AS Level Chemistry

Chemical Bonding
1. Describe ionic bonding using of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams.
2. Describe covalent bonding using of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams
3. Describe dative bonding using of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams
4. Explain & predict the shapes of and bond angles in
molecules by using the qualitative model of electron-pair
repulsion (including lone pairs).
5. Describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving
σ and π bonds
6. Describe the concept of hybridisation to form sp, sp2, and
sp3 orbitals
8. Explain the terms bond energy, bond length and bond polarity
and use them to compare the reactivities of covalent bonds.
9. Apply the concept of electronegativity to explain bond polarity,
dipole moments and molecular polarity
10. Describe hydrogen bonding, using ammonia and water.
11. Describe intermolecular force based on permanent and
induced dipoles
12. Describe metallic bonding
13. Deduce the type of bonding present
14. Describe, interpret and predict the effect of different types of
bonding on the physical properties of substance
 Ionic Bond
• The positive ion and the negative ion are strongly
attracted to each other.
• Ionic bonds tend to be formed between elements
whose atoms need to “lose” electrons to gain the
nearest noble gas electronic configuration and
those which need to gain electrons. The electrons
are transferred from one atom to the other.
• The strong force of attraction between the
oppositely charged positive and negative ion
results in an ionic bond.
 Ionic Bond
Sodium Chloride

Na ——> Na+ + e¯ and Cl + e¯ ——> Cl¯

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

An electron is transferred from the 3s orbital of sodium to the 3p orbital of

chlorine; both species end up with the electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas the resulting ions are held together in a crystal lattice by
electrostatic attraction.
 Dot & Cross Diagram
• The single electrons represent bonding sites
Oppositely charged ions held
in a regular 3D lattice by
electrostatic attraction.
The arrangement of ions in a
crystal lattice depends on the
relative sizes of the ions.
The Na+ ion is small enough
relative to a Cl¯ ion to fit in
the spaces so that both ions
occur in every plane.
DOT & CROSS DIAGRAM
• Decide how many valence (outer shell) electrons are possessed by
each atom in the molecule.
• If there is more than one atom type in the molecule, put the most
metallic or least electronegative atom in the center.
• Arrange the electrons so that each atom contributes one electron to a
single bond between each atom.
• Count the electrons around each atom: are the octets complete? If so,
your Lewis dot structure is complete.
• If the octets are incomplete, and more electrons remain to be shared,
move one electron per bond per atom to make another bond.
• Repeat steps 4 and 5 as needed until all octets are full.
• Redraw the dots so that electrons on any given atom are in pairs
wherever possible.
Dot & Cross Diagram Rule
• Outer electron shells only
• The charge of ion is spread evenly, by using a
square brackets.
• Charge of ion, written at the top right-hand corner of
the square brackets.
• Write the Symbol and draw dots around the outside
representing the outer orbit (these will be the
valence electrons)
 Metallic Bonding
Involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

Atoms arrange in regular close packed The outer shell electrons of each atom
3-dimensional crystal lattices. leave to join a mobile “cloud” or “sea” of
electrons which can roam throughout the
metal. The electron cloud binds the newly-
formed positive ions together.
Metallic Bonding

Na

Depends on the number of

K
outer electrons donated to the
cloud and the size of the metal
atom/ion.
Mg
 Metallic Bonding

Metals are excellent conductors of electricity

For a substance to conduct electricity it must have mobile ions or electrons.

Mobile Electron Cloud Allows The Conduction Of Electricity

 Covalent Bond

• Two electrons shared together have the strength to hold

two atoms together in a bond.
• The chemical bond that forms between non-metal atoms
when they share electrons is called a covalent bond.
• Shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei of both atoms.
• So, each atom has a stable outer energy level some of the
time.
 Covalent Bond

• When electronegativity of bonding atoms are the same or

close to the same, they share electrons.

• In diatomic molecules (like H2 or Cl2), the electronegativity

of both atoms are exactly the same so electrons are shared
equally.
 Multiple Bonds
• Sometimes atoms share more than one pair of valence
electrons.
• A double bond is when atoms share two pairs of electrons
(4 total).
• A triple bond is when atoms share three pairs of electrons
(6 total).
• Know these 7 elements as diatomic:
Br2 I2 N2 Cl2 H2 O2 F2
 Exception for Octet Rule

• At ground state, most elements follow the octet rule

• Elements in periods 3-7 should be able to exceed the octet.
• At ground state, most elements follow the octet rule.
• But as an atom absorbs energy, one or more of the valence
electrons will move from s/p orbitals to the d orbitals, which
results in more bonding sites becoming available.
• Sulfur and Phosphorus are good examples of elements that
commonly exceed the octet rule.
 Coordinate Covalent Bond
A dative covalent bond differs from covalent bond only in its
formation
Both electrons of the shared pair are provided by one species
(donor) and it shares the electrons with the acceptor.

Donor species will have lone pairs in their outer shells

Acceptor species will be short of their “octet” or maximum.

Lewis base a lone pair donor

Lewis acid a lone pair acceptor
 Coordinate Covalent Bond
• Ammonium ion, NH4+
• The lone pair on N is used to share with the hydrogen ion
which needs two electrons to fill its outer shell.

• The N now has a +ive charge as

• - it is now sharing rather than owning two electrons.
 Coordinate covalent bond

Energy is released when the two co-ordinate bonds are formed,

and so the dimer is more stable than two separate AlCl3
molecules.
It exists as a dimer (two molecules joined together).
The bonding between the two molecules is co-ordinate, using
lone pairs on the chlorine atoms.
 VSEPR

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

• Predicts the three dimensional shape of molecules.

• Can determine the angles of bonds.

– Valence shell = outside electrons.

– Electron Pair repulsion = electron pairs try to get as far
away as possible from each other.
 VSEPR
• Maximum angular separation between valence electron
pairs around the central atom.
• The bond pairs and lone pairs in the valence shell
arrange around the central atom in such a way as to
minimize the electrostatic repulsion .
• Repelling power : -
lone pair–lone pair > lone pair–bond pair > bond
pair–bond pair
 VSEPR
Things to remember:
• Based on the number of pairs of valence electrons, both
bonded and not bonded.
• Unshared pair also called lone pair.
• VSEPR can only be used with the central atom.
• Double bond and triple bond are considered as one
electron pair or one negative centre.
To predict the shape of the molecules.

1. Determine the central atom

2. Draw a dot and cross diagram to show total valence

electrons ( includes the charge)

3. Determine the number of bonded electron pair and lone

electron pair around the central atom.

4. Predict the shape and bond angle.

 VSEPR
• Names of Shapes:
• tetrahedral
• trigonal pyramidal
• Bent
• Linear
• trigonal planar
• trigonal bipyramidal
• octahedral
CH4

Carbon has 4 bond pairs. The four H

atoms are arranged about the C
atom in a tetrahedral shape .

This shape minimizes the repulsion

between the bond pairs.

The 109.5° angle is the same for all

H-C-H bond angles.
BeCl2

The central Be atom has two bond pairs

Repulsion between these two pairs

causes the molecule to be linear with
180o.

If the molecule were bent in any

direction, the two bond pairs would be
brought closer together, increasing the
repulsion.
BF3

The central B atom has three bond

pairs

Minimizing the repulsion causes this

molecule to have a trigonal planar
shape with 120o
NH3

Nitrogen has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pairs

which makes the shape trigonal pyramidal
with angle 107o .

Due to the greater repelling character of

lone pairs, the H atoms in NH3 are bent
closer together than the normal tetrahedral
angle of 109.5°.
H 2O

Oxygen has 2 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs

which makes the shape bent with angle
104.5o.

The angle is even smaller than NH3

because H2O has two lone pair at the
central atom.
PCl5

P has five bond pair with two position of

chlorine - axial and equatorial.

This shape is known as trigonal

bypyramidal.

The angle between equatorial position are

120o and angle between axial position are
90o

This shape minimizes the repulsion

between the bond pairs.
SF6

Sulfur has 6 bond pairs.

It has the shape of octahedral with 90o

angle

This shape minimizes the repulsion

between the bond pair
 Summary

No. of No. of Shape of molecule Example

bonding pair lone pair

2 0 Linear BeCl2
3 0 Trigonal planar BF3
4 0 Tetrahedral CH4
3 1 Trigonal pyramidal NH3

2 2 Bent H2O
2 1 SO2
5 0 Trigonal bipyramid PCl5

6 0 Octahedral SF6
Models

Tetrahedral Trigonal Planar Bent or V

Trigonal Trigonal Linear

Octahedral
pyramidal bipyramidal
 Orbitals Overlapping

A Bonding Orbital is an orbital that can be occupied by two

electrons of a covalent bond (it’s the space in between the
two atoms)
There are 2 types of bonding orbitals: sigma and pi
 σ (sigma) bond

• A covalent bond formed by the overlap of

orbitals along the bond axis end to end.
• A sigma bond can be formed by the
overlap of:
– s and p orbitals
– two p orbitals
– two hybrid orbitals
– an s orbital and a hybrid orbital
 π (pi bond)
• A covalent bond formed by the parallel
(side by side) overlap of two p orbitals.

• The greater the overlap the stronger the bond

 Hybrization of Orbitals

• The merging of several atomic orbitals to form the

same total number of hybrid orbitals.

• Why carbon can form 4 bonds?

Unhybridized Outer Orbitals of
Carbon

↓ _ _
2s2 2p2
 Orbital Overlapping
C: 1s2 2s2 2p2
1s 2s 2p
 sp3 hybridization

Unhybridized Carbon

Hybridized Carbon
 sp3 hybridization

p orbital

s orbital

The s orbital merges with

the three p orbitals to form
four sp3 hybrid orbitals that
are identical. sp3 hybrid orbital
_ _ _ _
sp3 sp3 sp3 sp3
Copyright©2000 by Houghton 42
Mifflin Company. All rights
 sp3 hybridization
• The four sp3 orbitals are
arranged in a tetrahedral
shape.
• Each hybrid sp3 orbital
contains one electron and 109.5o
is available to bond with
another atom.
• Four hydrogen atoms, each
having an s orbital, overlap
with each of the sp3
orbitals.
• Each of these bonds is
called a σ (sigma) bond.
sp2 hybridization
 sp2 hybridization
When an s and two p orbitals are mixed to form a set of
three sp2 orbitals, one p orbital remains unchanged and is
perpendicular to the plane of the hybrid orbitals.
sp2 hybridization
(Ethene) C2H4 sp2 hybridization
 sp2 hybridization
Ethene, C2H4
• The double bond between the two carbon
atoms is made up of a sigma bond and a
pi bond.
• The pi bond is made up of the parallel
overlap of the p orbitals.
• The sigma bond is made up of the end to
end overlap of the sp2 orbitals.
• A double bond is made up of a sigma
bond and a pi bond.
 sp hybridization
Ethyne, C2H2

• The carbon atoms forms:

– two hybrid sp orbitals
– two p orbitals.
sp hybridization
 sp hybridization

The orbitals of an sp hybridized carbon atom.

Acetylene (Ethyne), C2H2
 Triple Bond
• Is made up of a sigma bond and two pi
bonds.
 Bond Length

• The distance between the centre of two atoms joined by a

covalent bond.
• Double bonds are shorter than single bonds.
• Double bonds have greater quantity of negative charges
between two atomic nuclei.
• Greater force of attraction between the electrons and
nuclei pulls the atom closer together.
 Bond Energy

The quantity of energy required to break one mole of covalent

bonds in a gaseous species, usually expressed in kJ/mol.
Bond Breakage:
H2(g) → 2 H(g) DH = D(H-H) = +435.93 kJ/mol

A large bond dissociation energy corresponds to a strong

bond which makes it unreactive.
Bond strength affects reactivity of the compound.
 Electronegativity

The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared

electrons to itself
 Bond Polarity
• Covalent bonding means shared electrons
• Electrons are pulled, as in a tug-of-war, between the atoms
nuclei
– In equal sharing (such as diatomic molecules), the bond
that results is called a nonpolar covalent bond.
• When two different atoms bond covalently, there is an
unequal sharing
– the more electronegative atom will have a stronger
attraction, and will acquire a slightly negative charge
– called a polar covalent bond, or simply polar bond.
 Bond Polarity
• Consider HCl
H = electronegativity of 2.1
Cl = electronegativity of 3.0
– the bond is polar
– the chlorine acquires a slight negative charge, and
the hydrogen a slight positive charge

• Written as: d+ d-
H Cl H Cl
 Polar molecules

• HCl has polar bonds, thus is a polar molecule.

• The effect of polar bonds on the polarity of the entire
molecule depends on the molecule shape
– carbon dioxide has two polar bonds, and is linear =
nonpolar molecule
 Polar molecules

– water has two polar bonds and a bent shape; the highly
electronegative oxygen pulls the e- away from H = very
polar!
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
https://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v=
9YwdeEDrfPI

Hydrogen bonds Van der Waals’ forces

Permanent dipole London Dispersion forces/

Instantaneous dipole- induced
dipole
Permanent dipole
A permanent dipole exists in all polar molecules as a result of
the difference in the electronegativity of bonded atoms.
Electrostatic interactions between polar molecules
 Dipole-dipole interactions
• In a sample containing many polar molecules

A balance of attraction and

repulsion holding the
molecules together
Instantaneous dipole
An instantaneous dipole is a temporary dipole that exists as a
result of fluctuation in the electron cloud.
Induced dipole
An induced dipole is a temporary dipole that is created
due to the influence of neighbouring dipole (which may be
a permanent or an instantaneous dipole).

Permanent dipole
Strength of van der Waals’ forces

Depends on three factors

1. Size of molecule
2. Surface area of molecule
3. Polarity of molecule
1. Size of Molecule
Molecule Boiling point Rel.
Sizemolecular
of molecule 
mass
(oC)
Helium -269
Neon -246
Size of electron cloud 
Argon -186
Fluorine -188
Chlorine -34.7
Bromine 58.8 Distortion/ Polarizability 
Methane -162
Ethane -88.6
Propane -42.2 Dispersion forces 
3. Polarity of molecules
For molecules with comparable molecular sizes and shapes,
dispersion forces are approximately equal.
Then, strength of van der Waals’ forces depends on the polarity of
molecules involved

Polar/polar > polar/non-polar > non-polar/non-polar

 H3C Dipole-dipole H3C
d+ d- forces d+ d-
C O C O
+
H3C Dispersion forces H3C

H2 H2
C CH3 C CH3
H3C C H3C C
H2 H2
Dispersion forces
only
Formation of hydrogen bonding

When a hydrogen atom is directly bonded to a highly

electronegative atom (e.g. fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen), a
highly polar bond is formed.

2.1 4.0 2.1 3.5 2.1 3.0

Electrostatic attractions exist between this partial
positive charge and the lone pair electrons on a
highly electronegative atom (i.e. fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen) of another molecule.
These attractions are called hydrogen bonds
hydrogen bond
 hydrogen bond

Formation of hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules.

 Structure and bonding of ice
The lone pairs of oxygen atom
of each water molecule forms
a water hydrogen bonds with two
molecule
hydrogen atoms of nearby
water molecules
hydrogen
bond

hydrogen atom
hydrogen
bond
oxygen atom
Each H2O molecule is bonded tetrahedrally to four
H2O molecules

1
4
2

3
The oxygen atoms in the
structure of ice are arranged in
a hexagonal shape.
The hexagonal symmetry of a snowflake
reflects the structure of ice.
Effect of hydrogen bonding on properties of
water
1. Melting point and boiling point
The melting point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of
water are much higher than expected.
A lot of energy is required to overcome the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules and separate them.
2. Surface tension

High surface tension of water allows water striders to

‘walk’ on it.
Water forms droplets rather than spreading
out on leaf.
 intermolecular forces
2. Surface tension
•Surface tension of molecular liquids arises
from intermolecular forces.
•Stronger intermolecular forces leads to higher
surface tension
Water molecules at the surface are strongly
attracted by neighboring molecules on the
same surface.
The surface of water is like a tightly-stretched
skin such that small insects can walk on it.

each water molecule is attracted to neighboring

water molecules in all directions and there is a
balance of force.
2. Surface tension
There is an imbalance of force for
the molecules at the surface.
The water molecules at the
surface tend to be pulled inwards
by other water molecules below
the surface.

As a result, water forms droplets

rather than spreading out on leaf.
In other words, water tends to
reduce its surface area by taking
the spherical shape.
3. Viscosity

The resistance of a
Viscosity liquid to flow.

The higher the viscosity of a liquid, the more slowly it

flows.
Viscosity arises from intermolecular forces
Strong hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together and
do not allow them to move past one another easily.
 Useful Links

https://teachchemistry.org/classroom-resources/ionic-
covalent-bonding-simulation\

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/molecule-shapes-
basics/latest/molecule-shapes-basics_en.html