State system:

STATE:
A state is a political division of a body of people that occupies a territory defined by frontiers.
The state is sovereign in its territory (also referred to as jurisdiction) and has the authority to
enforce a system of rules over the people living inside it.
Features of the Sovereign Nation-state System:

It got identified with its four essential elements:

 Population, Territory ( physical )
Government and Sovereignty. (spiritual or political )
In the sphere of international relations its four basic credentials Nationalism, Territorial
Integrity, Sovereignty and Legal Equality got fully recognized
NATION STATE :

 Declarative theory of statehood :

“a nation state is type of state that conjoins political entity of a state to cultural entity of
Nation , from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its
Status as soverign state
Emergence :
In the early modern era, a number of monarchs began to consolidate power by weakening the
feudal nobles and allying themselves with the emerging commercial classes. This difficult
process sometimes required violence. The consolidation of power also took a long time. Kings
and queens worked to bring all the people of their territories under unified rule. Not
surprisingly, then, the birth of the nation-state also saw the first rumblings of nationalism, as
monarchs encouraged their subjects to feel loyalty toward the newly established nations. The
modern, integrated nation-state became clearly established in most of Europe during the
nineteenth century.
Time
Frame Major Event
Pre- Most people lived in small villages; they paid tithes to feudal landlords, didn’t travel,
1500s and cared little for anything beyond the village.
1485 Henry VII wins the War of the Roses in England, begins the Tudor dynasty, and starts
 the development of the English nation-state.
Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella finish taking back all of Spain from the
1492 Muslims; the era of Spain as a global power begins.
1547– Ivan the Terrible rules Russia; he unifies the government and creates the first Russian
1584 nation-state.
1638– Louis XIV of France creates an absolute monarchy; France emerges as the dominant
1715 power in Europe.
1648 Peace of Westphalia cements the legal status of the nation-state as sovereign.
The French Revolution begins; it creates the modern French nation-state and sparks
1789 nationalism around Europe.
1871 Unification of Italy and Germany is complete.
Treaty of Versailles ends World War I; it breaks up several multinational empires and
1919 creates many new nation-states.
1945 The United Nations forms.

The Catholic Church And The Rise Of The Nation-State

The Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia
The Thirty Years’ War, fought throughout central Europe from 1618–1648 between Protestants
and Catholics, laid the legal foundation for the nation-state. The war involved many nations of
Europe, including many small German states, the Austrian Empire, Sweden, France, and Spain.
Despite a brutal war, the Catholics were unable to overturn Protestantism. The treaty that
ended the war, called the Peace of Westphalia, decreed that the sovereign ruler of a state had
power over all elements of both the nation and the state, including religion. Thus, the modern
idea of a sovereign state was born.
Centralization
SUMMARY:
In the Middle Ages in Europe, the Christian Church produced the concept of universal
community of Christianity, in which the loyalty was at once to the State in matters concerning
the State and towards the Church concerning religion. As a matter of fact, the rise of the
national states in Europe in the modern time was a revolt against this concept of universal
Christian community, preached by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. England and France
were the first national state, which came into being during the Hundred Year War which raged
between them during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Next Spain and Portugal became
nation-states due to their wars against the Spanish Muslims. But their national states became
stunted owing to the overriding influence of the Catholic Church and Inquisition. Next Holland
became a nation state. After the French Revolution of 1789, several central and southern
European nation-states came in to being, such as Germany, Italy, etc. The idea of nationalism
then spread into eastern Europe, when several nation-states came into being in consequence of
their wars against the Ottoman Empire. After the Second World War, nationalism spread in Asia
and Africa, where nearly sixty nation-states, e.g., India, Pakistan, Egypt, Iraq, Algeria, Nigeria,
Tanzania, Kenya, and others were established. At present, the U.N.O. consists of about 159
nation-states. Nevertheless, there are still several multinational states, like the USSR, the U.K.,
the Union of South Africa, etc. Moreover, many nation-states have also several ethnic, religious
and linguistic minorities within their boundaries, such as Israel, India, etc. As a matter of fact,
there is no nation-state in the world today, which has not a minority or ethnic group in it. This
fact adds an element of political tension and instability in the nation-state, which has, in some
cases, led to revolts and national liberation struggles, such as those of the Tamils in Sir Lanka,
of Sikhs in India, of the Blacks in South Africa, or the Christians in Sudan or of the Palestinians in
Israel.
SECULARISM :
By secular concept of the state is meant that the state is separate from religion. It means, in
other words, that the state has nothing to do with religion, while religion, i.e church, is not to
interfere in matters of politics and state. A secular state is not necessarily an irreligious state,
but it believes that religion is a private affair of the individual, in which it cannot and should not
interfere at all.
Secularism is a modern concept, which first came into being in the West during the early years
of the twentieth century, when politics was separated from religion in almost all the Western
countries. However, the idea of secular state was first propounded by Machiavelli.
NATIONALISM
A nation is a people united by the bonds of common language, religion, culture, or race, and
common historical experience, aspiring to establish or maintain their separate and independent
state. In other words, a nation-state means a people who are conscious of their separate and
independent national identity under their separate and independent state. As such, a nation-
state has two component elements: objective and subjective. Objective factors are common
geography or territory, common language, religion, culture and common historical experience
of national liberation struggles, past and present, while the subjective elements are the
psychological factors of national feelings and consciousness. As a matter of fact, the
psychological elements of nationhood are more important than the objective ones. It is not
mountains and valleys, said Dankwart A. Rustow, that make a people a nation; it is their
consciousness of being a nation that makes them so.
Legalism:
 Modern state is based upon law. Law means a general rule of external conduct, passed and
enforced by the state. Law is an instrument of social control to prevent conflict, violance, and
crimes in society over such matters as property, life and limb, honour and individual or group
interests: But law cannot exist without the coercive authority of the state and its administative
and judicial systems. In other words, laws are authoritative norms, made and enforced by the
state. As such, law is a statement of rights and duties of the citizens.
Islamic Concept of the State
Islam is a complete code of life. It means that it takes a comprehensive view of life and covers
all its aspects and phases. Nothing in human life and behaviour is outside or beyond Islam.
Unlike Christianity which declares: ”Render unto Caesar what is Caesar’s and unto Christ what is
Christ’s”, and thus separates religion from politics and Church from the State, Islam does not
believe in the separation of religious from political life. Hence there is no secularism in Islam, or
rather the secular or worldly is made a part of the sacred or spiritual.
1. Sovereignty of Allah:
Sovereignty of Allah is the fundamental principle of the Islamic concept of state. The Holy
Quran says: ”To Him belongs the dominion of the heavens and of the earth. It is He who gives
life and death, and He has full knowledge of all things.”
Again: ”He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent (Zahir wo Batin), and he has
full knowledge of all things.”
Again: ”The command is for none but Allah (Innil huknm ilia lillah).”
And again:”Allah has power over all things (Kulli sh’ai-in Qadir)”
2. KJiilafat:
• The Holy Quran proclaims the vicegerency of Man. It says ”And when thy Lord • -said unto the
angels: Lo! I am about to place a vicegerent (khalifa) in the earth,” It says further: ”Say, O Allah!
Owner of Sovereignty! Thou givest sovereignty unto whom Thou wilt, and Thou withdrawest
sovereignty from whom Thou wilt. Thou exaltest whom Thou wilt and Thou abasest whom Thou
wilt. In Thy hand is the good. Lo! Thou art able to do all things.”
The institution of Khilafat or Caliphate came into being after the demise of the Holy Prophet
(peace be upon him). The khalifah was also known as imam, for he combined both political and
religious duties of leadership of the Muslim community both in matters of the state as well as of
religion.
3. Government by consultation:
Mutual consultation among the Muslims is a commandment of the Holy Quran and an injuction
of the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (p.b.u.h.).
The Quran says in the Surah 42 ”When they are said to put their trust in God, when they are
regarded as shuners of evil, when they are said to be brave defenders of their rights, they are
praised for taking each other’s counsel in time of need.” It further says that ”Not only that but
the Apostle, while he is enjoined to trust only in God when he has made up his mind, is also
advised to consult even those who are his enemies at heart”.(Quran in: 159) It was also the
practice of the Holy Prophet (p.b.u.h.) who consulted his Companions in all matters of state.
The institution of Majlis-eShoora was developed by the Khulfa-e-Rashideen afterwards. This
institution is the foundation of democratic government in Islam.
4. Obedience of the Awulal Amr or the Ruler:
The Quranic injunction calls upon the Muslims to obey the Awulal Amr or the supreme
commander among them. ’
5. Equality of all mankind:
The fundamental doctrine of Islam is the equality of all mankind. It is implied in the basic
Islamic teaching of the Tawhid or belief in the Unity of God.
6. Order good and punish wrong:
Islam enjoins the State to maintain morality. It asks the ruler to order good and punish wrong:
amr al-inarufwa’l nahi-an-al munkar. The Quran also requires the Muslims to enjoin upon each
other to do good and prevent others from committing wrong. These Quranic verses are very
significant in as-much as they declare that the chief objectives of the Islamic state is to be the
enforcement of. duties on the Muslims.
7. Payment of Zakat:
Collection of Zakat is one of the essential functions of the Islamic State. It is also the primary
duty of the Muslims, who are enjoined to pay it as dutifully as they perform five time prayer.
Ummah (sometimes spelled Umma) is an Arabic word that is usually translated into English as
nation.
The definition of Ummah is a community of believers bound together with a common purpose,
to worship God and with a common goal to advance the cause of Islam.
"And verily this Ummah of yours is one Ummah and I am your Lord and Cherisher, therefore
fear Me and no other." (Quran 23:52)
"Humankind was one single Ummah. And God sent messengers with glad tidings and
warnings; and with them He sent the Scriptures in truth, to judge between people in matters
wherein they differed…" (Quran 2:213)
"To every Ummah (was sent) a messenger…" (Quran 16:36)
Prophet Muhammad was sent to nurture an Ummah for the benefit of humanity, one designed
to include all of humankind. He was commanded by God to transmit a divine message; both a
guidance and a warning to all. And in the Quran God refers to the Ummah of Muhammad as the
best community.
"You are the best community (Ummah) raised up for (the benefit of) humanity; enjoining
what is right and forbidding what is wrong and believing in God…" (Quran 3:110)
Every member of the Ummah is regarded as equal before God. There is no distinction between
black and white and any colour in between. Islam brings everyone together into one
community; all are equal members regardless of gender or status. It commands us to follow the
guidance and heed the warnings contained in the Quran and the traditions of Prophet
Muhammad. And it is only through piety can one person be raised above another.
General Concept of Sovereignty
Sovereignty means the supremacy of the will of the state, as expressed by its laws, over all
individuals and associations within its boundaries. It means the supremacy of the authority of
the state within its territories and against all powers and authorities beyond its frontiers. It is a
supreme law- making power of the state.
VARIOUS DEFINITIONS:
Aristotle defined it simply as the ^supreme power’ in the state.
Jean Bodin (1540-96) defined it as ”the supreme power over citizens and subjects, unrestrained
by law.”
Hugo Grotius defined it as ”the supreme political power vested in him whose acts are not
subject/to any other, whose will cannot be over-ridden”.
We may define sovereignty as ”the supreme power or authority of an individual or a group of
individuals which is unquestioningly obeyed by the bulk of people in the state, as laid down by
its constitution and law.”
from these definitions of the sovereignty we infer the following points about it:
(i) It is the supreme, unlimited and absolute power of the state
(ii) It is the supreme power to make laws and enforce them.
(in) Its authority cannot be resisted or disobeyed by any person or body of person within the
state; nor it obeys any power outside its boundaries.
(iv). No-limitations can be placed on the supreme will of the state, except those which it has
imposed itself.
(v) The supreme law-making power is itself unlimited by law; it cannot be legally bound, except
by its own will. As Leacock puts it, ”Somewhere within the state there exists a certain person or
body of persons whose commands receive obedience”
(vi) The basis of sovereignty is the use or the possibility of use of coercive power of the state to
compel obedience to its laws or commands. ”The basis of state sovereignty”, said Laski,”is the
contingent power to use the armed forces of the state to compel obedience to its will. And it is
the possession of this legal right to resort to coercion which distinguishes the’state from other
associations.” This is, in short, the meaning of sovereignty, which indicates its attributes or
essential features and qualities.
Attributes of Sovereignty. The chief characteristics or attributes of sovereignty are: (i)
absoluteness
(ii) indivisibility We agree with John C. Calhoun when he says that ”to divide sovereignty is to
destroy it”.
Jellinek has rightly remarked that the notion of a ”divided, fragmented, diminished, limited,
relative sovereignty” is the negation of sovereignty

(in) all-comprehensiveness or universality, (iv) permanence, (v) unity, or exclusiveness, (vi)

inalienability, and (vii) imprescriptibility.
Limitation on Sovereignty
Moral Limitations. Legally the state is competent to do everything, but in practice it cannot do
many things. What is legally possible may be morally impossible. In Britain, for instance,
parliament is, ”from the legal point of view”, the sovereign legislative power in the state. But it
cannot make laws and the executive cannot enforce them, if they violate the moral principles
and values upheld by the British people. ”If. the legislature decided that all blue-eyed babies
should be murdered”, said Leslie Stiphen, ”the preservation of blue-eyed babies would be
illegal, but legislators must go mad before they could pass such a law and subjects be idiotic
before they could submit to it”. However powerful and despotic or absolutely supreme a
sovereign may be, he cannot be succesful in flouting the moral or religious sentiments, beliefs
and inclinations of his subjects. Legally he is all-powerful, morally he is not so. ”
(ii) Natural Limitations.
(iii) human limitations
(iv) Constitutional Limitations.
(v) Limitations of International Law.
 Bluntschli puts it in these words: ”There is no such thing as absolute independence-even the state as
a whole is not all-mighty, for it is limited externally by the rights of other states and internally by its own
nature and the rights of its individual members”.

ASPECTS OF SOVEREIGNITY

INTERNAL SOVEREIGNITY

EXTERNAL SOVEREIGNITY

STATE IN CRISES

Hence Lord Bryce, the English political writer, defines de facto sovereign as ”the person or body of
persons who i can make his or their will prevail whether with the law or against the law: he, or they, is
the de facto ruler, the person whom obedience is actually paid.”

As regards examples, modern history abounds with them. The communist government of China was the
de facto sovereign when it overthrew the former de jure government of Chiang Kaishek. But since it
adopted a new Constitution of People’s Republic of China and was recognised by foreign States, it
became the de jure sovereign of the new China as well. Formerly, the Nationalist Government in Algeria
was de facto sovereign, while the French Colonial Government was its de jure sovereign. But as the
Algerians drove out the French colonialists from their country, their National Government became both
de facto and de jure sovereign.

1.LEGAL SOVEREIGNITY:

Legal sovereignty is the supreme and final law-making power, recognised by law, and exercised
by a determinate person or organ of the state. In every state there is some authority legally
entitled to make laws which the citizens have to obey. Such an authority is the legal sovereign.
He expresses the will of the state in the form of laws or commands. The legal sovereign is
unrestrained by law in the exercise of his law-making power. His power is not limited by the
laws of God, the prescriptions of religion, moral principles, public, opinion, old customs, or
international conventions and agreements. Whatever he decrees must be obeyed by the
citizens, enforced if need be by his supreme coercive power.
2. POLITICAL SOVEREIGNTY: Its meaning. Legal sovereignty is supreme but not omnipotent.
Legally his will is absolute and unlimited, but politically he cannot act independently and
exclusively. His will is actuated by many and varied influences and forces which are unknown to
law. As Dicey says, ”behind the sovereign which the lawyers recognise, there is another
sovereign to whom the legal sovereign must bow”. He is the political sovereign. Dicey defines it
thus: ”that body is politically sovereign the will of which is ultimately obeyed by the citizens of
the state”. The political sovereign is the sum of total of influences and forces in a state which
stand behind the law.
Islamic Theory of Sovereignty
Essential elements of the Islamic theory are:
1. Sovereignty of Allah;
2. Vicegerency (Khilafat) of Man;
3. Delegated or Limited Authority of Legislation of the Amir or Legislature.
1. Sovereignty of Allah: The basic tenet of Islam is the sovereignty of Allah. Islam teaches that
sovereignty or supreme power belongs to” Allah and Allah alone. No human being can be the
lord of other human beings. The Quran says: ”To Allah belongs the sovereignty of the heavens
and .the earth.” (42:48)
, It says again: ”He is Allah, the One and the Only One, the Eternal, Absolute (samad}.
He begeteth not, nor is He begotten, and there is none like unto Him”. (1:4)
And again: ”He is Allah, the Creator, the Evolver, the Bestower of Forms; to Him belong the
Most Beautiful Names; Whatever is in the heavens and on earth doth declare His Praises and
Glory and He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.” (22:24) And again: ”It is He Who gives life and
death’ and He has power over all things.” (42:48) And again:. ”He is the First, and the Last, the
Evident and the Immanent.” (47:3)
Maulana Sulaiman Nadvi has explained the sovereignty of Allah in a comprehensive manner as
thus: ”Muhammad (peace be upon him) has manifested the glory of that Allah who is Malik
(master) from above the sky to beneath the earth; there is none who shares his work; there is
none who is a partner in His sovereignty; there is none who shares with him power in the
administration of the Universe; not a single particle of the creation (kainat) is beyond his
command; nothing in the world is concealed from His sight, whether they are trees, stones,
forests, mountains, deserts, rivers, the moon, the earth, the ISLAMIC THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY
209 sky, man, animals, the articulate or the inarticulate-all declare His Glogy and all glorify Him
with praise. All are weak and He alone is Almighty; all are dependent (Muhtaj) and He alone is
Self-Sufficient. All are His servants. He alone is King of Kings. In short, whatever is in the heaven
and on earth (from ai-sh to farsh) is His and he alone has His Sovereignty over it. He is Pure
(free from all taint), Holy above all evil, and is beyond all blame. He possesses all attributes of
good, glory and perfection. There is none like Him. He is beyond and high above all similes and
metaphors (tashbih wa tamthil) and all human relationships”. (See his Sirat alNabi, Vol. iv. p.
478)
Attributes of Allah’s Sovereignty: The Sovereignty of Allah has the following attributes:
1. Allah’s Sovereignty is absolute: Allah is the Almighty and He is supreme over all things: alo
kulli shain Qadir, says the Quran. He is” the Absolute or Qadir-i-Mutlaq. He is the sole possessor
of all power or malik al-mulk and Malik an-Nas. Only His is the Kingdom of the Heavens and the
Earth. Hence His powers are unlimited and absolute. He is omnipotent, omnipresent and
omniscient.
2. Allah’s Sovereignty is universal and all-comprehensive:
He is the Lord of both the worlds (rab al-alamin). From Him come all things and to Him will
return all things.
3. Allah’s Sovereignty is imprescriptible and eternal.
4. Allah’s sovereignty is indivisible and inalienable:
These attributes are manifest in the verses of the Quran, as for example, ”There is no god, but
God.” Or,. ”If there were therein gods beside Allah, then verily (both the heavens and the earth)
had been disordered. Glorified be Allah, the •Lord of the Throne, from all that they ascibe (unto
Him).”
5. Allah’s sovereignty is original
2.Vicegerency of Man:
The Quran says: ”Lo! the earth is Allah’s. He giveth it for an inheritance to whom He will. And
lo! the sequel is for those who keep their duty (unto Him)”. (7:128)
Again it says: ’ ”And when the Lord said unto the angels: Lo! I am about to place a khalifa
(vicegerent) in the earth.” (2:30)

LAW
Black's Law Dictionary says that law is “a body of rules of action or conduct prescribed by
controlling authority, and having binding legal force. That which must be obeyed and followed
by citizens subject to sanctions or legal consequence is a law.”
FEATURES :
Uniformaity
Universality
Externalness
Content
formulation
enforcement or sanction.
Conclusion. We have considered three theories of law. None of them fully explains the nature
of law, yet each of them contains some amount of truth. Let us now see, in the light of these
theories, what a law is and should be. First of all, we may describe the negative features of law.
Law should not be static and unprogressive. It should not be based on mere force. Law is not
entirely a command of a determinate human superior, as the analytical jurists say. The positive
featuers of law are the following:- Law must be progressive. It has this quality when it 218
POLITICAL SCIENCE adjusts itself to the social, moral, religious and economic changes and
developments in our life and society. All jurists agree that law is an instrument of human
welfare, but the sociological jurists have laid particular stress on it. Law must not be a mere
order of the state. It must embody social needs, interests and purposes. It must have the
consenting will of the individuals. The root of obedience is not coei-cion but the will to obey.
Lastly, law is a universal rule; it must be applied to all citizens equally. Exceptions would kill it,
because people readily disobey a law if they see that it is not enforced upon some persons or
sections of society. Lastly, law must be sanctioned by force behind it. But this force must be
both physical and moral. The state must rely more on moral force than on physical compulsion
to enforce its laws.
SOURCES OF LAW
Following are the six sources of law:-
1. Custom or Usage.
2. Religion
3. Judicial Decisions
4. Scientific Commentaries.
5. Equity.
6.Legislation
KIND OF LAWS :
1.National Law
All the political or positive laws made by the state are called national laws. They are also called
municipal laws. They are the result of the sovereignty of the state and are enforced within its
jurisdiction or national boundaries.
Further divided into two categories
i. constitutional law
The body of laws which determines and regulates the powers and functions of the various
organs or departments of the state, the relations between the governor and the governed and
their rights is called the Constitutional Law. It may be written or unwritten. It may grow by
itself, as in England, or it may be specially framed and adopted by a constitution-making
assembly, in which case it is called the constitution, as in Pakistan,India and other countries.
Constitutional law is a public law, but every public law is not a constitutional law.
ii.Ordinary Law.
All other national laws which are not constitutional laws, are included in the Ordinary Law.
There is an important distinction between the two. Constitutional law organises the structure of
the state, while the ordinary law is made by the state. The state is both the child and the parent
of law.
2.Public Law.
It includes all the laws which regulate the relation between the state or its departments and
the citizens. It protects the rights of the citizens against the state. Some jurists include
constitutional law also in public law. It is subdivided into administrative and general laws.
i.Administrative Laws. In some states, like France, there are special laws and courts to try the
offences of the state officials which they have committed in the discharge of their official duties.
The laws which regulate the relations of the government officials and employees to private
citizens are called Administrative Law or Droit Administrative. This law is administered by
special courts called the administrative courts. In U.K., Pakistan and British Dominions the Rule
of Law prevails.
ii.General Law. It determines the relations of private citizens to the state. It is further divided .
into Criminal Law and Criminal Procedure.
3.Private Law. It regulates the relations between private citizens. It defines their rights and
duties. The state creates this law and guarantees life, property and honour of its citizens.
Private law consists of the Civil Law and its various branches, like the law of inheritance,
transfer of property, of contract, torts, civil procedure, etc. Substantive and Procedural Law.
Laws can also be classified according to their contents or rights. Laws which create, define and
describe rights are called Substantive Laws. Laws which provide a method of protecting rights
are called Procedural or Adjective Laws. So, the Criminal and Civil Laws are substantive laws,
while the Criminal and Civil Procedure Codes are procedural laws. Criminal Law and Procedure.
The state maintains peace and order as its primary duty and function. Any attack on the life,
liberty and property of any citizen or person is regarded by the state as an attack on itself,
because it is an offence against peace and order it maintains. Such an attack or violation of
rights of the citizens is called an offence or crime against the state. The laws which prohibit
such violations of peace and order and punish the crimes and offences constitute the Criminal
Law. The method by which the state brings the offenders to book is called the criminal
procedure. The idea of the criminal law is a modern one. In earlier ages, crimes, such as
murder, etc., were regarded as private acts to be avenged by the injured party, and could be
settled by money payments. But now the crimes are regarded as offences against public peace
and order and are punished by the state, i.e., by the judges. Formerly, the state was a third
party in criminal cases, now the injured party is a third party. That is why such cases are
described as ”The State vs. So-and-so” or ”Crown vs. So-and-so”.
Civil Law and Procedure. i Civil law describes and protects the civil rights, e.g. regarding
property, debts, inheritance, etc. Civil procedure lays down the method or procedures by which
civil rights can be protectd by the state, which stands as an umpire in the disputes between
private citizens. Laws can also be classified on the basjs of the source or authority which has
made them: such as statute law, ordinance, etc.
Statute Law:
The ordinary law of land enacted by its legislature is called a statute or statutory law. Statute
law includes both civil and criminal laws, public and private laws, constitutional and
administrative laws. Statutes are written in a Statute Book. The British Parliament or the
legislature in Pakistan passes many statutes every year.
Ordinance:
Temporary injunctions issued by the executive for dealing with some emergency are known as
Ordinances. In Britain the executive also issues another kind of laws called the Orders-in-
Councils. According to the strict democratic theory, the executive should not make laws,
because it endangers liberty of the individual. But the ordinances are justified on the ground of
an emergency during which the legislature may not be sitting, and also on ground of its
temporary duration.
GREAT SYSTEMS OF LAW

Dictatorship:
Dictatorship is defined as the rule of one man who exercises absolute power in the state,
sometimes derived from and aided by a political party, or by a clique.
It is an antithesis to democracy, because dictatorship is, firstly, government by decree rather
than by law; secondly, the dictator is not accountable before any parliament or representative
body, and thirdly, there is no limitation on the duration of the dictator’s authority. He holds
power till he dies or is overthrown.
Modern dictatorships can be classified into three distinct types:
They are communist, nationalist and fascist dictatorships.
HISTORY :
These dictatorship arose during the First World War (1914-18). First of all arose the Communist
Dictatorship in Russia in 1917. Then, in 1921, Kemal Ataturk established a nationalist
dictatorship in Turkey. Soon after, in 1922, Benito Mussolini established his Fascist dictatorship
in Italy. Then several monarchical, nationalistic and fascist dictatorships were set up in several
European countries, like Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Rumania, Greece, etc. In 1933,.
arose the most ferocious of all the fascist dictatorships, the Hitlerite dictatorship of Germany,
usually called Nazi Dictatorship. Soon after the Asian brand of fascist dictatorship was
established in Japan. The three Fascist Dictatorships of Italy, Germany and Japan entered into a
military alliance for aggression and conquest. They feverishly prepared for a world war which
they started in 1939, called the World War II, which ended in 1945 with the utter destruction of
the three Fascist powers. Mussolini was hanged by angry Italians; Herr Hitler died in an air-raid
shelter in Berlin, but the Japanese war-lords escaped without much thrashing, because they
hurriedly and skilfully surrendered to the Americans who nurtured them into their brand of
democracy. Fascist dictatorship existed in Franco’s Spain, till his death and in Pinochet’s Chile
till recently. The nationalist dectatorship of Turkey has now become a democracy. Only
Communist Dictatorship of Russia still goes strong, rather modified by the pcrestroika and
glasnost policies of President Gorlochev in recent years but mainly because of her progress in
industry, and science and technology. In post-World War II years we have witnessed the rise of
several communist dictatorships, as in China and several East European countries where, they
have overthrown the former Fascist dictatorships after the defeat and destruction of Nazi
Germany, Later on several nationalist dictatorships rose to power, as in Egypt, Iraq, Indonesia,
South Korea, Thailand and military dictatorships, e.g., in Burma, Pakistan, Bangladesh.
Main Features of Dictatorship: As distinguished from democracy or constitutional form of
government, dictatorship, both ancient and modern* possesses some characteristic features.
They are as follows:
1. A crisis product: All kinds of dictatorships are products of crisis, whether it is due to
constitutional, political, social, economic or religious reasons. In ancient Rome, one-man
despotism was set up to overcome some unresolvable crisis or emergency. But most of the
modern dictatorships arise during a national crisis which a strong man, a military leader, or a
leader of a political party or clique or group believes he can resolve successfully. Once in power,
the dictator continues to stick to power till death or when overthrown by a new dictator or by
the people revolting against him as they did against Ayub Khan in Paksitan in 1969, or against
Marcos in Philipines in 1987 or against NeWin in Burma in 1988 or against many communist
dictotarships in Eastern Europe during 1989-90.
2. Arbitrary exercise of power: Dictatorship is characterised by arbitrary exercise of power.
Every dictator acquires absolute and exclusive monopoly of power. Once firmly in power, he
usually gets rid of his collaborator or collaborators in one way or the other.
3. Aggressive and dynamic methods of decision-making:
Decisions and policies in dictatorship are very aggressively and dynamically implemented. This
is, really, one of the reasons why dictatorship is often more successful than democracy. But
only for a few years.
4. Employment of despotic methods of political and social control: Dictators employ force,
terror or intimadation and propaganda to make people obey their decisions, laws and policies.
Political parties are banned; newpapers are suppressed; and civil libaties or fundamental rights
arc done away with.
 5. Abolition of constitutional or legal basis of political power: By its very nature, dictatorship
means a system of government which has acquired power by unconstitutional and illegal
methods. The first thing a dictator does is to abolish the constitution or to restrict its
application. What is more, a dictatorship can be put to an end by violence or revolution. In
other words, dictatorship often comes to power through bloodshed and can be got rid of by
further bloodshed.
Organisation of Dictatorship or totalitarianism.
The political organisation of a dictatorship is simple, especially of the Fascist dictatorship. The
state is ruled by one man usually called the Leader, or by one party which possesses supreme
power. No other political party is allowed to exist.
The ideal of Nazism and Fasciasm was ”one reich (i.e. state), one people, one leader.” The state
controls and regulates everything, and every activity of the citizens. The Fascists worshipped
the state. As Mussolini said, ’The state is to be all-embracingg; outside it no human or spirtitual
values can exist, much less have any value. Fascism is totalitarian,”
The Fascist ideal of the state is expressed thus: ”Everything for the state; nothing outside it and
nothing against it.” The individual has no rights, but has many duties. Mussolini put it thus: the
duties of a citizen are ”To believe (in the Leader), to obey, to fight.”
The Nazis twisted the old commandment to ”render unto Caesa’r what is Caesar’s and unto
God what is God’s” as thus, ”Render unto Caesar what is Caesar’s and render also unto Caesar
what belongs to God.” Nationalist dictatorship usually endeavours to separate religion from
politics, as did Kcmal Ataturk of Turkey, or later Nasser of the U.A.R. It is secularistic in politics.
In other word, Fascist dictatorship subordinates religion to the state, Communist dictatorship
abolishes it • altogether, while nationalist dictatorship separates politics from religion.
. Defects of Dictatorship. I As a form of government, dictatorship has a number of defects, as
follows:-
1. Dictatorship regards the state as the end and the individual as the means. Dictatorship is
totalitarian: it controls everything and regulates every activity of the individual and the society.
It is authoritarian, for it provides unlimited and absolute power to the state over the citizens
and state. The individual has no life arid no rights of his own apart from what the state gives
him. It has been rightly remarked that in a totalitarian state there are no individual rights but
only state
2. Dictatorship is based on force and violence and not on discussion and argument. In
democracy decisions are reached by discussion, argument and persuasion, whereas in
dictatorship by force and violence. Dictatorship demands obedience; democracy relies on
persuasion and compromise. Democracy presumes differences of opinion among the
people,’but dictatorship forces conformity and uniformity of opinion among them.
3. Dictatorship leads to apathy in public life. As no opposition and criticism of the government is
permitted or tolerated under the dictatorship, the people become indifferent and apathetic to
the affaris of the state. In dictatorship the people are asked not to think but to obey the Leader
and follow him blindly to wherever he leads them. ”
4. Fascist dictatorship spreads war and aggression. While communist and nationalist
dictatorships pose to be peaceful, friendly and cooperative in their relations with foreign
countries and nations, fascist dictatorship is openly revenge-seeking, aggressive, imperialistic
and hostile towards other nations and countries. It is born with a sword in its hand and
prepares feverishly for war and conquest, for its eyes are fixed on what the Nazis called the
”lebensimun”, that is, ”living space”, consisting of conquered lands and enslaved nations.
5. Finally, dictatorship is not a permanent institution. Dictatorship lasts so long as the dictator
lives or keeps himself in power. Fascist dictatorship not only lives by the sword but perishes by
the sword. It is destroyed by the fires of the war it has itself kindled.
Merits of Dictatorship.
1. It makes government strong. Dictatorship is claimed as the regime of a ”strong man who
gets things done.’ The reason is that it is a centralized government, in which no opposition
parties are allowed and no criticism is permitted. All energies of the state are concentrated on
the achievement of aims and ideals for which the dictatorship stands. The dictator gives a
strong and efficient government to the country he rules. Hence dictatorship possesses vigour
and energy.
2. for efficient and prompt administration
Dictatorship is strong and more effcient and prompt than democracy in handling emergencies.
Democracy works by committes, discussions, parliamentary debates, persuasion and
compromise. Hence it takes democracy long to decide a question and execute decision. It
seems to be particularly slow when an emergency or a crisis demands a quick decision and
prompt action. A dictator, on the contrary, needs no committee, no or parliament and no
opponents to persuade, convince or compromise.
An authoritarian regime,” writes Dr. Arnold Toynbac, ”can produce immediate effective results
with a smaller staff of efficient and public-spirited men and women than a democratic regime
can.” The Communist Dictatorship in Soviet Russia has achieved in industry and science in 50
years what took two centuries to democratic England and U.S.A. to achieve.
3. Low crime rates.

In a dictatorship, usually, there are very strict rules and punishment for even a small crime or
violation of the law. Such strict punishments arise threat among people. Thus there are lower
crimes as compared to the countries which do not have a dictator form of government.
FASCISM :
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology and
movement, characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible
suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual
interests for the perceived good of the nation and race, and strong regimentation of society
and the economy.
Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-
century Europe, characterized by one-party totalitarian regimes run by charismatic dictators,
glorification of violence, and racist ideology.
HISTORY AND EMERGENCE OF FASCISM :
In this essay I will explain the nature of fascism and its impact in the inter-war Europe and I will
analyse its basic ideas. In the first part of my essay, I will present the social, political and
economical background that allowed fascism to appear as an ideology in both Italy and
Germany, two of the fascist states. In the second part, I will analyse the fundamental ideas that
shaped the doctrine of fascism. In order to explain their meaning, I will also use certain
examples, regarding the Italian and German fascism. This way, I will be able to emphasis what
these two types of fascism have in common, but also what differentiates them. In the end, I will
state my conclusion, based on arguments.
The rise of the radical right wing after the First World War was, without a doubt, a reaction to
the social revolutions and the power of the labor class in general, to Leninism and communism.
In order to find the roots of fascism and understand the rise of this new political ideology, it is
necessary to examine the elements and the circumstances which allowed fascism to be
established. Many historicals argue that fascism is the consequence of the crisis that fallowed
the First World War, war that caused damages and economic crisis in most of the European
countries. The socond source of the political instability created in the inter-war period was the
rise and the threat from the left wing, communism, as a proletarian socialist revolution became
reality. The First World War and the victory of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917
shattered the trust of many European nations in democracy. These two main events also
contributed to the rise of new revolutionary ideas.
As I previously stated, fascism took many forms such as Italian fascism, German nazism,
Romanian legionarism,or French fascism in the1920s but many historians tried to find the
reasons why fascism firstly appeared in Italy. In Italy, many events created the necessary
background for establishing fascism as a new ideology and as a political system. Historians
argue that the liberal regime was imposed in Italy and this regime did not try to represent the
mass of the people. The liberal regime failed to enssure political freedom, it used repression
against mass protests and only the economical elite groups were able to take part in the
political life. The mass of the society, which was poor, was excluded from participation in
politics. (De, Grand Alexander J. Italian Fascism. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2000. Print.)
The First World War had devastating consequences for the liberal regime and for the entire
Italy. Ten years after Italy joined the war, the liberal regime has been replaced by a fascist
dictatorship, destroying a political system that has lasted for 50 years. Between 1918-1922,
Italy faced the economic crisis and the disappointment after the war. From an economic point
of view, the war led to increasing taxes and debt of the Italian state which was forced to rely on
loans and inlation. These resulted in a sharp increase of prices, unmatched by wages, and, in a
lower proportion than in Germany, but still quite strong, the misery of popular classes and the
poverty of the middle class.
From a political point of view, a feeling of discontent among masses was created by the way
that Italy was treated after the war ended. Even if Italy was part of the victorious countries, its
territorial claims regarding the Dalmatia province and the city of Fiume, both located on the
border with Croatia, were rejected by the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. After the treaties
were signed with the defeated states, Italy remained the only victorious country which did not
achieve its goals. This event generated among Italians strong emotions against the President
Woodrow Wilson, against the U.S, and, by extension, against the values he represented. The
mass of the society also accused the liberal government for being incapable of defending its
interests during the Paris Peace Conference, in 1919.
Until 1921, Italy was governed by weak coalitions. At the end of this year, fascist groups were
attacking the socialists, gaining the support of nationalists and the support of those who were
afraid of a new Bolshevik revolution. Having the necessary economical and political background
for coming with new ideas to establish the political and economical order, and also the support
of the mass of the society, fascists and their leader, Benito Mussolini gained, in the end, all the
political power, becoming the leader of Italy. After Mussolini negocieted the fascists’ entrace in
the Italian government in the summer of 1922, later this year, in October, he increased the
pressure, organizing the March on Rome, with the intention of taking the political power from
the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III, by force. Facing such a threat, the old regime collapsed,
the government resigned and Mussolini became the prime minister of Italy. In the following 3
years, he gained all the political power and this way, Italy became a totalitarian state, led by
Benito Mussolini.
In Germany, the rise of fascism was also a result of the First World War and the Bolshevik
revolution, even if there can be found some differences in the social, economical and political
background where it was established. The major difference between these two fascist countries
is that Germany was one of the defeated countries at the end of the war. According to the
terms and conditions of the treaty signed in June 1919 at Versaille, Germany was ordered to
pay massive war reparations to many countries, which damaged its economy. It also lost many
territories and military restrictionas were imposed. In few words, it lost a big amount of money,
social capital and of course, money. The humiliations imposed by the victorious states,
associated with the difficulties that Germany met during the economic recession, created a
feeling of among the people which ,lacking a democratic political culture were relatively easy to
manipulate. All these created the necessary background for Adolf Hitler to join the political
stage and promote his nazist ideas, mentioned in his book, Mein Kampf. Even though the
circumstances were favorizing the rise of a new regime, Hitler also needed to be supported by
the mass of the society. In order to gain the trust of the German nation, he promised to restore
the pride of Germany in the world. As the Depression was an important issue in Germans’ poor
quality life, he promised to solve all the economical problems by restoring the profits of small
businesses and the value of savings, by ending unemployment and, as the majority of the
people feared communism, Hitler ensured them that he will end the communist threat. Gaining
people’s support and winning the elections, Adolf Hitler became the unique leader of Germany,
establishing a totalitarian, fascist state.
As an ideology , fascism is hard to analyse given the following factors. First of all , it is a
conglomerate of negative characteristics , anti-liberalism , anti-democratic, anti-capitalist, anti-
bourghois, anti-communist, and it is hard to establish what it stands for and what it condemns.
Secondly, it is an eclectic ideology, a vision of the world , as Hitler considered it, much like a
religious vision which asks for blind belief, obedience and leaves no space for criticism and
debate.
Nazism is the unique variety of fascism that involved biological racism and anti-Semitism. From
all of the forms in which fascism manifested , the Nazi regime was the most brutal , bloody and
which contained genocide proportions. One of the main purposes of the Nazi was the complete
extermination of the Jews which they blamed for all the existent problems in Germany.
Definitory for the Nazi regime was not only the brutal supression, by violating the rights of the
citizens, and mass extermination , but also an aggressive foreign policy, unleashing World War
II, to achieve global domination for Germany.
Even though the Italian fascism was not based on racism, after joining the Axis in 1936, the
Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, started a campaign against Jews, giving the discriminating laws.
The persecution of Jews started in the late period of the Second World War, when Italy was
under Nazi control.
In fascist Italy the central element of the ideology was the corporatist state seen as a very
important instrument in the development of the country. With the uprising of Benito Mussolini
in 1922, the italian economy was reorganised in the corporatist spirit, as opposed to the
bourghois state, which was thought to lack discpline and method, absorbing all the activities
without achieving any productivity.The main idea was that the state could become more
powerful if properly organised, the individual was to be judged only in relationship to the state
and his value beyond this relationship is useless. So, one of the central principles of fascism is
the supremacy of the nation over individuals.
Based on imperialism policies and the idea to constantly expand , fascism , in particular , Nazism
, led to the World War II.To summarize, this regime proposed the regeneration of the social ,
economic and cultural life, as well as the ethnic identity principles. The rise and fall of fascism
shows some general characteristics, which point its strenghts and weaknesses. Firstly , fascism
was build on the background of a profound social crisis which weakened the existent political
regime. For example , it was relatively easy for the italian people to support Mussolini’s plans to
create a new type of state which would transform Italy in a superpower as it was during the
Roman Empire and Renaissance. Also , fascism was a charismatic form of politics, which relied
on the extraordinary abilities of the party and its leader. It was an extraordinary persuasion of
the masses gathered around an idea. In this spirit , fascism was an attempt to fight to
urbanisation , the clash between social classes and other problems of the modern society
In conclusion, fascism represented a great ideology which, along with liberalism, communism,
conservatism, socialism, and democracy, shaped the 20th century. The interest in fascism and
its crime increased considerably in the 21st century.
 The following are the principles of Fascism:
(1) Fascism is not based on doctrines but reality:
It is difficult to answer this question because it is not a political theory. Mussolini very often
repeated, “My programme is action. Fascism is not nursing of a doctrine worked beforehand
with detailed elaboration. It was born of the need for action and was from beginning practical
rather than theoretical”
He said, “Fascism is based on reality, Bolshevism is based on theory…. We want to be definite
and real. We want to come out of the cloud of discussion and theory. My programmes are
action and not talk”. On another occasion, he said, “Fascism is a great combination of material
and moral forces… It aims at governing the nation”.
Mussolini himself said, “We permit ourselves the luxury of being aristocrats and democrats,
conservatives and progressive, reactionaries and revolutionaries and legalitarions, according to
circumstances of time, place and environment”. That is why Sabine has said, “Fascism is a body
of ideas taken from different sources put together to fit exigencies of the situation”.
(2) Fascism believed in dictatorship of one national leader and repudiated democracy:
Mussolini said that democracy is not suitable for Italy. He had no belief in three main bases of
democracy, liberty, equality and fraternity. He declared that freedom is not the right of the
people; it is the kindness of the state. It depends upon the sweet will of the state whether to
give rights to the people or not.
Mussolini had no faith in universal brotherhood.
Mussolini had a blind faith in dictatorship, because he believed that the Italians were not so
capable as to guide their leaders. But the need was that the national leaders should guide them
by performing their duties selflessly.
Mussolini imposed restrictions on all political parties except on his own Fascist party. He
controlled the press also. In this way, he stopped all criticism of the government. Mussolini
emphasised on three elements of dictatorship, i.e., responsibility, obedience to one leader and
discipline.
(3) It is opposed to Individualism:
The Individualists believed that individual is an end and the state is a means to an end. Contrary
to this, Fascism says individual as a means and the state is end. The Fascists believed that state
is a Spiritual Organism. Therefore, according to them, the individual will have the same place in
the state as the organs in the body.
A famous Fascist writer Rocco says, “We do not, however, accept a Bill of Rights which tends to
make individual superior to the state and empowers him to act in opposition to society. Our
concept of freedom is that the individual must be allowed to develop his personality on behalf
of the State.
(4) Fascism believes in Totalitarian State:
According to Fascism, state has the right to control all spheres of the state. The state is
considered Supreme in social, economic and political fields. Mussolini’s interference and
leadership was seen in all walks of life. He established discipline in all the spheres economic,
administrative and educational. He said, “All within the state, nothing outside the state.”
(5) It believes in violence, force and imperialism:
The Fascists believe that the solution of international disputes through peaceful means is not
possible. Therefore, they believe in violence and force. Mano Carli writes, “Fascism is from war
and in war it must find its outlet.” Mussolini was a firm believer in imperialism. He conquered
Ethiopia in order to enhance the power, reputation and prestige of his country.
(6) Fascism opposes internationalism tooth and nail:
Mussolini had no faith in universal brotherhood. He said that no co-ordination was possible in
the interest of all the nations. That was why he gave up the membership of the League of
Nations and adopted the policy of military alliance and victory, as a result of this policy, the
Second World War broke out in which there was a heavy loss of men and material.
(7) Fascism believes in the National State:
Fascism believed that sovereignty lay with the national state and not with the individual and it
had the right to utilise it without any restriction. The Fascists lay special emphasis on patriotism
and nationalism. They believed that war was essential for the enhancement of nation’s prestige
and power.
(8) Fascists supported the corporate state:
The Fascists said that the state was not a collection of people but it consisted of many
corporations, which could be considered a unit of social and political life. That is why the
Fascists were in favour of forming a separate organisation of different professions.
Joad is of the view, “Corporations should be subordinate parts of the whole which is the state
specialised channels through which the State’s will is canalised and diffused for special
purpose.”
(9) Opposition of socialism and Communism:
The Fascists are bitter opponents of Socialism and Communism. They do not believe in Marx’s
materialistic interpretation, class struggle and the Theory of Surplus Value, on the contrary,
they say that the capitalists and the labourers should give up their selfish interests and should
work in the interest of the nation.
They are not in favour of the abolition of capitalism and private property completely, but
instead they want a system in which the profits of the capitalists are controlled, and the wages
of the workers are fixed by the state. The disputes between the capitalists and the labourers
should be decided by Industrial Courts.
(10) New Economic System:
The Fascists neither liked the individualists’ contention that the state should not interfere in the
economic affairs of the individual nor believed in the socialist’s policy of the socialisation of
industries. They wanted to nationalise only a few important industries for the society. As
regards the rest, they allowed private ownership. In the larger interest of the country, they
wanted to control and regulate it. They said that neither the capitalists nor the workers would
be allowed to work against the national interest, because their interests were not above the
interests of the nation.
Criticism of Fascism:
Fascism has been bitterly criticised because it encourages violence, dictatorship and bloodshed.
It is a symbol of imperialism. It destroys world peace. Because of the Fascists policies of Hitler
and Mussolini, the Second World War broke out in which there was a great loss of men and
material.
The Fascists’ opposition to democracy is also not proper. Because of their actions, every type of
freedom is destroyed. There is no scope of debate in Fascism and complete development of
individual is not possible. Everybody has to obey the orders of one leader blindly, whether one
likes him or not.
Importance of Fascism:
It orders to evaluate a theory properly, it is essential to keep in view its good and bad aspects.
Therefore, we have to take into consideration its importance side by side with its criticism. If
there were no good features in it, it would not have appealed to the people of Italy so much.
Fascism laid emphasis on patriotism, discipline and national unity in place of class-struggle. It
enhanced the national prestige in the international field by establishing industrial peace and
increased production. This enhanced the prestige of the people of Italy. Italy was defeated
during the Second World War, Mussolini was killed and Fascism came to an end.
CAUSES OF FASCISM IN ITALY AND GERMANY :
In Germany and Italy, the economic depression weakened the existing governments. As people
demanded change, a political movement that believed in an extremely strong, national
government, called fascism, became popular in these countries.

 Italy’s postwar mass unemployment

 chaotic political party conflicts
 strikes by socialists and communists.
 Chaos ensued as peasants seized land, workers went on strike, veterans faced
unemployment, trade declined, and taxes rose. The government could not end the
crisis. Into this turmoil stepped Benito Mussolini, the organizer of the Fascist party.
 1- Discontentment after the treaty of Versailles- Italy had joined the Anglo-French
alliance against Germany and her allies in the First World War as Britain had promised
large chunks of territory after their victory. However, the promise went unkempt to a
certain extent. She had only two islands in the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Among
Italians, there was a feeling of being let down.
 2- Economic crises in Germany and Italy, heavy losses, unemployment, shortage of
food grains. At the end of the war, thousands of soldiers in Italy had become
unemployed. Industrialization had not progressed and unemployment was on the rise.
Even the unemployed working class felt the pinnacle of inflation with low wages and
poor working conditions. There were a frequent strike and agrarian riots.
 3- Political instability in Germany and Italy- Democracy was introduced in Italy in
1919, Collision Government, different parties and different polices, No continuity
policies. Similar conditions existed even in Germany.

POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION :
Political socialization is the process by which individuals learn and
frequently internalize a political lens framing their perceptions of how power is arranged and
how the world around them is (and should be) organized; those perceptions, in turn, shape and
define individuals' definitions of who they are and how they should behave in the political and
economic institutions in which they live."
Political Legitimacy
Political legitimacy describes people’s level of belief in the validity, honesty, and fairness of
their country’s political processes, such as elections. People are far more likely to be confident
that a highly legitimate political process will result in honest leaders who respond to their needs
while rarely abusing their governmental powers.
Political Efficacy
Political efficacy refers to individuals’ level of trust that by participating in the political process
they can bring about change in the government. People who feel a high level of political efficacy
are confident that have the knowledge and resources necessary to take part in the political
process and that the government will respond to their efforts.
Agents of socialization
Agents of socialization, sometimes referred to as institutions, work together to influence and
shape people's political and economic norms and values. Such institutions include, but are not
limited to: families, media, peers, schools, religions, work and legal systems.[1]
Agents
1. Family: Families perpetuate values that support political authorities and can heavily
contribute to children's initial political ideological views, or party affiliations. [2] Families
have an effect on "political knowledge, identification, efficacy, and participation",
depending on variables such as "family demographics, life cycle, parenting style,
parental level of political cynicism and frequency of political discussions." [3]
2. Schools: Spending numerous years in school, children in the United States are taught
and reinforced a view of the world that "privileges capitalism and ownership,
competitive individualism, and democracy."[1] Through primary, secondary and high
schools, students are taught key principles such as individual rights and property,
personal responsibility and duty to their nation.
3. Media: Mass media is not only a source of political information; it is an influence on
political values and beliefs. Various media outlets, through news coverage and late-night
programs, provide different partisan policy stances that are associated with political
participation.[3]
4. Religion: Religious beliefs and practices play a role in political opinion formation and
political participation. This is evident, for instance, in Arab societies where there is no
clear distinction between political cultures and religions. The theological and moral
perspectives offered by religious institutions shape judgement regarding public policy,
 and ultimately, translates to direct "political decision making on governmental matters
such as the redistribution of wealth, equality, tolerance for deviance and the limits on
individual freedom, the severity of criminal punishment, policies relating to family
structure, gender roles, and the value of human life." [4]
5. Political parties: Scholars such as Campbell (1960) note that political parties have very
little direct influence on a child due to a contrast of social factors such as age, context,
power, etc.[5]
6. The state: The state is a key source of information for media outlets, and has the ability
to "inform, misinform, or disinform the press and thus the public", a strategy which may
be referred to as propaganda, in order to serve a political or economic agenda. [1]
Media's effects
In children[edit]
Political socialization begins in childhood. Some research suggests that family and school
teachers are the most influential factors in socializing children, but recent research designs
have more accurately estimated the high influence of the media in the process of political
socialization. On average, both young children and teenagers in the United States spend more
time a week consuming television and digital media than they spend in school. Young children
consume an average of thirty-one hours a week, while teenagers consume forty-eight hours of
media a week. Research has also shown that children who consume more media than others
show greater support for and understanding of American values, such as free speech. This may
be because eighty percent of the media content children consume is intended for an adult
audience. In addition, the impact of the messages is more powerful because children's brains
are "prime for learning", thus more likely to take messages and representations of the world at
face value.
In adulthood
Media's role into political socialization continues in adulthood through both fictional and factual
media sources. Adults have increased exposure to news and political information embedded in
entertainment; fictional entertainment (mostly television) is the most common source for
political information. The culmination of information gained from entertainment becomes the
values and standards by which people judge.
While political socialization by the media is lifelong process, after adolescence, people's basic
values generally do not change.. Studies show two-thirds of newspaper readers do not know
their newspaper's position on specific issues- and most media stories are quickly forgotten.
Studies on public opinion of the Bush administration's energy policies show that the public pays
more attention to issues that receive a lot of media coverage, and forms collective opinions
about these issues. This demonstrates that the mass media attention to an issue affects public
opinion. More so, extensive exposure to television has led to "mainstreaming", aligning
people's perception of political life and society with television's portrayal of it.
Patterns
There are different patterns in socialization based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, income,
education, geographic region, and city size. For example, generally, African Americans and
Hispanics rely on television for their information more than white people. More women than
men watch daytime television, and more men than women follow sports programs. Older
people read more newspapers than younger people, and people from the ages of twelve to
seventeen (although they consume the most media) consume the least amount of news.
Northerners listen to radio programs more than Southerners do. News outlets on the East
Coast tend to cover international affairs in Europe and the Middle East the most, while West
Coast news outlets are more likely to cover Asian affairs; this demonstrates that region affects
patterns in media socialization. Income level is also an important factor; high-income families
rely more on print media than television, and consume less television than most of the
population.

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT:
 The development of the institutions, attitudes, and values that form the political power
system of a society.
According Samuel Huntington, an American political scientist, political modernization consists
of three basic elements, the rationalization of authority, the differentiation of structure and
the expansion of political participation.[9]
While rustow explained five stages
  Traditional stage
 Drive to maturity
 Take off stage
 Mass Production stage
 Past mass production stage
CHARACTERISTICS
1. EQUALITY
2. CAPACITY
3. SECULARIZATION AND DIFFERENTIATION
Political development enhances the state's capacity to mobilize and allocate resources, to
process policy inputs into implementable outputs. This assists with problem‐solving and
adaptation to environmental changes and goal realization. The contemporary notion of good
governance also dwells on efficient, effective, and non‐corrupt public administration.
Many Marxists define political development in advanced industrial societies in terms of the
growth of the class consciousness and political organization of the proletariat, leading,
ultimately, to the overthrow of capitalism and the approach of communism. A more common
(though ethnocentric) and currently very fashionable view is progress towards liberal
democracy, involving accountable government, and opportunities for participation (also seen
by some as an aspect of modernization, rather than development), through the exercise of such
freedoms as association and expression.
Almond says, it is necessary that ”the study of politics must be a dynamic system-and-process
analysis, and not a static and structural one.” By political development Almond means any
situation or challenge which compels a political system to change or re-adjust its culture or
structure. Cultural change is due to secularization and structural change due to differentiation
of roles. Development can be produced due to problems and challenges for change, which are
of five kinds, as under. 1. State-building: It is an integrative response to the challenges
confronting a political system.
2. Nation-building: It is the system-development by promoting the loyalty and commitment of
its nation or people.
3. Participatory Development: this type of change coines in the form of the pressure from the*
groups in the society for having a part or share in the decisionmaking process. It is the
participatory development of the political system which tends to make it a democracy.
4. Economy building: By using political system to greater production.
5. Distributory Development: The pressure from the domestic society to employ the decision-
making authority of the political system to redistribute income, wealth, opportunity and honour
leads to distributory development. It will make it a welfare state. If we know the demands,
challenges or pressures from within the environment, both domestic and international, around
a political system and the kind of its responses to them, we can predict how it will develop.
These challenges may not come singly but jointly, which Almond calls ”the challenge of
cumulative demands or revolutions”. He writes further: ”it is generally recongnised that a major
problem in the new nations (of the Third World) today is the cumulative revolutions they have
to face. People demand participation, national unity, economic betterment, law and order,
simultaneously and immediately.” Moreover, development in one part of a political system may
give rise to demands or pressure in the other”; parts. For instance, when the educational
system of a country develops, the demand for participation in the decision-making process will
also arise. On the other hand, illiteracy lowers the demand of the people for participation. But it
will generate pressures in other directions. Illiteracy lowers the productive capabilities of the
people and thereby lessen the resources of the political system and thus renders it incapable of
meeting the demands and pressures from other directions. The consequent overload of the
demands, etc., may cause law and order problem and thus result in the instability of the
political system. Almond writes, ”The extent to which the’ political system is loaded or
overloaded will vary with the capabilities of other social systems in the domestic society and
the international system,” That is the reason why the functioning pattern of a political system is
itself another factor in its stability. Almond writes, ”Some kinds of political systems can
withstand demand and support fluctuations better than others.” For instance, a political system
with a good administrative services or a strong army can maintain law and order better and
resist anomic demands, i.e., riot-causing demands of certain groups or of the people in it.
Similarly, ”a system geared to a high level of responsiveness to inputs from many sources can
cope with demands from new groups and with loss of support from some old ones. Some
systems are geared for change and adaptation; others are not.” These are the problems of
political development
Two Kinds of Developments: Political development can be, in general, of two kinds:
secularization of political culture and differentiation of political structure.
i) Secularization: Almond defines it as thus: ”Secularization is a process of attitude change,
whereby people become more oriented to cause-and effect relationships they can see in the
world around them.” It results from the spread of education and communication media and
from the development of science and technology. In the secular culture, individuals tend to
believe in their ability to shape their environment. They also adopt such courses of action as
help them in shaping their environment. Take the example of modern political leader and of a
tribal chief in a tribal society. A modern political leader carefully studies the demands of the
people of his constituency in order to win majority of their votes at the time of election. He
gathers information about the constituency, such as the needs of its people, which will help him
in winning election. He makes estimates of the distribution and intensity of the demands of one
kind or another. He uses his creative imagination and understanding to arrive at such a possible
combination of demands which increases his chances of winning a majority of votes in his
constituency. The tribal chief needs make none of such efforts. Instead, he relies on the
customs and the traditional set of goals coming down to him from generations past. To this he
adds his social status or family and clan relations to win support for his decisions.
ii) Differentiation: Differentiation means change in the roles of a structure, the emergence of
new roles and the atrophy of the old ones. Almond writes, ”In differentiation roles [change and
become more specialized or autonomous, new types of specialized roles are established, or
new specialized structures and subsystems emerge or are created.” Specialized organisations
for collecting taxes, training officers, communicating messages, maintaining order, mobilising
support, and the like are introduced or become separate from earlier structures. For example,
courts are separated from other administrative departments and officers. It may be mentioned,
however, that cultural secularization and structural differentiation are not necessary or
inevitable processes in a political system. Instead, these trends may be reversed in it. For
instance, Roman Empire had a fairly great cultural secularization and structural differentiation.
But when these trends stopped, it became less secularized and less differentiated till it declined
and fell. However, it is due to these trends that we have different types of political systems.
POLITICAL RECRUITMENT : 1st concept
The recruitment of political candidates is a basic function of political parties: a party that cannot
attract and then nominate candidates surrenders its elemental opportunity for power. Two
stages may conveniently be distinguished in the process of recruitment. Certification includes
the social screening and political channeling that results in eligibility for candidacy,
while selection includes the actual choice of candidates to represent parties in the general
election. Selection is at the focus of the contest for power within parties.
Two modal institutional types of political selection: the convention system and the primary
system.
2ND CONCEPT :
political recruitment can be defined as a procedure where certain identified individuals are
hired for the public office.
CHALLENGES:
The challenges of political recruitment start when the elected political leaders who have the
power to influence different departments use this power unlawfully to recruit their people or
political workers. This process is known as commendation and due to this, uneducated people
fill different sectors of government offices and the deserving candidates are not given
opportunity and the merit system is thus not followed.
Satori defines party as any political group that takes place in the elections and through
elections, it is capable of placing candidates for public offices. The connection between parties,
appointments and the government is more complicated than the definitions may lead one to
suspect.
CANDIDATE SELECTION:
Candidate selection is the main activity of any political party, where political access is
traditionally controlled by ‘a series of “gatekeepers”, and the narrowest gate of all is that
guarded by the candidate selectors.’ While there are some exceptions to this statement – most
notably in the case of the Pakistan, political parties have exclusive control of the candidate
selection process, shaping the overall structure of the legislature and determining the
electorate. Thus, although voters ultimately elect candidates, political parties have effectively
already limited the options. Selecting candidates has become a key arena for intra-party power
struggles, and conflicts as it becomes a competition that who will be the controlling body in the
selection procedure.
POWER WITHOUT ELIGIBILITY:
This political recruitment selection process causes a lot of challenges for the whole state,
specially the citizens of that country. When people are given power without eligibility, they
start taking everything for granted. These people are supposed to be lawmakers, but become
lawbreakers because they know there is nobody to question them. Their selection guarantees
them a seat where they are not interrogated or asked about their wrongdoings.
GENDER INEQUALITY:
Among many other challenges of political recruitment; one is the gender inequality that we see
all around the globe when it comes to politics. While women are more than half of the world’s
population, only 20.2 per cent of parliamentarians worldwide are female (Inter-Parliamentary
Union, 2012). Political parties play a vital part in the selection and election of women and also
provide significant evidence that aspiring female candidates face substantial hindrance in the
recruitment procedure. In the history of Pakistan, a very few women actively participated in
Pakistan’s political affairs. Benazir Bhutto is the only female prime minister of Pakistan. Due to
gender discrimination as in other fields of life, women are also ignored in politics. A very few
seats are reserved for our women in both Senate and National assembly while Pakistan is a
country comprising women as its majority part. Mostly those who are recruited in Pakistan
belong to elite families or have a political background. So it becomes easy for them to get
higher posts and influence over other women.
MAJOR PARTIES IN PAKISTAN AND THE CHALLENGES:
Political recruitment comes with a number of challenges. Starting from the upper level, if we
see at the current stage of political development, the political landscape in Pakistan is
dominated by three parties with broad appeal and several smaller ones with limited reach. How
is the system likely to evolve? This critical question emphasizes that the evolution of Pakistan’s
economic difficulties will rely upon the restructuring of political system. Let’s begin with the
description of a political party.
A political party is defined as an organized group of people with roughly similar political aims
and opinions that seek to influence public policy by getting its candidate elected to public office.
Or it can be defined as an organization of people who share the same views about the way
power should be used in a country or society through government policymaking etc. Here are
some characteristics of the political parties present in Pakistan. There are around 90 French
political parties. Around a dozen mainstream political parties are present in the country. These
parties try to find breathing space and survive. However, keeping in view the diverse issues in
the country, Pakistan is considered as one of the fertile states for political parties.
Due to dictatorial political environment, Pakistan’s political parties seems to be
underdeveloped. An imbalance can be visualized between influential States and fragile political
institutions. Except the right wing religious political parties, the majority of political parties in
Pakistan are at least interested in any form of political education of the masses.
Nevertheless, of the three conventional parties only one, the Pakistan Tehreek-i-Insaf (PTI), can
be labelled as inclusive. The rest two — the Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz (PML-N) and the
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) — seems to be enterprises which are possessed by their families
since several generations. It won’t be wrong to say that the latter ones carry the name of an
individual in its nomenclature. Nawaz in the name refers to Nawaz Sharif, the head of the Sharif
family. All the senior leadership of the party comes from the same family. Nawaz Sharif was the
founding chairman of the party and his brother Shabaz Sharif has been Chief Minister of
Punjab. Hamza Shabaz, son of Shabaz Sharif is also in politics. And now Maryam Nawaz Sharif is
supposed to be next leader of the party. No one was allowed to rule the party apart from family
members.
It’s also accurate for the PPP. Regardless of the fact that the word ‘people’ is inculcated in their
party’s name still it is entirely encapsulated by the Bhutto family. The way PPP manages it
affairs, it seems it’s not content towards being democratic. After Benazir Bhutto’s assassination
in an election rally, Asif Ali Zardari claimed that he is now the party head according to a will
which was pre-written by Bibi Benazir. There was no provision that he would be elected by the
party membership. Zardari’s hunger for power did not end here. To secure his future, he
appointed his son, Bilawal as the party’s co-chairman. To attach emotional sentiment, he
hyphenated the son’s name by including Bhutto to his surname.
The ANP have a ritual of conducting an election in every four year interval. But most of the
time, Wali Khan’s (founder of the ANP) family has dominated the ANP history and the leader is
always from their family. Same is the case with MQM where Altaf Husain is the founder of party
from its birth. No other member has been given a chance to lead the party. If elections are not
held for the recruitment of the leader of party then other members of party are not given a
chance and nepotism continues. The people have been seeing the same faces as leaders of the
parties since decades.
NEPOTISM:
Being a citizen of the country, how can one expect that Pakistan would not be facing political
recruitment challenges, when such nepotism starts from the upper most level of the state? One
very major challenge that comes with political recruitment is favoritism. Favoritism has several
adverse side effects. Resultantly, it is regarded as unethical. These include discrimination,
corruption, productivity loss, reduced job satisfaction, increased inertia, and stress.
When talking about the challenges, one can raise a question that how can favoritism be
established in a country where every person in the parliament is elected by the people of that
country. Unfortunately, the election system itself is so corrupt that one cannot believe on the
facts and figures that come out at the end of the day. Furthermore, we see it in every election
cycle that promises are made before and broken after the election. An entire set of
encyclopedic volumes could be filled with the promises made by different governments.
Political parties, all of them, make promises to help their candidates stand out from the pack, so
that no one puts a question mark on their eligibility later on, and they could easily prove that
they came in power through people’s votes. But unfortunately, this is a mere tactic of political
recruitment and nothing else.
RECRUITMENT OF MINISTERS AND THEIR ADVISORS:
Even if we accept the fact that these people achieve their seats without any corruption, there is
still a question mark when the Prime Minister from his own party without any proper eligibility
criteria appoints different ministers. Coming one-step down, the ministers also show favoritism
when appointing their advisors. Obviously, they would appoint people that are true to them,
but in doing so they forget the challenges that rise when ineligible candidates reach such
appointments without any hard work or effort.
CORRUPTION:
Corruption is one of the biggest challenges that grow as a result of this type of political
recruitment. Such candidates are more worried about their own lifestyle rather than the
wellbeing of their country. These candidates are selected, and not eligible for their seats, which
is proved to be the root cause for loss of productivity and a good mind that can take decisions
better for their country. Many great minds and eligible candidates are left behind due to such
happenings. The country keeps on going deeper into economic crisis because the rich keep
growing richer, and the poor are left to be fed with lies.
BEREUCRACY NO MORE MERIT BASED:
The bureaucracy is amongst the few institutions that are supposed to be apolitical. Its members
cannot stand for political office or even campaign on behalf of other candidates. While it would
be naive to expect the institution to function purely without political influence – especially in
Pakistan – the CSB letting go of all standards of impartiality, is appalling, even by the perverted
standards of corruption and nepotism in this country. Before 2012 promotions to senior
positions were made on an impartial assessment agenda. Experience, seniority, reputation,
performance evaluation reports (PERs) and training evaluation reports (TERs) all contributed to
a score out of 100. Those above 75 were eligible for promotion. In the newly administered
formula, 85 is the average score and the CSB has the authority to award discretionary marks;
effectively vetoing those it doesn’t favor (mostly those who do not have the right political
connections). It is remarkable how easily the government converted a merit-based system to a
discretionary one, despite claims from the Prime Minister himself that the bureaucracy was to
remain neutral. It is a testament to the unfairness of the system that at least 64 other
bureaucrats filed petitions with the IHC against the promotions, saying that despite their
eligibility they were denied promotions because of the ‘controversial’ formula set by the federal
government.
ETHNICITY:
One of the major reasons of political based recruitment in civil services is due to ethnicity in
Pakistani politics. Punjabis are seen dominant in bureaucracy and this has affected other
provinces. The quota policy only constitutes 10% on the bases of merit and rest is according to
their standing within their provinces.
That’s where nepotism is seen, as the minister has the authority to appoint anyone on the seat,
rather than conducting a proper process of selection of tests and interviews on merit based
they select someone of their interest mostly relatives and give a fake advertisement of the post
of which the candidate is already selected and the deserving candidates are thus unemployed.
UNEMPLOYEMENT:
The biggest problem to unemployment is this political recruitment. The sharp minds and the
one’s qualifying are not given the chance and illiterate people with fake degrees are ruling
different government offices. This has a huge impact of country, whole system is disturbed and
a chain of nepotism and corruption starts and they further post their people and thus no one is
there to question political parties and they continue to damage country. Moreover, the
economic crisis that Pakistan is facing since long has put an effect to the salaries of employees
as well. Unfortunately, governments had to order minimum wages, which had an unintended
and deleterious impact on job opportunities for those younger people looking for jobs.
WAY FORWARD:
A DIGITAL VOTING SYSTEM:
The leaders of our two famous political parties have set the worst example of family politics.
Just to have an everlasting power and influence, these parties’ leaders try have made
amendments in the Constitution with mutual consent. In the 18th Amendment, they made
modifications to take hold of the party. If the party head feels that a certain party member is
not representing the party, he can write to the speaker and have him removed. According to
that amendment rule of intra, party elections have vanished. This amendment aims at favoring
the dictatorial behavior of party leaders. In this regard, Election reforms should be held in
which: Election commission of Pakistan should use digital voting system through National
Identity card which will verify the authentication of voting candidates and prevent from fake
and fraudulent measures. Moreover, Constitutional amendments regarding this tremendous
problem should be made, by mentioning the major policies related human development and
infrastructure development will be in constitution therefore, whosoever government comes
next after elections would be accountable to mandate this policy according to procedures.
LOOKING BEYOND THE NARROW INTERESTS ON RELIGION, ETHNIC OR SOCIAL AFFINITIES:
Moreover, to implement democracy in Pakistan the representatives should reach across the
narrow interests of religion, ethnic or social affinities. For this purpose, the politicians must
realize their responsibilities.
As Rounaq Jahan argues in her book, ― “Pakistan: Failure in National Integration”
From the start, political leaders have failed to develop a national political institution. The civil
society is partitioned into different groups representing religion, ethnic, languages etc., with a
dire absence of a national ideology.
EDUCATION AND CITIZEN AWARENESS:
Another reason of the democratic dysfunction in Pakistan is lack of awareness in the public.
Masses remain ignorant about their rights in a democratic state. The sole responsible for lack of
truthful democracy are all the politicians in power and in opposition. Elite class treat political
parties as a business venture. Resultantly, diversity of opinion is sidelined and the status quo is
sustained even if it’s unstable. Such affairs can be rectified by informing and educating citizens
about their say in running a democratic country. The recruitment and the training framework of
political party members must be re-designed. Their focus should be shifted to politicians at the
local level by giving them enough role in running the country.
The negative influence of the patronage politics of the elite can be reversed if the examples of
the successful leaders at a subnational level in Pakistan can be replicated at the larger national
canvas. While all efforts should be geared to make this mechanism work, the high degree of
political tensions among the major political parties, between the federation and the provinces,
highly concentrated, and exclusive-and non-participatory decision-making process, and the
current controversy about the sources of wealth of the first family, the prospects do not look
particularly promising for the present.
ACCOUNTABILITY:
Holding a government accountable, makes them function in a stable manner.
According to John Locke in his social contract theory,
Governments must be held accountable for their actions.
This way, elected representatives will try to eradicate corruption from their inner-self as they
will be constantly under the fear of getting removed in the next elections. Media is one of the
leading body which creates transparency by analyzing all the deeds and misdeeds of the
government. Suppressing media’s freedom of expression can result in revolt. Common public
eyes are opened to reality through news channels, internet and articles.
FIXING THE ROLE OF OPPOSITION:
The opposition party plays a significant role in the political framework of any country.
Nevertheless, their role should be an amalgam of criticism and constructivism. Unfortunately, in
Pakistan, we can witness that the opposition only criticizes without any aim to help the
government in making long-term constructive policies. They actually are not able to tolerate
beliefs and ideas that are different from their own. Resultantly, they have become intolerant
towards dissimilar opinions. In this globalized era, government’s opposition is not limited to
political parties only but extends to another form which is electronic and print media. This is
because the media keeps an eagle on the performance of both the government and the
opposition. Our values have changed dramatically with the time due to a corrupted form of
recruitment. If we can’t overcome this turmoil of political instability in our country, and attitude
of intolerance and aggression towards each other, as a nation, we must question that can we
afford another Dhakka fall?
CONCLUSION:
Pakistan really needs a drastic change in the government in order to have a good progress and
modify overall. The old and the present regime really needs to be ended, because this would
allow new institutions to emerge, or if the old ones do remain in place, it is high time that they
start functioning differently. More importantly, new actors often run the new institutions,
which means new eligible candidates could come forward for the betterment of the country.
There’s an enormous lot of youngsters aiming to become stakeholders. They are well aware
and politically charged due to the influence of media. The young lot needs to be the part of
political parties, election process and policy making. Involvement of fresh blood has become a
necessity in politics.
Moreover, in order to end this culture, politicization must be ended by making a certain degree
of constitutional protection to the civil services. We need a really strong exam system that
qualifies individuals for their respective seats, not only in the civil services, but also in every
department where candidates are simply selected without confirming their worthiness merely
on the basis of favoritism. Furthermore, the male and female citizens should be considered
equal, and be given a chance to come forward correspondingly as well. In order to increase the
decreasing rate of recruitment of women in politics, firstly all political parties should experience
extensive gender and minority-involvement audits. The part of women lawmakers has to be
strengthened so it paves ways for women laws, policies and improve the status of women. The
government and other authoritative individuals should formulate and enforce a plan such as
national gender action plan to obviate political inequality. The plan should highlight problems
from increasing the number of seats for women, guaranteeing senior positions in party, gender
equality in the ECP, compulsory representation of women in policy making, awareness and
education on political rights, providing women politicians with legal support and assistance to
face electoral misconducts, etc. Shaheed Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto, in ‘Reconciliation: Islam,
Democracy and the West’
“The law must be gender-blind. Democracy cannot work if women are subjugated, uneducated
and unable to be independent.”

In a nutshell, the political development in Pakistan can never be completely untangled from the
problems. Nonetheless, additional training and work can curtail these problems in the political
structure of Pakistan. To ensure this, the politicians and the leaders will have to be unified as a
nation and put in efforts as a whole, from the grassroots level up to the highest leaders. As a
solution to the problems, existing in the political system of Pakistan, an extensive study should
be commenced to categorize the problem of lack of integration and try to consolidate the
entire nation into a single political unit.
CIVIL SOCIETY :
Early European political philosophers mainly defined civil society in the context of the
relationship between the state and the society. For Hobbes and even more clearly for Locke,
the state originates in, is ultimately answerable to, and is therefore identified with (but not
identical to) civil society. For later philosophers, such as Montesquieu and Tocqueville, civil
society stands at least partially in opposition to the state. Marxists such as Gramsci identifies
civil society with realms outside the power of the state. These definitions of civil society in
relational terms are also reflected in recent literatures.
Fukuyama defined civil society as the realm of spontaneously created social structures
separate from the state that underlie democratic political institutions (Fukuyama 1995:8).
To Dunn, "[c]ivil society is broadly regarded as the domain of relationships which falls between
the private realm of the family on the one hand and the state on the other"(Dunn 1996:27).
The Concise Oxford dictionary of Politics defined civil society as "the set of intermediate
associations which are neither the state nor the (extended) family; civil society therefore
includes voluntary associations and firms and other corporate bodies."
CAUSES
Some scholars, such as Larry Diamond, think that civil society is "self-generating"(Diamond
1994:4). This seems to scent of Rousseau, who, unlike Hobbes and Locke, addresses explicitly
the course of forming civil society. Rousseau treats the formation of civil society as a process
that is conscious and deliberate. Enigmatically, he relies upon a "Legislator" as a seemingly
essential midwife in the birth of civil society, one who is apart from the people on whose behalf
he acts and who remains outside of civil society once it is created (Harbeson et. al. 1994:17).
Some later scholars take other approaches. There is a Marxist version that emphasizes the
effect of inevitable progress of material improvement on the civic culture(Almond and Verba
1980:8). Nie, Powell, and Prewitt also offered another explanation on the formation of civil
society. They found that "economic development alters the social structure of a nation. As
nations become more economically developed, three major changes occur: ... (3)the density
and complexity of economic and secondary organizations increases"(Nie et. al. 1969:808). From
their chart as shown below, it is clear that economic development leads to alterations in the
stratification, urban, and group membership patterns.

A ------ ------> B ------ ------> C ------ -----> D

Economic Alterations in the Changes in the Increases in Political

 Stratification, Urban, Distribution of Participation
Development and Group Attitudes and
Membership Patterns Cognitions

Figure I
There is still another kind of explanation about the causes of civil society. As Weigle and
Butterfield conclude from their study of the democratic transitions in Eastern Europe and the
former Soviet Union, "social groups would form on the basis of independently articulated
interests and goals"(Weigle and Butterfield 1992:3).
SECTION V: FUNCTIONS
Now we come to the most difficult and most controversial question: what is the function of civil
society? Different people see different benefits and harms in the functions of civil society. As
Rousseau simply put it, civil society engenders both "the best and the worst ... both our virtues
and our vices"(Fine 1997:16).
Part I: Economic Functions
There are both pessimistic and optimistic stories about the economic functions of civil society.
One of the pessimists, Mancur Olson, building on his own logic of collective action, argues that
small interest groups have no incentive to work toward the common good of society and every
incentive to engage in costly and inefficient "rent-seeking"--lobbying for tax breaks, colluding to
restrain competition, and so on(Putnam 1993:176). Rousseau also pointed out that "man are
forced to caress and destroy one another at the same time" in civil society(Fine 1997:17).
Worse yet, as Olson holds, in the absence of invasion or revolutionary change, the thicket of
special interest groups in any society grows ever denser, choking off innovation and dampening
economic growth. More and stronger groups mean less growth(Putnam 1993:176). Another
pessimist is Callaghy, who fears that the "wild passions" of civil society may undercut sound
economic management and economic reform(Harbeson 1994:294).
Other scholars, however, hold that civil society has the function of provoking economic growth.
Analyzing Italian regional-level data from the nineteenth century to the 1980's, Putnam found
that levels of civic involvement around 1900 predicted subsequent levels of economic
development even better than did economic variables. Historically, he argued that norms and
networks of civic engagement have fostered economic growth, not inhibited it.
Inglehart tries to reconcile these two diametrically opposed theories about the economic
functions of civil society. Analyzing data from 43 societies, he concludes that relatively dense
networks of associational membership seem to be conducive to economic growth in the earlier
stages of development, as Putnam has argued; but (as Olson has argued) these associations can
become hypertrophied and excessively powerful in advanced industrial societies, distorting
policy to defend well-organized interests at the expense of overall economic growth(Inglehart
1997:228).
Part II: Stabilizing Functions
Can civil society stabilize the state? Both Tocqueville and Putnam stress the importance of
networks of voluntary associations in support of a culture of trust and cooperation, which were
essential to the successful functioning of democratic institutions. However, the answers to the
question from other empirical test and theoretical analysis seem to be "not
necessarily".Schmitter also argues that "[c]ivil society, ... can affect the consolidation and
subsequent functioning of democracy in a number of negative ways". Among these he includes:
"(5)most dangerously it may prove to be not one but several civil societies -- all occupying the
same territory and polity, but organizing interests and passions into communities that are
ethnically, linguistically or culturally distinct -- even exclusive" (Whitehead 1997:106). The
analysis of the stabilizing functions reveals just the "paradox of civil society" proposed by Foley
and Edwards: democracy and a strong state depend on the enforcing effects of its civil society,
but such effects depend on the prior achievement of both democracy and a strong state(Foley
and Edwards 1996:48).
Part III: Democratic Functions
The democratic functions of civil society seem long recognized. As Almond and Verba conclude
from the examination of the survey data from five nations: the organizational member, political
or not, compared with the nonmember, is likely to consider himself more competence as a
citizen, to be a more active participant in politics. The member, in contrast with the
nonmember, appears to approximate more closely what we have called the democratic citizen.
He is competent, active, and open with his opinions(Almond and Verba 1963:320). The most
striking finding is that any membership -- passive membership or membership in a nonpolitical
organization -- has an impact on political competence, and thus on pluralism, one of the most
important foundations of political democracy(Almond and Verba 1963:321).
Nie, Powell and Prewitt also investigate the democratic functions of civil society in terms of its
effects on political participation. As shown in the Figure I above, as the density and complexity
of economic and secondary organizations increases, greater proportions of the population find
themselves in life situations that lead to increased political information, political awareness,
sense of personal political efficacy, and other relevant attitudes. These attitude changes, in
turn, lead to increases in political participation(Nie, Powell, and Prewitt 1969:808).
Civil society has yet another democratic function, that of facilitating democratic transitions.
Montesquieu clearly believed from a theoretical perspective that civil society should function as
a counterbalance to governments in order to inhibit their tyrannical tendencies; he also
suggested that civil society actually did perform in this capacity (Harbeson 1994:26). This is
enforced by the empirical finding by Inglehart that organizational membership does show a
statistically significant linkage with changes in levels of democracy from 1990 to 1995(Inglehart
1997:193). Weigle and Butterfield 抯 case studies of the democratic transitions in the Eastern
European countries and in the former Soviet Union also show the important role played by the
civil society
Examples of civil society organizations include:
 Churches and other faith-based organizations
 Online groups and social media communities
 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and other nonprofits
 Unions and other collective-bargaining groups
 Innovators, entrepreneurs, and activists
 Cooperatives and collectives
 Grassroots organizations
Another example of civil society at work comes in the form of civic groups, such as the Rotary
Club or Kiwanis. In the United States, these are groups that are made up of people from the
community who volunteer their time to raise money for community projects or needs. Though
these groups tend to be smaller than NGOs, they are important because they represent the
ordinary citizen contributing to the overall well-being of their community.
POLITICAL CULTURE :
Political culture means the attitudes, beliefs, values and skills of the population as well as the
special propensities and patterns which are found within separate parts of the population.
While the political culture is common to the whole population, the special propensities and
tendencies are found in particular classes, ethnic groups or tribes, castes, etc., and also among
the groups performing definite roles in the political system. They constitute its subcultures. The
more we know about the structure and culture of a political system, the more we know about
its performance and present and future developments. ”
Development of the political culture: Just as the structures of a political system develop, so
does its culture. The development of a political culture is commonly known as Secularisation.
”Secularisation is the proces whereby men become increasingly rational, analytical and
empirical in their political action.” It distinguishes a traditional political system from a modern
political system. In a traditional political system, as for example that of a tribal or caste based
government, an individual e.g. a tribal chief, in his political activities docs not depend on a
rational analysis of his experience but on the traditions and customs of his culture. On the
contrary, a politician in a modern political system seeking election in his constituency, will
rationally analyse the needs, wishes and demands of the people in his constituency and behave
accordingly. He will gather information about the wishes and demands of the people, decide
which of them can be realised in his political system and will seek votes on the basis of his
knowledge and experience.
Anyhow, the political culture and subcultures of a political system develops in two ways, by
differentiation of roles and by secularisation or rationalisation of behaviour.
Inputs and Outputs: A political system is essentially an input output conversion process. Inputs
are the demands which arise in the environment. But some inputs come ; from the rulers and
elites of a political system. When they are fed into the conversion process,they turn out as
outputs or authoritative decisions and go into the environment. Some of them may again
return to the political system as feedback, and may thus affect or change the system. Some of
the inputs are supports. As regards the conversion process, Almond has mostly adopted the
input output analysis of David EastOn.
However, he has classified the demands into different kinds. They are (1) Demands for the
regulations of behavior, such as provisions for public safety, control over markets, and rules
relating to marriage, health, education, sanitation, etc; (2) Demands for allocation of goods and
services, e.g. demands for wages, laws about working hours, educational .opportunities,
recreational facilities, roads, and transportation; (3) Demands for participation in the political
system, e.g.,for the right to vote, to hold office, to organise political associations, etc.; (4)
Demands for communication and information, such as demands for the communication of
policy aims from the policy-making elites, or the display of majesty and power of the political
system in times of war threats or on ceremonial occasions and displays.
Moreover, some demands are more intense and urgent than others and will, therefore, be
attended to more promptly by the conversion process of the political system. Supports can also
be classified as thus: (1) material supports, such as the payment of taxes and other levies, the
provision of services like military service or voluntary labour on certain occasions; (2) obedience
to law and regulations; (3) participatory supports, such as voting, political discussions and other
forms of political activity; (4) attention paid to governmental communications, and the
manifestation of deference and respect to public authority, symbols and ceremonials, e.g.
saluting the national flag when it is displayed in the public ceremonies. Demands and supports
are closely related and interdependent.
The political system and its elites performing various roles will process the demands effectively,
if support is received from the environment and other social systems and from individuals
working in the political system.
Capabilities of a Political System: Like every organism, a political system needs capabilities
which it performs as a unit in its environment. Capability means the behaviour of the political
system as a unit in its environment. Capabilities of a political system are also related to the
types of inputs and outputs. They are of four kinds: regulative, extractive, distributive and
responsive capabilities. The capabilities are really ways of talking about the flows of activity into
and out of the political system. They tell us how the political system is operating in its
environment, how it is shaping the environment and how it is being shaped by it.
Really political systems differ in the types of capabilities they perform. A democracy performs
responsive capability more than any other. A dictatorship performs regulative capability more
than others. A communist political system is more interested in distributive capability, that is, it
shifts resources from the capitalist classes to the working classes. Almost all political systems
perform extractive capabilities in the form of collecting taxes from the people. The performance
of the capabilities enables a political system to perform its input-output conversion functions.
Conversion Functions: Gabriel Almond gives a list of six conversion functions of a political
system. Three of them are input functions and the other three are output functions. They are as
follows:
A. Input Functions (political)
1. Political socialisation and recruitment.
2. Interest articulation.
3. Interest aggregation.
4. Political communication.
B. Output functions (governmental)
1. Rule-making, (legislative)
2. Rule-application, (executive)
3. Rule-adjudication, (judicial)
Political socialisation and recruitment: It means that socialisation is the process of induction
into the political culture, which is either latent, as in family life, or manifest, as in a political
party.
The process of socialisation differs in different kinds of political systems. In traditional political
system, it is particularistic, diffuse and ascriptive. That is to say, it is influenced by kinship
relations of castes and tribes, and other traditional groups. In a modern political system,
socialisation is more universalistic, manifest, rational, secular, and achievement-oriented.
Almond writes, ”If political socialisation produces the basic attitudes in a society towards the
political system, its various roles, and public policy, then by studying political culture and
political socialisation we can gain understanding of one of the essential conditions which
affect the way in which these roles are performed, and the kinds of political inputs and
output which these roles produce.”
 Political recruitment takes up where political socialisation leaves off. The induction of the
individuals into various political roles is also influenced by the kind or type a political system is.
In traditional political groups, recruitment is on the basis of family, caste, baradari, tribes and
on kinship and social status, while in the modern societies it is made on the basis of political
party membership, achievement performance, etc.
Interest articulation: The first input function is interest articulation. It means the formulation
and expression of claims and demands by the individuals or groups in the environment (society)
for political action. Interests are articulated by legislatures, political executives, bureaucracies,
armies, religious bodies or churches. They also include such groups and interests which stir up
riots, demonstrations, strikes, etc. There are four kinds of such groups: (1) institutional interest
groups like legislatures (2) associational interest groups, like political parties, trade unions,
traders and industrialist chambers, etc; (3) anomic interest groups, e.g. riot causing groups; and
(4) non-associational interest groups, e.g. kinship and lineage groups such as tribes, castes, etc.,
ethnic, regional, religious and class groups. The style of expressing interests may be manifest or
latent, overt or covert, specific or diffuse, general or particular, instrumental or affective. For
instance, too much expression or articulation of the anomic interest groups, causing riots, etc.,
would become a problem for the political system to maintain the boundary between it and the
environment, between the polity and the society and also between it and the neighbouring
political systems, which may intervene in it directly by war and aggression or indirectly by
encouraging terrorists and extremists or the like.
Interest aggregation: Interest articulation leads to interest aggregation. It means that the
articulated or expressed claims and demands of the groups and individuals are combined;
accommodated and compromised. Thus they become inputs of the conversion process. Some
claims or demands may be so forceful or urgent that they become intensified interests, which
cannot be ignored by the governmental conversion process. The intensification may be due to
influential families, castes or tribes, as in a traditional political system, or may be due to
influential leaders, charismatic leaders, political parties, or interest or pressure groups, as in the
modern political systems. Almond gives the example of Great Britain, where political parties act
as powerful articulative and aggregative groups, while in Bharat the castes, especially the
Brahmin and Bania castes, play this input function.
Political Communication: Almond compared political communication function to the circulation
of blood in human body. It is the medium through which other functions in the political system
are performed. ”It is not the blood but what it contains that nourishes the system”, writes
Almond. The ”blood” is the neutral medium carrying claims, protests and demands through the
veins to the heart; and from the heart through the arteries flow the outputs of rules,
regulations and adjudications in response to the claims and demands”. He says that
communication function is the crucial boundary-maintenance function. Communication
facilities are, therefore, of the highest importance in determining the character of a political
system. In fact, decision-making depends upon and is determined by contents of
communication. They determine the flow of information between the society and the political
system. Styles of political communication also differ in various political systems. They may be
manifest or latent, specific or diffuse, particulartic or generalistic, affectively-neutral or affective
in modern and traditional societies respectively. But even in the modern systems there is a
mixture of these styles, though in them latent, diffuse, particulartic and affective ’massages’
tend to get translated into manifest, specific, generalistic, and affectively-neutral ones, and also
to get ”placed in envelopes with the correct political address.”
In this respect, Almond contrasts the United States and India, the former being a modern
political system, while the latter a mixture of modernity and traditionality. Hence their styles of
political communication also differ. In the USA, there is, firstly, homogeneity of political
information; and secondly, there are widely distributed ’interpreters’ of political information,
which penetrate the primary cells and connect them with the secondary media of
communication. In India, the messages are heterogeneous; the impact of the specialised media
is relatively limited, and there is a greater gap between the literate modern sector and the
illiterate traditional sector, due largely to difference of language and cognitive maps. In the U.S.
there is mobility of information; in India there are many obstacles, such as those of language,
religion, region and of caste system, etc.
Output functions: They are authoritative decision-making functions of the governmental
structures of the conversion process lying ”inside the box”.
They are of three kinds: rulemaking legislative function, rule-application function of the
executive organ, and the rule-adjudication function of the judiciary. Some of the outputs of the
policymaking functions may be characterised as involving resource extractions (taxes, etc.),
distribution of goods and services, regula:ion of behaviour (e.g. traffic laws) or communication
of symbols (e.g. flags, etc.) and information. However, it should be noted that these functions
are differently performed in the modern and traditional political systems
Outcomes: An outcome means the consequences of the policy outputs on the environment or
society in which a political system exists. The concept of outcomes is an interesting contribution
by Almond to the theoy of political system. The outputs of the political system interact with the
previous state of the environment and with other events taking place simultaneously within it.
They become the outcomes. For example, an increase in educational expenditure under a
policy may be diminished by bureaucratic inefficiency and corruption, with the result that the
benefits of the expenditures may not cone about or may be much lesser than expected. Or take
another example, the benefits of the economic development planning may be nullified by
population increase.
Feedback: Feedback means the effects, by which successful or unsuccessful efforts to change
the environment have consequences for a new round of political inputs. In other words,
feedbacks are the effects of the outcomes of a policy or law on the environment leading to new
demands for inputs. For example, as net expenditures for each pupil decline, parent group: may
articulate new demands for further increases in the education budget.
SOCIAL CHANGE
Definition
Social change refers to changes in the political or economic context of societies which affect the
vast majority of the population, albeit not necessarily in a uniform way. It may occur gradually
(as in the process of globalization) or abruptly (as in the case of political revolutions) and be
more or less broad in its scope. Social change can be driven by collective action, changes
in values, technological innovation, and other exogenous or endogenous factors. Usually,
various political institutions, norms of living together, and cultural symbols are affected
simultaneously.
There are three main theories of social change: evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict.
Evolutionary
The evolutionary theory of social change gained prominence in the 19th century. Sociologists
latched on to Darwin’s theory of evolution, applying it to society. Auguste Comte, known as the
“father of sociology,” believed in the evolutionary model. According to this theory, society
always evolves into “higher levels.” Like organisms evolve from simple to more complex, so do
societies. Societies that don’t adapt fast enough will fall behind. This led many sociologists to
conclude that Western societies must be “superior” because of their “advanced” state.
At first, social evolutionists asserted that all societies must go through the same sequence of
progress. Modern theorists believe that change is multilinear. Societies can evolve in different
ways and different directions.
Functionalist theory
The functionalist theory of social change teaches that society is like a human body. Each part is
like an organ. Individual parts can’t survive on their own. Emile Durkheim, a major leader in the
social sciences, believed that all parts of a society must be harmonious. If they aren’t unified,
society is “no more than a pile of sand” that’s vulnerable to collapse. When one part suffers, all
the other parts must adjust. Why? The functionalist theory believes that society always works
toward stabilization. When problems occur, they’re temporary, but they do need attention
from the other parts. This means social change.
Functionalism isn’t without its critics. Many point out that this theory tends to ignore that
society’s elite often creates a mirage of harmony and stability. The theory also fails to factor in
race, class, and gender. Functionalism reached its peak in the 1940s and ’50s, only to decline in
the 1960s.
Conflict theory
The conflict theory states that society is by nature unequal and competitive. Karl Marx
spearheaded this theory. While he did believe in the evolutionary model to a point, Marx didn’t
think each phase resulted in something better than before. More often than not, the rich and
powerful control the rest of society by exploiting vulnerable groups. This sows conflict,
provoking people to action. Social change occurs as a result. The conflict model evolved over
the years. It’s found in other theories such as feminist theory, queer theory, and critical race
theory.
What triggers social change?
No society stays the same forever, but what specific causes drive it? Social change has three
main triggers:
Conflict
It is clear from a glance at our global history that conflict provokes social change. Inequalities
based on class, race, gender, religion, and more foster dissatisfaction and anger. To address
their situation, groups come together to fight for change. Governments can be overthrown or
restructured. Sometimes change happens quickly, but oftentimes it develops over time in
stages.
Demographic change
When the demographic makeup of a society changes, social change is inevitable. Society’s
demographics often change when births increase and/or people start living longer. A bigger
population affects the dispersal and availability of resources. An increase in immigration or
emigration also affects society.
Cultural change
New inventions, discoveries, and the spread of ideas contribute to cultural changes. Consider
the effect of the internet. It’s not only changed the culture of individual countries but the entire
world. It’s transformed how we communicate, as well as the structure of countless industries.
Discoveries also impact a society’s culture. Consider how much changed when the Europeans
“discovered” America. This example shows how social change is not always beneficial to
everyone. New ideas about gender, race, religion, work, education, and so on also change a
culture.
 It is the extent to which we care about the direction of social change that we can try to shape it
and help to create the kind of "change we wish to see in the world." Whether or not Gandhi
actually uttered these words doesn't matter. What matters is that the phrase begs the question,
what kind of change do we wish to see in the world?
Examples of social change
The classic example of this process, as first suggested by Adam Smith, is the tendency
in capitalism toward collusion and the establishment of monopolies when small firms are driven
out of the competitive marketplace. Another example came from Norbert Elias, who suggested
that western European nation-states were born out of competitive struggles between feudal
lords. Competition also dominates theories of individualism, in which social change is seen as
the result of individuals pursuing their self-interest. Game theory and other mathematical
devices, however, have shown that individuals acting in their own self-interest will in certain
conditions cooperate with one another and thereby widen the existing social networks.
Social change often occurs as a result of social movements. There are countless examples
throughout history in every country on earth. Some of the most famous (many of which are
ongoing and/or evolving) include:
 The Reformation
 The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade
 The Civil Rights movement
 The feminist movement
 The LGBTQ+ rights movement
 The green movement
Why is Social Change important?
Social change occurs when societal institutions, structures, and cultures undergo a significant
shift. Famous examples include the Reformation in 16th-century Europe and the American civil
rights movement. More often than not, social change is slow. This is especially true of a global
society. Why does social change matter? Here are 10 reasons:
#1. Social change gets the world closer to gender equality
Looking at the state of gender equality can be overwhelming, even discouraging. It’s important
to remember that social change starts small. It becomes impactful as more individuals, groups,
and institutions get on board. These actors propel the world forward culture by culture, country
by country. Actions like closing the gender pay gap; increasing education access; and
improving women’s healthcare contribute to lasting social change on a large scale.
#2. Social change improves worker rights
Throughout the course of history, greed exploits and endangers employees in every industry.
The United States is an example of how social change affects labor and worker rights. Over two
centuries, the US experienced the birth of unions, child labor laws, the minimum wage, and
laws for family and medical leave. This area of social change is ongoing as workers continue to
fight for their rights. They strike for higher wages and push for better legal protections.
Consumers also play a part when they boycott businesses with unethical practices.
#3. Social change protects the LGBTQ+ community
The LGBTQ+ community is one of the world’s most vulnerable populations. People in this
community face higher rates of suicide, violence, and discrimination. Many past and current
social movements around the world center on LGBTQ+ rights. The legalization of same-sex
marriage; legal protections against discrimination; and shifts in cultural perspectives represent
social change. It protects individuals and gives them equality within society.
#4. Social change improves racial equality
Most societies deal with racial inequalities. Based on their race, groups and individuals face
discrimination and disenfranchisement. Social movements (like the civil rights movement in the
United States) focus on protesting current conditions and changing laws. Social change is also
significant when it addresses society’s perception of race. Education and awareness can be as
important as legislative measures.
#5. Social change is good for business
Studies show that when workplaces are more diverse, they’re more productive. If every
workplace prioritized better inclusion and equality, it would improve business and society’s
economy as a whole. Social changes include closing the gender pay gap, establishing legal
protections for workers, and following non-discriminatory practices. These contribute to a
workplace’s diversity and success.
#6. Social change helps the environment
No other living thing has affected the environment as much as humanity. Research shows that
we’re damaging the air, water, and land at unprecedented rates. This affects the wellbeing and
safety of everything on earth, including humans. Green social movements have pushed back
with earth-friendly initiatives such as supporting endangered species. They also encourage
individual responsibility and spread awareness about issues like climate change.
#7. Social change keeps governments accountable
History proves that power can corrupt. Governments often commit human rights
violations against their own people. Social change can draw attention to these injustices,
dismantle destructive structures, and help societies transition into better systems. These
changes can occur quickly and violently through civil war or conflict. Through elections and
legislature, the change can be more gradual.
#8. Social change addresses problems at the root
Lasting impact is one of the markers of social change. It isn’t enough to treat the symptoms and
not the wound. The most effective social movements tackle issues at the root instead of only
looking at the effects. As an example, to address homelessness, we must examine why people
are homeless in the first place. Only providing short-term solutions won’t deal with underlying
causes.  Long-term measures are also needed. Looking at the roots allows for permanent
changes to develop, saving a society’s time, energy, and resources.
#9. Social change empowers citizens
Social change often occurs when individuals decide to work towards a common goal. They take
note of what’s destructive or inefficient in society and take the steps necessary to change it.
Most activists can point to a specific movement or person from the past that inspires them.
Social change empowers citizens, proving that passion and hard work pays off even when
there’s significant resistance.
#10. Social change makes life better for future generations
Many social movements lean on the understanding that social change is slow. Those fighting for
change now know they might not reap the benefits, but coming generations will. Climate
change activists are keenly aware of this fact. They understand that healing the planet takes
time. Fighting battles now on behalf of those not even born yet is a selfless act. It sets up a
society for future success.
RIGHTS AND DUTIES :
Rights are those conditions of the social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be
himself at his best-Laski.
A right is one mans capacity of influencing the acts of others by means of the opinion and the
force of society - Holland.
A right is a reasonable claim of freedom in the exercise of certain activities -’ Wilde.
we may here summarize the essential points and contents of a right as thus: (i) a right is a claim,
desire or power of a person to act, possess or achieve something, (ii) it is recognised or
accepted by the society or state, (in) right exists only in society or state (iv) it enlarge freedom
of the individual; a right is the socially protected or guranteed freedom; liberty is the product of
rights, (v) rights are recognised by the society or the state, because they serve the moral end of
the state, which is to promote the general welfare, the moral end being the common good of.
all men, (vi) every right has a corresponding duty or obligation, (vii) rights to be enjoyed must
be clearly defined by law and sanctioned by the authority of the state, (viii) state does not
create rights, it merely recognises them, for rights arise from human nature, (ix) rights have as
tendency to grow and change with the growth and change in the needs and conditions of social
life and progress.
THEORIES OF RIGHTS The nature of rights is variously explained by different writers. The most
important theories are as follows:-
Political Violence / Terrorism
Definition :
It was first coined in the 1790s to refer to the terror used during the French Revolution by the
revolutionaries against their opponents. The Jacobin party of Maximilien Robespierre carried
out a Reign of Terror involving mass executions by the guillotine.
“terrorism, the calculated use of violence to create a general climate of fear in
a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective.”
 The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines both international and domestic
terrorism as involving “violent, criminal acts.” 
Terrorism is a complex, man-made phenomenon with repercussions for every aspect of
society. Over time, it has developed into a threat that knows no geographic or geopolitical
boundaries. Terrorism is continually changing. As terrorism evolves into the principal irregular
warfare strategy of the 21st century, it is adapting to changes in the world socio-political
environment. Some of these changes facilitate the abilities of terrorists to operate, procure
funding, and develop new capabilities. Other changes are gradually moving terrorism into a
different relationship with the world at large.
Weapons technology has become increasingly available, and the purchasing power of terrorist
organisations is on the rise. The ready availability of both technology and trained personnel to
operate it for any client with sufficient financial means allow the well-funded terrorist to equal
or exceed the sophistication of governmental counter-measures. Terrorist groups increasingly
show a tendency of playing more than a merely subordinate role in nation-state conflicts, and
are becoming prominent as international influences in their own right. They are becoming more
integrated with other sub-state entities, such as criminal organisations and are gradually
assuming a measure of control and identity with national governments.
Until recently, terrorism has been associated primarily with physical acts of violence and crime,
such as killings, bombings, kidnapping and the destruction of property. Starting in the 21st
century the increasing advent of technology, and more specifically systems controlled by
computers, has seen a new form of criminal activity that has often combined destruction of
property with financial crime, propaganda, economic warfare and possibly physical harm to
innocent lives. Cyberterrorism is relatively young in its evolution and has been associated with
individuals, terrorist groups and state actors - which in particular, could escalate into a “cyber
war”.
Cyberterrorism allows terrorists to conduct their operations with little or no risk to themselves.
It also provides terrorists an opportunity to disrupt or destroy networks and computers. The
result is interruption of key government or business related activities. This type of terrorism is
not as high profile as other types of terrorist attacks, but its impact can be very destructive.
Socio-economic inequalities are rising worldwide, which will be one of the main drivers of
political violence, terrorism and especially the strikes, riots and civil commotion complex in
future. The Covid-19 crisis curbed also criminal activities like terror, but the aftermath and
resulting socio-financial discrepancies there of will fuel radical agitators’ influence.
Ordinarily, Political Violence/Terrorism policies and reinsurance treaties exclude losses arising
from an attack via nuclear, biological, chemical and/or radioactive devices. This is due to the
incalculable risk and loss potential arising from such attacks. In order to mitigate wider
economic impacts (due to the lack of comprehensive insurance cover for commercial property
or infrastructure) many governments established state-backed terrorism insurance and
reinsurance facilities that are referred to as terrorism schemes, funds or pools.
TYPES OF TERRORISM :
One popular typology identifies three broad classes of terrorism: revolutionary,
subrevolutionary, and establishment
Revolutionary terrorism is arguably the most common form. Practitioners of this type of
terrorism seek the complete abolition of a political system and its replacement with new
structures. Modern instances of such activity include campaigns by the Italian Red Brigades, the
German Red Army Faction (Baader-Meinhof Gang), the Basque separatist group ETA, the
Peruvian Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso), and ISIL (the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant;
also known as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria [ISIS]).
 Subrevolutionary terrorism is rather less common. It is used not to overthrow an existing
regime but to modify the existing sociopolitical structure. Since this modification is often
accomplished through the threat of deposing the existing regime, subrevolutionary groups are
somewhat more difficult to identify. An example can be seen in the ANC and its campaign to
end apartheid in South Africa.
Establishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by
governments—or more often by factions within governments—against that government’s
citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups. This
type of terrorism is very common but difficult to identify, mainly because the state’s support is
always clandestine. The Soviet Union and its allies allegedly engaged in widespread support of
international terrorism during the Cold War; in the 1980s the United States supported rebel
groups in Africa that allegedly engaged in acts of terrorism, such as UNITA (the National Union
for the Total Independence of Angola); and various Muslim countries (e.g., Iran and Syria)
purportedly provided logistical and financial aid to Islamic revolutionary groups engaged in
campaigns against Israel, the United States, and some Muslim countries in the late 20th and
early 21st centuries.
The military dictatorships in Brazil (1964–85), Chile (1973–90) and Argentina (1976–83)
committed acts of state terrorism against their own populations.
The persistent element of all forms of establishment terrorism, unlike that of nonstate
terrorism, is that of secrecy. States invariably seek to disavow their active complicity in such
acts, both to evade international censure and to avoid political and military retribution by those
they target.
POLITICAL VIOLENCE :
Political violence is violence which is perpetrated in order to achieve political goals. It can
include violence which is used by a state against other states, violence which is used by a state
against civilians and non-state actors, and violence which is used by violent non-state actors
against states and civilians.
TYPES OF VIOLENCE :
Stathis Kalyvas identifies eleven types of political violence: Interstate war, Civil war, Terrorism,
Political assassination, Military coup, Mass protest/Rebellion, Intercommunal violence,
Organized crime/Cartels, Ethnic cleansing, Genocide, and State repression.
Violence between non-state actors
Fighting between non-state actors without state security forces playing a direct role in the
conflict.
Ethnic conflicts
One-sided violence by non-state actors
Terrorism
Terrorism can be directed by non-state actors against political targets other than the state
(e.g. Stabbing attacks at gay pride parades in Jerusalem, Charlie Hebdo shooting). Because
terrorism is a tactic often used by the weaker side of a conflict, it may also fall under violence
between a state and non-state actor.
While there lacks a concrete definition of terrorism, the United States Department of
Defense however defines terrorism as, "the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of
unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or
societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological
One-sided violence by the state
The use of force by an organized armed group, be it a government or a non-state group, which
results in the deaths of civilians is considered one-sided. According to the Human Security
Report Project, a campaign of one-sided violence is recorded whenever violence against
civilians committed by one group results in at least 25 reported deaths in a calendar year.
Genocide
One form of political violence is genocide. Genocide is commonly defined as "the deliberate and
systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group",
[17]
 although what constitutes enough of a "part" to qualify as genocide has been subject to
much debate by legal scholars. The Holocaust is the most cited historical example of genocide.
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain (whether physical or psychological) as a means of
punishment, revenge, forcing information or confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Torture
is prohibited under international law and the domestic laws of most countries in the 21st
century. It is considered a human rights violation and is declared unacceptable by Article 5 of
the UN Declaration of Human Rights. Signatories of the Third Geneva Convention and Fourth
Geneva Convention have officially agreed not to torture prisoners in armed conflicts. Despite
international conventions, torture cases continue to arise such as the 2004 Abu Ghraib torture
and prisoner abuse scandal committed by military police personnel of the United States Army.
Organizations such as Amnesty International and the International Rehabilitation Council for
Torture Victims monitor abuses of human rights and reports widespread violations of human
torture by states in many regions of the world.Amnesty International estimates that at least 81
world governments currently practice torture, some of them openly.
Capital punishment
Capital punishment is the sentence of death upon a person by the state as a punishment for an
offense. This does not include extrajudicial killing, which is the killing of a person by
governmental authorities without the sanction of any judicial proceeding or legal process.
The use of capital punishment by country varies, but according to Amnesty International 58
countries still actively use the death penalty, and in 2010, 23 countries carried out executions
and 67 imposed death sentences. Methods of execution in 2010 included beheading,
electrocution, hanging, lethal injection and shooting.
Famine
Famine can be initiated or prolonged in order to deny resources, compel obedience, or to
depopulate a region with a recalcitrant or untrusted populace.
Police brutality
Police brutality is another form of political violence. It is most commonly described in
juxtaposition with the term excessive force. Police brutality can be defined as "a civil rights
violation that occurs when a police officer acts with excessive force by using an amount of force
with regards to a civilian that is more than necessary". Police brutality and the use of excessive
force are present throughout the world and in the United States alone, 4,861 incidences of
police misconduct were reported during 2010. Of these, there were 6,826 victims involved and
247 fatalities.
Violence between a state and a non-state actor
At least one of the warring parties involved is the government of a state. [14]
Rebellion[edit]
Rioting
A riot can be described as a violent disturbance by a group of individuals formed to protest
perceived wrongs and/or injustice. These can range from poverty and inequality to
unemployment and government oppression. Riots are characterized by their lack of
predictability and the anonymity of their participants. Both make it difficult for authorities to
identify those participating.[29]
Riots have been analyzed in a number of ways but most recently in the context of the
frustration-aggression model theory, expressing that the aggression seen in most riots is a
direct result of a groups frustration with a particular aspect of their lives. Widespread and
prolonged rioting can lead to and/or produce rebellion or revolution. There are also a number
of different types of riots including but not limited to police riots, race riot, prison riots,
and sport riot.
Revolution
In political science, a revolution is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political
power and political organization which occurs when the population revolts against the
government, typically due to perceived oppression (political, social, economic) or
political incompetence.
Civil war
A civil war, also known as an intrastate war, is a war fought within the same state or country
between organized groups. Less commonly, it can also be fought between two countries that
have been created from one previously unified state. Often these conflicts involve one group
wishing to take control of a region or expressing dissatisfaction with the government.
Counter-insurgency
Counter-insurgency, another form of political violence, describes a spectrum of actions taken by
the recognized government of a state to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. 
Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions.
Electoral violence
Electoral violence includes any acts or threats of coercion, intimidation, or physical harm
perpetrated to affect an electoral process or that arise in the context of electoral
competition. It is used to influence the outcome of elections; to delay, disrupt or derail polls;
and to protest election results or suppress protests against election results
War between states
War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on
between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and
usually high mortality.  Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been
waged in the last century: the death toll of World War II, estimated at more than 60 million,
surpasses all other war death tolls by a factor of two. It is estimated that 378,000 people died
due to war each year between 1985 and 1994.[41]
Trends
Considerable scholarship and data has suggested that violence has declined since World War
II. Based on battle deaths, one of the most frequently used measures of the Intensity of armed
conflict, there was a decline in conflict from 1946 to 2013. Another indicator, the number of
civil conflicts, has gradually declined since the Cold War ended.
In addition indicators show a rise in violence in the 2010s, heavily driven by conflicts involving
transnational jihadist groups in the Middle East. The numbers of active conflicts in 2016 and
2019 were the highest recorded.
Long-run trends
Following World War II, there was a decline in worldwide battle deaths. Since 1946, battle
death rates have not matched World War II levels. However, there have been oscillations, with
sizable peaks in deaths corresponding the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Iran–Iraq
War and Soviet–Afghan War. Longer term statistical analysis suggests that this pattern is not
unusual given the variability involved in a long-term datasets of historical wars, and that
conclusions of a downward trend are premature.
However, more recent upward trends show that armed conflict is increasing as political
violence in the Middle East and Africa increases. In the past ten years, the UCDP has found an
upward trend in the number of internationalized armed conflicts, "a conflict between a
government of a state and internal opposition groups with intervention from other states."
Critique
Some scholars argue that data focusing on the number of battle deaths per country per year are
misleading.[52]
Tanisha Fazal argues that wars have become less fatal because of medical advancements that
help keep more people alive during wars. Therefore, the battle death threshold used by the
UCDP and other organizations to determine cases of armed conflict is misleading. A conflict
"that produced 1,000 battle deaths in 1820 will likely produce many fewer overall casualties
(where casualties, properly understood, include the dead and wounded) than a conflict with
1,000 battle deaths today. The current data makes it seem like war is becoming less frequent,
when it is not.
Bear F. Braumoeller argues that looking at data on per-capita death is a "misleading and
irrelevant statistic" because it does not tell us how wars actually happen. A decrease in battle-
related deaths can mean that population growth is outpacing war deaths or that "fewer people
are exposed to risk of death from war". Instead, we should examine the willingness of a state to
go to war. Braumoeller creates a new metric for conflicted called the "use of force", which is
the number of militarized disputes that reach at least a level 4 on the 5-point Correlates of
War Militarized Interstate Dispute scale. He finds that use of force has held steady from the
1800s through the First World War, but after World War I the use of force has steadily
increased.
Current trends
Armed conflicts[edit]
Based on data from the UCDP, there were 221 intrastate armed conflicts in the period from
1946 to 2019, involving more than 100 countries worldwide. White there has been a general
decline in fatalities from such conflicts, the number of active conflicts in 2019 matched its
highest record from 2016. In 2019, UCDP recorded 54 state-based conflicts, 28 of which
involved transnational jihadist groups. This compares to 40 active armed conflicts in 2014. The
three countries with the highest total fatalities in the 1989–2019 period
were Rwanda, Syria and Afghanistan, with Afghanistan accounting for 40% of all fatalities
worldwide in 2019.
Terrorism[edit]
Just like armed conflict, there was an increase in fatalities associated with terrorism. In 2014,
the United States State Department reported 13,463 terrorist attacks in the world. These
attacks resulted in at least 32,700 deaths and 34,700 injuries. In addition, more than 9,400
people were kidnapped or taken hostage. Compared to 2013, the number of terrorist attacks
increased by 35% and the total fatalities increased by 81%.
In 2014, the five countries that experienced the most terrorist attacks were Iraq, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, India, and Nigeria. In 2013, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, and
the Philippines were the countries that experienced the most terrorist attacks.
In 2013 and 2014, the perpetrators responsible for the most terrorist attacks were ISIS, the
Taliban, al-Shabaab, Boko Haram, and Maoists. Fifty-five percent of the targets were either
private citizens, private property, or police. 66% of attacks in Nigeria and 41% of attacks in Iraq
targeted private citizens and property.
Theories[edit]
Theories of political violence can be organized by their level of analysis:
 Macro theories explain how political, economic, and social processes cause political
violence
  Micro theories discuss political violence processes that involve individuals and
households, like who participates in violence and what motivates people to participate
Some research does not fit clearly into this dichotomy.
Macro
Social conflict theory
Social conflict theory is a Marxist-based social theory which states that social systems reflect
the vested interests of those who own and control resources. The people in power use the
political and economic institutions to exploit groups with less power. This causes the rest of
society to become alienated or psychologically separated from the people in power.
Revolutions occur to break down the social and economic separation between the people in
power and the exploited people and "to achieve equity and social unity".[57]
War's inefficiency puzzle
War's inefficiency puzzle explains why states go to war even though war is costly. In James
Fearon’s Rationalist Explanations for War, he asserts war is costly and that creates an incentive
to bargain with the other side. However, states do not bargain and instead go to war because of
private information on the capability to fight and the incentives to misrepresent this
information.
Functionalism
Functionalism sees society as "an organism whose entire system has to be in good working
order for systemic equilibrium to be maintained." However, when there is a shock to the
system, society becomes disorientated allowing for collective violence.
Mass society
Mass society argues that violent social movements come from people who are isolated socially
and from political institutions. People who are alienated are easily convinced to join radical or
extremist movements.
Resource mobilization
Resource mobilization is a theory on social movement that emphasizes the capacity of
competing groups to organize and use adequate resources to achieve their goals. The resources
can be time, money, organizational skills, and certain social or political opportunities. Political
violence occurs when individuals are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action.
Primordialism
Primordialism is an explanation of ethnic violence and ethnic conflict. "Interethnic differences
based on racial, language, religious, regional characteristics, and other visible markers produce
interethnic conflicts because members of that same group emotionally identify with their in-
group, but feel no such identify with those outside their ethnic group”
Instrumentalist
Instrumentalism is an explanation of ethnic violence and ethnic conflict. Ethnicity is not
inherent in human nature. Conflict occurs when leaders manipulate ethnicity for the sake of
political power or economic gain.
Constructivist[edit]
Constructivist is an explanation of ethnic violence and ethnic conflict. Ethnic and national
identities are socially constructed and are formed through social, economic and political
processes, like colonization and conquest. Ethnic conflict is a product of the factors shaping
ethnic identity and not from ethnicity itself.[59]
Youth bulge
A youth bulge occurs when there is disproportionate percentage of a state population being
between the ages of 15 and 24 years old. It occurs when infant mortality rates decrease and
fertility rate increase. This youth bulge increases the working-age population; however, it does
not translate to more jobs being available, which leads to severe unemployment.
Micro
Rational choice theory
Rational choice theory is a decision-making approach in which the decisions makers compare
the expected utility of competing options and select the option that produces the most
favorable outcome. Political violence occurs when the benefits in participating in political
violence outweighs the costs.
Relative deprivation
In Why Men Rebel, Ted Robert Gurr uses relative deprivation theory to explain why men
commit acts of violence. As Gurr explains, relative deprivation "is defined as actors' perception
of discrepancy between their value expectations and their value capabilities." [61] In other words,
relative deprivation is the gap between the wants and needs people feel they deserve versus
what they are capable of "getting and keeping”.
Collective action theory
Collective action theory explains why people participate in rebellions.[62] A person decides to
participate or not participate in a rebellion based on the benefits and costs. Generally, people
decide to be free riders and not to participate in the rebellion. These people will still receive the
benefits of the rebellion since the benefits are a public good. However, if people are expected
to receive private goods, like material rewards or power, then that person is expected to rebel.
Greed versus grievance[edit]
Greed versus grievance provides two lines of explanations as to why individuals will fight.
Individuals are said to be motivated by greed when they decide to join a conflict in an effort to
better their situation and find that benefits of joining a rebellion or any kind of collective
violence is greater than not joining. Individuals are said to be motivated by grievance when they
fight over "high inequality, a lack of political rights or ethnic and religious divisions in
society." In "Greed and Grievance in Civil War", Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler argue that greed
is a better predictor of participating in violence than grievance.
Consequences[edit]
In the aftermath of political violence, there are many changes that occur within the state,
society, and the individual.
Macro
Social science literature that examines how political violence affects the region, state, nation,
and society.
State-building
Charles Tilly argues that "war making", eliminating rivals outside a territory, "state making",
eliminating rivals within a territory, "protection", protecting subjects within a territory, and
"extraction", extracting resources to "[carry] out the first three activities", are what defines a
state. All four actives depend on the state's ability to use and monopolize violence. In other
words, politically and non-politically motivated violence is necessary in state-building and
building fiscal capacity.
Micro[edit]
There are a growing number of social science studies that examine how political violence
affects individuals and households. It is important to keep in mind that what happens at the
individual and household level can affect what happens at the macro level. For example,
political violence effects an individual's income, health, and education attainment, but these
individual consequences combined can effect a state or nation's economic growth.
Political impacts[edit]
There are empirical studies that link violence with increases in political participation.
One natural experiment examines the effect of being abducted by Joseph Kony's LRA on
political participation. An abducted male Ugandan youth, or in other words a former child
soldier, had a greater probability of voting for Uganda's 2005 referendum and being a
community mobilizer/leader than a male Ugandan youth who wasn't abducted.
Economic impacts[edit]
A study on the effects of the Sierra Leone civil war found that victimized households, household
whose members were killed, injured, maimed, captured, or displaced, did not have long-term
impacts on owning assets, child nutrition, consumption expenditures and earnings
Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED
The Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED) is a project that collates data on
political violence and protest in developing countries, from 1997 to the present. As of early
2016, ACLED has recorded over 100,000 individual events, with ongoing data collection focused
on Africa and ten countries in South and Southeast Asia. The data can be used for medium- and
long-term analysis and mapping of political violence across developing countries through use of
historical data from 1997, as well as informing humanitarian and development work in crisis
and conflict-affected contexts through real time data updates and reports.
ACLED defines "political violence" as "the use of force by a group with a political purpose or
motivation." The database uses this definition to catalog a number of what it refers to as
political events across Africa and Southeast Asia
Human Security Report Project (HSRP)
The Human Security Report Project (HSRP) catalogs global and regional trends in organized
violence, their causes and consequences. Research findings and analyses are published in the
Human Security Report, Human Security Brief series, and the miniAtlas of Human Security
based in Vancouver, Canada.[70]
Using data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, the report tracks 5 types of violence:
 State-based armed conflict is cataloged as international conflicts and civil wars—in
which at least one of the warring parties is the government of a state.
 Interstate Conflicts are conflicts between two states.
 Intrastate Conflicts happen within a state such as a civil war.
 Non-state armed conflicts are conflicts which consist of fighting between two armed
groups, neither of which is the government of a state
 One-sided violence is thought of as targeted attacks against unarmed civilians
LOCAL GOVERNMENT:
as a public organisation authorised to decide and administer a limited range of public
policies within a relatively small territory which is a subdivision of a regional or national
government.”
Municipalities have a chief, who is called a mayor. Three questions can explain whether a local
government is really a self governing institution or not: first, do the people of a locality have the
right to participate in the local government by means of meaningful elections? Secondly, to
what extent does the municipality or a local body have relative autonomy and discretionary
authority to act? In other words, is there centralisation or decentralisation of authority in the
pyramidal structure of the government, guaranteed by the constitution? Thirdly, is the local
government a vital and significant force in the lives of the people of the local area? In other
words, can the local governmental institutions act with authority and energy to do things which
will deeply affect the lives of the people of their areas or do they so act that the people do not
benefit from their activities?

 A government formed at local level by local people themselves

 Management of the local affairs by the people of locality
 Local administration by local people without any outside influence
 The government of a specific locality made and run by local people themselves
NEED:

 To solve unattended local issues

 Conduct of public affairs
ROLES AND FUNCTIONS
I. Dealing with issues related to cleanliness, epidemic and garbage disposal
II. Planning , development and maintenance of rain water drain
III. Regulation of hospital , dispensaries and other BHUs
IV. Registration , record keeping and certificate issuing of births deaths and marriages
V. Supply of clean drinking water and maintenance of drainage system
VI. Development and maintenance of public park and recreational activities
VII. Maintenance and provision of fire fighting services
VIII. Taxation at local level to generate revenue for local government
IX. Regulation of matters related to slaughterhouse and to facilitate them
X. Maintenance of street lighting , local roads include traffic planning and regulation
XI. Responsibilities of public welfare
 Maintenance and regulation of welfare institutions i.e shelter houses etc
 Prevention and consumption of alcohol and the use of drugs and gambling
XII. local lvel economic planning and community development
IN PAKISTAN
TIERS :
I. Federal
II. Provincial
III. Local
TYPES :
LOCAL representation of appointed area run by appointed bureacrates
LOCAL SELF Administration of local areas run by its elective representatives
SOURCES OF INCOME OF LOCAL BODIES
o Tax on the annual value of buildings and lands
o Tax on transfer of immovable property
o Fee for registration and certificates of birth and death, marriages and divorce
o Advertisements including bill board and hoarding
o Cinemas, dramatic and theatrical shows etc
o Vehicles (other than motor vehicle but including carts bicycles and all kinds of
boats)
 Tolls on roads, bridges and ferries
 Rate for the supply of water
 Schools fees in respect of schools established or maintained by the Local Govt
 Fees for fairs, agricultural shows, industrial exhibition, tournaments and other public
gatherings
 Fees for markets
 Fees for licenses, sanctions and permits granted by the Local Govt
ADVANTAGES OF LOCAL SELF GOVT

 People get training in democracy. That is why it is called the primary school of democracy

 People get interested in the administration and their cooperation is increased

 It brings efficiency in the administration because the representative of local areas understand
local problems well and they can solve them in a better way

 Through Local Self Govt there is a great saving of money in the administration, because the
people of local areas pay the taxes and their representatives know well how difficult it is to pay
taxes. Thus there is no misuse of the taxes

 The workload of the provincial government is lightened by entrusting work to local bodies.
The local functions are efficiently performed by the local institutions and not by provincial
government, because, the latter is already overburdened with work

 The local bodies are useful because they provide drinking water, clean roads and streets,
good drains, good libraries and reading rooms, museums, zoos and beautiful parks
LOCAL GOVT IN PAKISTAN (1947 – 1958)
 The system of local government inherited by Pakistan in 1947 was a product of a series of
British efforts made from time to time through reforms, laws and commissions, to promote
local institutions autonomous in certain respects but substantially under the control of the
provincial government through district officers.
After independence, the policy of the Pakistan Govt in regard to local govt was that fullest
autonomy shall be granted to such bodies; this was borne out by the 1948 Muslim League
Manifesto which stood for the ‘very widest extension of Local Govt on the models of parishes
and communes of the United States’.
Despite these steps and prompt action taken, the local govt institutions in West Pakistan made
no appreciable progress. The above state of affairs more or less continued to prevail
throughout the first decade of Pakistan’s existence and no noteworthy advance was made until
the promulgation of Basic Democracies Order in 1959.
THE AYUB PERIOD: DECENTRALIZATION AND THE POLITICS OF LEGITIMACY The new local
governments, established under the Basic Democracies Ordinance, 1959 and the Municipal
Administration Ordinance 1960, comprised a hierarchical system of four linked tiers. The lowest
tier, which was the union councils, comprised of members elected on the basis of adult
franchise who, in turn, elected a chairman from amongst themselves. The higher tiers of local
government had some members elected indirectly by these directly elected members and some
official members nominated by the Government and had these officials as Chairmen.
STRUCTURE OF BASIC DEMOCRACY

BASIC DEMOCRACIES (BD)  The most important and controversial function which was included
in constitutions of 1962 was that members of the lowest tier, the Union Councilors, were
designated as the Electoral College and empowered to elect the President and the members of
national and provincial assemblies.
  To sum up, the Basic Democracies scheme failed because its authors tried to shape it against
the fundamental laws that is to say that they did not adhere to the concept that autonomy is
the corner stone of local govt.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO AND ZIA’S REGIME
When Pakistan People’s Party with Zulfiqar Bhutto came to power, the concept of People’s
Local Government was introduced. In the law order each province passed its own local to all
provinces. In the new order institutions of local government were set up on their own account
and had no political strings.
ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO’S REGIME STRUCTURE OF PEOPLE’S LOCAL GOVT SYSTEM

ZIA AND POST ZIA PERIOD

The new Martial Law Government of General Zia-ul- Haq declared in clear terms their policy of
revitalizing local government. In undertaking of this policy new local government laws were
drafted for each province, Federal Area, Northern Areas, and Azad Kashmir. These laws were
promulgated and enforced in 1979. These laws followed the same pattern, but slight variations
were made here and there to suit local circumstances.
THE ZIA AND POST-ZIA PERIOD
• Centralization Reinforced Through Direct Military Control of Quasi-Presidential Government
• Implemented Bhutto’s LGOs
– No Constitutional Protection Given to Elected Bodies
– Provision of Municipal Services Primary Objective
– Local Governments Given Little Financial Power
• Non-Party Basis of Elections Curtailed Power of Parties, and Prolonged Customs Politics and
Elite Capture
STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVT DURING ZIA’S REGIME

 Urban Councils Enjoyed Higher Levels of Revenue and Income than Rural and semi-
Urban Ones
 Urban Councils Under No Obligation To Provide Funds to Rural or semi-Urban Areas
 Rural and semi-Urban Areas Dependent on Provincial Administrative Tier for Financial
Support
 Competition between Urban Middle Class and Numerically Strong Rural Elites for
Resources
 Non-Party Based Elections in 1985 Created Localization of Politics at all Levels
 Revival of Party Basis (1988) Did Not Reverse Localization of Politics Due to Weakened
Parties
 Space Left by Parties Filled by Fluid Local Political Factions
DEVOLUTION OF POWER PLAN –
2001 Local Govt in Musharaf’s regime
In order to establish democracy at grassroots level, the regime of General Pervez Musharaf,
introduced the Local Government System. This was not a new experiment in Pakistan. This
new system of Local Government was installed on August 14, 2001, after holding of
elections. Direct elections on non-party basis were held in five phases for members of Union
Councils, Union Nazim, and Naib Union Nazim during 2000 to 2001.
MUSHARAF’S REGIME THE NEW DEVOLUTION OF POWER PLAN  Introduced by General
Pervaiz Musharraf in Jan 2001  It was implemented in September 2001
 The Local Govt was based on five ground rules:-

Devolution of Political Power

Decentralization of Administrative authority
De-concentration of management functions
Defusion of the power - authority nexus and
Distribution of resources
UNION GOVERNMENT
• The lowest tier, the union government was a corporate body covering the rural as well as
urban areas across the whole District
• It consisted of Union Nazim, Naib Union Nazim and three Secretaries and other auxiliary
staff
• The Union Nazim was the head of Union Administration. The Union Secretaries
coordinated and facilitated in community development, functioning of the Union
Committees and delivery of municipal services under the supervision of union Nazim • In
addition to fiscal transfers from the Provinces, the Local Govt were authorized to generate
money from their own resources by levying certain taxes, fees, user charges etc
TEHSIL GOVERNMENT
• The middle tier, the Tehsil Govt, had Tehsil Municipal Administration, headed by the
Tehsil Nazim
• Tehsil Municipal Administration consisted of a Tehsil Nazim, a Tehsil Municipal Officer,
Tehsil Officer, Chief Officers and other officials.
• The Tehsil Municipal Administration was entrusted with the function of administration,
finances, the management of the offices of the local govt and rural development and
numerous other subjects at the regional, divisional, district, Tehsil and lower levels.
DISTRICT GOVERNMENT
• The District Government consisted of Zila Nazim and District Administration
• The District Administration consisted of District Officers including sub-offices at Tehsil
level, who were to be responsible to the District Nazim assisted by the District Coordinator
Officer
• The District Coordinator Officer was appointed by the Provincial Govt and was the
coordinating head of the District Administration
• The Zila Nazim was accountable to the people through elected members of the Zila
Council. A Zila Council was consisted of all Union Nazims in the Districts. The Zila Council has
separate budget allocation
• The District Govt was responsible to the people and Provincial Govt for improvement of
Governance and delivery of services
On the basis of these direct elections, indirect elections were held in July-August 2001 for
Zila Nazim and Naib Zila Nazim and also for Tehsil-Town Nazim and Naib Nazim. In order to
attract people towards electoral politics, the minimum age for local government elections
was lowered from 21 to 18 years. One-third seats were reserved for women. The offices of
Division Commissioner and District Commissioner (DC) were abolished and their roles and
functions were distributed to the District Government headed by the elected mayor
(Nazims) and including a District Coordination Officer (DCO) who reported to the Nazims.
The magisterial powers of the DC were withdrawn and given to the judiciary and police. The
role of police oversight formerly held by the DC was abolished and the responsibility of law
and order was entrusted to the Nazims.
ANALYSIS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ACTS OF 2013

 In accordance with the 18th Amendment to the Constitution, the provincial assembly of
Balochistan passed the LG Act in 2010, whereas the provincial assemblies of Punjab, Sindh and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa passed their LG Acts in 2013. Despite a lack of enthusiasm, and due
consultation during the formulation stage, the passage of the LG Acts is a significant milestone.
 One striking feature of all four LG Acts, in comparison with the LGO 2001, is that none of the
Acts devolves sufficient functions and powers to the local governments, and all four provincial
governments have retained the authority to suspend or remove the heads of an elected local
government. The functioning of the Local Government Fund is managed by the Finance
Department and Finance Minister of the province.
STRUCTURE AND CONSTITUENCY DELIMITATION

 All four LG Acts provide for local government elections on a party basis. Punjab, Sindh and
Balochistan will have Union Councils and District Councils in the rural areas and Union
Councils/Committees and Municipal Committees in the urban areas. The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
LG Act also provides for Tehsil Councils and Village Councils in the rural areas and
Neighbourhood Councils in the urban areas.
TERM LIMITS AND THE ELECTORAL PROCESS

 The LG Acts of 2013 are not consistent on the term limits of the local governments. Punjab
provides for a term of five years, Sindh and Balochistan of four years, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
of three years.

 The electoral process also varies across provinces. Punjab provides for direct elections for
the posts of Chairmen and Vice-Chairmen of the Union Councils, whereas Sindh envisages
indirect election of Chairman and Vice-Chairman of Union Council from a panel of nine
Councilors elected to the general and reserved seats.

 In both Punjab and Sindh, the heads of District Councils will be chosen indirectly through an
electoral college comprising all members of the respective council.

 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provides for direct elections of members for all seats (reserved and
non-reserved) in the Village and Neighbourhood Councils. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the reserved
seats for women, peasants, youth and minorities will be filled through proportional
representation by the political parties on the basis of the number of seats won.
SINDH LOCAL GOVT ACT – 2013
CONCLUSION
The experience has shown in comparison to federal and provincial governments, local
government is more accessible, more sympathetic, and quicker to respond to local needs.
Therefore, local government should be developed and evolved by the local people according to
their own experiences and aspirations. That is what happens in United States and other
developed countries. Decentralization of power at the grass roots level leads to better provision
of social and civil services, restoration of the real democracy in the country and a more active
and beneficial interaction and participation of the masses in all tiers of governance. They must
have the power to levy and collect revenues. Devolution without enabling the local
governments to raise and manage funds from their own resources is not likely to enable the
people to run their own affairs. Since effective lower judiciary is an important part of the
system of devolution, new local judicial institutions have to be created and existing one
strengthened to provide cheap and immediate justice
Where there is little or no public opinion, there is likely to be bad government, which sooner
or later becomes autocratic government. William Lyon Mackenzie King
Reasons of failure of local government system in pakistan :
Moreover, "through the addition of Article 140(A), the 18th Amendment clearly states: 'Each
Province shall, by law, establish a local government system and devolve political,
administrative, and financial responsibility and authority to the elected representatives of the
local governments.' This led to the provision of legislative, institutional, planning, and policy
spaces to provinces to make the system of governance context-specific to provide better
services at the grassroots level."
There are following difficulties faced by the local government- (i) Most states have not
transferred significant powers to the local governments. (ii) There is a shortage of resources.
(iii) Elections are not held regularly. (iv) The Gram Sabhas are not held regularly.
 There could be many reasons for this reluctance; however, one most quoted is bureaucracy’s
unwillingness to share its administrative domain with the political representative at the local
level. Another common refrain has been the politicians’ deliberate attempt to keep a large
swath of population wallowing in the pain of poverty so that the former could amass wealth
through corrupt practices. When the masses are poor, they are also usually uneducated with
little or no concept of making their representative accountable for their corrupt practices. In
Pakistan, it seems both these reasons have been used in coordination to keep local elections
from taking place.
The most sordid aspect of our democracy is that we have totally ignored Art. 140-A of the
Constitution which enjoins all Provincial governments to establish Local Government system
and devolve political, administrative and financial responsibility to the elected representatives
of the local governments. Except in the Sindh province, we have placed the Local Government
system on the back burner in all other provinces on one pretext or the other and have even
flouted the Superior Courts orders issued from to time to restore local government as per law
and constitution.
The governments of the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Baluchistan have wriggled out of
these mandatory provisions on one pretext or the other. This is the worst example of flouting
Constitution and the orders of the Superior courts with impunity. If the government becomes
quite serious in implementing the Local Government system it can do so without wasting any
further time by getting a consensus of all stake-holders and introducing appropriate
amendments. But for the present, local government does not constitute its priority. Hence
there appears to be little likelihood of local government system being fully and properly
installed in the country.
Eight years after the ratification of 18th Amendment, provincial governments in Pakistan
remain reluctant to transfer significant powers, responsibilities and resources to local
governments
One major reason for our failure to enforce an effective Local Government system is that this
system has been anathema to the political and bureaucratic elites in Pakistan. Added to that is
a corrupt mafia at the third tier of the government. In the past, in addition to this, we had to
face intervention by the military dictators who used it only to serve their own limited interests,
including securing a sense of legitimacy for their otherwise unconstitutional rule.
Before Imran Khan became Prime Minister, he was a strong supporter of local system. On May
5, 2019, he said: “Our government’s Number One priority is to hand over governance to the
people”. Even his Election manifesto declared: “We will transform Pakistan by devolving power
and decision-making to the people through an empowered local government (system).” But
prior to elections of 2018, the PTI was heading two provincial governments: Punjab and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. The Balochistan Awami Party (BAP) Balochistan is also an ally of the PTI
government at the Centre. Yet the local government systems in all three provinces are currently
dysfunctional owing to various reasons.
In Punjab, in May last year(2020 ), a new Act, known as The Punjab Local Government Act 2019
was passed by the Provincial assembly, which due to some controversial provisions has been
challenged by the opposition parties and the matter is pending in the court. In KP assembly, The
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa government has changed its plan of holding local government elections
for tehsil and village and neighbourhood councils in two phases and instead decided to hold
polls for both the tiers together, for which that Assembly amended LB laws, which are near
implementation stage.
Six years after the ratification of 18th Amendment, provincial governments in Pakistan remain
reluctant to transfer significant powers, responsibilities and resources to the local governments.
After the 18th amendment, Pakistan has moved towards provincial autonomy by reducing the
prospect of an authoritarian or excessively centralised government. The amendment
introduced changes to the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan and redefined its contours from highly
centralised to a largely decentralised federation. Through this new constitutional framework,
Pakistan has laid the foundation of a multi-tier governance system by transferring greater
authority, resources and responsibilities related to many public and social services to the
federating units including Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh.
The 18th Amendment has divided the prerogatives of Pakistan’s multi-tier governance at the
federal, inter-provincial and provincial levels by reviewing the Federal Legislative List Part I and
Part II and repealing Concurrent Legislative List. Further restructuring of functions at the
district, tehsil and union council levels has been devolved to the regional governments in
accordance with the policy framework articulated in Article 140 (A) of the Constitution. Thus in
accordance with the 18th Amendment, 17 ministries including education, social welfare and
special education, health, environment, culture, minority affairs, youth affairs, women’s
development, sports, zakat and usher, population welfare, labour and manpower, tourism,
mining, and local government and rural development have been abolished at federal level and
devolved to regional governments.
If the PTI government remains steadfast to the strong promises it made for the uplift of local
government by devolving more and more fiscal powers (by creation of Provincial Finance
Commission, as has been envisaged in The Punjab Local Government Act 2019) to the elected
representatives and giving an unprecedented budget allocation of 30 to 40 percent to local
councils, it would indeed be a big leap forward.

ANALYSIS :
This paper develops a comparative analysis of the following Local Government laws, along with
the multiple amendments that have been made to them since they were first passed: -
The Punjab Local Government (Amendment) Act (Act XVIII) of 2013, as amended upto June 1,
2018.
- The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Local Government (Amendment) Act, 2018, as amended upto
February 28, 2018.
- The Sindh Local Government Act (Amendment) 2017, as amended upto April 3, 2017.
- The Balochistan Local Government Act, 2010, as amended upto March 4, 2015
The comparative analysis is primarily based upon the following factors: - Comparison of the
local government structures - Comparison in the election process of the local governments -
Comparison of the municipal functions - Comparison of fiscal powers Structure of Local
Governments
Each of local government law provides a different structure of local governments. While Punjab
Local Government law provides a 5 year term of local governments, KP, Sindh and Balochistan
local governments have 4 year terms each.

 Balochistan follows a structure of Union Councils, District Councils, Municipal

Corporations, Municipal Committees and Metropolitan Corporations.
 Similarly, Sindh defines local areas in an Urban district as Metropolitan Corporation,
District Municipal Corporation, Municipal Corporation, Municipal Committee, Town
Committee, Union Committee and Ward, while Rural areas in a District include District
Council and Union Council.
 The Punjab Local Government Act defines, as local areas, Lahore District as the
Metropolitan Corporation, rural area in a District, other than Lahore District, as District
Council, urban area in a District, other than the area of a Municipal Committee, as
 Municipal Corporation, and urban area in a District, other than the area of a Municipal
Corporation, as Municipal Committee. The Punjab law also grants the right to the
provincial government to establish District Education Authority and District Health
Authority for each district, including indirectly elected members from the local
governments and nominated technocrat members, with chairs and vice chairs
appointed by the Government. While members of an Authority are to be elected by the
local governments in the District, the provincial government has the authority to
appoint the Chairman and the Vice Chairman of an Authority who “serve during the
pleasure of the Government,” and are “personally responsible to ensure that the
business of the Authority is conducted proficiently.” The law also authorizes the
provincial government to take action against the Chairman, Vice Chairman, Chief
Executive Officer or any other member of the Authority on grounds of misconduct.
 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa recognizes, as local areas, the Neighbourhood, Tehsil, Town,
District and City District. The KP Local Government law stipulates that local
governments constituted under the law include City district government for District
Peshawar, District Government for a district other than Peshawar, Tehsil Municipal
Administration for a Tehsil, Town Municipal Administration for a Town in the City
District, Village Council for a Village in the Rural Area and Neighbourhood Council for a
Neighbourhood with areas with Urban characteristics.

Parameter Punjab Kpk Sindh Balochistan

Duration of the 5 yr 4 4 4
term
Structure of Lahore District - City District Urban area in a - Union Council
local as the Government for District: - - District
government Metropolitan Peshawar - Metropolitan Council -
Corporation - District Corporation - Municipal
Rrural area in a Government for District Committee -
District, other a district other Municipal Municipal
than Lahore than Peshawar Corporation - Corporation -
District, as Tehsil Municipal Municipal Metropolitan
District Council Administration Corporation - Corporation
- Union Councils for a Tehsil - Municipal
- Urban area in Town Municipal Committee -
a District, other Administration Town
than the area of for a Town in Committee -
a Municipal the City District Union
Committee, as - Village Council Committee -
Municipal for a Village in Ward Rural area
Corporation - the Rural Area - in a District: -
Urban area in a Neighbourhood District Council
 District, other Council for a - Union Council
than the area of Neighbourhood
a Municipal with areas with
Corporation, as Urban
Municipal characteristics
Committee

Local government Vs public administration :

Public administration typically adheres to policy implementation, agency management roles,
and organizational efficiency. Professionals in this field work to find the best methods for
governments, nonprofits, or businesses to achieve policy initiatives. 
Public policy is largely research, analysis, and advocacy work. Professionals in this area advise
organizations (mostly governments and nonprofits) on how to address and respond to social
issues.
On a fundamental level, the debate about public administration versus public policy is much like
the discussion about managing versus creating, but both fields work towards the larger goal of
bettering society.Public administration lends itself towards leadership and management
abilities, while public policy develops research-oriented, analytical thinking.
POLITICAL CHANGE AND REVOLUTION :
revolution, in social and political science, a major, sudden, and hence typically violent alteration
in government and in related associations and structures.
The 16th-century Italian writer Niccolò Machiavelli recognized the importance of creating a
state that could endure the threat of revolution; but, at the same time, his detailed analysis of
power led to a new belief in the necessity of changes in the structure of government on certain
occasions. This new acceptance of change placed Machiavelli at the forefront of modern
revolutionary thought, even though he never used the word revolution in his texts, and he was
primarily concerned with the creation of a truly stable state.
The 17th-century English writer John Milton was an early believer in
revolution’s inherent ability to help a society realize its potential. He also saw revolution as the
right of society to defend itself against abusive tyrants, creating a new order that reflected the
needs of the people. To Milton, revolution was the means of accomplishing freedom. Later, in
the 18th century, the French, Haitian, and American revolutions were attempts to secure
freedom from oppressive leadership. Modern revolutions have frequently
incorporated utopian ideals as a basis for change.
Perhaps most often, the word "revolution" is employed to denote a change in social and
political institutions.[14][15][16] Jeff Goodwin gives two definitions of a revolution. First, a broad
one, including
any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby
transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extraconstitutional and/or violent fashion.
Second, a narrow one, in which
revolutions entail not only mass mobilization and regime change, but also more or less rapid
and fundamental social, economic and/or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for
state power.[17]
Jack Goldstone defines a revolution as
an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in
society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and non-institutionalized actions
that undermine authorities.
LOBBYIST :
A lobbyist is someone paid to influence government agencies, legislators, and legislation to the
best interests of their clients. Lobbyists may even write the legislation that the legislator
presents to a committee or the legislature. Lobbyists represent nearly all industries and
interests, including insurance, auto manufacturing, tobacco, environment, women, minorities,
education, technology, textiles, farming, and many others. Lobbyists, who are usually lawyers,
are often former members of the legislature or have held other government positions.
Companies and interest groups hire them because of their influence and access from their
former jobs. For example, after spending decades as a Senator from Oregon and leaving office
in disgrace over misconduct, Bob Packwood returned to Washington, D.C. as a paid lobbyist for
business interests in the Pacific Northwest.
NATIONALITY :
Derived from latin word natus meaning to be born
Nationality is a legal identification of a person in international law, establishing the person as a
subject, a national, of a sovereign state.
Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "Everyone has the right to a
nationality", and "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to
change his nationality". 
ELEMENTS OF NATIONALITY :
Common geography race language religion political framework political aspirations subjugation
economic factors
Nationality gives the state the right to impose certain duties, especially military service. Some
states will punish their nationals for crimes wherever committed; the United States, however,
punishes only those crimes, except treason, that are committed within American territorial
jurisdiction. States may tax the income and other assets of their nationals regardless of whether
they reside abroad. The national owes duties to his government but is also entitled to
diplomatic protection when in a foreign country. Such protection includes the assistance of
consular officials when the national is accused of crime and the offering of refuge in
emergencies