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Trishear fault-propagation folding

Eric A. Erslev
Department of Earth Resources, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523

ABSTRACT kink-band kinematics used for fault-bend folds

Previous models of fault-propagation folding used kink-band geometries to approximate to model fault-propagation folds above thrust
folding in front of propagating thrusts. However, kink-band kinematics cannot replicate the ramps (Fig. 1 A). If bed thickness remains con-
curved fold surfaces and complex strain patterns in natural and experimental fault-propagation stant, the ramp angle uniquely determines the
folds, which also occur in front of steeper reverse and normal faults. Fault-propagation fold interlimb angle and thus the shape of the anti-
hinges tighten and converge downward, forming a triangular zone of penetrative deformation cline, which merely grows in size with increased
focused on the tip of the propagating fault. The downward convergence of deformation in displacement (Suppe, 1985). Jamison (1987)
fault-propagation folds can be modeled as triangular shear zones. "Trishear," here defined as showed that the interlimb angle can be varied
distributed, strain-compatible shear in a triangular (in profile) shear zone, provides an alternate for a given ramp angle if bed thickness in the
kinematic model for fault-propagation folds. Trishear is analogous to simple shear in a tabular steep limb is not held constant. Mitra (1990)
shear zone except that area balance in a triangular shear zone requires curved displacement suggested that bulk heterogeneous thickening of
oblique to the fault slip direction. Incremental computer models of trishear folding can replicate adjacent beds can account for progressive tight-
many geometric features of fault-propagation folds, including variably curved fold hinges, ening of interlimb angles in natural and experi-
downward-tightening fold surfaces, heterogeneous strains, and multiple fault-propagation mental fault-propagation folds.
trajectories. These geometric models assume that fault-
propagation folding can be accurately modeled
INTRODUCTION face." By this definition, the geometry in Figure using kinematics based on kink-band migration.
The linkage between faulting and folding 1A, where a ramp propagates upward from a Experimental analog studies of fault-propaga-
provides the key to balanced models of fold and thrust flat, represents just one of many possible tion folding invariably produce complex fold
thrust belts. Seismic and well data show that fault-propagation folds. Other fault-propagation surfaces with both curved and angular hinges
many folds result from changes in the dip of fold geometries include folds above more planar (Fig. 1, B, C, and D), which progressively
underlying faults (fault-bend folds; Suppe, 1983) thrust, reverse, and even normal faults. Fried- tighten with increased slip. Natural fault-propa-
or the progressive transfer of fault slip to fold man et al. (1980; Fig. 1C) and Withjack et al. gation folds also show combinations of curved
displacement (fault-propagation and detachment (1990; Fig. ID) described folds developing over and angular hinges (Berg, 1976; Reches, 1978;
folds; Suppe and Medwedeff, 1984; Jamison, reverse and normal faults as "forced folds." This Stone, 1985; Cook, 1988; Brown, 1988; Rogers,
1987). The geometry of fault-bend folding, first term unnecessarily mixes stress and strain termi- 1989). Whereas kink-band models predict uni-
described by Rich (1934) and quantified by nology, considering that these folds are fully form bed dips and homogeneous deformation in
Suppe (1983), is the basis of current balancing described as fault-propagation folds. Herein, the the steep fold limb, beds in the steep limb of
methods used for forward and backward model- definition of fault-propagation folds given by both natural and experimental folds are not uni-
ing of orogenic belts. Suppe (1985) will be used in its broadest mean- form in dip. They progressively rotate toward
Suppe (1985) defined fault-propagation folds ing to describe folds developing in front of any the fault's orientation with depth and proximity
as folds that "represent deformation that takes propagating fault. to the fault. Heterogeneous deformation is char-
place just in front of the propagating fault sur- Suppe and Medwedeff (1984) adapted the acteristic of the steep limb of fault-propagation
folds, with simultaneous bed elongation in
tightly folded beds near the fault and bed short-
A ening on minor thrusts and folds in overlying
beds (Reches, 1978; Brown, 1988; Rogers,
1989; Erslev, 1990).
In Laramide fault-propagation folds of the
central Rocky Mountains, broad zones of
folding at higher structural levels constrict
downward into narrow fault zones separating
basement blocks with minimal penetrative
deformation (Stone, 1985; Erslev, 1986, 1990;
Cook, 1988; Erslev et al., 1988; Mitra et al.,
1988; Rogers, 1989). Both angular, particularly
at synclinal hinges, and curved fold surfaces
tighten downward toward the fault. The axial
planes of the folds converge downward toward
the basement-cover interface where fault zones,
commonly less than 50 m wide, abruptly cut the
basement-cover interface.
The zone of folding in these fault-propagation
folds is triangular in cross section, the concen-
Figure 1. Models of fault-propagation folds. A: Geometric kink-band model (Suppe and Med- trated shear in faults spreading upward into the
wedeff, 1984). B, C, D: Analog experimental models of folds above thrust (B; Chester et al., distributed shear in overlying folds. The triangu-
1988), reverse (C; Friedman et al., 1980), and normal (O; Withjack et al., 1990) faults. lar geometry of the zone of deformation suggests

GEOLOGY, v. 19, p. 617-620, June 1991 617

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that "trishear," here defined as distributed, balanced in cross section, any combination of ing that simple shear is actually a subset of
strain-compatible shear in a triangular (in pro- trishear increments is also area balanced. TRI- trishear.
file) shear zone, may provide an alternative SHEAR minimizes polygon width for accuracy O n e increment of homogeneous trishear uni-
kinematic model for fault-propagation folding. and uses multiple increments ( > 2 0 ) of slip to formly rotates each tie line spanning a shear
This paper presents this new kinematic hypothe- approximate continuous deformation. The tri- zone (Figs. 2 and 3), forming a single, inclined
sis for fault-propagation folds and explores the shear algorithm gives simple shear in tabular tie line. Increased deformation in the shear zone
consequences of distributed shear in triangular shear zones with a zero apex angle, demonstrat- center can be approximated by heterogeneous
shear zones.

ANALYTICAL MODELS
A. Hanging-Wall Triangular Shear Zone
OF TRIANGULAR SHEAR-
ZONE FOLDING
Displacements within a triangular shear zone
can be approximated by defining a set of initially
fault-normal tie lines between the sides of a
plane-strain shear zone (Fig. 2). An increment of
deformation will rotate these tie lines; those
closer to the fault rotate more because the shear
zone narrows toward the fault. Individual parti- B. Footwall Triangular Shear Zone
cle trajectories can be calculated by requiring
each particle to remain on its tie line for a given
increment of deformation. If the shear zone is
asymmetrically distributed to either the hanging
wall (Fig. 2A) or the footwall (Fig. 2B), a
change in volume must occur in the triangular
shear zone. This paper will focus on symmetric
triangular shear zones (Fig. 2C), with equal in-
volvement of the hanging wall and footwall, be-
C. Symmetric Triangular Shear Zone
cause symmetric shear zones do not require
volume flux. For symmetric shear zones, each
polygon defined by adjacent tie lines and the
connecting sides of the shear zone can be proven Equal
to remain of equal volume during displacement
by comparing the geometry of initial and de- Volume
formed polygons or by using the Gauss triangle
formulae.
Figure 2. Geometric end members of triangular shear-zone folding.
If all motion trajectories are assumed to paral-
lel fault slip, distributed simple shear can move
each particle from an initial tie line (Fig. 3A) to
a deformed tie line (Fig. 3B). Unfortunately, this
A. Initial Geometry
results in volume imbalance, because simple
shear expands the base of the polygons while
contracting the top of the polygons. To maintain
volume balance over the entire triangular shear
zone, a component of motion oblique to the
fault must bring material from the hanging-wall
side to the footwall side of the shear zone (Fig. INITIAL AREA
3C). This variant on simple shear is the trishear
defined above.
The trishear hypothesis was tested by imple-
menting trishear geometry in a computer pro- B. Simple Shear C. Trishear
gram. The T R I S H E A R program generates a
layered stratigraphy of pixels and then rotates
the layers so the fault is horizontal and ends at
the origin, which is also the apex of the triangu-
lar shear zone. The program incrementally de-
forms the pixels according to their position
relative to the triangular shear zone. Trishear
particle trajectories can be closely approximated
for each increment of motion by calculating the
volume of a polygon below an initial point (Fig.
3A) and calculating the geometry of the de- DEFORMED AREA > INITIAL AREA DEFORMED AREA = INITIAL AREA
formed polygon (Fig. 3C) with the same vol- Figure 3. Simple shear and trishear approximations of homogeneous shear in triangular shear
ume. Because each increment of trishear is area zones.

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trishear, which is analogous to heterogeneous angle. Constant shear-zone apex angles are used homogeneous trishear always forms curved fold
simple shear, where shear strain increases to- herein with the acknowledgment that triangular surfaces. Second, a line traversing a homogene-
ward the shear-zone center (Ramsay and Gra- shear zones may thin with time as resistant rocks ous trishear zone at an oblique angle deforms
ham, 1970). In heterogeneous trishear, tie-line impinge on the shear zone. heterogeneously, with greater rotations on line
segments in the center of the shear zone rotate The apex position of the triangular shear zone segments closer to the shear-zone apex. The only
more than those on the shear-zone margins. This can be fixed with respect to either the footwall initial line in a trishear zone that remains linear
can be modeled by subdividing each increment or the hanging wall. If the triangular shear zone is a line normal to the fault. This line remains
of trishear into a series of trishear stages with pro- is fixed with the footwall, the synclinal upturn linear only for the first increment of deforma-
gressively narrowing apex angles. The shear-zone is fixed and progressive deformation brings tion, after which it is no longer normal to the
center is deformed by all stages of deformation, hanging-wall "basement" through the anticlinal fault. Third, progressive increments of motion
whereas the shear-zone rim is deformed by only hinge into the shear zone, causing "basement" cause strain gradients by moving undeformed
the Erst stage of each deformation increment. folding. If the triangular shear zone is fixed with sections of hanging wall into the shear zone (for
Fold models in Figure 4 locate the apex of the the hanging wall, the anticlinal hinge is fixed and footwall-fixed trishear) or moving deformed sec-
triangular shear zone at the contact between hanging-wall "basement" will not enter the tri- tions of the footwall out of the shear zone (for
faulted massive rocks (e.g., resistant basement angular shear zone and thus will not be penetra- hanging-wall-fixed trishear).
rocks of Laramide uplifts or massive carbonate tively deformed. Bed strains predicted by TRISHEAR are very
rocks of thrust belts) and overlying layered Cross sections of TRISHEAR-generated complex. Beds adjacent to the anticlinal hinge
strata. In these models the triangle opens up- fault-propagation fold surfaces (Fig. 4) include are commonly thinned and elongated, particu-
ward, although the models can be viewed angular to gently curved geometries, with bed larly for higher angle faulting, due to material
upside-down to give a downward-opening tri- curvature resulting from three effects. First, in- flux into the footwall. Beds near the synclinal
hinge are thickened and shortened, particularly
Heterogeneous Trishear during low-angle thrusting, which may also
Homogeneous Trishear
shorten strata in the anticlinal hinge. Fixed fold
Footwall-Fixed Hanging-Wall-Fixed Footwall-Fixed Hanging-Wall-Fixed
hinges are more angular and intensely strained
than those that migrate through the structure.
Several of the trishear models in Figure 4
provide better approximations of experimental
(Fig. 1, B, C, and D ) and natural examples of
fault-propagation folding than previous kink-
band models. Specifically, folds resulting from
footwall-fixed trishear in front of thrust faults
are closely analogous to the thrust geometry in
Figure IB. Folds resulting from hanging-wall-
fixed, heterogeneous trishear in front of reverse
and normal faults are very similar to the geome-
tries in Figure 1 (C and D).
The transition from footwall-fixed trishear in
thrust models to hanging-wall-fixed trishear in
higher angle fault models may be controlled by
the strength of the fault wedge. Narrow thrust
wedges are weaker and more likely to be inter-
nally deformed, allowing the triangular shear
zone to remain fixed with respect to the foot-
Figure 4. TRISHEAR-generated, homogeneous and heterogeneous fault-propagation folding wall. In higher angle basement wedges at Rat-
above (A) thrust (30° dip, 60° apex angle), (B) reverse (60° dip, 60° apex angle), and (C) normal tlesnake Mountain (Erslev, 1990; 83° bounding
(60° dip, 40° apex angle) faults. normal fault, no measurable basement folding)
and Forellen Peak (Rogers, 1989; 64° bounding
reverse fault, 11° of basement folding) anticlines
A. Anticlinal Stretching B. Synclinal Crowding in Wyoming, hanging-wall-fixed trishear pre-
dominates because the fault wedges are too
strong to allow major penetrative deformation.
Fault-wedge strength may control the continu-
ous gradation between footwall-fixed trishear
folds in front of low-angle thrusts and hanging-
wall-fixed trishear folds above near-vertical
faults. Structures with moderate fault-wedge
strengths may combine footwall-fixed and hang-
ing-wall-fixed trishear to form intermediate fold
geometries.

APPLICATIONS OF
TRISHEAR FOLDING
Figure 5. Fault-propagation trajectories suggested by homogeneous, footwall-fixed trishear in The TRISHEAR program assumes a ductile
front of thrust faults (45° dip, 60°apex angle). rheology within the triangular shear zone that is

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most analogous to conditions in ductile meta- gation folds. However, more detailed analyses of G.M., 1988, Comparison of mesoscopic and mi-
morphic rocks. Footwall-fixed trishear will natural fault-propagation folds are needed to test croscopic deformation styles in the Idaho-
Wyoming thrust belt and the Rocky Mountain
cause the anticlinal hinge to roll back, similar to the trishear hypothesis. With further testing and
foreland, in Schmidt, C.J., and Perry, W.J., Jr.,
the hinge migration folding proposed by Beutner refinement, trishear may provide an important eds., Interaction of the Rocky Mountain foreland
and Diegel (1985) on the basis of rotated fibers analytical tool for the prediction and modeling and the Cordilleran thrust belt: Geological So-
in pressure shadows from asymmetrical folds of of fault-propagation folds. ciety of America Memoir 171, p. 119-141.
the Martinsburg Slate. Recent investigations in Mitra, S., 1990, Fault-propagation folds: Geometry,
kinematic evolution, and hydrocarbon traps:
the Helvetic nappes of Switzerland have deter-
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ometries come very close to replicating the the Rocky Mountain foreland, in Schmidt, C.J., Teton Range, Wyoming [M.S. thesis]: Fort Col-
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maximum shear parallels the fault trace, bisect- Mountain foreland uplifts: Geology, v. 14, Suppe, J., 1983, Geometry and kinematics of
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1990, Heterogeneous Laramide deformation in v. 283, p. 684-721.
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zone of maximum extension steepens upward in the Rattlesnake Mountain anticline, Cody, 1985, Principles of structural geology: Engle-
Wyoming, in Roberts, S., ed., Geologic field wood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 537 p.
the ductile strata (Fig. 5A), giving a listric
tours of western Wyoming and parts of adjacent Suppe, J., and Medwedeff, D.A., 1984, Fault-
geometry characteristic of many thrust and re- Idaho, Montana and Utah: Wyoming Public In- propagation folding: Geological Society of Amer-
verse faults. formation Circular 29, p. 141-150. ica Abstracts with Programs, v. 16, p. 670.
Trishear in front of thrust faults causes rela- Erslev, E.A., Rogers, J., and Harvey, M., 1988, The Withjack, M.O., Olson, J., and Peterson, E., 1990,
northeastern Front Range revisited: Compression Experimental models of extensional forced folds:
tively minor extension in the anticline relative to and crustal wedging in a classic locality for verti- American Association of Petroleum Geologists
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many thrust belts and in experiments. Trishear Centennial meeting: Golden, Colorado School of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Mines Professional Contribution 12, p. 141-150. Supported by the Donors of the Petroleum Re-
of less ductile rocks, however, may result in ex-
Friedman, M., Hugman, R.H.H., and Handin, J., search Fund, administered by the American Chemical
cess material in the syncline. This extra material 1980, Experimental folding of rocks under con- Society. I thank Donald Stone, James L. Rogers,
can be dispersed by back-thrusting up the steep fining pressure, Part VIII—Forced folding of un- Mark Rowan, Philip Molzer, and David Ward for
limb of the fold or by thrusting on flats parallel- consolidated sand and of lubricated layers of important insights, and Donald L. Blackstone, Jr.,
ing footwall bedding (Fig. 5B). A combination limestone and sandstone: Geological Society of Donald G. Cook, Nicholas B. Woodward, and
America Bulletin, v. 91, p. 307-312. J. Casey Moore for helpful reviews.
of these modes of fault propagation may result
Jamison, W.R., 1987, Geometric analysis of fold de-
in the triangle zones and the ramp-flat geome- velopment in overthrust terranes: Journal of Manuscript received October 22, 1990
tries of many thrust belts. Structural Geology, v. 9, p. 207-220. Revised manuscript received January 7, 1991
Mitra, G„ Hull, J.M., Yonkee, W.A., and Protzman, Manuscript accepted January 14, 1991
Trishear provides a strain-compatible mecha-
nism for linking the concentrated simple shear of
narrow fault zones with the distributed deforma-
tion of fault-propagation folds. Initial trishear
Reviewer's comment
models of fault-propagation folding above
thrust, reverse, and normal faults closely approx- Provides a valuable conceptual tool for understanding fault-propagation folding.
imate the complex fold surfaces and associated J. Casey Moore
strains of natural and experimental fault-propa-

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Geology

Trishear fault-propagation folding

Eric A. Erslev

Geology 1991;19;617-620
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0617:TFPF>2.3.CO;2

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