Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22

Landscape rehabilitation of degraded tropical

forest ecosystems
Case study of the CIFOR/Japan project in
Indonesia and Peru$
Shigeo Kobayashi*
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Abstract

Tropical forest area is disappearing at the rate of 13.5 million ha each year, due mainly to clearing for agriculture and shifting
cultivation. Timber harvesting results in more than 5 million ha of tropical forest annually being transformed into degraded,
poorly managed, logged-over forests. The reduction and degradation caused by anthropological activities affect not only the
sustainable production of timber but also the global environment. Accurate scientific information will enable managers to devise
silvicultural systems to enhance soil properties and forest resources important for sustainable production and to minimize
deleterious impacts of harvesting and short-rotation plantations. Ultimately, rehabilitation can increase the area of forest as well
as conserve remaining primary forests and environmental quality.
Rehabilitation aims to improve biological diversity, increase commercial value of timber and non-timber products, increase
forest functions and improve soil fertility. Technical advances will reduce logging impacts, accelerate natural regeneration and
improve species selection, enrichment, sustainable site management, catalytic planting and site evaluation and classification.
Socio-economic reform should focus on local community participation and acceptance. The CIFOR/Japan project has
undertaken research in many countries to evaluate impacts of harvesting and fires on forest ecosystems and to develop
methods to rehabilitate logged-over forests and degraded forestlands in ways that are biologically successful as well as socio-
economically acceptable.
In Indonesia, CIFOR collaborates with Universitas Mulawarman at the Bukit Soeharto Education Forest, a mixed dipterocarp
forest logged by INHUTANI I in 1976. The approach to rehabilitation has been through the ‘‘taungya’’ system whereby farmers
grow annual crops among newly planted trees. With the Instituto Nacional de Investigacion Agraria (INIA), Peru, the project is
trialling revegetation of fallow fields abandoned after agricultural use in the Ucayali region of the Peruvian Amazon. There is
specific interest in selecting tree species with high economic value that grow rapidly in abandoned agricultural land and on
infertile soils. Early results point to promising species. The project also involves small farmers in silvicultural activities and
species selection.
# 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Landscape rehabilitation; Degraded tropical forest ecosystems; Dipterocarp forest; Sustainable forest management; Global
environment

$
International Seminar on Restoration Research on Degraded Forest Ecosystems, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul, Korea,
April 13–14, 2001.
*
Present address: Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
E-mail address: ksige@asafas.kyoto-u.ac.jp (S. Kobayashi).

0378-1127/$ – see front matter # 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.06.009
14 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22

1. Why and where are forests degraded? Many environmental changes are initiated by forest
harvesting, including degradation of sites, reduced
The world’s population of 5.4 billion people is forest water supply, soil loss and increased greenhouse
threatening the productive capacity and sustainability gas emissions (Kobayashi, 1988, 1994; Uchijima,
of the earth. Humans are directly consuming or divert- 1991). Selective and clear cutting and fire are major
ing approximately 40% of the terrestrial photosyn- causes of land degradation, with forest harvesting a
thetic productivity, with a highly destructive effect on trigger for other forms of land utilization. It is esti-
sustainability and on other species (Raven, 1991). mated that the growth and regeneration rates of trees
Tropical forests particularly have been affected, has declined in the tropics for reasons such as degra-
resulting in a rapid reduction in area. The earth con- dation of natural forests, erosion, landslides and green-
tains 4.5 billion ha of forests, of which 43% is in the house impacts of forest harvesting. However, while
tropics (USA, 1981; Tsutsumi, 1989). Tropical forest forest harvesting brings about initial changes in nat-
area is decreasing at the rate of 13.5 million ha/year, ural ecosystems, subsequent land utilization may
mainly due to clearing for agriculture and shifting cause more severe impacts.
cultivation (Food and Agriculture Organization of the Despite their importance, the effects of forest har-
United Nations, 1997). In Africa, 70% of the total area vesting are not fully understood, especially in tropical
deforested is for these purposes; in Asia 50% and in rainforests (Stone, 1984; Lamb, 1990). Information on
Latin America 35% (Environmental Protection the long-term impacts of tree harvesting on forest
Agency et al., 1990). Population increases, inappropri- ecosystems, especially with regard to changes in
ate land utilization and conflicts between forestry and vegetation, soil and productivity, is lacking. Rehabi-
agriculture underlie these clearance rates (Whitmore, litation of degraded forests and lands is an urgent
1984). Moreover, more than 5.1 million ha of tropical matter from the perspectives of both compensation or
forest becomes secondary forest every year, without enrichment of ecosystems and sustainable use of
adequate management or subsequent silvicultural degraded areas on regional and global scales (Forestry
treatments. Agency and ITTO, 1991). In logged-over forests,
The reduction and degradation of the tropical forest where original ecosystems more or less remain, the
affect not only the production of timber but also the development of methods to accelerate natural regen-
global environment. Natural disasters, such as flood- eration is needed. On the other hand, in areas where
ing, erosion, landslides and desertification, are dra- there is little or none of the natural ecosystem remain-
matically increasing, most likely due to the ing, plantations, site management and productive uti-
degradation or loss of tropical forest (Tanouchi lization must be considered. However, the success of
et al., 1989). More than 20% of the topsoil on the regeneration or reforestation depends particularly on
world’s arable land has been lost during the past 40 the accurate evaluation of site conditions created by
years (Nihonchousakai, 1989) and desertification is harvesting. It appears that the success of natural
progressing at a rate of 6 million ha/year. The loss of regeneration by commercial tree species is strongly
biological diversity, which could be as high as one- influenced by the intensity of harvesting. Studies and
quarter of all species of plants, animals, fungi and analyses of biological and physiological characteris-
micro-organisms on earth over the next 25 years, tics of regenerated trees or newly planted trees and of
threatens the sustainable and harmonious develop- the processes influencing productivity in such areas
ment of the global ecosystem. It is expected that are necessary in order to improve the success of
2.5–8 million biological species, including a large rehabilitation and reforestation activities.
number of as-yet unknown species, will be extinct In the Asia Pacific region the extent of rainforests
by the end of the 21st century. Reduction of tropical decreased from 325 million ha in 1980 to about half
forests also has an impact on global warming in two this value by the mid-1990s and was projected to
ways: acceleration of greenhouse gas emissions, such decline further to 30–35 million ha over the next
as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen oxides; and decade (Nambiar and Brown, 1997). At the same
reduction in sequestration of carbon by tropical trees time a growth in population and rapid economic
during photosynthesis (Kira, 1991). expansion in the region has resulted in an escalation
 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22 15

of demand for industrial wood products and fuel- the rates of mineralization of organically bound nutri-
wood. Increased supply of wood from plantation ents. When plantations are established there are almost
forests has the potential to reduce pressure on natural always changes in the nature and level of soil organic
forest resources as well as to contribute to environ- matter and other soil properties and processes impor-
mental care and economic advancement for land- tant to sustainable plant growth. Likewise, within a
holders in the tropics. forest plantation, opportunities exist to manipulate soil
Many soils of tropical forest ecosystems are poor in organic matter through silvicultural practices. This is
nutrients. Nevertheless, undisturbed natural forests do especially so where stands are subjected to intensive
not usually display symptoms of nutrient disorders management over short-rotation periods, as occurs
because nutrient cycles are in a state of dynamic commonly in production of pulpwood and fuelwood.
equilibrium where inputs and outputs are in balance Pulpwood in particular is a low-value, high-volume
(Jordan, 1985). Plant demand for nutrients is met by product and the industry is characterized by large
efficient recycling systems. Where natural forests are areas under short-rotation, high-volume tree crops.
replaced by short-rotation plantations there will be It is this type of plantation management that is most
changes in nutrient storage and cycling processes due likely to exert excessive demands on the site, and
to factors such as harvesting, changed organic matter hence it is highly appropriate to undertake studies
quality, fertilization, erosion and leaching, and mod- addressing issues of sustainability.
ified patterns of organic matter turnover. All of these
factors can affect storage and supply of soil nutrients
for tree growth and consequently the sustainability of 2. How to rehabilitate?
plantation systems (Nambiar and Brown, 1997). A
number of studies have investigated the impact of Degraded forestlands require rehabilitation of a
monoculture plantations on organic matter dynamics wide range of characteristics and functions. It is
and nutrient cycling. These have usually found chan- necessary to improve biological and habitat diversity
ged patterns of organic matter and nutrient storage. at the landscape level, increase commercial value for
Some studies have suggested that short-rotations of timber and pulp production, increase types and
some species in plantations will not be sustainable in amount of non-timber products, improve forest func-
the long term. There is increasing information on tions, such as water storage, water balance, sequestra-
nutrient cycling in tropical plantations that suggests tion of carbon, fire protection and climate mitigation,
long-term sustainable production will rely on manage- and restore soil fertility and physical properties
ment practices that maintain soil organic matter, con- for protection against erosion (Kobayashi et al.,
serve nutrient stores and minimize direct nutrient loss. 2001).
However, there is a critical need for designed experi- Degraded forestlands display a variety of patterns of
ments to evaluate silvicultural options, especially at secondary succession (Thang, 1986). Accurate infor-
the stage between harvesting and the control of the site mation about these processes will contribute to devel-
by the replacement trees in terms of these ecosystem opment of appropriate silvicultural rehabilitation
variables and functional processes, which will allow techniques (Weidelt and Banaag, 1982; Ochiai,
quantitative assessment of plantation management and 1990). Different vegetation types can be classified
its likely long-term impacts (Evans, 1992). as components of a facilitation or competition process
Reduction in the stores of soil organic matter com- based on species composition and patterns of change
monly follows conversion of natural forest to other (Niiyama et al., 1989).
forms of land use, including plantation establishment. We have to technically rehabilitate the biophysical
This has implications for long-term sustainability qualities of degraded forestlands as well as promote
because organic matter plays a crucial role in plant socio-economic acceptance to encourage sustainable
growth through its effects on the physical, chemical forest management. The challenge for researchers is to
and biological properties of soils. These factors in turn provide the scientific information that enables man-
influence soil structure, infiltration rates, water-hold- agers to devise silvicultural systems for plantations
ing capacity, the soil nutrients available to plants and that enhance soil properties important to sustainable
16 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22

Fig. 1. Rehabilitation of degraded tropical forest ecosystem for sustainable forest management.

production and minimize deleterious effects asso-  Impacts of forest harvesting and fire on forest
ciated with short-rotation tree crops. As part of the ecosystems and development of methods to
CIFOR/Japan project (Fig. 1), rehabilitation techni- rehabilitate logged-over forest and degraded
ques were assessed with reference to reducing logging lands (Universitas Mulawarman, Indonesia).
impacts, accelerating natural regeneration and sustain-  Impacts of forest harvesting on forest ecosys-
able site management (Kobayashi, 1990). The most tems and development of methods to rehabilitate
effective method was found on the plantation that logged-over forest and degraded lands (Univer-
emphasized species selection-site matching, including sidad Nacional De Misiones, Argentina).
ecological qualities of pioneer and mid-term species, 2. Development of methods to rehabilitate logged-
shade tolerance and fire and/or drought resistance and over forests and degraded forestlands:
socio-economic aspects of providing non-timber for-  Rehabilitation techniques for managing logged-
est products, fruits and shade. Enrichment planting over forest (Forest Research Institute, Papua
and catalytic plantations (fast-growing species, mixed New Guinea).
plantation and rotation) were also focuses of the  Forest harvesting impacts on forest ecosystems
research. Landscape rehabilitation will enable sustain- and rehabilitation methods for logged-over for-
able forest management. Rehabilitated forests may be est and degraded lands (Instituto Nacional de
used for production and/or environmental purposes. Investigacion Agraria, Peru).
Local community participation and socio-economic  Logged-over tropical lowland forests (Universiti
acceptance are also essential for the rehabilitation of Putra Malaysia, Malaysia).
degraded forest ecosystems. 3. Development of silvicultural techniques for de-
The CIFOR/Japan project on rehabilitation of graded forestlands (site management and produc-
logged-over forests has researchers in several coun- tivity in tropical forest plantations):
tries. The network will allow sharing of results of  Ecological impacts of teak plantation thinning
studies in a variety of forest types and on a range of and their effects on intercropping (Kasetsart
rehabilitation methods (Fig. 1). University, Thailand).
Major projects, activities, sites and partners are:  Mechanical-induced soil compaction: effects
on eucalyptus species growth and rehabi-
1. Evaluation of forest harvesting impacts on forest litation systems to increase site productivity
ecosystems: (EMBRAPA/CNPF, Brazil).
 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22 17

3. CIFOR/Japan project in Indonesia Table 1

Condition of residual stands after logging treatments, Bukit
Soeharto Education Forest
3.1. Site description and method
Logging intensity
The activities at Bukit Soeharto Education Forest Low High
(PPHT, UNMUL), Samarinda, East Kalimantan are (>50 cm DBH) (>30 cm DBH)
led by Dr. Maman Sutisna with Universitas Mulawar-
Marketable trees/ha 11 28
man as the institutional partner. The forest is a 22- Marketable volume (m3/ha) 54.7 85.0
year-old mixed dipterocarp forest, that had been Residual basal area (%) 45 30
logged by INHUTANI I in 1976 (Kobayashi et al., Damaged trees/ha 72 (18.4%) 101 (23.4%)
1999). Parts of the forest have been lightly burnt and
some areas were severely burnt in 1998. Annual
precipitation is 1533 mm, evaporation 1207 mm, serecea, Gironiera nervosa, Ficus elastica, Urophyl-
mean temperature 26.9 8C and mean relative humidity lum rubrum and Nauclea sp.
71.3%. Forest type is classified as lowland mixed
dipterocarp with an average basal area of 28.10 m2/ 3.2. Secondary succession after logging treatment
ha and 429 standing trees/ha >10 cm DBH (diameter and burning
at breast height).
The purposes of this study were to: This study examined the initial phases of vegetation
recovery 6 and 15 months after forest fire, under two
 describe the impact of logging on forest ecosys-
different harvesting intensities, fire-related conditions
tems: species composition and structure, stand
and landforms. The aim was to classify vegetation
quality and phenology;
types as ‘‘catalyst-facilitator’’ or ‘‘competitor-succes-
 develop a rehabilitation method for logged-
sion inhibitor’’ for the secondary succession process,
over forests and degraded lands: planting techni-
and to assess the site classification for the rehabilita-
ques, cost, growth, ecophysiology and social
tion of degraded forest ecosystems in the burnt logged-
analysis;
over forest.
 describe the effects of logging and forest rehabili-
Species composition of the undergrowth was mea-
tation on site productivity: physical, chemical and
sured (quadrate size: 2 m  2 m, 5 quadrates/ha).
biological properties.
Dominance and height were measured using the
Nine plots of 100 m  100 m were set up (9 ha in Blown–Blanquet method. Mean and total diversity
all): (1) control—3 ha (plot I–III); (2) high-intensity were also recorded (Lloyd and Ghelardi, 1964; Pielou,
felling >30 cm DBH—3 ha (plot IV–VI); (3) low- 1969). Undergrowth biomass (aboveground) was sur-
intensity felling >50 cm DBH—3 ha (plot VII–IX). veyed (quadrate size: 1 m  1 m, 5 quadrates). Litter
The proportion of open area following logging at was also measured (quadrate size: 50 cm  50 cm,
plot I was 3.28%, plot VI 8.11% and plot VII 5 quadrates).
11.41%. The highest percentage of open area was At the initial phase of vegetation recovery, imme-
in plot VII because the intensity of logging was diately after harvesting and fire, there was no signifi-
greatest. The amount of open area in the residual cant relationship between undergrowth biomass,
stands caused by felling and skidding depends lar- species number, dominance values, mean diversity,
gely on the logging intensity. The condition of the equitability and environmental factors such as land-
residual stands after the logging treatments is shown form and soil properties. However, undergrowth bio-
in Table 1. The most dominant species of herbs in the mass, litter, species number and dominance values had
ground vegetation are Maqrantaceae, Alpina spp., increased strongly 13 months after forest fire. Forest-
Pandanus tidur and Nicolaia spp. The most domi- harvesting intensity significantly affects vegetation
nant seedlings and saplings are Eusideroxylon zwa- recovery. Undergrowth biomass increased most at
geri, Shorea laevis, while major lianas are Calamus the site of high-intensity felling followed by the site
sp. and Bambusa sp. Shrub species are Milletia of low-intensity felling, then no felling, although litter
18 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22

production is highest at the site without felling. Spe- 4. CIFOR/Japan project in Peru
cies number and total diversity were highest after
high-intensity felling followed by low-intensity felling 4.1. Site description and method
and no logging. Undergrowth biomass and litter accu-
mulation affect fire intensity. There was no strong In Peru, the research partner is Instituto Nacional de
relationship between fire intensity and vegetation Investigacion Agraria (INIA) and the study is led by
recovery during the initial phase, but the slightly burnt Auberto Ricse. The experimental site is located in
site tended to recover more vigorously than the agricultural fields that have been abandoned over
severely burnt site. However, vegetation recovery is the last 15 years between Campo Verde and Nueva
a function of the complex linkages between the effects Requena, 34 km from Pucallpa, Ucayali region.
of both felling and fire intensities. Annual precipitation is 1800 mm/year, with a wet
Recovering vegetation was classified into seven season between November and April and a dry season
types (Macaranga, woody shrub, herb, fern, grass, between May and October (Soudre et al., 2001). The
climber and bamboo) during the initial phase, based average annual temperature is 25.2 8C, with a max-
on species composition and dominance value. Ferns imum of 30.9 8C and minimum of 19.6 8C. The aver-
typify the competition process, because they remain at age evapotranspiration is 1200 mm and relative
70% of the undergrowth, have the smallest species humidity 77%. Experimental plots are selected young
number and are the smallest recruit to the woody shrub purmas (secondary vegetation), such as Imperata
category 13 months after fires. Herbs represent the brasiliensis, Rottboellia exaltata and Baccharis flor-
facilitation process because of their higher species ibunda.
number and are the highest recruit to the woody The weed, Imperata brasiliensis (Cashupsha) was
shrubs. Woody shrubs and ferns will be further clas- dominated on loam and sandy soils in three plots.
sified based on additional monitoring. Vegetation Rottboellia exaltata (Arrocillo) and lesser amounts of
suppressed in the competition process will require Pueraria phaseoloides (Kudzu) were distributed in the
rehabilitation treatment (enrichment and planting). soils characterized as strongly acidic, with moderately
Under the facilitation process vegetation is expected slow water infiltration rates and abundant fine roots.
to follow its natural course of secondary succession, The three remaining plots had loam to sandy loam
and may sometimes need treatments to accelerate the soils with the principal weed being Baccharis flor-
natural regeneration (Fig. 2). ibunda (Sachahuaca), followed by small amounts of

Fig. 2. Secondary succession at Bukit Soeharto Education Forest in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.
 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22 19

eight different species including weeds and several Species composition of the undergrowth was mea-
trees of genera Cecropia, Jacaranda and Sickingia. sured in five quadrates (2 m  2 m) on each plot (40 m
These plots are characterized by a significant increase  40 m). Composition was determined by Braun–
in biomass of 15.2 t/ha and a reduction in plant density Blanquet’s method, and mean diversity (Lloyd and
of Sachahuaca to 27 plants/m2. Ghelardi, 1964), total diversity and equitability (Pie-
The purposes of this study were to: lou, 1969) were also assessed. Litter, undergrowth
biomass, soil and landform were also recorded as
 understand the dynamic processes of vegetation
aboveground biomass (1 m  1 m), accumulated litter
and soils in abandoned fallow fields after agricul-
amount (0.5 m  0.5 m), soil condition (30 cm, thick-
tural use;
ness of A0 and A horizon and hardness of A and B
 identify specific tree species with high economic
horizon by penetrameter) and landform (slope direc-
value and the ability to adapt and grow rapidly
tion, slope degree and relief index by clinometer).
in abandoned agricultural land and infertile
Thickness and hardness of soil was higher in Imper-
soils;
ata vegetation followed by Rotteboellia and Bac-
 discover the biophysical changes (biomass, floristic
charis. Biomass, species number and diversity were
composition, properties of soils and microclimate)
higher in Baccharis vegetation followed by Rotteboel-
of these processes.
lia and Imperata. Reproduction was more successful
Three 40 m  40 m plots were established, each in Imperata vegetation, then Rotteboellia and Bac-
with three replicates of mixed plantation (3 m  3 m charis. At the initial phase, Imperata revegetation is
spacing) where Tabebuia serratifolia (Tahuari), Caly- typical of the competition process, and Rotteboellia
cophyllum sprucenum (Capirona), Amburana cearen- and Baccharis develop under the facilitation process
cis (Ishipingo), Terminalia oblonga (Yacushapana), during secondary succession (Tilman, 1997; Li and
Cedrelinga catenaeformis (Tornillo) and Schizolo- Wilson, 1998). This project also shows several posi-
bium amazonicum (Pashaco) were planted. tive results with local community participation (land-
owners) relating to costs and benefits and the option to
4.2. Secondary succession after treatment select tree species.

Pucallpa, Ucayali region, Peru, has 13,073 km2 of

forests (mostly logged) and deforestation is proceed- 5. Sustainable forest management and
ing at 30,787 ha/year (Aguaytia River, Pachitea River conservation of the environment
and Neshuya River areas). There are 2600 km2 of
cultivated lands, bush fallow and 429 km2 of pastures. To have a full appreciation of the impacts of reha-
Abandoned pastures and cultivated lands are expand- bilitation requires time for the delayed effects of any
ing. The highway was built 35 years ago, and during improvements to be reflected in the performance of
the last 15 years, farms of 20–100 ha have increased. degraded forests once they reach maturity. However,
Of this farmland, 8–10% is abandoned 2–3 years after indications are already emerging that the findings are
cultivation. Brachiaria decumbens naturally occupies important. The main technical and socio-economic
30% of the land after the first agricultural crop and gains are:
50% of the area contains young and old ‘‘purmas’’
(secondary vegetation). Therefore, it is necessary to  site evaluation using criteria and indicators and site
rehabilitate these degraded lands as forestland. The classification;
study aims to understand the dynamic processes of  zoning—landscape rehabilitation;
vegetation recovery as it relates to the soils in aban-  long-term monitoring—information system with
doned ‘‘purmas’’ after use for agriculture and cattle database;
raising, to determine changes in biomass, species  network for the rehabilitation of tropical degraded
composition and diversity, and to classify the vegeta- forest lands;
tion types regenerating under a facilitation or compe-  local community participation;
tition process in the secondary secession.  socio-economic acceptability.
20 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22

The development or improvement of techniques tribute to long-term monitoring in degraded forest

has an effect on reducing logging impacts, gap- ecosystems, expansion of the network and collabora-
enrichment planting, multistorey plantations using tors (scientists, forest managers and small forest
coppice, mixed plantations and taungya methods. holders) who contribute to the database and informa-
Research capacity-building at different levels and in tion from research, site evaluation and zoning for
diverse cultures will be improved through the pro- rehabilitation, and a synthesis of rehabilitation tech-
ject’s activities. The responsibility for recovery of niques.
degraded forestland must be clarified for logged- This information and database integration–refer-
over forests (governments), short-rotation planta- ence system has two main pathways. One path
tions (companies), grassland and fallows (farmers), integrates general information about the study site
etc. Local community participation is essential to from annual reports, site maps, remote-sensing data,
ensure mixed planting and weeding by farmers, aerial charts and vegetation maps into plot data
intercropping and other necessary activities. Reha- for each site. Outputs are data on site condition,
bilitation will be carried out through the establish- vegetation, soil, climate, etc., which are publicly
ment of multipurpose forests, such as mixed accessible. Another path will accumulate the actual
plantations with timber and non-timber species experimental raw data into a ‘‘downloadable’’ form,
(for multiple benefits thereby encouraging action access to which is restricted and requires a password.
by communities). Version 1 of this system is currently available experi-
The objectives of the information and dataset sys- mentally on the website at http://www.ffpri.affrc.-
tem is to exchange and synthesize scientific and go.jp/labs/fmrt/cifor/start.htm and will be linked
technical information from many countries, based to other rehabilitation/restoration networks and
on results from the CIFOR/Japan project on the reha- projects.
bilitation of degraded tropical forest ecosystems. Col- A number of questions remain about rehabilita-
laborators in this project have compiled annual tion: (1) Do secondary forests show a high diversity
reports, a data directory and a database, which contain of species? (2) Can we expect newly established
the results of the research on changes in forest eco- secondary forests to become as diverse as the ori-
systems and soils. Final outputs are expected to con- ginal forest? and (3) Is the original forest a final goal

Fig. 3. Rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosystems.

 S. Kobayashi / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 13–22 21

for the rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosystems? Kira, T., 1991. A New Beginning in Monitoring Tropical Forests.
Global Environmental Forum. United Nations University,
We can discuss, clarify and answer the above ques-
Tokyo, pp. 47–51.
tions through rehabilitation research. Information Kobayashi, S., 1988. Maintenance and Effective Use of Forest
about the natural secondary succession process will Resources in Negara Brunei Darussalam. Forest Research Note
contribute to the development of techniques for No. 11, Brunei Darussalam.
rehabilitation. Kobayashi, S., 1990. The enrichment of the secondary forest
Finally, increasing rehabilitated forestlands will in tropical moist region. Kenkyu J. 13, 12–22 (in Japanese).
Kobayashi, S., 1994. Effects of harvesting impacts and reha-
significantly expand the area of potential sites for bilitation of tropical rain forest. J. Plant Res. 107, 99–
forests in a situation of limited land resources, 106.
contribute to the sustainable use of forest resources Kobayashi, S., Sutisuna, M., Delmy, A., Toma, T., 1999. Initial
and in fact will allow the conservation of primary phase of secondary succession at the burnt logged-over forest in
Bukit Soeharto, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Proceedings of
tropical forests and bring about environmental
the Third International Symposium on ASEAN Tropical Forest
improvement. Management, Indonesia, pp. 324–336.
The results of these studies are expected to promote Kobayashi, S., Turnbull, J., Cossalter, C., 2001. Introduction:
the sustainable economic use of forest resources, rehabilitation of degraded tropical forest ecosystems. In:
conservation of gene resources and environmental Kobayashi, S., Turnbull, J.W., Toma, T., Mori, T., Majid,
conservation in tropical forests. Collaborators conduct N.M.N.A. (Eds.), Rehabilitation of Degraded Tropical Forest
Ecosystems. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia, pp. 1–16.
annual assessments and compile reports and contri- Lamb, D., 1990. Exploiting the Tropical Rain Forest. Man and the
bute the results to the information database. The Biosphere Series. UNESCO, Paris.
retrieval system will be a key vehicle for synthesized Li, X., Wilson, S.D., 1998. Facilitation among woody plants
research results to be shared among collaborators and establishing in an old field. Ecology 79, 2705–2964.
practitioners (scientists, forest managers and small Lloyd, M., Ghelardi, R.J., 1964. A table for calculating the
equitability component of species diversity. J. Anim. Ecol. 33,
forest holders) and so contribute to long-term mon- 217–225.
itoring and rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosys- Nambiar, E.K.S., Brown, A.G. (Eds.), 1997. Management of Soil,
tems. Impacts of the CIFOR/Japan project on Water and Nutrients in Tropical Plantation Forests. Australian
rehabilitation of degraded forests are already evident Centre for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR),
Monograph No. 43. ACIAR, Canberra.
with important findings emerging. Results show that
Nihonchousakai, N.R., 1989. Midori No Booklet No. 1. Nihonch-
we need to clarify the responsibilities for recovery of ousakai, Tokyo (in Japanese).
degraded land, develop local community participa- Niiyama, K., Jilli, R., Kobayashi, S., 1989. Classification of Under-
tion, establish multipurpose forests for multiple Story Vegetation Types in the Proposed Plantation Area Related
benefits, and promote a network to share and coop- to Silviculture Planning. Forest Research Note No. 7, Brunei
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Ochiai, Y., 1990. Silvicultural Study on Dipterocarp Species in
(Fig. 3). Negara Brunei Darussalam. Forest Research Note No. 48,
Brunei Darussalam.
Pielou, E.C., 1969. An Introduction to Mathematical Ecology.
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