Chapter Two: Precambrian geology of Ethiopia

2.1. Stratigraphy
2.2. Intrusive rocks
2.3. Geodynamic evolution EAO
2.4. The Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within
the framework of EAO

1
 2. Survey of the stratigraphy of Ethiopia

2.1. Stratigraphy of The Precambrian

geology of Ethiopia
• Metamorphic terrain of Ethiopia
includes
• Stratified metamorphic
rocks
• Intrusive rocks
Stratified metamorphic rocks are
exposed in
• southern
• northern
• western and
• eastern parts of the country
where the Phanerozoic/younger rocks
are either eroded or not deposited.
 Stratigraphy of Meta…
• In southern Ethiopia
– Mostly high and low grade rocks
– The High Grade rocks are known to
us Yabello Gneiss, Burji gneiss, Konso
group and Wadera Group and
comprise Medium to High Grade
Ortho and Para Gneisses, some
migmatites; intensely folded and
shortened
– the low Grade rocks, on the other
hand are known to as Adola Group
which includes: low grade
metavolcanics and metasediments
together with belts of mafic and
Unltramafic rocks.
• In Western Ethiopia
– High and low grade rocks which
encompass
– Gneisses and schists and migmatites
of Baro Group and low grade rocks of
Birbir Group (metasediments,
metavolcanics and belts of mafic and
ultramafic rocks)
 Meta.. Stra.. Cont’
In Northern Ethiopia
– Mainly low grade rocks which Include
• Tsalite Metavolvanics,
• Tambian Metasediments,
• Shiraro metasediments,
• Didikama Formation and
• Mathos Metasediments
all of which are low to very low grade
rocks and simply deformed
• North western Ethiopia around
humera:
– undifferentiated High Grade rocks
• In Eastern Ethiopia
– High and low grade rocks
 Cont…….
• Kazmin et al. (1978) have divided the Precambrian basement of
Ethiopia in to Upper, Middle and Lower Complexes on the basis
of the grade of metamorphism.
• The low grade rocks belonging to Upper Complex and high grade
to Lower Complex and medium to Middle Complex.
• They also considered the Upper Complex rocks to be Late
Proterozoic in age and Middle and Lower Complexes to be
Middle and Early Proterozoic (or Late Archean).
 Stratigraphy cont’
This classification is based on:
1. Structural complexity (“decrease in structural complexities from
Lower to upper complex);
2. Metamorphic grade (decrease in grade of metamorphism from
Lower to Upper complex);
3. Similarities to the geology of neighbouring countries (mozambique
Belt rocks of Kenya and Tanzania in the south, and Arabian Nubian
Shield rocks in the north); and
4. Unreliable isotopic age dating (Sr-Rb, K-Ar methods (which are
mobile/unstable in different P-T metamorphic conditions)

But recent studies on the basis of the geochronological and isotopic

data have suggested that the Precambrian basement rocks are
dominantly Neoproterozoic in age and have experienced different
grades of metamorphism.
Therefore, the three fold stratigraphic classification established
for Ethiopian Precambrian is no longer valid and needs
revision.
 2.1.2. Intrusive igneous rocks in the Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia
A) Classification:
Intrusive rocks in Ethiopian Precambrian are not considered as part of
stratified sequence. They are generally classified on the bases of:
• Their Composition and
• Timing of Intrusion with respect to tectonic activity
A1. Comositional classification:
• Gabbros (most mafic),
• Diorite,
• Granodiorite,
• Tonalite and
• Granite (Most Felsic/differntiated)
A2 Structural Classification:
• Pre-tectonic,
• Syn-tectonic and
• Post-tectonic with respect to major tectonic activities
Further classifications were also made possible on the basis of
geochemistry
Alkaline, transitional, Calc-alkaline, thoillitic
 2.3 Geodynamic evolution EAO
How did EAO Evoloved?

Plate tectonic approach explain Geodynamic evolution EAO.

• Late 1970’s the plate tectonic theories and concepts were
applied to explain the driving mechanisms of major mountain
building (organic) belts of the world.
• This was also applied to explain the geodynamic evolution of
the Arabian Nubian Shield and the Mozambique orogenic
belt.
 Development of the Plate tectonic Concept in the Arabian Nubian Shield

The recognition the following lithological association and

geochmeical signitures in the ANS: i.e.
– linear belts of ophiolites (mafic and ultramafic rocks) with pillowed
metabasalts
– having geochemical characteristics similar to modern back-arc basin
(BAB) basalt (enriched Light Ion Lithophil elements, LILE (Sr, Rb, Br,
K, Th, U)
– with typical Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt (MORB) high field strength
elements (Ti, Zr, Y, Cr) concentration.
– Calc-alkaline geochemical characteristics (enriched LILE and depleted
HFSE) of the metavolcanics and
– Clac-alkaline geochemical characteristics of the associated plutonic
rocks in the Arabian Nubian Shield

compared well with lithological association and geochemical

characteristics of rocks developed in modern subduction related,
destructive plate margin (e.g. intra-oceanic island arcs in the SW
pacific and the western margin of northern America).
• This led researchers in the NE Africa and Arabia to interpret that the
crust of ANS is developed by plate tectonic processes similar to
 Plate tectonic process in ANS cont..
The processes involved
• ocean floor spreading,
• intra-oceanic island arc and
back arc basin
developments,
• closure of the basins, and
• lateral crustal accretion.
• ophiolites were abducted
during the closure and
mark suture zones between
arc-arc, arc-back arc basin
or arc-continental collision
zones.
 Plate tectonic process in ANS cont..
• In much of Arabia and most parts of the shield , four
stage of episodic contineum of magmatism and arc
development were recoded (Gass, 1981) within the time
span ranging from ? 1200 to 500 Ma.
• These stages of developments were collectively termed
the Pan-African Orogeny; expanding the original
definition Pan-African age limit of Kennedy (1964)
from 500+/- 100 to 900 +/- 100.
• The four stages of crustal development (according to
Gass, 1981) in the Arabain Nubian Shield are (see Fig
below):
 Geodynamic Evolution, Plate tectonic concept

• The lower Pan African (?

1200 Ma to 1000 Ma)
• The Middle Pan-African
( 1000 Ma- 600 Ma)
• The Upper Pan-African
(600-500 Ma) and
• The Post Pan-African (Post
500 Ma)
 Geodynamic evolution, Plate tectonic, ANS

These stages are distinctly separated by

• major break in structure,
• volcanic geochemistry and metamorphic grade.
 The volcanic rocks and associated intrusives have evolved

from low- K basalts and basaltic andesites together with more mafic
intrusives in the Lower Pan-African through calc-alkaline andesites
and subordinate decites and rhyolites together with intermediate
plutonic rocks in the Middle Pan African to more evolved, felsic
volcanics rocks together with felsic intrusive rocks during the Upper
and Post Pan-African times.
 Geodynamic evolution, ANS Cont..

The inferred tectonic settings for the rock associations corresponding to the
stages were;
• development or formation of numerous intra-ocianic island arcs,
• lateral accretion of arcs to form a cratonized ANS at later stages

• In other words, the evolution stared from the formation numerous

immature intra-oceanic island arc at (Lower pan-African) through Mature
Intra-oceanic island Arcs (which attained micro-continental sizes) in
(Middle Pan-African) to volcanic arc developed in the continental margin
similar to the Andean type in (Upper Pan African)
 Geodynamic evolution, ANS cont..

• In the Nubian side of the Arabian Nubian shield, similar

ophiolite belts which were recognized in the far south
as southern Ethiopia
• This together with similarities in volcanic rocks
geochemistry in the Nubian side of the shield
encouraged researchers to accept similar model
predicted for the Arabian side
• Although the lower age limit is not well constrained
(e.g. 1200, Gass, 1981), reliable age dating methods
revealed that crustal growth in the Arabian Nubian
shield is bracketed between 900-500 Ma. (Stern, 1994)
 Development of plate tectonic Concept in the
Mozambique Orogenic Belt
• Although low-grade volcanosedimnentray rocks similar to those
described form the ANS are absent in the Mozambique orogenic
belt;Traces of mafic -ultramafic rocks are described form the
northern parts of the MB (e.g. in Kenya and Tanzania),
• Structural studies in the belt shows that it is dominated by
thrust tectonics which stacked masses of crustal material
implicating horizontal compressional regim;
• Intrusive rocks in the belt show partly calc-alkaline geochemical
signature and partly collision related setting,
• Metamorphic pattern in the belt resembles root zone of
Phanerzoic continent-continent collisional zone
• Reliable age dating methods (U-Pb isotopic dating from zircon)
showed that granulite facies metamorphism occurred late in
orogenic history (between 750-500 Ma). This falls within the age
range of the evolution of ANS in contrary to the previous
thoughts that relate the granulite facies metamorphism to
Archaean cratonic mass in Africa.
 Plate tectonic concpet in MB cont..
• These and other evidence suggested that the MB rocks are
developed in a continent-continent collisional setting
similar to the Himalayan mountain chain resulted due to the
collision between Indian and Asian during the Cainozoic.
• This implies that the high grade rocks of MB are the result
continent -continent collision between the Congo/Tanzanian
Craton in the west and Asiatic craton in the east
• These cratons correspond to East and west Gondwanaland
(Fig. 5). During the continent-continent collision, extensive
shortening produced crustal stacking by thrust faulting.
• This stacking in tern produced high grade, granulite facies
metamorphism at the root zone of the orgeney.
 The Kinship between MB and ANS

The two orogenic belts in eastern Africa

have much in common than
differences.
Differences:
• the grade of metamorphism (high in
MB and Low in ANS) and lack of
ophiolitic mass in the MB,
similarities include:
• structural continuity (N-S structural
Grain)
• geographic position in eastern Africa
• Contemporaneous development in the
bracket of Pan-African age (900-500
Ma)
• Rock geochemistry typical of
destructive plate margin
 Kinship between MB and ANS

• These and other similarities in the belts necessitated

the finding of true kinship between the two
important orogenic belts in eastern Africa.
• Considering the above ( Berhe,1990) termed the two
as MB and ANS in Eastern Africa,
• Stern (1994) coined the term East African Orogen
(EAO) to combine the two belts which produced the
present structural, stratigraphic and metamorphic
configuration of the Precambrian of eastern Africa.
 Kinship between MB and
ANS cont..
• Sedimentological
• volcanic rock geochemical data together with
• the presence of fragments of oceanic crust in EAO suggested
that evolution of the orogen began
1. rifting of a supper continent called Rodiana (900-850 Ma)
• The rifting and sea floor spreading led to
– the formation of Mozambique Ocean (Fig. 6a)
2 closure of the Mozambique Ocean under oblique NW-SE
converging continental masses.
oblique convergence gave rise to
– the development of island-arc, back-arc basins and
subsequently
– closure of the back-arc basins and lateral accretion in the
north at around 870-690 Ma and,
– continent-continent collision in the south at around 750-
650 Ma.
– Implies that EAO is a product of complete
Wilson Cycle
• This is followed by
– Crustal shortening and escape tectonics to north (640-550
Ma) along orogen parallel shear zones
– This produced fan shaped wide low grade rocks in the
north that wedges out to the south
 Kinship between ANS and MB cont..
• Thus, East African Orogen is a manifestation of a
complete Wilson cycle orogeny (starting from rifting
and ending with collision).
• The final stage of closure of Mozambique Ocean and
collision-accretion under oblique convergence has
initiated north ward expulsion of predominantly low-
grade rocks along orgen parallel shear zones; by what
is called escape tectonics (Stern, 1994, Fig. 6.). This
produced a fan shaped wide low-grade belt in north
that wedges out to the south hinging in the MB (Fig.
7).
 Kinship between MB and ANS cont..

• The Escape tectonics and N-ward expulsion is

accommodated by NE-SW extension that
produced NW-SE trending fracture patterns
with strike-slip movement (eg. The Najid
strike-slip fault of Saudi Arabia, The Surma
shear zone of SW ethiopia) and associated
extensional basins where post pan-African
clastic sedimentary deposits were
accumulated.
 2.4 The Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within the framework of EAO.

• The Precambrian geology of Ethiopia is situated at the frontier of

MB and ANS, hence is a key element in the understanding of the
EAO.
• Studies in that past shown that the Precambrian metamorphic
terraines of Ethiopia have identified:
• Extensive N-S (orogen parallel ) shear zones that are
commonly situated along the contacts between contrasting
stratigraphic packages, most notably along the boundaries
between low- and high-grade rocks or rocks with different rock
package with different geochemical characteristics
– Wadera shear zone, Bulbul shear zone, Kentich shear zone and others
in southern Ethiopia
– Tulu-Dimtu shear zone, Gizan Shear zone, Baruda shear zone and
others in western Ethiopia
– Zager shear zone, Meda-kemtse shear zone, Darotekli shear zone and
others in northern Ethiopia
 Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within the
Context of EAO geodynamic evolution
• The shear zones are commonly vertical or sub-vertical with
mylonitic fabric. Some of the shear zones are decorated by
sheared mafic ultramafic rocks (talc schist, serpentnite and
assocated altered ultramafic rocks). Kinamatic indicators in
the shear zones commonly indicate a strike-slip sense of
movements.
• Startigraphic, structural and to some extent, metamorphic
discontinuities across the shear zones.
• Occurrence of lences of high grade rocks in low-grade
terrane and visa-versa (e.g. Southern and western Ethiopia,
Fig. 3)
• Juxtaposition of different tectono-stratigraphic units with
unique stratigraphic, rock geochemistry and paleo-tectonic
environment
 Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia in the Context of EAO
geodynamic evolution
• Age dating of time marking granitoids using precise methods indicated
that some of the granitoids in northern Ethiopia are older than rocks in
southern Ethiopia (e.g. tonalitic gneiss of Yabello Group dated at 750
Ma (Kroner and Tekly, 1997) while, tonalitic and granodioritic
composite syn-tectonic intrusive in northern Ethiopia was dated at 800
Ma, (Tadesse et al . 2000)
• These and other data indicate that the Precambrian geology of Ethiopia
contains all the elements of EAO (ophiolites, arc-volcanics and
intrusive rocks (accreted arc and back arck basin complexes), high
grade rocks (collision related metamorphism), orogen parallel and
across orogen shear zones (structures of escape tectonic phase of EAO.
 cont..
The emerging data form the Precambrian geology of
Ethiopia shows that
• Stratigraphic disposition of the Precambrian geology of
Ethiopia is controlled by orogen parallel shear zones.
• Shear bounded tectonic blocks/terrains have unique
stratigraphic package that cannot be correlated across the
shear zones. This suggests that the stratigraphy of
Precambrian geology of Ethiopia is best treated in terms
of tectono-stratigraphic terrains as opposed to layer cake
geometry advocated in the previous works.
• Stratigraphic mismatch across the orogen parallel shear
zones suggests that most of the Precambrian tectonic
bounded terrans are allochtonous (displaced from its
original place to new position by strike slip movement;
(perhaps during escape tectonic phase of EAO).
 3. Paleozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins and rock Sequences of Ethiopia

• Orogenic cycle culminates with

mountain building and uplift
• Hence, Paleozoic sediments are
Products of Post-Pre-Cambrian (Post
EAO cycle) denudation
• Associated to the up-lift, there has
been tectonics of different magnitude.
• Sedimentary rocks in Ethiopia are in
one way or the other, are related to
the following controlling mechanisms:
– Intermountain sedimentary
basins, deposits in intermountain
lowlands controlled by
Precambrian structure
– Tectonic controlled basins
(regional/ local extensional basins)
and
– Sedimentary rocks related to
Volcanism and Tectonics
 3.1. Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
and basins of Ethiopia cont..
Sedimentary basins of Ethiopia
• Excluding thin Quaternary, unconsolidated sediment deposits
(e.g.those in the rift valley), Sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia are
mainly exposed in 5 distinct basins

These are:
1. The Ogaden Basin
3
2. Abbaya Basin
3. Mekelle Basin 2
4. Gambella Basin
4
5. Southern Rift Basin
5 1
 Sedimentary basins, the naming and link….
• Much of the rocks are pre-Teritiary Volcanism and
Tectonics.
• Therefore the identification of these basins is mainly based
on exposures in restricted localities that are
– either never covered by the volcanic rocks (e.g.
Ogaden)
– or cut by erosion after volcanism (e.g. Abbaya)
 Although concealed by younger strata, and disrupted by
subsequent tectonisim (ex. Rift tectonics)
Sedimentological and Paleontological evedence indicate
that some of the basins are interlinked in space and
time and hence share similar tectonic and
sedimentologoical history
 Sedimentary basin-Tectonic link..
• Ogaden basin, Abbay Basin and
Mekelle Basin are presumed to be
a result of continental rifting by
extension
 It is further inferred to be related
to the Break-up of Gondwanaland
in Late Paleozoic
 Sedimentray basin-Tectonic link
• Gambella Basin is also
interpreted as rift
related
• It forms the South
western Extension of
Cretaceous Central
African Rift System
– This basin is part of
Melut Basin of the
Sudan (currently Oil
bearing)
 Sedimentray Basins cont’..
• The Southern Ethiopia
Rift Basin includes
– The omo basin
– Lake Chew Bahir Basin
– And is the Continuation
of Turkana Graben in
northern Kenya
– Which was developed
during the Paleogin
 Sedimentary basin-Tectonic link…
• Outside of these five basins, other
sedimentray succession are restricted to small
unknown basins
– They commonly occupy paleo-topographic lows
– Some are controlled by Precambrian structures
and hence the basis are elongated parallel to the
Precambrian structural grain
• Examples of these are exposed in western Ethiopia,
southern Ethiopia, and central Ethiopia
 3.3. Sedimentary Succession of Ethiopia
Age Grouping of the sedimentary rocks

Criteria Used to classify

• Paleontological data (fossil)

• Polynological data (polyin grain dating)
• Indirect age dating method (dating
inter-beded, top and bottom volcanic
strata)
• Correlation on basis of Lithological
similarities
The sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia are
grossly grouped into four age groups:
These are:
• Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks
• Mesozoic Sedimentary rocks
• Cenozoic Sedimentary rocks
• Quaternary Sedimentary Rocks
3.3.1.Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia

• Sedimentary rocks of these age are:

Either confined to topographic lows,
Chanal filling or
Intra-continental rift basin
They are generally characterized by:
– Clastic nature (conglomerates, sandstones and
minor shale)
– Unconformable overlay Metamorphic rocks
 Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia conti…
• Examples and Exposed in as:
1. Western and south western Ethiopia (Benishagul-
Gumuse, Kaffa) within Precambrian as clastic sandstone
and conglomerates
2. Southern Ethiopia (Gura Sandstone in Bale)
3. Central Ethiopia (Abay Goarge, mostly tillites/ glacialas)
4. Eastern Ethiopia (Soka sandstone in Harar)
5. Northern Ethiopia (Enticho sandstone and Edaga Arbi
Glacial)
6. At the base of Ogaden Basin (From deep drilling data)
Known as Karoo sediments including:
» Calub sand stone
» Gumburo sand stone and
» Boka Shale
 Cont…..
1. Entich sandstone
– Named after Enticho town in Tigray
– It unconformable overly Precambrian Metamorphic rocks
– Has maximum thickness of 160-200 m
– Characterized by:
• white, coarse grained and friable sandstone
• At places calcareous and ferruginous coating materials
• Beds of siltstone, gravel and conglomerate are
common
• Large scale cross bedding
• At places, contains erratic boulders of granite and part
of metamorphic basement rock
 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cont..
2. Edaga Arbi Glacials
– Named after Edaga Arbi village in Tigray
– Unconformably overly the basement
– Has maximum thickness of 150-180 mts
– Chracterised by:
– Conglomerates, sandstone (similar to the Enticho sandstone)
– It also contains siltstone associated to those
– The Siltstones are characterized by
– Variegated color, massive or thinly bedded, contain
thin bands of shale
– Contains erratic boulders of granite, metvolcanics and other
basement rocks (most of which are striated/grooved)
indicating glacial transportation
 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cont’..
• The Edaga arbi Glacial and Enticho sandstone are assumed to be
of the same age
Evidence:
– laterally inter-fingering/ inter-bedding
– Index fossil finding (Sxsena and Getaneh, 1983),
= Ordovician
Similar rock types are discovered in Abay River Basin,
northern Africa/ Algeria), Central and western Sahara,
Morocco, Yemen.
This wide spread coverage of these rocks of Ordovician age
tillite indicated that this part of the planet/world was
covered by ICE in Ordovician
= perhaps was polar region by Ordovician
 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cont’..
3. Karoo Sediments
– Found in Ogaden basin (from deep drilling at Bodele)
– Named after Karoo graben formed due to rifting in Permian
– The Rift is Bifurcating NW-NE-SW forming rift-rift-rift triple
junction
– The NW arm goes to NW up to Abaya Basin and north western
Ethiopia
– The SW arm goes to SW through Kenya-Tanzania up to South Africa
(where classical Karoo sediments are exposed)
– Sub surface data indicates that at Bodele the rock comprises of
• Gumbro sand stone (at base, Quartzite sandstone, 85 mts thick))
• Bokh shale (green, red and yellow, balck and brown shale, 700 mt)
• Calub sandstone (at the top, Feldespathic sandstone, 85 mt thick)

• With total thickness exceeding 1500 mts.

 Onset of
Gondwanaland drifti
by Ordovician
Karoo clastics /Pre-Mesozo
Ordovician
Karoo rifting, rift-rift-rift triple junction
Significance of Paleozoic sediments
– Most of the clastic sediments (such as those in
western, and southern parts) are regionally less
significant as they are confined to lowland areas
of Precambrian terrain.
But:
The Enticho sandstone, Edaga Arbi Glacial and the
Karro sediments are thick, regionally significant
in terms of Pale-Environment and Tectonic
Development!!!
3.4. Mesozoic to Cenozoic Sedimentary rocks
of Ethiopia
Exposed in
• The Ogaden Basin
• The Blue Nile Basin
• Mekelle Basin
– Thin occurrences are
wide spread all over the
country,
Mesozoic to Cenozoic Sedimentary cont’..

• In the Absence of Paleozoic sediments, they

unconformable overly the basement
• Where there are Paleozoic rocks, they
disconformably overlay the Paleozoic
sediments (ex. Northern Ethiopia, Blue Nile
basin)
Mesozoic –Cenozoic Sedimentary rocks
• They are deposited following the Premo-
Triassic Karoo rifting in response to:
Continental drifting (Gondwanaland split)
Land Mass subsidence
Marian transgression
Land mass uplift and (due to Tectono-Magmatic
phenomenon, see later)
Marian regression
 Mesozoic –Cenozoic Sedimentary rocks
• As a result, every where in the country where the
Mesozoic sediments are located:
 The base is clastic sedimentary rock
 Informally Known as Lower Sandstone
 Foramlly named as Adigrat Sandstone
 It marks continental shelf deposit/beach Facies
 The top of these sucession is also maked by
Clastic succession, Informally known as Upper
Sandstone
 Formally named as Amabaradam sandstone
 The middle part of the succession is formed of
essentially Marine sediments (limestone, marl,
shale, anhydrite and etc.
Mesozoic –Cenozoic Sedimentary rocks
 Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
Mekelle Basin
Gambella Basin
• Ambardam SST Fm. L. Cret.
• Teritiary Clastic/Fulluvial sedit.
• Agula Shale
• Upper Cretaceous Clastic Sediments
• Antalo Limestone
• Lower Cretaceous Sediment (Lacustrine/Fuluvial)
• Adigrat Sandstone

• Edagaarbi Glacials/

• Enticho Sst. (Ordovician)

Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks details
cont’..
•Ogaden
OmoBasin
Basin
• Karkar Fm (Mid-up. Eocene)
• Taleh Fm
• Auradu Fm
• Jossema Fm
Naroka Beds Holocene
• Belet
KibashiFm
Fm
• Ferfer FmFm
Shungura
• Musthill Fm.Fm
Nakalabong
• Gorrahi
Mursi FmFm.
• Gabredar Fm
Gilo-Kari and
• Urandab
Meti Fm
Sandstone (Permian)
• HAmanile Fm.
• Adigrat Fm
• Gumbro Fm
• Bokha Fm
• Calub Fm (Permian)
Summary, Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary
rocks….