003. Naturales Protegidos. Doñana. Consejería de Medio Ambiente.

337
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

34. PRAT, N., TOJA, J., SOLÁ, C., BURGOS, M.D., PLANS, M., RIER- 40. TEJEDO, M., REQUES, R., 2003. Evaluación de los efectos del verido
ADEVALL, M., 1999. Effect of dumping and cleaning activities on the Tóxico de las minas de Aznalcóllar sobre la comunidad de anfibios del
aquatic ecosystems of the Guadiamar River following a toxic flood; The Río Guadiamar. En Corredor Verde de Guadiamar, 2003. Ciencia y
Science of the Total Environment 242 (1-3). Special Issue: The environ- Restauración del Río Guadiamar. Consejería de Medio Ambiente.
mental impact of the mine tailing accident in Aznalcóllar (south-west 41. TOMAS VIVES P., (ed). 1996. Monitoring Mediterranean Wetlands: A
Spain): 231-248. Methodological Guide. MedWet Publication; Wetlands International,
35. PERSSON, H., 2003. Anser anser, Greylag Goose. BWP Update Vol. 4 Slimbridge, UK and ICN, Lisbon. 150 p.
No. 3: 181-216. 42. URDIALES C., 1999. El sistema de la Montaña del Río en la Marisma
36. POST, D., TAYLOR, P., KITCHELL, J., OLSON, M., SCHINDLER, D.,
HERWIG, B., 1998. The role of Migratory Waterfowl as Nutrient Vectors del Parque Nacional de Doñana: Función, estado y propuestas de
in a Managed Wetland. Conservation Biology: 910-920. actuación. Parque Nacional de Doñana. Junio 1999.
37. ROMÁN, J., FERRERAS, P., DELIBES, M., 2001. ¿Puede ser el exceso 43. VALVERDE, J.A., 1960. Vertebrados de la Marisma del Guadalquivir.
de ganado un condicionante para la presencia de la rata de agua en Archivos del Instituto de Aclimatación de Almería.
Doñana?. V Jornadas de la Sociedad Española de Conservación y Estudio 44. VALVERDE, J.A., 1967. Estructura de una Comunidad de Vertebrados
de los Mamíferos (SECEM). Terrestres. Monografías de Ciencia Moderna 76; Monografía de la EBD.
38. SÁNCHEZ, A., 1974. Sobre la Reproducción de la Focha Común (Fulica CSIC, Madrid. 219 p.
atra, L.) en Las Marismas del Guadalquivir. Boletín Central de Ecología.
39. SAURA, J., BAYÁN, B., CASAS, J., RUIZ DE LARRAMENDI, A.,
URDIALES, C., 2001. Documento Marco para el desarrollo del proyecto
Doñana 2005. Regeneración hídrica de las cuencas y cauces vertientes
alas marismas de Doñana. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.

338
Doñana species checklists

B iodiversity is defined as "the collection of genomes,

species, and ecosystems occurring in a geographically
defined region". The main features that characterise the most
not including invertebrates. Figures for the number of vertebrate
species in Doñana differ from those provided by other, older
sources. Hence, Fernandez (1982) counted a total of 272 species
important ecosystems and species in Doñana, and their function- and García Novo counted 428 species in the MaB report (1994).
al relations, have been addressed from many points of view in the These three sources of information provide detailed data for
course of previous chapters, always following the discourse of five groups of vertebrates. A comparative analysis shows that
water. This chapter brings together the lists of species of those there is no homogeneity in the number of species in any of the
biological groups in Doñana that have been studied in depth: ver- groups.The most striking cases are those of the fish, in which the
tebrates, crustaceans and rotifers, continental water algae and total number varies considerably, depending on whether or not
vascular plants. the species found in the estuary are included. In the bird group
Other groups have been investigated, such as several orders too the figures vary, as there is no common criterion concern-
of insects, fungi, lichens and bryophytes, but have not been ing whether or not to consider passing species or species occa-
included for some reason or other. It should be pointed out that sionally sighted. Finally, the difference in the number of mammal
the objective of this annex was not to list all reported records species is striking, probably due to the inclusion of three species
in the area, but rather to demonstrate the biological diversity of of bats, a group that was little studied until recently in Doñana
Doñana through some well known groups. National Park, cetaceans and a new species of micro-mammal,
This description and these lists, presented in the form of an Crocidura suaveolens.
annex, are based on the report drawn up by Juan Bautista As in most of the world, the invertebrate fauna of the
Gallego in 2000, and the new data and corrections provided by Doñana is less well known.There is no exhaustive list of all the
a range of different authors that have taken part in this publica- species recorded in the zone, with the exception of some
tion. Recent revisions of Doñana freshwater algae and several groups like coleopterans (only some families), dragonflies, but-
zooplancton groups have yielded a large number of newly iden- terflies, and moths1.
tified taxa. For this reason the present edition contains a broad-
er species list that the Spanish edition of the book (García Novo Invertebrates
& Marín Cabrera, 2005).
The groups of species that have focussed the attention of
TABLE 1
Number of species of vertebretes of Doñana. most studies are the aquatic invertebrates, both from the marsh
VERTEBRATES FERNÁNDEZ (1982) MAB (1994) DOÑANA BASIC DATA area and from fresh water bodies. Research has enabled scien-
Fishes 7 7 +30 estuary 24 tists to reveal the biological wealth of the temporary ponds,
Amphibians 12 12 11
Reptiles 19 19 21 where there are still many species remaining to be recorded,
Birds 205 361 226 especially among rotifers and crustaceans, some of which are
Mammals 29 29 37
endemic species, like Dussartius baeticus (Dussart 1976) and
TOTAL 272 428 319 Lecane donyanensis (Galindo et al. 1994). One species in partic-
ular has been widely investigated, given the repercussions it has
FAUNA for Doñana wetlands as an invading species, mainly the Marshes.
A substantial part of the data published on the global diver- This is the Louisiana crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Among ter-
sity of animal species in Doñana National Park were initially pro- restrial invertebrates, work has focussed on the study of butter-
vided by the book Doñana Datos Básicos (Junta de Andalucía - flies, moths, and ants, with a new species, Cataglyphis floricola,
1999), which mentions 319 animal species recorded in the zone, discovered in the early 90s.

341
 The micro-crustaceans and rotifers of Doñana*. parison with the 394 Rotifer taxa (species and varieties) report-
In the aquatic environments of Doñana, crustaceans are the ed for Spain by Velasco (1990).With regard to the Harpacticoids
largest group of arthropods. With the exception of the Estuary and Cyclopoids, the number of species reported in the zone is
and its banks, where decapods play an important role, the largest relatively low if we compare it with Dussart's results (1967) for
amount of biomass and activity is accounted for by the micro- European continental waters, where he reported a total of 264
crustaceans of the plankton and benthos in the inland bodies of species: 139 Harpacticoids, 82 Cyclopoids and 43 Calanoids; of
water. Moreover, they offer an extraordinary diversity that, once the latter, 30 were Diaptomids. The 13 species of Diaptomids
again, highlights the role played by water in Doñana's biodiversi- reported in Doñana, in comparison, is high.
ty. The zooplankton species of the aquatic ecosystems of
This list is the first taxonomic review of rotifers and micro- Doñana and the surrounding area are usually from taxa with a cir-
crustaceans of the zooplankton of Doñana and its area. It has cum-Mediterranean distribution, together with typical species of
been compiled by Arancha Arechederra and co-workers, studying North Africa and the Ethiopian region. Other common species in
the reports of 19 scientific publications from 1962 to the present these bodies of water are those with a tropical and pan-tropical
day, up-dating or correcting the taxa mentioned. Early research distribution. These ecosystems are also an enclave for endemic
was conducted by pioneers such as Dussart and De Ridder. Later, species from the Balearic Islands region, like the Cladocerans:
the study of zooplankton has continued thanks to the work done Alona iberica, Alona azorica, Alona salina, Daphnia mediterranea,
by the Limnology Group of the Department of Plant Biology and Daphnia hispanica and Ephemeroporus margalefi, and the
Ecology of the University of Seville since the 70s. Anostracean Branchipus cortesi.The singularity of Doñana's zoo-
The table includes 205 taxa that have been identified to plankton species is rounded off with endemic species that have
species level: 80 rotifers and 126 micro-crustaceans (50 only been described in this zone, such as the Diaptomid
Cladocerans, 25 Ostracods, 23 Cyclopoids, 13 Diaptomids, 8 Dussartius baeticus and the rotifer Lecane donyanensis.
Harpacticoids, 5 Anostraca, 1 Notostraca and 1 Conchostraca).
Taxa only identified to genus level have been excluded.
The species marked with an * are new reports for Doñana. * Arancha Arechederra, David León, Khalid Fahd, Julia Toja and Laura Serrano.
Department of Plant Biology and Ecology of the University of Seville.
The number of Cladocera species, 50, is very high as the total Data from Alonso, 1985 and 1998; Armengol, 1976; Furest and Toja, 1981; Fahd et al.,
2000: Galindo et al., 1994; Mazuelos et al., 1992; Serrano and Toja, 1998; Arechederra et
number of species described by Alonso (1998) for all the ponds al., in press; León et al., in press. Taxonomic names originally given by the authors of pub-
of Mainland Spain as a whole, is 64. By the same token, the num- lications have been retained unless more recent research has evidenced a different identi-
fication. Taxa where identification is uncertain have been indicated as cf. or sp. and fur-
ber of Rotifers, 80, appearing in Doñana, is relatively high in com- ther studies are under way to their precise identification or new description.

342
 TABLE 2
Checklist of aquatic microinvertebrate species of well studied groups found in Doñana.

Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on
sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate
ROTIFERA Daphnia longispina
Anuraeopsis cf. fissa* Cephalodella catellina Ascomorpha cf. saltans*
Daphnia magna
Asplachna brightwelli Colurella uncinata* Brachionus angularis
Daphnia meditrerranea
Asplanchnopus multiceps Lecane nana Brachionus bidentata
Daphnia parvula
Beauchampiella eudactylota Mytilina cf. ventralis* Brachionus calyciflorus
Daphnia pulicaria
Brachionus budapestinensis Testudinella clypeata Brachionus falcatus
Daphnia cf. hispanica
Brachionus leydigy* Brachionus novae-zelandiae
Diaphanosoma brachyura
Cephalodella cf ventripes* Brachionus patulus
Dunhevedia crassa
Cephalodella forficula Brachionus plicatilis
Ephemeropus margalefi
Conochilus dossuarios Brachionus quadridentatus
Eurycercus lamellatus
Epiphanes macrourus Brachionus urceolaris
Ilyocryptus silvaeducensis
Euchlanis dapidula Brachionus variabilis
Leydigia acanthocercoides
Euchlanis dilatata Cephalodella gibba
Leydigia leydigii
Keratella procurva Colurella obtusa
Macrothrix hirsuticornis
Keratella valga Dipleuchlanis propatula
Macrothrix rosea
Lecane candida Filinia longiseta
Moina brachiata
Lecane cf. mucronata* Filinia opoliensis
Moina micrura
Lecane closterocerca Filinia terminalis
Oxyurella tenuicaudis
Lecane donyanaensis Hexarthra fennica
Pleuroxus aduncus
Lecane furcata Keratella cochlearis
Scapholeberis rammneri
Lecane haliclysta Keratella quadrata
Scapholeberis mucronata
Lecane lamellata Keratella tropica
Simocephalus exspinosus
Lecane ohioensis Lecane bulla
Simocephalus vetulus
Lecane stichaea Lecane leontina
Tretocephala ambigua
Lecane submagna Lecane luna
Lepadella cf. acuminata* Lecane lunaris COPEPODA CALANOIDA
Lepadella persimilis Lecane quadridentata Copidodiaptomus steueri Diaptomus castaneti Arctodiaptomus salinus
Lepadella quadricarinata Lepadella patella Diaptomus castor Neolovenula alluaudi Arctodiaptomus wierzejskii
Lepadella rhomboides Lophocharis salpina Diaptomus cyaneus Copidodiaptomus numidicus
Lophocharis oxysternon Mytilina mucronata Diaptomus kenitraensis
Mytilina bisulcata Notholca acuminata Dussartius baeticus
Polyarthra vulgaris Platyias quadricornis Eudiaptomus vulgaris
Pompholyx sulcata Trichotria tetractis Hemidiaptomus roubaoui
Proales globulifera Testudinella patina Mixodiaptomus incrassatus
Synchaeta cf. oblonga* Tripleuchlanis plicata
COPEPODA CYCLOPOIDA
Testudinella cf. mucronata*
Acanthocyclops cf. venustus Halicyclops cf. brevispinosus* Acanthocyclops cf. kieferi
Trichocerca bidens
Acanthocyclops vernalis Metacyclops planus* Acanthocyclops robustus
Trichocerca elongata
Cryptocyclops bicolor Oithona cf. nana Diacyclops bicuspidatus
Trichocerca gillardi
Cyclops furcifer Eucyclops serrulatus
Trichocerca mollis
Diacyclops bisetosus Macrocyclops albidus
Trichocerca myersi
Diacyclops languidoides Megacyclops viridis
Trichocerca rattus
Diacyclops langidus Metacyclops minutus
ANOSTRACA Megacyclops gigas Paracyclops cf. fimbriatus
Branchipus cortesi* Metacyclops lusitanus
Branchipus schaefferi Thermocyclops dybowskii
Chirocephalus diaphanus Tropocyclops prasinus
Streptocephalus torvicornis*
COPEPODA
Tanymastix stagnalis
HARPACTICOIDA
NOTOSTRACA Attheyella crassa Bryocamptus cf. minutus Attheyella trispinosa
Triops cancriformis Bryocamptus pigmaeus Horsiella brevicornis* Cletocampus retrogressus
Nitocra lacustris Canthocamptus staphylinus
SPINICAUDATA
Cyzicus grubei OSTRACODA
Cyclocypris laevis Ilocypris decipiens Candona neglecta
CLADOCERA Cypria ophthalmica
Cypricercus reticulatus
Acroperus harpae Daphnia atkinsoni Alona affinis
Cypridopsis parva Cypricercus affinis
Alona iberica Moina salina Alona azorica
Cypridopsis vidua Cypricercus obliquus
Alona quadrangularis Alona costata
Cyprinotus salinus Cypridopsis aculeata
Alona tenuicaudis Alona rectangula
Cypris pubera Cypridopsis newtoni
Ceriodaphnia setosa Alona salina
Darwinula stevensoni Cypris bispinosa
Daphnia bolivari Alonella excisa
Eucypris virens Herpetocypris chevreuxi
Daphnia hispanica Alonella nana
Herpetocypris reptans Heterocypris cf. barbara
Esthaterosporus gauthieri Bosmina longirostris
Isocypris beauchampi Heterocypris exigua
Graptoleberis testudinaria Ceriodaphnia dubia
Notodromas monachus Heterocypris incongruens
Macrothrix laticornis Ceriodaphnia laticaudata
Ilocypris gibba
Megafenestra aurita Ceriodaphnia quadrangula
Limnocythere inopinata
Ceriodaphnia reticulata
Chydorus sphaericus

343
 TABLE 3
Species of butterflies found in the Doñana National Park.

HESPERIDAE NYMPHALIDAE PAPILIONIDAE

Tymelicus actaeon Vanessa atalanta Papilio machaon
Rottemburg Cynthia cardui Iphiclides podalirius
Gegenes nostrodamus(1) Argynnis paphia (2) Zerynthia rumina
Carcharodus alceae Issoria lathonia PIERIDAE
LYCAENIDAE Malitaea phoebe Colias crocea
Laeosopis roboris Charaxes jasius Gonepteryx rhamni
Satyrium spini Pararge aegeria Gonepteryx cleopatra
Satyrium esculi Lasiommata megera Euchloe crameri
Callophris rubi Coenonympha pamphilus Euchloe belemia
Lycaena phlaeas Maniola jurtina Euchloe tagis
Lampides boeticus Melanargia occitanica Pieris brassicae
Cacyreus marshalli(3) Hipparchia statilinus Pieris rapae
Leptotes pirithous Hipparchia fidia Pontia daplidice
Zizeeeria knysna Pyronia tithonus
Celastrina argiolus Pyronia bathseba (2)
Plebejus argus Pyronia cecilia
Aricia cramera Danaus plexippus (3)
Polyommatus semiargus
Polyommatus icarus

(1) Observed by Huertas Dionisio (1977)

(2) Observed by Venero (1981)
(3) Observed since the work by Rodriguez (1991). Danaus plexippus has been reported frequently in coastal areas of the
Mediterranean and the south of Cadiz province. The caterpillar feeds on Asclepias curassavica and Gomphocarpus fruticosus, two
introduced Asclepiadaceae species. Caterpillars have been seen on these plants in the area of Las Marismillas. Cacyreus marshalli
is a species of South African origin that has recently invaded the Iberian Peninsular, from the Balearic Islands. The caterpillar
feeds on ornamental geraniums. It is frequently found in the yard of the Palacio de Doñana and other settlements within the Park
and its surroundings (Matalascañas tourist resort).
This list includes species mentioned in the Rodriguez Ph.D Thesis (1991). This Thesis includes reports from other authors that
had worked in the Biological Reserve, and which are cited in the references.

Vertebrates
FISH
The works of Fernandez-Delgado (1987) provided the initial search effort deployed after the Boliden mine tailings spill, in
list of fish, the number of which varies ostensibly depending on April 1998, has helped to raise the number of species recorded.
whether the Estuary area is included or not. From here, there- Together with the extinction of such well known species as
the Atlantic sturgeon, the exotic species are
TABLE 4 one of the major threats. A good example of
Species of fish found in the Doñana National Park and its surroundings.
this is the dangers facing one fish species, the
DIADROMOUS SPECIES
Andalusian fartet (Aphanius baeticus), classed
Petromyzon marinus Stromateus fiatola Aphanius baeticus** as in danger of extinction.
Acipenser Studio* Sparus aurata Gasterosteus gymnurus*
Alosa alosa* Umbrina cirrosa Syngnathus abaster
Alosa fallax Umbrina canariensis Syngnathus acus
Anguilla anguilla** Argyrosomus regius Pomatoschistus microps
Chelon labrosus** Aphia minuta Pomatoschistus minutus
Liza ramada** Dicologoglossa cuneata
Liza aurata** Solea senegalensis FRESHWATER SPECIES
Liza saliens** Solea vulgaris Carassius auratus**
Mugil cephalus** Pomatomus saltator Cyprinus carpio**
Sardina pilchardus Lipophrys trigloides Gambusia holbrooki**
Engraulis encrasicholus Micropterus salmoides**
Hyporhamphus picarti MARINE SPECIES Lepomis gibbosus**
Dicentrarchus labrax Barbus sclateri** Fundulus heteroclitus*
Dicentrarchus punctatus Squalius pyrenaicus**
Pomadasys incisus Cobitis paludica**
Diplodus bellottii Atherina boyeri** * Species extinct in the area
Diplodus sargus Gobius niger ** Species found inside the National Park.

Diplodus vulgaris Gobius paganellus Based on data supplied by Carlos Fernández-Delgado

344
 TABLE 5
Species of Amphibians found in the Doñana area.

URODELA
Triturus pygmaeus*
Triturus boscai*
Pleurodeles waltl
ANURA
Alytes cisternasii*
Discoglossus galganoi*
Pelobates cultripes
Pelodytes ibericus*
Bufo bufo
Bufo calamita
Hyla meridionalis*
Rana perezi * Species endemic of the Iberian Peninsula.

AMPHIBIANS
11 species of amphibians have been recorded in the Doñana
area. The conservation problems related to the alarming fall in
the number of specimens per species is caused fundamentally by
them being run over, by fishing in the marsh area, by habitat des-
truction and use of pesticides, especially in the rice fields. It has
also been suggested that the introduction of the Louisiana cray-
fish in 1973 has led to a significant reduction in the abundance
of amphibians, due to direct predation or competition for
resources.

REPTILES
The number of reptile species reported in Doñana amounts
to 21. A large part of the research conducted has focussed on
the tortoise (Testudo graeca). Outside the Parks, but inside their
area of influence, there are other species like the chameleon.
The conservation problems concerning these species are TABLE 6
Species of Reptiles found in the Doñana area.
often the same as for the amphibians. But it is also important to
point out the effects of myxomatosis that repeatedly reduced
Testudo graeca
rabbit population in the 1960s and 1970s.As the rabbit was one Emys orbicularis
Mauremys leprosa
Dermochelys coriacea
Chelonia mydas
Tarentola mauritanica
Acanthodactylus erythrurus
Lacerta lepida
Podarcis hispanica
Psammodromus algirus
Chalcides bedriagai
Chalcides chalcides
Blanus cinereus
Coluber hippocrepis
Coronella girondica
Elaphe scalaris
Macroprotodon cucullatus
Malpolon monspessulanus
Natrix maura
Natrix natrix
Vipera latasti

345
 of the basic prey items of the large vertebrate hunters of the periods of time, from five to one year series, with special inci-
Doñana area, the effect of a shortage of rabbits was that these dence on some species like the greylag goose (Anser anser), the
were replaced by large reptiles (snakes, smooth lizard), whose marbled teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris), the white-headed
populations suffered a striking reduction. duck (Oxyura leucocephala), the spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia)
and the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber). None water bird
BIRDS species include the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti),
Doñana's close relations with birds can be seen from the which is the species that has been most studied, due to its crit-
fact that the area may be used by six million birds in one year ical conservation situation. Other birds of prey have also been
alone.With regard to the number of species, there is also wide widely observed and studied, like the black kite (Milvus
variation in this group, depending fundamentally on the criteria migrans), the red kite (Milvus milvus) and the marsh harrier
used: 205 species according to Fernandez (1982); 342 species in (Circaetus aeruginosus).
Llandrés and Urdiales (1990); 361 species in García et al. (1989). By number, the leading species are the greylag goose and
Research has concentrated mainly on water fowl in the shoveler duck (Anas clypeata), with over 70,000 individuals per
broadest sense, of which there are aerial censuses of differing winter season, followed by the teal (Anas crecca) and the

TABLE 7
Species of birds found in the Doñana area.

Acanthis cannabina Anas americana Anthus campestris Asio flammeus

Accipiter gentilis Anas acuta Anthus cervinus Asio otus
Accipiter nisus Anas clypeata Anthus novaeseelandiae Athene noctua
Acrocephalus arundinaceus Anas crecca Anthus pratensis Aythya collaris
Acrocephalus dumetorum Anas cygnoides Anthus spinoletta Aythya ferina
Acrocephalus melanopogon Anas discors Anthus trivialis Aythya fuligula
Acrocephalus paludicola Anas penelope Antropoides virgo Aythya marila
Acrocephalus palustris Anas platyrhynchos Apus apus Aythya nyroca
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Anas querquedula Apus melba Botaurus stellaris
Acrocephalus scirpaceus Anas strepera Apus pallidus Branta bernicla
Actitis hypoleucos Anser albifrons albifrons Aquila adalberti Branta canadiensis
Aegithalos caudatus Anser albifrons flavirostri Aquila chrysaetos Branta leucopsis
Aegypius monachus Anser anser anser Aquila clanga Branta ruficollis
Aix galericulata Anser anser rubirostri Aquila pomarina Bubo bubo
Alauda arvensis Anser brachyrhychus Aquila rapax Bubulcus ibis
Alca torda Anser caerulescens Ardea cinerea Bucephala clangula
Alcedo atthis Anser erytropus Ardea purpurea Bucephala islándica
Alectoris rufa Anser fabalis fabalis Ardeola ralloides Burhinus oedicnemus
Alle alle Anser fabalis rossicus Arenaria interpres Buteo buteo
Amandava amandava Anser indicus Asio capensis Buteo rufinus

346
Calandrella brachydactyla Emberiza schoeniclus Larus genei Passer montanus
Callandrela raytal Eremophila alpestris Larus glaucoides Pelecanus onocrotalus
Calandrella rufescens Erithacus rubecula Larus hiperboreus Pernis apivorus
Calidris alba Erytripygia galactotes Larus marinus Petronia petronia
Calidris alpina Estrildia senegalesa Larus melanocephalus Phalacrocorax aristotelis
Calidris canutus Falco biarmicus Larus minutus Phalacrocorax carbo
Calidris ferruginea Falco columbarius Larus pipixcan Phalaropus fulicarius
Calidris maritima Falco eleonore Larus ridibundus Phalaropus lobatus
Calidris melanotos Falco naumanni Larus tridactylus Phalaropus tricolor
Calidris minuta Falco peregrinus peregrinus Leptoptilos crumeniferus Philomachus pugnax
Calidris temminckii Falco peregrinus brookei Limicola falcenellus Phoinicopterus chilensis
Caprimulgus europaeus Falco subbuteo Limnodromus griseus Phoenicopterus minor
Caprimulgus ruficollis Falco tinnunculus Limnodromus scolopaceus Phoenicopterus ruber roseus
Carduelis carduelis Falco vespertinus Limosa lapponica Phoenicopterus ruber ruber
Carduelis chloris Ficedula albicollis Limosa limosa Phoenicurus ochruros
Carduelis spinus Ficedula hypoleuca Locustella luscinioides Phoenicurus phoenicurus
Carpodacus erythrinus Ficedula parva Locustella naevia Phylloscopus bonelli
Catharacta skua Fratercula arctica Loxia curvirostra Phylloscopus collybita
Cercotrichas galactotes Fringilla coelebs Lullula arborea Phylloscopus inornatus
Certhia brachydactyla Fringilla montifringilla Luscinia megarhynchos Phylloscopus proregulus
Cettia cetti Fulica atra Luscinia svecica Phylloscopus schwarzi
Charadrius alexandrinus Fulica cristata Lymnocryptes minimus Phylloscopus sibilatrix
Charadrius dubius Fulmarulus glacialis Marmaronetta angustirostris Phylloscopus trochilus
Charadrius hiaticula Galerida cristata Melanitta fusca Pica pica
Charadrius morinellus Galerida theklae Melanitta nigra Picus viridis
Chersophilus duponti Gallinago gallinago Melanocorypha calandra Platalea leucorodia
Chlidonias hybridus Gallinago media Melanocorypha yeltoniensis Plectrophenax nivalis
Chlidonias leucopterus Gallinula chloropus Mergus serrator Plegadis falcinellus
Chlidonias niger Gavia arctica Merops apiaster Pluvialis apricaria
Ciconia ciconia Gavia immer Milvus migrans Pluvialis squatarola
Ciconia nigra Gavia stellata Milvus milvus Podiceps cristatus
Circaetus gallicus Geronticus eremita Monticola saxatilis Podiceps nigricollis
Circus aeruginosus Glareola pratincola Monticola solitarius Porphyrio porphyrio
Circus cyaneus Grus grus Motacilla alba alba Porphyrula alleni
Circus pygargus Gypaetus barbatus Motacilla alba yarrellii Porzana carolina
Cisticola juncidis Gyps fulvus Motacilla cinerea Porzana parva
Clamator glandarius Haematopus ostralegus Motacilla flava Porzana porzana
Clangula hyemalis Haliaeetus albicilla Muscicapa striata Porzana pusilla
Coccothraustes coccothraustes Hieraetus fasciatus Neophron percnopterus Prunella modularis
Columba oenas Hieraetus pennatus Netta rufina Pterocles alchata
Columba palumbus Himantopus himantopus Numenius arquata Pterocles orientalis
Coracias garrulus Hippolais icterina Numenius phaeopus Ptyonoprogne rupestris
Corvus corax Hippolais pallida Numenius tenuirostris Puffinus puffinus
Corvus corone Hippolais polyglotta Nycticorax nycticorax Puffinus griseus
Corvus monedula Hirundo daurica Oceanites oceanicus Pyrrhula pyrrhula
Coturnix coturnix Hirundo rustica Oceanodroma castro Quelea quelea
Crex crex Hydrobates pelagicus Oceanodroma leucorrhoa Rallus aquaticus
Cuculus canorus Ixobrychus minutus Oenanthe hispanica Recurvirostra avosetta
Cyanopica cyana Jynx torquilla Oenanthe leucopyga Regulus ignicapillus
Cygnus olor Lanius collurio Oenanthe leucura Remiz pendulinus
Cygnus columbianus Lanius excubitor Oenanthe oenanthe Rhodopechys githaginea
Delichon urbica Lanius nubicus Oriolus oriolus Riparia riparia
Dendrocopos major Lanius senator Otis tarda Saxicola rubetra
Egretta alba Larus argentatus argentatus Otus scops Saxicola torquata
Egretta garzetta Larus argentatus argenteus Oxyura jamaicensis Scolopax rusticola
Egretta gularis Larus argentatus michaellis Oxyura leucocephala Serinus serinus
Elanus caeruleus Larus audouinii Pagophila eburnea Sitta europaea
Emberiza aureola Larus cachinans Pandion haliaetus Somateria mollisima
Emberiza bruniceps Larus canus Parus ater Stercorarius parassiticus
Emberiza calandra Larus cirrocephalus Parus caeruleus Sterna albifrons
Emberiza cirlus Larus delawarensis Parus cristatus Sterna bengalensis
Emberiza hortulana Larus fuscus fuscus Parus major Sterna caspia
Emberiza pusilla Larus fuscus intermedius Passer domesticus Sterna fuscata
Emberiza rustica Larus fuscus graellsii Passer hispaniolensis Sterna hirundo

347
 wigeon (Anas penelope), with over 50,000 individuals of each
species.To all these birds, one must add the large populations of
Sterna maxima Tadorna tadorna
bar tailed godwit (Limosa limosa), black headed gull (Larus ridi-
Sterna nilotica Tetrax tetrax bundus) and flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus).
Sterna paradisea Tringa erythropus
Adding up the different reports the total recorded to date
Sterna sandvicensis Tringa flavipes
Streptopelia orientalis Tringa glareola is 397 species of birds that are included in the attached list
Streptopelia turtur Tringa nebularia
Strix aluco Tringa ochropus
Sturnus unicolor Tringa stagnatilis
Sturnus vulgaris Tringa totanus
Sula bassana Troglodytes troglodytes
Sula capensis Turdus iliacus
Sylvia atricapilla Turdus merula
Sylvia borin Turdus philomelos
Sylvia cantillans Turdus pilaris
Sylvia communis Turdus torquatus
Sylvia conspicillata Turdus viscivorus
Sylvia curruca Turnix sylvatica
Sylvia hortensis Tyto alba
Sylvia melanocephala Upupa epops
Sylvia nisoria Uria aalge
Sylvia sarda Vanellus gregarius
Sylvia undata Vanellus vanellus
Tachybaptus ruficollis Xenus cinereus
Tadorna ferruginea

348
 TABLE 8
Species of mammals found in the Doñana area.

Suncus etruscus Eliomys quercinus

Crocidura suaveolens Apodemus sylvaticus
Crocidura russula Rattus rattus
Myotis myotis Rattus norvegicus
Pipistrellus pipistrellus Mus musculus
Eptesicus serotinus Mus spretus
Miniopterus schreibersii Arvicola sapidus
Mustela nivalis Microtus duodecimcostatus
Mustela putorius Oryctolagus cuniculus
Lutra lutra Lepus granatensis
Meles meles Sus scrofa
Vulpes vulpes Cervus elaphus
Lynx pardinus Dama dama
Felis silvestris Erinaceus europaeus
Genetta genetta Delphinus delphis
Herpestes ichneumon

MAMMALS
After birds, mammals are the fauna group that attracts most Doñana National Park and another 5 species that use the area
research attention to their ecology, ethiology and conservation. as a staging ground.
Detailed studies have been done on many species, with the The Boliden mine tailings spill also affected the mammals,
Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) topping the ranking.The lynx is fol- especially the otter (Lutra lutra) a regular species in River
lowed in interest by its prey, the rabbit, a key species in the area Guadiamar before the spill. Given it characteristics (habitat and
for sustaining carnivore populations, and, then by the mongoose feeding habits), it is especially sensitive to events of this kind, as
and the fallow deer, this later, an introduced species. it eats around one kilo of fish and crustaceans per day, and,
One group of mammals for which there were very little data therefore, has a high potential for bio-accumulating pesticides
in the late 1990s, and which we now have a good knowledge of, and metals.
is the Chiroptera, or bats. In a early study conducted in 1995, it
was established that there are two breeding species of bats in
 FLORA
The global data on plant biodiversity provided by Rivas benchmark is the work by Calonge and Telleria (1980) and for
Martinez et al. (1980), Garcia Novo (1997) and Doñana Datos mosses and hepatic plants, the work of Guerra and Wallace
Básicos (1998), refer only to phanerogams, and they observe (1986).
how the number has increased over the years. For fungi, the

TABLE 9
Checklist of Algae species found in the Doñana area.
Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on
sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate
CYANOPHYTA Oscillatoria formosa Pseudoanabaena limnetica
Anabaenopsis circularis Anabaena scheremetievi Anabaena aphanizomenoides Oscillatoria limnetica Rabdonema lineare
Anabaenopsis tanganyikae Anabaena flos-aquae Anabaena aff. torulosa Oscillatoria okenis Spirulina majus
Aphanocapsa elachista Anabaena recta Chroococcus limneticus Oscillatoria tenuis Synechocystis aff. parvula
Aphanothece clathrata Anabaena spiroides Chroococcus minutus Phormidium foveolarum
Chroococcus dispersus Anabaena sphaerica Lyngbya limnetica Phormidium fragile
Chroococcus aff. turgidus Aphanocapsa. aff. clathrata Lyngbya maior Phormidium tenue
Colesphaerium kuetzin- Aphanocapsa elachista Rhabdoderma lineare
gianum Aphanocapsa aff. holsatica Raphidiopsis mediterranea
Coenocystis aff. plancton- Aphanothece smithii Spirulina labyrinthiformis
ica Chroococcus minimus Spirulina laxissima
Dactylococcopsis sp. Dermocarpa sp. Spirulina platensis
Gomphosphaeria aponina Geitleribactrum periphyticum Synecococcus aeruginosus Amphidinium sp. Ceratium hirundinella
Lyngbia aerugineo- Gomphosphaeria lacustris Peridinium sp.
coerulea Heteroleiblenia aff. fontana DINOPHYTA
Mastigocladus lamellosus Lyngbya aestuari Glenodinium dybowskii
Merismopedia glauca Nostoc sphaericus Gymnodinium sp. Dystigma sp. Colacium vesiculosum
Merismopedia punctata Oscillatoria annae Euglena erhenbergii Euglena acus
Merismopedia tennuisima Oscillatoria brevis EUGLENOPHYTA Euglena granulata Euglena oxyuris
Merismopedia ralleve Oscillatoria limosa Euglena clara Euglena texta Phacus aff. acuminatum
Merismopedia tralleri Oscillatoria lacustris Euglena aff. spathryncha Euglena. variabilis Phacus orbicularis
Microcoleus steenstrupi Oscillatoria aff. laetevires Lepocynclis ovum Phacus tortus
Microcystis aeruginosa Phormidium boryanum Phacus brevicaudatus
Microcystis holsaltica Pseudoanabaena amphigranulata Phacus caudatus
Microcystis sp. Pseudoanabaena catenata Phacus curvicauda

350
 Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on
sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate
Phacus pyrum Nitzschia subtilis Gomphonema olivaceun Navicula radiosa
Trachelomonas intermedia Nitzschia viridula Gyrosigma attenuatum Nitzschia acicularis
Trachelomonas hispida Pinnularia braunii Gyrosigma macrum Nitzschia closterium
Trachelomonas oblonga Pinnularia braunii amphicephala Gyrosigma scalproides Nitzschia dicephala
Trachelomonas orenburgica Pinnularia aff. borealis Gyrosigma spenceeri Nitzschia hungarica
Trachelomonas scabra Pinnularia aff. divergens Gyrosigma strgtile (= Tryblionella hungarica)
Trachelomonas stockensiana Pinnularia aff. hemiptera Hantzschia amphioxys Nitzschia longissima
Trachelomonas varians Pinnularia aff. lundii Haslea spicula Nitzschia palea
Trachelomonas verrucosa Pinnularia major Luticola mutica Nitzschia sigma
Trachelomonas volvocina Pinnularia microstaurum Luticola ventricosa Nitzschia sigmoidea
Pinnularia nodosa Matogloia eliptica Nitzschia spectabilis
CRYPTOPHYTA Pinnularia aff. paraleliestriata Navicula cryptocephala exilis Nitzschia tryblionella
Cryptomonas erosa Cryptomonas ovata Stauroneis aff. acuta Navicula erifuga (= Tryblionella gracilis)
Cryptomonas marsoni Rhodomonas minuta Synedra acus radians Navicula imbricata Pinnularia gibba
Cryptomonas reflexa Rhodomonas sp. (= Ulnaria acus radians) Navicula lanceolata Pinnularia viridis
Thalassiosira fluviatilis Navicula salinarum Rhopalodia gibba
CHRYSOPHYTA Navicula schroeteri Stauroneis anceps
(excepting Diatoms) Navicula seminulum Stauroneis phoenicenteron
Anisonema acinus Botriococcus braunii Dynobryon sertularia Navicula subminuscula Surirella ovalis
Aff. Conodendron Chrysidalis sp. Ophiocytium majus Navicula tribialis Surirella ovata
Mallomonas sp. Tribonema elegans Nitzschia commutata Synedra acus
Tribonema aequale Tribonema viride Nitzschia dissipata (= Ulnaria acus)
Tribonema angustissimum Nitzschia fasciculata Synedra rumpens
Tribonema minus Nitzschia filiformis Synedra ulna
Tribonema vulgare Nitzschia frugalis (= Ulnaria ulna)
Nitzschia gracilis
BACILLAROPHYCEAE Nitzschia granulata
(Diatoms) Nitzschia hantzchiana
Achnanthes aff. brevipes Achnanthes coarctata Achnantes minutissima Nitzschia linearis
Achnanthes aff. ploenensis Achnanthes aff. inflata (=Achnanthidium minutissimun) Nitzschia lorenciana
Amphora commutata Achnanthes longipes Amphripora alata Nitzschia obtusa
Amphora ovalis pediculus Achnanthidium exiguum Amphora ovalis Nitzschia parvula
Asterionella formosa Achnanthidium hungaricum Amphora veneta Nitzschia pusilla
Caloneis aff. ladogensis Amphora cofeaeformis Anomoeoneis sphaerophora Nitzschia stagnorum
Caloneis silicicula Bacillaria paradoxa Aulacoseria granulata Nitzschia staurastrum
Caloneis noricus Brachysira neoexilis Caloneis anphisbaena Nitzschia umbonata
Campylodiscus noricus Caloneis bacillum Cocconeis placentula Pinnularia appendiculata
Cymbella aff. navienliformis Caloneis permagna Campylodiscus clypeus Pinnularuia biceps
Cymbella aff. tumidula Caloneis ventricosa Cyclotella kutzingiana Plagiotropis lepidoptera
Diploneis ovalis Cocconeis pediculus Cyclotella meneghiniana Planotidium frequentissimum
Epithemia argus Coscinodiscus lacustris Cyclotella ocellata Planothidium lanceolatum
Epithemia zebra saxonica Craticula cuspidata heribaui Cylindrotheca gracilis Pleurosigma elongatum
Eunotia lunaris Craticula halophyla Cymbella affinis Rhopalodia musculus
Fragilaria construens Cyclotella atomus Cymbella ventricosa Stauroneis salina
(=Staurosira construens) Cyclotella glomerata Diploneis elliptica Stephanodiscus dubius
Fragilaria intermedia Cymatopleura solea Eunotia pectinalis Surirella angusta
Gomphonema abreviatum Cymbella amphicephala Epithemia sorex Surirella brevisonnii
Gomphonema acuminatum Cylindrospermun stagnale Epithemia turgida Surirella ovata apiculata
Gomphonema aff. longiceps Denticula küetzingii Epithemia zebra Surirella striatula
Gomphonema spencerii Diatoma elongatum Fragilaria capucina Surirella tenera
Melosira oviens Encyonema caespitosum Gomphonema constrictum Tabularia tabulata
Nitzschia amphibia Encyonema minutum Gomphonema gracile Thalassiosira weissflogii
Nitzschia aff. amphioeys Encynopsis microcephala Gomphonema parvulum Tryblionella apiculata
Nitzschia aff. circumsuta Entomoneis alata Gyrosigma acuminatum Tryblionella compressa
Nitzschia clausi Epithemia adnata Mastogloia smithii Tryblionella granulata
Nitzschia commutata Eunotia exigua Melosira varians Tryblionella littoralis
Navicula cryptocephala exilis Eunotia pestinalis Navicula cryptocephala Tryblionella navicularis
Nitzschia cuspidata Fallacia subhamulata Navicula cuspidata
Navicula dicephala Fallacia pygmaea (=Craticula cuspidata) CHLOROPHYTA
Nitzschia digitoradiata Frustulia vulgaris Navicula cuspidata ambigua Ankistrodesmus gracilis Ankistrodesmus acicularis Actinastrum hantzschi
Nitzschia aff. gibbula Gomphoneis olivacea (=Craticula cuspidata ambigua) Ankistrodesmus hantzschii Chladophora fracta Ankistrodesmus falcatus
Nitzschia aff. ignorata Gomphonema angustatum Navicula pupula Chladophora aff. cornuta Cosmarium botrytis Apiocystis brauniana
Nitzschia aff. recta Gomphonema lanceolaum (=Sellaphora pupula) Chlamydocapsa planctonica Crucigenia quadrata Bulbochaete sp.

351
 Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on Water bodies on
sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate sandy substrates only marshy substrates only either substrate
Chlorella vulgaris Pseudendoclonium postra- Chlamydomonas spp. Staurastrum pedunculatum
Closterium aciculare tum Chodatella quadriseta Tetradesmus wisconsiensis
Closterium dianale Ptheromonas angulosa Closterium kuetzingii Tetraedon caudatum
Closterium lunula Scenedesmus appicularis Cosmarium vexatum Tetraedon minimum scrobic-
Closterium leiblenii Scenedesmus bicaudatus Data from Margalef, 1976; López et al., 1991 and unpublished data; Martín y Reyes
Closteriopsis acicularis ulatum
Closterium longisima unpublished data. Taxonomic names originally given by the authors of publications
Scenedesmus flexuosus Coelastrum microporum Tetraedon regulare
have been retained unless more recent research has evidenced a different identifi-
Closterium moniliferum Scenedesmus lefevrii Cosmarium laeve Tetraedron triangulare
cation. Taxa where identification is uncertain have been indicated as aff. or sp. and
Closterium tumidum Scenedesmus smithii Cylindrospermun stagnale Tetraedon trigonum
further studies are under way to their precise identification or new description.
Cosmarium aff. dimazum Scenedesmus tennuispina Crucigenia tetrapedia Tetrastrum heteracanthum They have been incorporated to the biodiversity list because they differ from all
Cosmarium humile Scenedesmus sooi Monoraphidium circinale Treubaria setigera other identified algae. The list includes 438 taxa.
Closterium aff. subtumidum Scroederia sp. Monoraphidium contortum Treubaria triappendiculata List elaborated by Julia Toja Santillana, Department of Plant Biology and Ecology,
Cosmarium aff. obtusatum Spirogyra ellipsospora Monoraphidium tortile Zygnema sphaericum University of Seville.
Crucigenia rectangularis Stigeoclonium sp. Neochloris sp.
Cylindroteca gracilis Tetraedron cuadratum Oedogonium sp. FUNGI
Cystodiniun cornifex Tetradesmus aff. crocini Oocystis solitaria
Dictiosphaerium pulchellum Tetraedron aff. victoriae Scenedesmus acuminatus
The work of Calonge and Telleria3 done in the area of
Dictiosphaerium aff. sphagnale Scenedesmus ecornis Doñana on this group (only in the National Park) lists 250
Diplochloris lunata Scenedesmus falcatus
Elakatothix gelatinosa
species. This inventory is, however, recognised as limited, espe-
Scenedesmus quadricauda
Eutetramourus planctonica Scenedesmus spinosus cially with regard to higher fungi.
Gonium formosum Tetraedron minimum Knowledge of the fungi is important for the ecosystem.The
Hormidium aff. subtile Tetraspora gelatinosa
Hyalorhaphidium rectum Ulothrix sp. sand flats in particular, very poor in nutrients, are environments
Kirchneriella microscopica Zygnema sp. in which the fungus-plant relations (mycorrhyzae relations)
Lagerheimia wratislabiensis
Lagerheimia genevensis
almost certainly play an important role in how the ecosystem
Monorhaphidium arcuatum works.
Monoraphidium circunde
Monoraphidium aff. dybowski
Monoraphidium griffithii LICHENS
Monoraphidium komarkovae Lichens also belong to the category of the lesser known
Monoraphidium pusillum
Monoraphidium rectum
groups; in fact, there is no systematic work done on the lichen
Oocystis parva flora of the Doñana area. This group is mainly represented by
Ourococcus bicaudatus
arenicolous and corticolous lichens, and saxicolous lichen abun-
Pediastrum boryanum
Pediastrum clathratum dance is highly limited as there is very little area of rocky out-
Pediastrum duplex crops in the zone.
Pediastrum simplex
Pediastrum tetras
Pediastrum aff. distincta
Pleurotaenium errhenbergi
Podoedra aff. distracta
Scenedesmus abundans
Scenedesmus. acutus
Scenedesmus denticulatus
Scenedesmus dimorphus
Scenedesmus intermedius
Scenedesmus opoliensis
Scenedesmus ovalternus
Scenedesmus quadricauda
maximus
Scenedesmus quadispina
Selenastrum capricornutum
Selenastrum minutum
Sphaerocystis schroederi
Spirogyra communis
Spirogyra aff. majuscula
Spirogyra perforans
Spirogyra varians
Staurastrum punctulatum
Staurodesmus dickie circularis

352
BRYOPHYTES group. The author recorded7 46 species of macrophytes (11
The only work published on this group, by Guerra and chlorophytes, 4 bryophytes, 1 pteridophyte, 30 spermatophytes),
Wallace4, is the first and only moss and hepatic study of the area. 11 of which were reported for the first time for the area.
As the authors point out, despite the fact that Doñana is an envi-
ronment of low diversity of plants of this kind, the bryophyte List of vascular plants. Characteristics*.
flora is highly interesting.This article reports 66 taxa, including a From a basic list of reports appearing in the literature, pre-
new report for Spanish flora; Bryum gemmiferum, and an impor- pared by the Doñana Biological Station, the nomenclature of the
tant chorological find; the Ephemerum sessile. taxa has been corrected and sorted out, bringing it in line with
the nomenclature used in the published volumes of Flora Iberica
VASCULAR PLANTS and, where necessary, with the Flora Vascular de Andalucía
Classical studies of the vascular flora and vegetation of Occidental, indicating the synonyms.
Doñana National Park have been conducted by Fernández The information has been completed with new reports aris-
Galiano and Cabezudo, including the well known ecological map ing from field work in Doñana in the "Monitoring the terrestrial
by González Bernaldez, the ICONA monograph on the ecosys- vegetation and the restoration of the vegetation cover" project
tems of the Lower Guadalquivir and Rivas Martínez series of undertaken by the Continental Water Ecology Group of the
three monographs5. These articles on vegetation offered a University of Seville.
detailed knowledge of the flora of the Doñana area, estimate at The list is made up of currently accepted names, and syn-
803 species of flowering plants by Rivas Martínez. onyms have been indicated. Some of the taxa on the list may
García Novo6 later returned to the subject and described possibly be mistaken reports due to misidentification in the orig-
and interpreted the Doñana vegetation.The many articles writ- inal publications, and other taxa to be found have not been
ten, especially by scientists from the Department of Plant included. Nonetheless, the list, with 963 taxa, is the most com-
Biology and Ecology, have increased the number of known plete list of the vascular plants of Doñana and the surrounding
species in this area, and have described some new taxa, hence area to date:
reaching the figure given by Doñana Datos Básicos (1998) of 875 - 15 pterydophytes, 14 native and 1 introduced.
species. - 8 gymnosperms, 6 native and 2 introduced.
Taking into consideration the different ecosystems, the data - 252 monocotyledons, 240 native and 12 introduced.
on the composition of the flora are complete for the sandy - 688 dicotyledons, 642 native and 46 introduced.
areas, and less so for wetland areas, marshes and fresh water - Total: 963 taxa, 902 native and 61 introduced.
wetlands. Research into aquatic flora (macrophytes) has pro-
List elaborated by Mª Paz Esquivias Segura, Department of Plant Biology and Ecology
gressed in the last ten years through the works of García Murillo of the University of Seville.

353
 TABLE 10
Checklist of vascular plant species found in Doñana.

PTERYDOPHYTES = Pancratium humile Cav. Crocus serotinus Salisb. subsp. serotinus

= Narcissus humilis (Cav.) Traub Gynandriris sisyrinchium (L.) Parl.
ADIANTACEAE = Braxireon humile (Cav.) Rafin = Iris sisyrinchium L
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Narcissus papyraceus Ker-Gawler Gladiolus communis L. subsp. byzantinus (Miller) A. P.
AZOLLACEAE Narcissus serotinus L. Hamilton
Azolla filiculoides Lam. Pancratium maritimum L. Gladiolus illyricus Koch
Introduced, native to North America. ARACEAE Iris germanica L.
EQUISETACEAE Arum italicum Miller subsp. italicum Introduced, often garden hybrids.The species is native to the east-
Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Arisarum simorrhinum Durieu in Duchartre ern Mediterranean.
Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. = Arisarum vulgare auct. p. p., non Targ. -Tozz. Iris pseudacorus L.
Pistia stratiotes L. Iris xiphium L.
HEMIONITIDACEAE Romulea bulbocodium (L.) Sebastiani & Mauri
Anogramma leptophylla (L.) Link Introduced, native to tropical America.
Romulea ramiflora Ten. subsp. gaditana (G.Kunze) Marais
HYPOLEPIDACEAE ARECACEAE (PALMAE) Romulea ramiflora Ten. subsp. ramiflora
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Chamaerops humilis L.
Phoenix canariensis Hort ex Chabaud JUNCACEAE
ISOETACEAE Juncus acutiflorus Ehrh. ex Hoffm. subsp. rugosus (Steudel)
Isoetes histrix Bory CYMODOCEACEAE Coutinho
Isoetes velatum A. Braun in Bory & Durieu Cymodocea nodosa (Ucria) Ascherson = Juncus rugosus Steudel
Isoetes velatum A. Braun in Bory & Durieu subsp. vela- CYPERACEAE Juncus acutus L.
tum Carex acuta L. Juncus ambiguus Guss.
MARSILEACEAE Carex arenaria L. Juncus articulatus L.
Marsilea strigosa Willd. Carex distans L. = Juncus lamprocarpus Ehrh. ex Hoffm
Carex divisa Hudson Juncus bufonius L.
OPHIOGLOSSACEAE = Carex chaetophylla Steudel Juncus bulbosus L.
Ophioglossum lusitanicum L. Carex elata subsp. tartessiana Juncus capitatus Weigel
Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Carex extensa Good. Juncus effusus L.
OSMUNDACEAE Carex hispida Willd. in Schkuhr Juncus emmanuelis A. Fernandes & García
Osmunda regalis L. Carex laevigata Sm. Juncus heterophyllus Dufour
SELAGINELLACEAE Carex mairii Cosson & Germ. Juncus hybridus Brot.
Selaginella denticulata (L.) Spring Carex otrubae Podp. Juncus maritimus Lam.
Carex panicea L. Juncus pygmaeus L. C. M. Richard in Thuill.
THELYPTERIDACEAE
Carex paniculata L. subsp. lusitanica (Schkuhr) Maire Juncus striatus Schousboe ex E. H. F. Meyer
Thelypteris palustris Schott
Carex pseudocyperus L. Juncus subnodulosus Schrank
= Thelypteris thelypteroides (Michaux) J. Holub subsp.
Carex riparia Curtis Juncus subulatus Forsskål
glabra J. Holub
Cladium mariscus (L.) Pohl Juncus tenageia Ehrh. ex L. fil.
Cyperus capitatus Vandelli Juncus x donyanae Fernández-Carvajal
GYMNOSPERMS = Cyperus schoenoides Griseb. JUNCAGINACEAE
CUPRESSACEAE Cyperus flavescens L. Triglochin barrelieri Loisel.
Cupressus sempervirens L. Cyperus fuscus L. = Triglochin bulbosa subsp. barrelieri (Loisel.) Rouy
Introduced, native to the eastern Mediterranean. Cyperus laevigatus L. subsp. distachyos (All.) Maire & Triglochin laxiflora Guss.
Juniperus navicularis Gand. Weiller in Weiller
Cyperus longus L. LEMNACEAE
= Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. transtagana Franco
Cyperus michelianus (L.) Link Lemna gibba L.
Juniperus oxycedrus L. subsp macrocarpa (Sm.) Ball
Cyperus rotundus L. Lemna minor L.
= Juniperus macrocarpa Sm.
Eleocharis multicaulis (Sm.) Desv. Lemna trisulca L.
Juniperus phoenicea L. subsp. turbinata (Guss.) Nyman =
Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roemer & Schultes Wolffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimmer
Juniperus oophora G. Kunze
= Juniperus phoenicea L. subsp. lycia auct. Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsskål) Bubani LILIACEAE
Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Masters in J. Roy = Fimbristylis dichotoma auct., non (L.)Vahl Allium ampeloprasum L.
Introduced, native to northern Africa and Malta. Fimbristylis cioniana Savi Allium pallens L. subsp. pallens
Introduced, common in topical Africa. Allium paniculatum L. subsp. paniculatum
EPHEDRACEAE
Fuirena pubescens (Poiret) Kunth Asparagus acutifolius L.
Ephedra fragilis Desf.
Rhynchospora modesto-lucennoi Asparagus albus L.
PINACEAE Schoenus nigricans L. Asparagus aphyllus L.
Pinus pinea L. Scirpus cernuus Vahl Asphodelus aestivus Brot.
Pinus pinaster Aiton Scirpus fluitans L. = Asphodelus microcarpus Viv
= Eleogiton fluitans (L.) Link Asphodelus ramosus L.
MONOCOTYLEDONS Scirpus holoschoenus L. = Asphodelus cerasiferus J. Gay
= Holoschoenus vulgaris Link Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medicus subsp. serotinum
AGAVACEAE
Scirpus lacustris L. Fritillaria hispanica Boiss. & Reuter, in Boiss.
Agave americana L.
Scirpus littoralis Schrader Fritillaria lusitanica Wikström.
Introduced, native to Mexico.
= Scirpus littoralis Schrader subsp. termalis (Trabut) Muscari comosum (L.) Miller
ALISMATACEAE Murb. Muscari neglectum Guss. ex Ten.
Alisma lanceolatum With. Scirpus maritimus L. subsp. maritimus Ornithogalum narbonense L.
Alisma plantago-aquatica L. Scirpus pseudosetaceus Daveau Ornithogalum orthophyllum Ten. subsp. baeticum (Boiss.)
Baldellia ranunculoides (L.) Parl. Scirpus setaceus L. Zahar.
= Alisma ranunculoides L. = Isolepis setacea (L.) R. Br. Ruscus aculeatus L.
= Echinodorus ranunculoides (L.) Engelm. in Ascherson Scirpus tabernaemontani C. C. Gmelin Scilla autumnalis L.
Introduced. Urginea maritima (L.) Baker
DIOSCOREACEAE
Damasonium alisma Miller = Scilla maritima L.
Tamus communis L.
Damasonium polyspermun Cosson
HYDROCHARITACEAE ORCHIDACEAE
AMARYLLIDACEAE Orchis laxiflora Lam.
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L.
Leucojum autumnale L. Serapias lingua L.
Leucojum trichophyllum Schousboe IRIDACEAE Serapias parviflora Parl.
Narcissus bulbocodium L. subsp. bulbocodium Crocus serotinus Salisb. subsp. salzmannii (J. Gay) Mathew
Narcissus cavanillesii A. Barra & López = Crocus salzmannii J. Gay

354
POACEAE (Gramineae) Festuca arundinacea Schreber subsp. atlantigena (St.-Yves) Spartina maritima (Curtis) Fernald
Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl. Auquier Sphenopus divaricatus (Gouan) Reichenb.
Agrostis castellana Boiss. & Reuter Gastridium ventricosum (Gouan) Schinz & Thell. Sporobolus pungens (Schreber) Kunth
Agrostis pourretii Willd. = Gastridium lendigerum (L.) Desv. = Sporobolus virginicus var. arenarius (Gouan) Maire
Agrostis reuteri Boiss. Gaudinia fragilis (L.) Beauv. subsp. fragilis Stipa gigantea Link
Agrostis stolonifera L. Gaudinia hispanica Stace & Tutin Stipa tenacissima L.
= Agrostis maritima Lam. Glyceria declinata Bréb. Trisetaria dufourei (Boiss.) Paunero
Agrostis tenerrima Trin. Glyceria fluitans (L.) R. Br. Trisetaria panicea (Lam.) Paunero
Agrostis truncatula Parl. Glyceria notata Chevall. Vulpia alopecuros (Schousboe) Dumort. var. alopecurus.
=Agrostis delicatula sensu auct. plur., non Pourret ex = Glyceria plicata (Fries) Fries Vulpia alopecuros (Schousboe) Dumort. var. sylvatica
Lapeyr Hainardia cylindrica (Willd.) Greuter Boiss.
Airopsis tenella (Cav.) Ascherson & Graebner Hainardiopholis x pauneroi Castroviejo Vulpia ciliata Dumort.
Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link subsp. arundinacea H. Lindb. =Hainardia cylindrica (Willd.) Greuter x Parapholis incur- Vulpia fontquerana Melderis & Stace
fil. va (L.) C. E. Hubbard Vulpia geniculata (L.) Link
= Ammophila australis (Mabille) Porta & Rigo Holcus lanatus L. Vulpia membranacea (L.) Dumort.
Anthoxantum aristatum Boiss. subsp. macranthum Valdés Holcus mollis L. subsp. mollis Vulpia myuros (L.) C. C. Gmelin subsp. sciuroides (Roth)
Anthoxanthum ovatum Lag. Hordeum geniculatum All. Rouy var. tenella (Boiss.) Maire & Weiller in Maire
= Anthoxanthum odoratum L. subsp. ovatum (Lag.) Trabut = Hordeum hystrix Roth = Vulpia broteri Boiss. & Reuter
in Batt. & Trabut Hordeum leporinum Link POTAMOGETONACEAE
Anthoxanthum ovatum Lag. var. exertum H. Lindb. fil = Hordeum murinum auct. Potamogeton crispus L.
Arrhenatherum album (Vahl) W. D. Clayton = Hordeum murinum subsp. leporinum (Link) Arcangeli Potamogeton lucens L.
Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. ex J. & C. Presl subsp. Hordeum marinum Hudson Potamogeton natans L.
bulbosum (Willd.) Schübler & Martens = Hordeum maritimum Stokes ex With. Potamogeton panormitanus Viv.
= Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum (Willd.) Spenner Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf in Oliver = Potamogeton pusillus auct., non L.
Arundo donax L. Hyparrhenia podotricha (Hostch ex Steudel) Andersson Potamogeton pectinatus L.
Introduced, probably native to Asia. in Schweinf. Potamogeton polygonifolius Pourret
Arundo plinii Turra Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel Potamogeton trichoides Cham.& Schlecht.
Avellinia michelii (Savi) Parl. Lagurus ovatus L.
Avena barbata Pott ex Link subsp. barbata Lolium multiflorum Lam. RUPPIACEAE
Avena barbata Pott ex Link subsp. lusitanica (Tab. Mor.) Lolium perenne L. Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande
Romero Zarco Lolium rigidum Gaudin Ruppia drepanensis Tin. ex Guss.
Avena byzantina C. Koch Melica magnolii Gren. & Godron Ruppia maritima L. var. maritima
Introduced. = Melica ciliata auct., non L. SMILACACEAE
Avena longiglumis Durieu in Duchartre Mibora minima (L.) Desv. Smilax aspera L. var. altissima Moris & De Not.
Avena sativa L. subsp. macrantha (Hackel) Rocha Afonso Micropyropsis tuberosa Romero Zarco & Cabezudo SPARGANIACEAE
Introduced. Molineriella minuta (L.) Rouy subsp. australis (Paunero) Sparganium erectum L. subsp. erectum
Brachypodium distachyon (L.) Beauv. Rivas Martínez
TYPHACEAE
Brachypodium phoenicoides (L.) Roemer & Schultes = Molineriella australis (Paunero) E. Rico
Typha angustifolia L.
Brachypodium retusum (Pers.) Beauv. Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench subsp. arundinacea
Typha dominguensis (Pers.) Steudel
Brachypodium sylvaticum (Hudson) Beauv. (Schrank) K. Richter
Typha latifolia L.
Briza maxima L. Panicum repens L.
Briza minor L. Parapholis incurva (L.) C. E. Hubbard ZANNICHELLIACEAE
Bromus diandrus Roth Parapholis pycnantha (Hackel ex Druce) C. E. Hubbard Althenia orientalis (Tzvelev) García Murillo & Talavera
Bromus hordeaceus L. Paspalum paspalodes (Michx) Scribner subsp. orientalis
Bromus lanceolatus Roth Introduced, native to tropical and subtropical America. Zannichellia obtusifolia Talavera, García Murillo & Smit
Bromus matritensis L. Paspalum vaginatum Swartz Zannichellia pedunculata Reichenb. in Mössler
Bromus rigidus Roth Introduced, native to tropical and subtropical America.. = Zannichellia palustris subsp. pedicellata (Vahlenb. &
= Bromus maximus Desf. Phalaris brachystachys Link Rosen) Hegi
Bromus rubens L. Phalaris minor Retz. Zannichellia peltata Bertol. Fl. Ital.
Chaetopogon fasciculatus (Link) Hayek Phalaris paradoxa L. ZOSTERACEAE
Corynephorus canescens (L.) Beauv. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel subsp. australis Zostera noltii Hornem.
Corynephorus divaricatus (Pourret) Breistr. subsp. = Phragmites communis Trin.
macrantherus (Boiss. & Reuter) Paunero Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel subsp. altissima
= Corynephorus macrantherus Boiss. & Reuter (Bentham) W. D. Clayton
DICOTYLEDONS
Crypsis aculeata (L.) Aiton = Arundo isiaca Delile AIZOACEAE
Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam. Piptatherum miliaceum (L.) Cosson Carpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E. Br. in E. Phillips
Cutandia maritima (L.) W. Barbey = Oryzopsis miliacea (L.) Bentham & Hooker ex Introduced, naturalised in several sectors of the coast. Native of
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Ascherson & Schweinf. South Africa.
Cynosurus echinatus L. Poa annua L. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.
Dactylis glomerata L. var. hispanica (Roth) Koch Poa infirma Kunth in Humb., Bonpl. & Kunth Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum L.
= Dactylis hispanica Roth Poa trivialis L.
AMARANTHACEAE
Danthonia decumbens (L.) DC. in Lam. & DC. Polypogon maritimus Willd. subsp. maritimus
Amaranthus albus L.
= Sieglingia decumbens (L.) Bernh. Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf.
Introduced, native to northern and central America.
Desmazeria marina (L.) Druce Polypogon viridis (Gouan) Breistr.
Amaranthus blitoides S.Watson
Desmazeria rigida (L.) Tutin in Clapham, Tutin & E. F. Puccinellia fasciculata (Torrey) E. P. Bicknell
Introduced, native to America.
Warburg subsp. rigida Puccinellia festuciformis (Host) Parl.
Amaranthus cruentus L.
= Catapodium rigidum (L.) C.E. Hubbard in Dony Puccinellia stenophylla Kerguélen
Introduced, native to tropical America.
Digitaria debilis (Desf.) Willd. Rostraria cristata (L.) Tzvelev
Amaranthus deflexus L.
Introduced, native to tropical and southern Africa. = Lophochloa cristata (L.) Hyl.
Introduced, native to southern America.
Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. Rostraria phleoides (Desf.) J. Holub
Amaranthus graecizans L. subsp. sylvestris (Vill.) Brenan
Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis subsp. bore- = Lophochloa hispida (Savi) S. Pignatti
Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.
ali-atlanticus (Simonet & Guinochet) Melderis Rostraria pumila (Desf.) Tzvelev
Introduced, native to America..
= Agropyron junceiforme (A. & D. Löve) A. & D. Löve = Lophochloa pumila (Desf.) Bor
Amaranthus muricatus (Moq.) Hieron
= Agropyron junceum auct. hisp. Saccharum ravennae (L.) Murray
Introduced, native to southern America.
= Agropyron junceum Beauv. subsp. borealiatlanticum = Erianthus ravennae (L.) Beauv.
Amaranthus retroflexus L.
Simonet & Guinochet Spartina densiflora Brongn.
Introduced, native to northern America.
Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis subsp. farctus Introduced and naturalised in coastal marshes, native to southern
Amaranthus viridis L.
Festuca ampla Hackel America.
Introduced, native to tropical America.

355
 ANACARDIACEAE Solenopsis laurentia (L.) C. Presl Silene gallica L.
Pistacia lentiscus L. = Laurentia gasparrinii (Tineo) Strobl Silene gracilis DC.
APOCYNACEAE Wahlenbergia hederacea (L.) Rchb. = Silene longicaulis Pourret ex Lag.
Nerium oleander L. CAPRIFOLIACEAE Silene inaperta L.
Lonicera periclymenum L. subsp. hispanica (Boiss.& Silene laeta (Aiton) Godron in Gren. & Godron
ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Silene latifolia Poiret
Aristolochia baetica L. Reuter) Nyman
Lonicera etrusca G. Santi = Silene alba (Miller) E. H. L. Krause
ASCLEPIADACEAE Lonicera implexa Aiton Silene littorea Brot. subsp. littorea
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton in W.Aiton Silene micropetala Lag.
Introduced, native to southern Africa. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Silene nicaeensis All.
Arenaria algarbiensis Welw. ex Willk. Silene nocturna L.
BORRAGINACEAE Arenaria emarginata Brot. subsp. emarginata
Anchusa azurea Miller Silene ramosissima Desf.
Arenaria hispanica Sprengel Silene scabriflora Brot. subsp. scabriflora
Anchusa calcarea Boiss. = Areanaria cerastioides sensu A.O. Chater & Halliday
Borrago officinalis L. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke subsp. vulgaris
= Arenaria spathulata sensu Willk. in Willk. and Lange Spergula arvensis L.
Cerinthe major L. Arenaria leptoclados (Reichenb.) Guss.
Cynoglossum creticum Miller Spergularia marina (L.) Besser
Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. = Spergularia salina J.Presl & K. Presl
Echium arenarium Guss. Corrigiola litoralis subsp. perez-larae Chaudhrin
Echium gaditanum Boiss. Spergularia media (L.) K. Presl
= Corrigiola litoralis L. subsp. foliosa (Pérez Lara) = Spergularia marginata (C.A. Meyer) Kittel
Echium plantagineum L. Chaudhri
Heliotropium europaeum L. Spergularia nicaeensis Sarato ex Burnat
Chaetonychia cymosa (L.) Sweet Spergularia purpurea (Pers.) G. Don fil.
Heliotropium supinum L. = Paronychia cymosa (L.) DC. in Lam.
Myosotis debilis Pomel Spergularia rubra (L.) J. & C. Presl subsp. longipes (Lange)
Corrigiola telephiifolia Pourret Briq.
Myosotis discolor Pers. subsp. dubia (Arrondeau) Blaise Dianthus broteri Boiss. & Reuter
Myosotis laxa Lehm. subsp. caespitosa (C.F. Schultz.) Hyl. = Spergularia purpurea (Pers.) G. Don fil.
= Dianthus malacitanus Haenseler ex Boiss. Spergularia tangerina P. Monnier
ex Nordh. Dianthus hinoxianus Gallego
Myosotis ramosissima Rochel in Schultes subsp. ramosis- Stellaria media (L.) Vill.
Herniaria cinerea DC. in Lam. & DC. Stellaria pallida (Dumort.) Piré
sima Honckenya peploides (L.) Ehrh.
CACTACEAE = Arenaria peploides L. CERATOPHYLLACEAE
Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawler) Haw. Illecebrum verticillatum L. Ceratophyllum demersum L.
Introduced, native to southwestern USA, the Bermudes and Cuba. Loeflingia baetica Lag. CHENOPODIACEAE
Opuntia maxima Miller Loeflingia baetica Lag. var. baetica Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) Moris in Moris
= Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller Loeflingia baetica Lag. var. micrantha (Boiss. & Reuter) & Delponte
= Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck Heywood = Arthrocnemum glaucum (Delile) Ung.-Sternb.
Introduced, probably native to Mexico. Moehringia pentandra Gay Atriplex halimus L.
CALLITRICHACEAE Moenchia erecta (L.) P. Gaertner, B. Meyer & Scherb. Atriplex patula L.
Callitriche brutia Petagna Paronychia argentea Lam. Atriplex patula L.
Callitriche lusitanica Schotsman Petrorhagia prolifera (L.) P.W. Ball & Heywood in Bull. Atriplex prostrata Boucher ex DC.
Callitriche obtusangula Le Gall Polycarpon alsinifolium (Biv.) DC. Beta macrocarpa Guss.
= C. platycarpa Kütz. Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. Beta maritima L.
Callitriche stagnalis Scop. Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. subsp. diphyllum (Cav.) O. = Beta vulgaris L. subsp. maritima (L.) Arcangeli
Callitriche truncata Guss. subsp. occidentalis (Rouy) Bolòs & Font Quer Chenopodium album L.
Schotsman = Polycarpon diphyllum Cav. Chenopodium murale L.
Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. subsp. tetraphyllum Halimione portulacoides (L.) Aellen
CAMPANULACEAE
Sagina apetala Ard. subsp. apelata Halopeplis amplexicaulis (Vahl) Ung.-Sternb. ex Cesati,
Campanula lusitanica L.
Sagina maritima G. Don Passer. & Gibelli
Jasione montana L.
Silene colorata Poiret Salicornia europaea L.
Lobelia urens L.
Silene cretica L. Salicornia ramosissima J.Woods

356
Salsola kali L. Cichorium endivia L. Inula crithmoides L.
Salsola soda L. Cichorium intybus L. Lactuca serriola L.
Sarcocornia fruticosa (L.) A. J. Scott Cirsium monspessulanum (L.)Hill subsp. ferox (Cosson) Leontodon longirrostris (Finch & P. D. Sell) Talavera in
= Arthrocnemum fruticosum (L.) Moq. Talavera Valdés & al.
Sarcocornia perennis (Miller) A. J. Scott Cirsium pyrenaicum (Jacq.) All. Leontodon maroccanus (Pers.) Ball
= Arthrocnemum perenne (Miller) Moss Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. Leontodon salzmannii (Schultz Bip.) Ball.
Sarcocornia perennis (Miller) A. J. Scott subsp. alpini (Lag.) = Cirsium lanceolatus (L.) Scop. Leontodon taraxacoides (Vill.) Mérat
Castroviejo Cladanthus arabicus (L.) Cass. = Leontodon nudicaulis auct. non (L.) Banks ex Schinz &
Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. R. Keller
Suaeda splendens (Pourret) Gren. & Godron Introduced, native to southern America. = Leontodon saxatilis Lam.
Suaeda vera Forsskål ex J. F. Gmelin Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. Logfia gallica (L.) Cosson & Germ.
CISTACEAE Introduced, native to northern America. = Filago gallica L.
Cistus albidus L. Cotula coronopifolia L. Logfia minima (Sm.) Dumort.
Cistus crispus L. Introduced, naturalsied in western Europe and northern Africa, = Filago minima (Sm.) Pers.
Cistus ladanifer L. native to soutehrn Africa. Onopordum dissectum Murb.
Cistus libanotis L. Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr. Onopordum nervosum Boiss.
= Cistus bourgaeanus Coss. = Crepis virens L. = Onopordum acanthium sensu Pérez Lara
Cistus monspeliensis L. Crepis neglecta subsp. cretica (Boiss.) Vierh. Otanthus maritimus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link
Cistus psilosepalus Sweet Introduced, native to Crete and the Carpathians. Otospermum glabrum (Lag.) Willk.
Cistus salviifolius L. Cynara humilis L. Picris echioides L.
Fumana thymifolia (L.) Spach ex Webb Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Bernh.
= Cistus thymifolius L. = Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton Pulicaria odora (L.) Reichenb.
Halimium calycinum (L.) K. Koch Evax lusitanica Samp. = Inula odora L.
= Halimium commutatum Pau Evax pygmaea (L.) Brot. subsp. pygmaea Pulicaria paludosa Link
Halimium halimifolium (L.) Willk. in Willk. & Lange Evax pygmaea (L.) Brot. subsp. ramosissima (Mariz) R. = Pulicaria uliginosa Hoffmanns. & Link
Helianthemum apenninum (L.) Mill. subsp. stoechadifolium Fernandes & Nogueira Reichardia gaditana (Willk.) Samp.
(Brot.) Samp. = Evax asterisciflora sensu Pérez Lara Reichardia intermedia (Schultz Bip.) Samp.
= Helianthemum croceum (Desf.) Pers. = E. asterisciflora var. ramosissima Mariz Reichardia tingitana (L.) Roth
Xolantha commutata (Gallego) Gallego Galactites tomentosa Moench = Sonchus hispanicum Jacq.
= Tuberaria commutata Gallego Gamochaeta subfalcata (Cabrera) Cabrera Scolymus hispanicus L.
Xolantha guttata (L.) Raf. = Gnaphalium subfalcatum Cabrera Scolymus maculatus L.
= Tuberaria bupleurifolia (Lam.) Willk. Introduced, native to northern and southern America.. Scorzonera fistulosa Brot.
= Tuberaria guttata (L.) Fourr. Gnaphalium luteo-album L. Scorzonera laciniata L.
Xolantha macrosepala (Salzm. ex Boiss.) Gallego Gymnostyles stolonifera (Brot.) Tutin Senecio aquaticus Hill subsp. erraticus (Bertol.) Mathews
= Tuberaria macrosepala (Salzm. ex Boiss.) Willk. = Soliva stolonifera (Brot.) Loudon Senecio gallicus Chaix in Vill.
Introduced, naturalised in southwestern Europe, native to southern Senecio jacobaea L.
COMPOSITAE (ASTERACEAE) America (Uruguay and northeastern Argentina). Senecio lividus L.
Achillea ageratum L. Hedypnois arenaria (Schousboe) DC. Senecio sylvaticus L.
Aetheorhiza bulbosa (L.) Cass. subsp. bulbosa = Leontodon rothii Ball Senecio vulgaris L.
= Crepis bulbosa (L.) Tausch Hedypnois cretica (L.) Dum.-Courset Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner
Anacyclus clavatus (Desf.) Pers. = Hedypnois ragadioloides (L.) F. G. Schmidt Sonchus asper (L.) Hill subsp. asper
Anacyclus radiatus Loisel. Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don fil. subsp. serotinum Sonchus oleraceus L.
Andryala arenaria (DC.) Boiss. & Reuter (Boiss.) P. Fourn Sonchus maritimus L. subsp. aquatilis (Pourret) Nyman
Andryala integrifolia L. Helichrysum picardii Boiss. & Reuter var. picardii Sonchus tenerrimus L.
Anthemis arvensis L. Helichrysum picardii Boiss. & Reuter var. virescens Valdés- Tolpis barbata (L.) Gaertner
Anthemis cotula L. Bermejo Tolpis umbellata Bertol.
Anthemis maritima L. Hieracium baeticum Arvet-Touvet & Reverchon in Urospermum picroides (L.) Scop. ex F.W. Schmidt
Arctotheca calendula (L.) Levyns Hervier Xanthium spinosum L.
Introduced, naturalised in western Portugal and southwestern
Hyoseris scabra L. Introduced, native to southern America.
Spain, native to southern Africa.
Hypochaeris achyrophorus L. Xanthium strumarium L. subsp. cavanillesii (Schouw) D.
Artemisia caerulescens L. subsp. caerulescens Hypochaeris glabra L. Löve & P. Dansereau
Artemisia crithmifolia L. Hypochaeris radicata L. Introduced, probably native to America.
Aster squamatus (Sprengel) Hieron
Introduced.
Aster tripolium L. subsp. pannonicus (Jacq.) Soó
Bellis annua L. subsp. annua
Calendula arvensis L. subsp. arvensis
Carduncellus caeruleus (L.) C. Presl subsp. caeruleus
Carduus bourgeanus Boiss. & Reuter subsp. bourgeanus
Carduus meonanthus Hoffmanns. & Link subsp. meonan-
thus
Carduus pycnocephalus L.
Carduus tenuiflorus Curtis
Carlina corymbosa L.
Carlina racemosa L.
Carthamus lanatus L. subsp. lanatus
Centaurea calcitrapa L.
Centaurea diluta Aiton
Centaurea exarata Boiss. ex Cosson
Centaurea melitensis L.
Centaurea sphaerocephala L.
= Centaurea polyacantha Willd.
Centaurea uliginosa Brot.
Chamaemelum fuscatum (Brot.) Vasc.
Chamaemelum mixtum (L.) All.
= Anthemis mixta L.
Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
Chrysanthemum coronarium L. var. discolor d´Urv.
Chrysanthemum segetum L.

357
 CONVOLVULACEAE Raphanus raphanistrum L. subsp. raphanistrum Ricinus communis L.
Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br. = Raphanus raphanistrum L. subsp. microcarpus (Lange) Introduced, native to tropical Africa.
Calystegia soldanella (L.) R. Br. Thell. in Hegi FAGACEAE
Convolvulus arvensis L. Rapistrum rugosum (L.) All. subsp. rugosum Quercus canariensis Willd.
Convolvulus siculus L. subsp. siculus Sinapis arvensis L. Quercus coccifera L.
Cressa cretica L. Sisymbrium irio L. Qercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.
CRASSULACEAE Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. = Quercus rotundifolia Lam.
Crassula tillaea Lest.-Garl. Sisymbrium orientale L. Quercus suber L.
Sedum album L. Teesdalia coronopifolia (J. P.Bergeret) Thell.
FRANKENIACEAE
Sedum lagascae Pau CUCURBITACEAE Frankenia boissieri Reut. ex Boiss.
Sedum maireanum Sennen in Sennen & Mauricio Bryonia dioica Jacq. Frankenia laevis L.
= S.lagascae sensu auct. lusit., non Pau = Bryonia cretica L. subsp. dioica (Jacq.) Tutin Frankenia pulverulenta L.
= Sedum villosum var. ramosum Pérez Lara Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. in Bory
Umbilicus gaditanus Boiss. FUMARIACEAE (PAPAVERACEAE)
CUSCUTACEAE (CONVOLVULACEAE) Fumaria bastardii Boreau
= Umbilicus horizontalis auct. iber., non (Guss.) DC. Cuscuta epithymum (L.) L.
Umbilicus heylandianus Webb & Berthel. Fumaria capreolata L.
Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy in Ridd. DIPSACACEAE Fumaria officinalis L.
= Umbilicus neglectus (Cout.) Rothm. & P. Silva Dipsacus fullonum L. Fumaria parviflora Lam.
= Dipsacus sylvestris Hudson Fumaria sepium Boiss. & Reuter in Boiss.
CRUCIFERAE (BRASSICACEAE) Pterocephalus diandrus (Lag.) Lag.
Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. in Holl & Heynh GENTIANACEAE
Pterocephalus intermedius (Lag.) Coutinho. Blackstonia perfoliata (L.) Hudson
Brassica barrelieri (L.) Janka Scabiosa semipapposa Salzm. ex DC.
= Brassica sabularia Brot. Centaurium erythraea Rafin subsp. grandiflorum (Biv.)
Scabiosa turolensis Pau Melderis
Brassica fruticulosa Cirillo
Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch in Röhl. ELATINACEAE Centaurium maritimum (L.) Fritsch, Mitt.
Brassica oxyrrhina Coss. Elatine alsinastrum L. Centaurium pulchellum (Swartz) Druce
Brassica tournefortii Gouan Elatine hexandra (Lapierre) DC. = Centaurium tenuiflorum subsp. acutiflorum (Schott)
Cakile maritima Scop. subsp. maritima Elatine macropoda Guss. Zeltner
= Cakile maritima Scop. subsp. aegyptia (L.) Nyman EMPETRACEAE Centaurium spicatum (L.) Fritsch
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Corema album (L.)D. Don in Sweet Cicendia filiformis L.
= Capsella rubella Reut. Exaculum pusillum (Lam.) Caruel in Parl.
ERICACEAE = Cicendia pusilla (Lam.) Griseb.
Cardamine hirsuta L. Arbutus unedo L.
Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Gentiana pneumonanthe L.
Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull
Introduced, probably native to southern America. = Erica vulgaris L. GERANIACEAE
Coronopus squamatus (Forssk.) Asch. Erica ciliaris Loefl. ex L. Erodium aethiopicum (Lam.) Brumh. & Thell. in Thell
Diplotaxis catholica (L.) DC. Erica scoparia L. subsp. scoparia Erodium botrys (Cav.) Bertol.
Diplotaxis erucoides (L.) DC. subsp. erucoides Erica terminalis Salisb. Erodium cicutarium (L.) L´Hér. in Aiton
Diplotaxis siifolia Kunze Erica umbellata Loefl. ex L. Erodium moschatum (L.) L'Hér.in Aiton
= Diplotaxis catholica subsp. siifolia (Kunze) Maire in Geranium columbinum L.
EUPHORBIACEAE Geranium dissectum L.
Jahand. & Maire
Chamaesyce polygonifolia (L.) Small Geranium molle L.
Diplotaxis siifolia Kunze var. vicentina (Welw. ex Samp.)
= Euphorbia polygonifolia L. Geranium purpureum Vill. in L.
Cout.
Introduced, native to the eastern coast of northern America.
Erophila verna (L.) Besser subsp. verna Geranium rotundifolium L.
Euphorbia baetica Boiss.
Hirschfeldia incana (L.) Lagr.-Foss. subsp. incana GUTTIFERAE (CLUSIACEAE)
Euphorbia exigua L.
Hymenolobus procumbens (L.) Nutt. in Torr. & A. Gray Hypericum elodes L.
Euphorbia helioscopia L.
Hutera johnstonii (Samp.) Gómez Campo Hypericum humifusum L.
Euphorbia hirsuta L.
Iberis linifolia L. Hypericum perforatum L.
= Euphorbia pubescens Vahl
M. triloba (L.) Spreng. Hypericum tormentosum L.
Euphorbia paralias L.
= Malcolmia lacera auct. Hypericum undulatum Schousb. ex Willd.
Euphorbia peplus L.
Malcolmia littorea (L.) R. Br. in W.T.Aiton
Euphorbia terracina L. HALORAGACEAE
Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek
Mercurialis annua L. Myriophyllum alterniflorum DC. in Lam & DC.
= Nasturtium officinale R. Br. in W.T.Aiton
Mercurialis elliptica Poir. in Lam. Myriophyllum spicatum L.
HIPPURIDACEAE
Hippuris vulgaris L.
LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)
Lamium amplexicaule L.
Lavandula stoechas subsp. luisieri (Rozeira) Rozeira
= Lavandula luisieri (Rozeira) Rivas-Martínez
Lavandula stoechas subsp. sampaiana Rozeira
= Lavandula stoechas subsp. sampaiana var. lusitanica
(Chaytor) Rozeira
Lavandula stoechas L. subsp. stoechas
Lycopus europaeus L.
Mentha aquatica L.
Mentha pulegium L.
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh.
Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Scutellaria minor Hudson
Stachis arvensis (L.)L.
Teucrium fruticans L.
Teucrium scordium L. subsp. scordioides (Schreber)
Maire & Petimengin
= Teucrium scordioides Schreber
Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav.
= Satureja capitata L.
= Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. & Link
Thymus albicans Hoffmanns. & Link.
= Thymus tomentosus Willd. var. virescens Cosson

358
Thymus carnosus Boiss. = Melilotus messanensis (L.) All. Linum tenue Desf.
Thymus mastichina (L.) L. subsp. donyanae R. morales Melilotus sulcatus Desf. Radiola linoides Roth
= Thymus tomentosus auct., p.p., non Willd. Ononis baetica Clemente var. baetica LYTHRACEAE
Thymus mastichina (L.) L. subsp. mastichina = Ononis subspicata Lag. Lythrum acutangulum Lag.
= Thymus tomentosus Willd. Ononis baetica Clemente var. doñanensis Lythrum baeticum Gonz.-Albo
LEGUMINOSAE (FABACEAE) Ononis diffusa Ten. = Lythrum tribracteatum Spreng. subsp. baeticum (Gonz.-
Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. Ononis natrix L. Albo) Borja
Introduced, native to southeastern Australia. Ononis pinnata Brot. Lythrum borysthenicum (Schrank) Litv.
Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. in W.T.Aiton Ononis spinosa subsp. australis (Širj.) Greuter & Burdet Lythrum hyssopifolia L.
Introduced, native to southeastern Australia and Tasmania. = Ononis repens L. subsp. australis (Širj.) Devesa Lythrum junceum Banks & Sol.
Adenocarpus aureus (Cav.) Pau Ononis subspicata var. donnanae Lythrum salicaria L.
= A. complicatus subsp. aureus (Cav.) C.Vicioso Ononis variegata L. Lythrum tribracteatum Spreng.
Anagyris foetida L. Ornithopus compressus L.
Ornithopus pinnatus (Mill.) Druce MALVACEAE
Anthyllis hamosa Desf. Althaea officinalis L.
= Himenocarpus hamosus (Desf.) Vis. = Ornithopus ebracteatus Brot.
Ornithopus sativus Brot. subsp. isthmocarpus (Coss.) Lavatera cretica L.
Astragalus hamosus L. Malva hispanica L.
Astragalus lusitanicus Lam. Dostál
Retama monosperma (L.) Boiss. Malva parviflora L.
= Erophaca baetica (L.) Boiss. subsp. baetica = Malva pusilla auct.
Ceratonia siliqua L. Scorpiurus muricatus L.
Scorpiurus sulcatus L. = M. rotundifolia auct
Coronilla repanda (Poir.) Guss.
Cytisus grandiflorus (Brot.) DC. Scorpiurus vermiculatus L. MYRTACEAE
Cytisus grandiflorus (Brot.) DC. subsp. cabezudoi Talavera Stauracanthus genistoides (Brot.) Samp. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.
Dorycnium gracile Jord. Trifolium angustifolium L. Introduced, native to Australia. Widely cultivated worldwide and
= D. pentaphyllum subsp. gracile (Jord.) Rouy in Rouy & Trifolium arvense L. sometimes naturalised.
Foucaud Trifolium campestre Schreb. Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Dorycnium hirsutum (L.) Ser. in DC. Trifolium cernuum Brot. Introduced, native to Tasmania.
= Lotus hirsutus L. Trifolium cherleri L. Myrtus communis L.
Dorycnium rectum (L.) Ser. Trifolium dubium Sibth. MYOPORACEAE
Erophaca baetica (L.) Boiss. subsp. baetica Trifolium fragiferum L. Myoporum laetum G. Forst.
Genista ancistrocarpa Spach Trifolium glomeratum L. = Myoporum tenuifolium auct., non G. Forst.
Genista anglica L. Trifolium isthmocarpum Brot. Introduced, native to New Zealand.
Genista hirsuta Vahl Trifolium lappaceum L.
NYMPHAEACEAE
Genista triacanthos Brot. Trifolium micranthum Viv.
Nuphar luteum (L.) Sm.
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Trifolium nigrescens Viv. subsp. nigrescens
Nymphaea alba L.
Introduced, native to northern America. Trifolium occidentale Coombe
= T. repens subsp. occidentale (Coombe) M. Laínz ONAGRACEAE (OENOTHERACEAE)
Himenocarpus hamosus (Desf.) Vis.
Trifolium ornithopodioides L. Epilobium hirsutum L.
= Anthyllis hamosa Desf.
Trifolium repens L. var. repens Ludwigia palustris (L.) Elliot
Lathyrus annuus L.
Trifolium resupinatum L. Oenothera longiflora L. subsp. longiflora L.
Lathyrus aphaca L.
Trifolium scabrum L. Introduced, native to southern America.
Lathyrus palustris L. subsp. nudicaulis (Willk.) P.W. Ball
= L. nudicaulis (Willk.) Amo Trifolium spumosum L. OLEACEAE
Lathyrus sphaericus Retz. Trifolium squamosum L. Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl subsp. angustifolia
Lotus angustissimus L. = Trifolium maritimum Huds. Jasminum fruticans L.
Lotus arenarius Brot. Trifolium stellatum L. Olea europaea L.
Lotus castellanus Boiss. & Reut. in Boiss. Trifolium striatum L. Olea europaea L. var. europaea
= L. subbiflorus subsp. castellanus (Boiss. & Reut.) P.W. Ball Trifolium strictum L. Phillyrea angustifolia L.
Lotus corniculatus L. = Trifolium laevigatum Poir. Phillyrea latifolia L.
Lotus creticus L. Trifolium subterraneum L.
OROBANCHACEAE
Lotus glaber Miller = Lotus tenuis Waldst. & Kit. Ex Willd. Trifolium suffocatum L.
Cistanche phelypaea (L.) Cout.
Lotus hispidus Desf. ex DC. in Lam. & DC. Trifolium tomentosum L.
Orobanche reticulata Wallr.
= Lotus subbiflorus Lag Trifolium vesiculosum Savi
Ulex argenteus Welw. ex Webb subsp. subsericeus (Cout.) OXALIDACEAE
Lotus parviflorus Desf.
Rothm. Oxalis corniculata L.
Lotus pedunculatus Cav.
Ulex australis Clemente subsp. australis Oxalis pes-caprae L.
= Lotus uliginosus Schkuhr
Ulex micranthus Lange Introduced, native to southern Africa.
L. corniculatus L. subsp preslii (Ten) P. Fourn.
= Lotus preslii Ten. = Ulex lusitanicus Mariz PAPAVERACEAE
L. hispidus Desf. ex DC. in Lam. & DC. Ulex minor Roth. var. lusitanicus (Webb) C.Vicioso Argemone mexicana L.
= Lotus subbiflorus Lag. Ulex parviflorus Pourr. Introduced, native to tropical areas of central and southern
Lupinus angustifolius L. Vicia benghalensis L. America.
Lupinus hispanicus Boiss. & Reut. Vicia dasycarpa Ten. Glaucium corniculatum (L.) J. H. Rudolph
Lupinus luteus L. = Vicia villosa Roth subsp. varia (Host) Corb. Glaucium flavum Crantz
Medicago coronata (L.) Bartal. = V. varia Host Papaver dubium L.
Medicago disciformis DC. Vicia eriocarpa (Hausskn.) Halácsy Papaver rhoeas L.
Medicago italica (Mill.) Fiori in Fiori & Paol. = V. villosa Roth subsp. eriocarpa (Hausskn.) P.W. Ball
PHYTOLACCACEAE
= Medicago tornata (L.) Mill. = V. varia var. eriocarpa Hausskn.
Phytolacca americana L.
Medicago littoralis Rohde ex Loisel Vicia lutea L.
Introduced, native to northern and central America.
Medicago marina L. Vicia parviflora Cav.
Phytolacca dioica L.
Medicago minima (L.) L. = Vicia tenuissima Schinz & Thell.
Introduced, native to southern America.
Medicago murex Willd. = V. laxiflora Brot.
Vicia peregrina L. PLANTAGINACEAE
Medicago polymorpha L.
Vicia sativa L. subsp. nigra (L.) Ehrh. Plantago afra L.
= Medicago hispida Gaertn.
Plantago bellardii All.
Medicago rigidula (L.) All. LENTIBULARIACEAE
Plantago coronopus L. subsp. coronopus
Medicago turbinata (L.) All. var. olivaeformis (Guss.) Pérez Pinguicula lusitanica L.
Plantago crassifolia Forsskål
Lara Utricularia australis R. Br.
Plantago lagopus L.
Melilotus albus Medik. Utricularia gibba L.
= Plantago lusitanica L.
Melilotus elegans Salzm. ex Ser. in DC. = Utricularia exoleta R. Br.
Plantago lanceolata L.
Melilotus indicus (L.) All. = Utricularia gibba subsp. exoleta (R. Br.) P.Taylor
Plantago loeflingii L.
Melilotus segetalis (Brot.) Ser. in DC. LINACEAE Plantago serraria L.
Melilotus siculus (Turra) B.D. Jacks. Linum maritimum L.

359
 Linaria lamarckii Rouy
PLUMBAGINACEAE Ranunculus bullatus L.
Linaria munbyana Boiss. & Reuter var. pygmaea (Samp.)
Armeria gaditana Boiss. in DC. Ranunculus ficaria L.
Samp.
Armeria maritima Willd. Ranunculus flammula L.
Linaria oblongifolia (Boiss.) Boiss. & Reuter
Armeria pubigera (Desf.) Boiss. Ranunculus muricatus L.
Linaria spartea (L.) Chaz.
Armeria pungens (Link) Hoffmanns. & Link Ranunculus ophioglossifolius Vill.
Linaria tursica Valdés & Cabezudo
Armeria velutina Welw. ex Boiss.& Reuter Ranunculus parviflorus L.
= Linaria donyanae Valdés-Bermejo, Castroviejo, Costa &
Armeria welwitschii Boiss. Ranunculus peltatus Schrank subsp. baudotii (Godron) C.
Rivas-Martínez
Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss. in A. DC. D. K. Cook
Linaria viscosa (L.) Chaz.
Limonium algarvense Erben = Ranunculus baudotii Godron
Misopates orontium (L.) Rafin.
Limonium bellidifolium (Gouan) Dumort Ranunculus peltatus Schrank subsp. peltatus
Parentucellia latifolia (L.) Caruel in Parl.
Limonium binervosum (G.E. Sm.) C.E. Salmon Ranunculus sardous Crantz
Parentucellia viscosa (L.) Caruel in Parl.
= Limonium salmonis (Sennen & Elías) Pignatti Ranunculus trilobus Desf.
Pedicularis sylvatica L. subsp. lusitanica (Hoffmanns. & Link)
Limonium catalaunicum (Willk. & Costa) Pignatti Ranunculus tripartitus DC.
Coutinho
Limonium costae (Willk.) Pignatti RESEDACEAE Scrophularia canina L. subsp. canina
Limonium ferulaceum (L.) Chaz. Reseda media Lag. Scrophularia frutescens L.
Limonium narbonense Mill. Sesamoides canescens (L.) Kuntze Scrophularia lyrata Willd.
= Limonium angustifolium (Tausch) Turrill = S. interrupta (Boreau) G. López = Scrophularia auriculata fma. major Lange in Willk. &
= Limonium serotinum (Reichenb.) Erben Sesamoides interrupta (Boreau) G. López Lange
Limonium tournefortii (Boiss.) Erben = Sesamoides canescens (L.) Kuntze Verbascum sinuatum L.
POLYGALACEAE S. suffruticosa (Lange) Kuntze var. latifolia (Merino) G. Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.
Polygala vulgaris L. López Veronica anagalloides Guss.
= Sesamoides latifolia (Merino) Castrov. & Valdés Berm. Veronica arvensis L.
POLYGONACEAE
Emex spinosa (L.) Campd. RHAMNACEAE Veronica scutellata L.
Polygonum amphibium L. Frangula alnus Miller subsp. baetica (Reverchon & Willk.) SIMAROUBACEAE
Polygonum arenastrum Boreau Rivas Goday ex Devesa Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle
Polygonum aviculare L. Rhamnus alaternus L. Introduced, native to China.
Polygonum equisetiforme Sm. Rhamnus lycioides subsp. oleoides (L.) Jahandiez & Maire A. altissima (Miller) Swingle
Polygonum hydropiper L. = R. oleoides L. = Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.
Polygonum maritimum L. ROSACEAE SOLANACEAE
Polygonum salicifolium Brouss. ex Willd. Aphanes microcarpa (Boiss. & Reuter ) Rothm. Datura stramonium L.
Rumex acetosa subsp. biformis (Lange) Castroviejo & Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Introduced, native to America.
Valdés Bermejo Cydonia oblonga Mill. Mandragora autumnalis Bertol.
= Rumex biformis Lange Introduced, native to western and central Asia and southeastern Nicotiana glauca R. C. Graham
Rumex acetosella L. subsp. angiocarpus (Murb.) Murb. Arabia. Introduced, native to southern America.
= Rumex acetosella auct. Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch. Solanum dulcamara L.
= R. angiocarpus Murb. Potentilla reptans L. Solanum nigrum L.
Rumex bucephalophorus L. subsp. hispanicus (Steinh.) Pyrus bourgaeana Decne. Solanum sodomeum L.
Rech. fil. Rosa canina L. Introduced, native to southern Africa.
= R. bucephalophorus L. var. hispanicus Steinh. Rubus ulmifolius Schott
Rumex conglomeratus Murray TAMARICACEAE
RUBIACEAE Tamarix africana Poir.
Rumex crispus L. Crucianella maritima L.
Rumex dentatus subsp. callosissimus (Meissner) Rech. fil. Tamarix canariensis Willd.
Galium aparine L. Tamarix gallica L.
= Rumex dentatus L. subsp. halacsyi sensu Pastor Galium minutulum Jordan
Rumex pulcher subsp. woodsii (De Not.) Arcangeli Tamarix parviflora DC.
Galium mollugo L. Introduced, native to the eastern Mediterranean and northern
= Rumex pulcher L. subsp. divaricatus auct. Galium murale (L.)All. Africa.
Rumex roseus L. Galium palustre L.
= Rumex tingitanus L. THYMELEACEAE
Galium parissiense L.
PORTULACACEAE Daphne gnidium L.
Galium spurium L.
Montia fontana L. subsp. amporitana Sennen Rubia peregrina subsp. longifolia (Poiret) O.Bolòs ULMACEAE
PRIMULACEAE Sherardia arvensis L. Ulmus minor Mill.
Anagallis arvensis L. RUTACEAE UMBELLIFERAE (APIACEAE)
Anagallis crassifolia Thore Citrus limonum Risso Ammoides pusilla (Brot.) Breistr.
Anagallis foemina Miller Introduced. Angelica pachycarpa Lange
= A. arvensis L. subsp. foemina (Mill.) Schinz & Thell. Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Anthriscus caucalis M. Bieb.
Anagallis monelli L. Introduced. Apium inundatum (L.) Rchb. fil. in Rchb.
= Anagallis linifolia L Apium nodiflorum (L.)Lag.
SALICACEAE
Anagallis tenella (L.) L. Berula erecta (Huds.) Coville in Contr.
Populus alba L.
Asterolinon linum-stellatum (L.) Duby in DC. = Sium erectum Huds.
Populus nigra L.
Lysimachia ephemerum L. Bupleurum semicompositum L.
Salix alba L.
Samolus valerandi L. Cachrys sicula L.
Salix atrocinerea Brot.
PROTEACEAE Cachrys libanotis L.
Salix fragilis L.
Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br. Caropsis verticillato-inundata (Thore) Rauschert
Salix purpurea L. var. lambertiana (Sm.) W.D.J. Koch
Introduced, native to eastern Australia.
= Thorella verticillato-inundata (Thore) Briq.
= Salix purpurea L. subsp. lambertiana (Sm.) A. Neumann
Carum verticillatum (L.) W.D.J. Koch.
RAFFLESIACEAE ex Rech. fil.
Daucus carota L.
Cytinus hypocistis (L.) L. subsp. macranthus Wettst. Salix purpurea x S. salviifolia
Daucus carota L. subsp. gummifer (Syme) Hook. fil.
= Salix x matritensis Pau & C.Vicioso
RANUNCULACEAE Daucus crinitus Desf.
Anemone palmata L. SANTALACEAE Daucus muricatus (L.) L.
Clematis cirrhosa L. Osyris alba L. Echinophora spinosa L.
Clematis flammula L. Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud., in sched. Elaeoselinum foetidum (L.) Boiss.
Delphinium gracile DC. = Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. = Thapsia foetida L.
Nigella papilosa G. López SCROPHULARIACEAE Eryngium campestre L.
= N. hispanica auct. Antirrhinum majus L. Eryngium corniculatum Lam.
Ranunculus bulbosus subsp. aleae (Willk.) Rouy & Fouc. Bellardia trixago (L.) All. Eryngium galioides Lam.
= Ranunculus aleae Willk. = Trixago apula Stev. Eryngium maritimum L.
Ranunculus bulbosus L. var. adscendens (Brot.) Pinto da Gratiola linifolia Vahl Eryngium tenue Lam.
Silva Kickxia cirrhosa (L.) Fritsch Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. piperitum (Ucria) Bég.
= Ranunculus bulbosus subsp. adscendens (Brot.) J. Neves Linaria heterophylla subsp. tartessiana C.Vicioso Hydrocotyle vulgaris L.

360
Krubera peregrina (L.) Hoffm.
Presentation of the Spanish edition
= Capnophyllum peregrinum (L.) Lag
Margotia gummifera (Desf.) Lange in Willk. & Lange of “Doñana: Water and Biosphere”
= Elaeoselinum gummiferum (Desf.) Samp. on December 13th, 2005 in the
Oenanthe crocata L. premises of the Doñana Biological
Oenanthe fistulosa L. Station (Sevilla). From the left:
Oenanthe globulosa L. Francisco Tapia (President of the
= Oenanthe globulosa L. subsp. kunzei (Willk.) Nyman Guadalquivir Hydrological
Oenanthe lachenalii C.C. Gmel. Confederation), Fernando Hiraldo
Peucedanum lancifolium Hoffmanns. & Link ex Lange
(Director of the Doñana Biological
Pimpinella villosa Schousb.
Station), Cipriano Marín (author),
Pseudorlaya minuscula (Pau) M. Laínz
Pseudorlaya pumila (L.) Grande Cristina Narbona (Spanish
Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris Minister of Environment),
Thapsia villosa L. Hermelindo Castro (General
= Thapsia maxima Mill. Coordinator - Doñana 2005
Thapsia villosa L. var. dissecta Boiss. Scientific Commission), Francisco
Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link subsp. neglecta García Novo (author), Luis
(Spreng.) Thell. in Hegi Ramallo (President of the Spanish
Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link subsp. purpurea
Commission for UNESCO).
(Ten.) Hayek
Photograph by Aurora Suárez
Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn.
URTICACEAE
Parietaria judaica L.
Urtica membranacea Poir. in Lam.
= Urtica caudata Vahl
= Urtica dubia Forssk.
Urtica urens L.
VALERIANACEAE
Centranthus calcitrapae (L.) Dufresne
Fedia cornucopiae (L.) Gaertner
VERBENACEAE
Verbena officinalis L.
VIOLACEAE
Viola kitaibeliana Schult. in Roem. & Schult.
VITACEAE
Vitis vinifera L.
Introduced, cultivated since ancient times. Probably
native to southwestern Asia.
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
Tribulus terrestris L.

Family photo of the Doñana 2005 Scientific

Committee, together with the directors of
the Doñana Parks and authorities from the
Junta de Andalucía (Andalusia Regional
Government), taken after the June 2005 ses-
sion held in Seville. In that session the
Committee voted to eliminate Montaña del
Río dykes and return the canals and
riverbeds crossing the Doñana Marshes to
their former state. This was a long awaited
decision that culminates a process of func-
tional restoration of the Marshes.
Photograph by Aurora Suárez.

361
 NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. FERNÁNDEZ HAEGER, J., GARCÍA GARCÍA I., AMAT, J.A., 1976, THE MICRO-CRUSTACEANS AND ROTIFERS OF DOÑANA
Guía de las Mariposas de Doñana. Naturalia Hispanica, 6: 12-28.
2. IBAÑEZ, GUILLEN, JUSTE, MIGENS, PEREZ, RUIZ (Grupo de Investigación 12. ALONSO, M., 1998. Las Lagunas de la España Peninsular. Limnetica
de Sistemática y Ecología de Quirópteros) 1995. Quirópteros del Parque 15:1-176.
Nacional de Doñana: especies, y tamaño y metodos de estima de sus pobla- 13. ARECHEDERRA, A., LEÓN, D., FAHD, K., TOJA, J., SERRANO, L.
ciones. Memoria Final proyecto nº 172 Convenio de Cooperación ICONA - The influence of scale on the study of zooplankton in Doñana (SW, Spain).
CSIC: 116 p. In preparation.
3. CALONGE, F.D., TELLERIA, M.T., 1980. Introducción al conocimiento 14. DUSSART, B.H., 1967. Contribution à l´étude des Copépodes d´Espagne.
de los hongos de Doñana (Huelva, España). Lazaroa, 2: 271-326. P. Inst. Biol. Apl. 42: 87-105.
4. GUERRA, J., WALLACE, E.C. 1986. Musgos y hepáticas de Doñana 15. VELASCO, J.L., 1990. Lista faunística y bibliográfica de los rotíferos
(Huelva, España). Bol. Soc. Brot., Ses 2, 59:77-86. (Rotatoria) de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares y Canarias.
5. GALIANO Y CABEZUDO 1976. Plantas de la Reserva Biológica de Asociación Española de Limnología Publicaciones. 8.
Doñana (Huelva). Lagascalia 6 (1):117-176.
6. ALLIER, C., GONZALEZ BERNALDEZ, F., RAMIREZ DIAZ, L. 1972
Mapa Ecológico/Ecological map. Reserva Biologica de Doñana. CSIC. VASCULAR PLANTS
Sevilla.
7. GARCIA NOVO, F. et al. 1977. Sintesis Ecológica de los ecosistemas del 16. VALDÉS, B., TALAVERA, S., FERNÁNDEZ GALIANO, E. (Eds.) 1987.
Bajo Guadalquivir, ICONA Monografía 18:9-21; Flora Vascular de Andalucía Occidental. Ketres Editora. Barcelona Vol.1-
8. RIVAS MARTÍNEZ et al. 1980. Vegetación de Doñana (Huelva). Lazaroa 3.
2:271-326. 17. CASTROVIEJO, S., et al. (Eds), 1989. Flora iberica. Plantas vasculares
9. GARCIA NOVO, F., 1997 The ecosystems of Doñana National Park, in de la Peninsula ibérica e Islas Baleares. Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC.
GARCIA NOVO,F., CRAWFORD,R.M.M., DIAZ BARRADAS,M.C. Madrid. Vol. 1 ss.
(Eds.) The Ecology and Conservation of European dunes. EUDC/ U. de
Sevilla. Seville: 97-116.
10. GARCIA NOVO,F., et al. Informe sobre el estado de la Reserva de
Biosfera de Doñana. Comité Español del Programa MaB de la UNESCO.
Madrid. 77p.
11. GARCIA MURILLO P., BERNUES M., MONTES,C. 1993. Los macrófi-
tos acuáticos del Parque Nacional de Doñana. Aspectos florísticos. Actas
del VI Congreso Español de Limnología: 261-267.

362
EPILOGUE FÉLIX MANUEL PÉREZ MIYARES *

Doñana 2005
a forward looking project

Doñana 2005 can only be understood in the context of the space co-existing with its surroundings and its people. A historic merger that is being recovered day by day.
In the picture, the first stages of the "Saca de las Yeguas" or Mares' Round Up, a tradition that clearly shows this co-existence.
Photograph: CENEAM Files.

ince the Doñana 2005 Project was approved by Royal the water basin as a whole, it was not until 1998, just after the
S Decree-Law 7/1999 on the 23rd of April 1998, many deci-
sions have been taken that have undoubtedly enhanced the original
Aznalcollar Mines waste reservoir burst, that the Project was
approved. Its genesis at this time was accompanied by the approval
idea. Right from the very beginning, the Project contemplated eight of a whole raft of urgent measures aimed at off-setting the immedi-
actions on the ground, each with a specific aim, and a further three, ate effects of the mine spill.
defined in a more open fashion, aimed at monitoring, research and But despite all this, Doñana 2005 is far more than a response to
dissemination. It is the open natured profile that the legislator the mine spill. In fact, pressure was only applied in action number 8
designed for these three latter actions that has made it possible to (Control and sealing off of the Doñana National Park Marshes),
redefine the initial philosophy and endow it with a scientific and implemented urgently in the days following the spill, with a view to
social base that guarantees that the actions undertaken will build a preventing the contaminated waters of the Guadiamar River from
project that will provide a future, rather than just fulfil a mandate. entering the National Park. It is true that the dramatic consequences
Regenerating the water system and resources of Doñana has of the spill from the Aznalcollar Mines reservoir aroused a sense of
been a pressing requirement for over twenty years but, after a series solidarity and a determination to overcome not only the immediate
of frustrated attempts, suffering from the defect of not considering problems caused by the spill, but also the other, underlying problems
that were continually present, but which had nothing to do with the
* Coordinador del Proyecto Doñana 2005, durante el período 1999-2004. mines. These problems were, to a certain extent, like injuries that

363
 The Doñana 2005 Project turned into something that went far beyond a
response to a mining spill. The dramatic consequences of the bursting of
the Aznalcollar mine reservoirs aroused an unusually fierce and wide-
spread sense of solidarity and a determination to overcome the problems,
triggering the start of a profound process of discussion and thought about
our responsibility to Doñana. A real window looking out over the future.
Photograph by José María Pérez de Ayala.

gradually harmed the water system of the marshes, which is, in turn, the banks of the Arroyo, to return it to its natural state and appear-
the source of life for the National Park. But the actions aimed at ance.It is,however,extremely difficult to define such a laborious proj-
regenerating the water system of this space, the substance, were ect in s few words, a project in which several years of debate have
already making their appearance in the collective conscience of the been invested and in which the broadest possible consensus has
people, but they only took shape in this moment of disaster. been built among scientists, local authorities, trade unions, conserva-
In broad outlines, the aim of Doñana 2005 is to recover the nat- tionists, farmers' associations, etc. Action number 1 (Restoration of
ural conditions and state of a system that has been profoundly affect- the Soto Grande and Soto Chico streams and the Laguna de los
ed by man; to free the Mashes of the excessive pressures that were Reyes stream) is a less ambitious measure that was also aimed at pre-
brought to bear on them and to prevent future risks. Moreover, it is venting the sands from silting up the El Rocio marshes.This action
a project that focuses on surface waters, attempting to eliminate consisted of eliminating the drainage network from Los Mimbrales
these complex alterations from different sides and which cannot, farm and of building naturalised lagoons to allow flash flood waters
under any circumstance, be considered as unilateral responses. some room to expand onto a flood plain,and the sand to be deposit-
The most pressing aspect is probably the aspect dealing with ed there, together with a partial self-treatment of the waters.
controlling the silting up of the Marshes, as its effects are so visible. On the other hand, Doñana 2005 is also about recovering
The erosion, transport and sedimentation of sand are especially seri- streams and water courses that no longer function due to agricultur-
ous in the Arroyo del Partido basin, where restoration has been con- al intervention, or even due to neglect, such as El Brazo de la Torre,
ceived the other way around from what could be considered the log- that has been cut off and filled in. Life will be brought back to these
ical approach. First of all, work has been done on the lower basin of waterways and low yield farming land that had been taken from the
the streams to solve the most pressing problems, where sand Marshes and drained will be recovered, for instance in the area
deposits are already causing problems, and the work will progress known as Marisma Gallega and on Los Caracoles farm.
towards the head waters, taking a global view.The sedimentation fan Another aspect of the project is designed to solve the problem
will be transferred to the flood plain and the risk of flooding will be of water pollution that has progressively intensified with the increase
reduced in farming areas by reinforcing the wall and by building oth- in farming activity. In this sense, a waste water treatment plant has
ers. This action also encompasses an environmental restoration of been built in El Rocio, which is supported by a Guadalquivir Water

364
Board plan to build treatment plants throughout the basin by 2007. Marshes, they found a vast potential for farming, to such an extent
But none of this would make sense if these measures were not that they aimed to turn it into a second California.The result of this,
accompanied by an agricultural education policy.The Doñana 2005 the Almonte-Marismas Plan, in the long term, meant bringing exces-
research programme includes a study of this issue, which will deter- sive pressure to bear on the aquifer, including diverting water cours-
mine which treatments are really harmful to the marsh's water sys- es and draining marshy areas.
tem and what kind of sustainable farming we should be moving The past, always the past… But now is not the time to cry over
towards. spilt milk, as each age works in accordance with a given culture and
As a result of implementing the project, Doñana 2005 has at that time, there was nothing to suggest the consequences of their
brought direct benefits for the National Park, as the expropriated actions.Now,thanks to advancing our knowledge,we know that sub-
lands have been included in the protected area, by the decision of the terranean waters, like any other waters, are not an inexhaustible
Council of Ministers, which has increased their area by over 7%, from resource. Now it is time to spread the word and raise public aware-
50,720 hectares to 54,251 hectares. ness of their inestimable worth.
Finally, Doñana 2005 offers the legacy of a major scientific contri- Experience has shown us that this is the start, now we under-
bution.The project has laid the foundations for a new working phi- stand that there will be a new Doñana project, or Doñana 2010 plan
losophy based on a continued dialogue and an openness to sugges- that will address the following operations, to continue the work
tions and new ideas. Research, which has also raised new concerns, started by the first project.This plan will also take on board the mon-
is bearing fruit every day, pushing back the frontiers of our knowl- itoring and research plans that are currently in course, as for moni-
edge of the ecosystem significantly from an inter-disciplinary point of toring actions to be efficient, they have to be given continuity beyond
view. For example, a micro-topographic map of the Doñana National 2005, especially the monitoring plans concerned with water quality.
Park marshes has been drawn up, for the first time. This mapping, It would also be desirable to continue the work in the area of farm-
together with the different advanced models of the hydro-dynamics ing to strike the right balance, with the support of the sectors
of the Marshes, will act as tools that will lay the foundations for man- involved, between man, as an exploiter of nature, and Mother Nature
agement work in the National Park and its surroundings. herself.
International Meetings of Experts on regenerating the water system Doñana 2005 has grown out of research and the advancement
and resources, a presence in international forums, the continuing and of knowledge, and it is science that has opened man's eyes over the
constant work of a Scientific Committee, over ten associated centuries to the error of his ways, or to the good of his actions.And
research projects, etc. all provide a wealth of results and they are we should not forget that progress consists basically of knowing how
offering us a glimpse of the path to follow, the models we wish to to predict the effect of our initiatives, measuring their effect in time
move towards with a certain margin of prediction, the ecosystem and space, in order to guarantee a worthy existence, which, looking
that we all desire and that today's science can predict. at the Marshes, could be translated into:Water for all,Water for life.
The deadline for the work undertaken was 2005, but, as progress
was made, it was seen that all this effort should only represent the
first step for other projects that face new challenges. Doñana 2005
has been stretched as far as its guidelines would allow, but there is
still much to be done in light of the problems of water pollution, the
lack of a delimitation plan or the inappropriate use of the subter-
ranean waters.
We have often thought about the need to study the complete
water cycle; i.e., the correlation between surface and subterranean
waters. Although there are occasional problems, the subterranean
waters demand a plan of action, taking a global view and an integral
approach, also reinforced by an education policy, because the prob-
lem is basically one of education. The local population often thinks The legacy left by Doñana 2005 is a major scientific contribution. The pro-
ject has created a new working philosophy based on continued dialogue
that subterranean waters are a limitless source.This thought maybe
and an openness to suggestions and new ideas. Research, which has also
motivated more by the studies on agricultural development conduct- raised new concerns, has born fruit, as our knowledge of the ecosystem
has been significantly enhanced from an inter-disciplinary point of view.
ed by the World Bank in the fifties than by any real abundance of Photograph by Antonio Sabater.

water to keep Doñana alive. In the Guadalquivir Valley and the

365
The Authors

FRANCISCO GARCÍA NOVO

Born in Madrid (1943). He studied Bs. Sc. on Biology at the Universidad Complutense of Madrid, where he was awarded a Ph. D
degree in Ecology on 1968. Post doctoral specialization 1968-70 at the Estaçao de Melhoramento de Plantas (Elvas, Portugal) and
Botany Department,The University of St Andrews (UK). He joined the staff of the University of Seville in 1970, where he was appoint-
ed Professor of Ecology in 1976. He belongs to the Faculty of Biology and is Scientific Director of the Estación de Ecología Acuática.
His fields of interest have been the ecology of vegetation and the conservation biology. He focused research activities on the rela-
tionship of plants and their environment (plant-water relationships, photosynthesis, growth and structure of plants and vegetation),
working in the Mediterranean basin and in South America countries. His studies on long-term succession led him to investigate the
ecological story of vegetation and the effects of human exploitation on ecosystems. He has devoted a particular attention to sand dune
areas, and to the communities living in them. He has been active in the area of environmental studies (new methods of impact evalu-
ation, sensitivity and vulnerability of ecosystems, biodiversity studies on terrestrial and aquatic environments), and conservation and
restoration activities.
He carried out many of his studies in Andalusia (Spain) and in particular, in Doñana area, contributing to its description, preserva-
tion and present restoration initiatives. He was member of the International Committee of Experts that authored the Dictamen of the
Sustainable Development Plan for Doñana in 1992.
He has authored 320 publications, 107 of which dealing with Doñana. For several years he belonged to Spanish MaB Committee.
He belongs to the Spanish National Academy of Science, to the Academy of Sciences of Seville, and to several Conservation and
Environmental institutions.
He has been awarded the Prize Rey Jaime I for the Environment, the Cross of Alfonso X el Sabio, the Medal of the University of
Bari. He has been named International Commissioner of the Tortuguero National Park of Costa Rica.
Member of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Commission.

CIPRIANO MARÍN CABRERA

Born in Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1952). He studied Mathematics at the Universidad de La Laguna. He has developed his profession-
al activity in the fields of sustainable development, renewable energies and environmental management.
Taking into account only his activity in fields related to Doñana and the subjects treated in this book, it has to be emphasized his
role of co-ordinator and promoter of "The Salt Route", an European Project aiming at restoration and valorisation of coastal salt pan
landscapes. He has participated in international projects such as Med-Wet and, more recently, Water Strategy Man (Developing
Strategies for Regulating and Managing Water Resources and Demand in Water Deficient Regions). He has been the Commissary of
the International Contest of Ideas "Parque Dunar" focused on the coastal area of Doñana. Among his several international missions,
his role of member of the UNESCO's Committee of Experts that achieved the defence and protection of the big lagoon complex and
whale sanctuary of "El Vizcaíno" (Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site), in Baja California (Mexico), stands out.
He has been co-director of the first eco-development project under the auspices of UNESCO (La Gomera Ecoplan) and has
directed the scientific reports that lead to the declaration of the islands of Minorca, Lanzarote, La Palma and El Hierro as UNESCO-
MaB Biosphere Reserves.
He is author or co-author of 29 books and 19 chapters in joint publications, mostly covering aspects of sustainable development.
He has also been editor and coordinator of 14 monographic publications, co-editor of the "International Journal of Island Affairs" and,
in 1975, co-founded "Alfalfa", the first ecologist magazine of Spain.
He has been Secretary-general of the 1st World Conference on Sustainable Tourism (1995) and of the 1st European Conference
on Sustainable Island Development (1997), as well as co-ordinator of other 9 international conferences. He has been, among others,
Vice Secretary-general of the International Scientific Council for Island Development and he is Secretary-general of the Unesco Centre
of the Canary Islands.
Member of the Doñana 2005 Scientific Commission.
 This book has been possible thanks to people who only understood one way of
doing things for Doñana, by simply doing them well and with enthusiasm.
That is what the authors were commissioned to do by
Félix Manuel Pérez Miyares.
That is how we have done it and, hence, we understand that the mission
has been accomplished.
Seville - November, 2005.

367

View publication stats