Mechanics of Structure

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

CHENNAI – 600 025
STATE PROJECT COORDINATION UNIT
Diploma in Civil Engineering
Course Code: 31041
M – Scheme
e-TEXTBOOK
on
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
for
IV Semester DCE
Convener for CIVIL Discipline:
Mr.N. Muralikrishniah, M.E,
Principal / IPT &
Principal (Addl. Charge)
Central Polytechnic College,
Taramani, Chennai – 600 113
Email : muralinapa@gmail.com
Team Members for Theory of Structures

1. Mr.S.Loganathan, M.E.,
HoD /CIVIL,
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College,
Salem – 636 005
2. Mr.V.Amalraj, M.E.,
Lecturer (Sel.Gr.) / CIVIL,
Government Polytechnic College for Women,
Coimbatore – 641 044
3. Mr.T.Thangamani, M.E.,
Lecturer (Sel.Gr.) / CIVIL,
Srinivasa Subbaraya Polytechnic College,
Puttur, Sirkali – 609 108
Validated by
Dr.V.Karthikeyan, M.E., Ph.D., MCMI(UK)., FIE.,
Principal,
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College,
Salem – 636 005.
DETAILED SYLLABUS
UNIT-I
1.1 SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Deflected shapes / Elastic curves of beams with different support conditions –Definition of Slope and
Deflection- Flexural rigidity and Stiffness of beams- Mohr’s Theorems – Area Moment method for slope
and deflection of beams – Derivation of expressions for maximum slope and maximum deflection of
standard cases by area moment method for cantilever and simply supported beams subjected to
symmetrical UDL & point loads – Numerical problems on determination of slopes and deflections at
salient points of Cantilevers and Simply supported beams from first principles and by using formulae
1.2 PROPPED CANTILEVERS
Statically determinate and indeterminate Structures- Stable and Unstable Structures- Examples- Degree
of Indeterminacy-Concept of Analysis of Indeterminate beams - Definition of Prop –Types of Props- Prop
reaction from deflection consideration – Drawing SF and BM diagrams by area moment method for UDL
throughout the span, central and non-central concentrated loads – Propped cantilever with overhang –
Point of Contra flexure.
UNIT-II
2.1 FIXED BEAMS – AREA MOMENT METHOD
Introduction to fixed beam - Advantages –Degree of indeterminacy of fixed beam- Sagging and Hogging
bending moments – Determination of fixing end(support) moments(FEM) by Area Moment method –
Derivation of Expressions for Standard cases – Fixed beams subjected to symmetrical and unsymmetrical
concentrated loads and UDL – Drawing SF and BM diagrams for Fixed beams with supports at the same
level (sinking of supports or supports at different levels are not included) – Points of Contra flexure –
Problems- Determination of Slope and Deflection of fixed beams subjected to only symmetrical loads by
area moment method – Problems.
2.2 CONTINUOUS BEAMS – THEOREM OF THREE MOMENTS METHOD
Introduction to continuous beams – Degree of indeterminacy of continuous beams with respect to
number of spans and types of supports –Simple/Partially fixed / Fixed supports of beams- General
methods of analysis of Indeterminate structures – Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments – Application
of Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments for the following cases – Two span beams with both ends
simply supported or fixed – Two span beams with one end fixed and the other end simply supported –
Two span beams with one end simply supported or fixed and other end overhanging –Determination of
Reactions at Supports- Application of Three moment equations to Three span Continuous Beams and
Propped cantilevers –Problems- Sketching of SFD and BMD for all the above cases.
UNIT-III
3.1 CONTINUOUS BEAMS – MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
Introduction to Carry over factor, Stiffness factor and Distribution factor –Stiffness Ratio or Relative
Stiffness- Concept of distribution of un balanced moments at joints - Sign conventions – Application of
M-D method to Continuous beams of two / three spans and to Propped cantilever (Maximum of three
cycles of distribution sufficient) –Finding Support Reactions- Problems - Sketching SFD and BMD for two
/ three span beams.
3.2 PORTAL FRAMES – MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
Definition of Frames – Types – Bays and Storey - Sketches of Single/Multi Storey Frames, Single/Multi
Bay Frames- Portal Frame – Sway and Non- sway Frames- Analysis of Non sway (Symmetrical) Portal
Frames for Joint moments by Moment Distribution Method and drawing BMD only– Deflected shapes of
Portal frames under different loading / support conditions.
UNIT-IV
4.1 COLUMNS AND STRUTS
Columns and Struts – Definition – Short and Long columns – End conditions – Equivalent length /
Effective length– Slenderness ratio – Axially loaded short column - Axially loaded long column – Euler’s
theory of long columns – Derivation of expression for Critical load of Columns with hinged ends –
Expressions for other standard cases of end conditions (separate derivations not required) – Problems –
Derivation of Rankine’s formula for Crippling load of Columns– Factor of Safety- Safe load on Columns-
Simple problems.
4.2 COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESSES
Direct and Indirect stresses – Combination of stresses – Eccentric loads on Columns – Effects of Eccentric
loads / Moments on Short columns – Combined direct and bending stresses – Maximum and Minimum
stresses in Sections– Problems – Conditions for no tension – Limit of eccentricity – Middle third rule –
Core or Kern for square, rectangular and circular sections – Chimneys subjected to uniform wind
pressure –Combined stresses in Chimneys due to Self weight and Wind load- Chimneys of Hollow square
and Hollow circular cross sections only – Problem
UNIT-V
5.1 MASONRY DAMS
Gravity Dams – Derivation of Expression for maximum and minimum stresses at Base – Stress
distribution diagrams – Problems – Factors affecting Stability of masonry dams – Factor of safety-
Problems on Stability of Dams– Minimum base width and maximum height of dam for no tension at
base – Elementary profile of a dam – Minimum base width of elementary profile for no tension.
5.2 EARTH PRESSURE AND RETAINING WALLS
Definition – Angle of repose /Angle of Internal friction of soil– State of equilibrium of soil – Active and
Passive earth pressures – Rankine’s theory of earth pressure – Assumptions – Lateral earth pressure
with level back fill / level surcharge (Angular Surcharge not required)– Earth pressure due to Submerged
soils – (Soil retained on vertical back of wall only) – Maximum and minimum stresses at base of
Trapezoidal Gravity walls – Stress distribution diagrams – Problems – Stability of earth retaining walls –
Problems to check the stability of walls- Minimum base width for no tension.
UNIT – I
Deflected shapes / Elastic curves of beams with different support conditions –Definition of Slope
and Deflection- Flexural rigidity and Stiffness of beams- Mohr’s Theorems – Area Moment
method for slope and deflection of beams – Derivation of expressions for maximum slope and
maximum deflection of standard cases by area moment method for cantilever and simply
supported beams subjected to symmetrical UDL & point loads – Numerical problems on
determination of slopes and deflections at salient points of Cantilevers and Simply supported
beams from first principles and by using formulae.
CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1. Beam
A structural member which is acted upon by a system of external loads at right angles to
its axis is known as beam. Generally, a beam is a horizontal member to support floor
slabs, secondary beams, walls, stairs etc.
2. Classification of structure
In general, the following are two types of structures
a) According to static equilibrium equation
i) Statically determinate structures
ii) Statically indeterminate structures
Further, the above structures are classified according to support conditions as
presented below
b) According to support conditions
1. Cantilever beam
2. Simply supported beam
3. Propped cantilever beam
4. Overhanging beam
5. Fixed beam
6. Continuous beam
3. Shear force (S.F)
The Shear Force at any section of a beam is the algebric sum of all the forces acting either
left or right of that section. It is denoted by F (or) SF. The symbol of SF is F(or)V(or)SF.
THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 1

4. Bending moment (B.M)
The bending moment at any section of a beam is the algebric sum of all the moments of
the forces acting either left (or) right of that section. It is denoted by B.M(or) M.
1.1.1 Deflected shapes of beam / Elastic line (or) elastic curve of beam
When a beam is subjected to transverse loads it develops shear force and bending
moment at every cross section. Due to transverse load the beam gets deflected. The
deflected configuration of the beam is known as deflected shape.
Fig 1.1 Elastic curve

Where, 𝜭B = Slope at B
SB = Deflection of free end(B)
(a) Elastic line (or) elastic curve of beam
The configuration of the longitudinal axis of the beam after bending takes place due to
loading is called elastic curve. (or)
The edge view of the deflected neutral surface of a beam is known as elastic curve.
The deflected shape of various types of beam is presented below
W
C
A B
C
A B
Elastic line
l
Fig 1.2 For a cantilever beam Fig 1.3 For a simply supported beam
W
A B A B
Elastic curve Elastic curve
Fig 1.4 For a fixed beam Fig 1.5 For a propped cantilever

Elastic line Elastic line
Fig 1.6 For a continuous beam

1.1.2 Slope and Deflection
(a) Slope ( or i)
The angle made by the tangent at a point on the elastic curve with the horizontal is called
the slope at the point. It is denoted by  (or) i.
W
B
A B B
Elastic curve
Fig 1.7
(b) Deflection ( or y)
The vertical distance between the original axis to the elastic curve of the beam after loading
is called deflection. It is denoted by  (or) y.
1.1.3 Flexural rigidity and Stiffness of beams
(a) Flexural rigidity (EI)
The product of values of young’s modulus and MI about Neutral axis is called flexural
rigidity.
ie. Flexural rigidity = Young’s modulus x M.I

= E x I = EI
The product of EI is expressed in N.mm2 (or) kN.m2
(b) Stiffness
Stiffness of a beam is the property of resistance against rotation and deflection. The
moment required to produce unit rotation of slope is called stiffness of the beam. It is
depends upon the end conditions, flexural rigidity and span of the beam.
4 EI
1. Stiffness factor, k = for fixed ends

3EI
2. Stiffness factor, k = for simply supported ends

1.1.3 Book Work - I
a) Differential Equation
Derive the differential equation of flexure (or) relation between slope deflection and radius
of curvature.
d2y
M = EI
ie dx 2

Solution
Consider a small portion of PQ of length ‘ds’ of a beam as shown in fig.1.4
R = Radius of curvature
d = Angle bounded by the arc ‘ds’ at centre
We know, Y
Arc length ds = dx = R. d O
1 d R
=  (1) Q
R dx
d
dy dy ds
dy
tan  =  = P
dx dx dx
Differentiate w.r.t. x

d2y d
d
 (2)

2
= X
dx dx
Fig 1.8
M f E M E
= = = Q
I y R I R
1 M ds
=  (4) dy
R EI
M d2y 
 = P
EI dx 2 dx
d2y
M = EI Fig 1.9
dx 2
d2y
M = EI Differential equation of flexure.
dx 2
Note:
d2y
EI = M  Flexural differential equation.
dx 2
d2y  dy 
 EI = slope = EI  
dx 2  dx 
d2y
  EI = deflection = EI y
dx 2
d (M ) d  EI d 2 y 
=  2
 = F = shear force.
dx dx  dx 
d  EI d 3 y 
 3
 = w = Rate of loading
dx  dx 
1.1.3 (b) Method of finding the slope and deflection

The following are the various methods for slope and deflection.
1. Mohr’s area moment method
2. Double integration method

3. Macaulay’s method
4. Strain energy method
5. Conjugate beam method
1.1.4 Area moment method
It is a simple method, Mohr’s Theorem I & II are used for the determination of slope and
deflection of beams at any section with reference to the B.M.D., hence it is called as Mohr’s
area moment method.
1.1.4 (a) Mohr’s Theorem – I
It states that the change of slope between any two points on an elastic curve is equal to the
area of BMD between the two points divided by flexural rigidity.
A
Slope =  =
EI
(b) Mohr’s Theorem – II
It states that the intercept taken on a vertical reference line of tangents at any two points
on an elastic curve is equal to the moment area of BMD between these points about the
reference line divided by flexural rigidity.
Ax
Y= = deflection.
EI
Where, A = Net area of BMD
Ax = Net moment area of BMD.
EI = Flexural rigidity
Book Work – 2
State and prove Mohr’s theorem for slope (Mohr’s theorem – I)
1.1.4 (b) Mohr’s Theorem - I
It states that the change of slope between any two points on an elastic curve is equal to the
area of BMD between the two points divided by flexural rigidity.
A
= = slope
EI
Where M
A P Q B
A = Net area of BMD dx x
EI = Flexural rigidity. O
Proof
Consider a beam AB deflected as shown in fig.
Consider two points P & Q and draw tangents at P and Q. dè R
A B
PQ = dx = length of curve
Q1
d = change of slope P1
We know Fig 1.10

dx = R. d

1 d
=  (1)
R dx
M E
But =
I R
1 M
=  (2)
R EI
M d
 =
EI dx
M
d = x dx
EI
 M dx A
B = =
EI I
A
B= Where M. dx = A = Net area of BMD
EI
Book Work – 3
State and prove Mohr’s Theorem – II for deflection.
1.1.4 (c) Mohr’s Theorem – II
It states that the intercept taken on a vertical reference line of tangents at any two points
on an elastic curve is equal to the moment area of BMD between these points about the
reference line divided by flexural rigidity.
Ax
ie y=
EI
M
Where A x = Moment area of BMD A Q B
EI = Flexural rigidity P dx x
O
Proof
Consider a BMD as shown in fig.
M dx dè
d = R Q1
EI A B
M dx K
d x = x (A = M dx) P1 J
dè
EI
 M dx Ax
δ A/B = x = Fig 1.11
EI EI
Ax
δ A/B = deflection
EI
Where M dx = area of BMD

x = centroid of BMD
A x = Moment area of BMD

1.1.5 Slope and Deflection for standard cases
Book Work – 4
1.1.5 (a) Cantilever beam with point load ‘W’ at free end.
Derive the max. slope and deflection for a cantilever beam with point load ‘W’ at free end.
Solution
Consider a cantilever beam loaded as shown in fig.

Draw BMD as shown in fig.
Draw tangents at A & B to the elastic curve.
By Mohr’s Theorem - I
A
=
W
EI B
A B
A = Area of BMD B
1
A= xbxh l
2
X = 23 l
1 W 2
A = x  x W =
2 2 W. l C
A 1 W 2 
B = = x 
BMD
EI EI  2 
Fig 1.12
W 2
B =
2 EI
By Mohr’s Theorem – II
Ax 1 W 2 2 
δB = max = =
EI  2 3 
x
EI
x  Centroid of BMDfrom B
2
x
3
W 3
δ B =  max = deflection at B
3 EI

Book Work – 5
1.1.5 (a) Cantilever beam with udl (w/m)
Derive the max. slope and deflection for a cantilever beam with udl over entire span.
Solution
Consider a cantilever beam loaded as shown in fig.
Draw BMD
Let A = area of BMD between A & B
1
A= xbxh
3
1 w 2 w 3
A= x x =
3 2 6
x = Centroid of BMD from B
3
x = x
4
By Mohr’s Theorem – I
A
B =
EI
1 w 3 w 3
B =  =
EI  6  6 EI
3
B = w slope at B
6 EI
By Mohr’s Theorem – II;

Ax
δB = max =
EI
1 w 3 3 
δB = max =  x  Fig 1.13
EI  6 4 
w 4
Deflection at B = δB = max =  
 8 EI 

Solved Problems
Problem 1
A cantilever beam 2m span 200mm wide and 400mm deep. Carries a point load of 10 kN
at free end. Find the max. slope and deflection by area moment method take
E = 2.0 x 105 N/mm2.
Given data:
By area moment method
Span  = 2m = 2000 mm d
Wide b = 200mm
Depth d = 400mm
b
E = 2.0 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
(i)Moment of inertia (I)
bd 3 200 x 4003
M.I. (I) = = = 1.067 x 109mm4
12 12
(ii) Bending Moment
W.  = 10 x 2 = 20 kN.m
Draw BMD as shown in fig.1.9
A = area of BMD
1
A = xbxh
2
1
A = x 2 x 20 = 20 kNm2 = 20x109 Nmm2
2
x = Centroid of BMD draw B
2
x = x 2 = 1.33m=1.33 x 103 mm
3
(ii) Slope & Deflection

By Mohr’s Theorem – I
A 20x109
Slope θB = = radians
EI (2.0x105 )(1.067x109 )
Slope θB = 9.37 x 10-5 radians
(iii) Deflection (B)

Ax
Deflection B =
EI
1 1
Deflection max = (A x ) = 5 9
(20 x 1.33) x1012
EI (2.0x10 )(1.067x10 )
= 1.24 x 10-4 m
max =0.125mm
Alternate method
W 2 10 x103 x (2000)2
(i)Slope θ = = = 9.37 x 10-5 radian
2 EI 2 x  (2x10 )(1.067x10 ) 
5 9
(ii) Deflection (B)

W 3 10 x103 x (2000)3
B = = = 0.124mm
3 EI 3 (2x105 )(1.067x109 ) 
= 0.125mm
Result
θ B = 9.37 x 10-5 radians
B = 0.125mm
Problem 2
A cantilever beam 3m span carries a point load of 30 kN at 1m from free end. Find max.
Slope and deflection. Take EI = 10 x 104 kN.m2
Given data:
Span  = 3m
W = 30 KN
l1 =2m
EI = 10 x 104 kN.m2
Draw BMD as shown in fig.1.10
Solution
60KNm
Draw BMD
Let A = area of BMD
1
A = xbxh
2
Bending Moment @ A= 30x 2 = 60 kNm
1
A = x 2 x 60 = 60kNm2
2
2
x1 = (1 + x 2) = 2.33 m
3

(i) Slope
A 60
θB = = radians
EI 10 x104
θB = 6 x 10-4 radians
(ii) Deflection
Ax1
max =
EI
Ax1 60 x2.33
B = = 4
=1.398x 10-3m=1.398 mm = Deflection at B
EI 10 x10
Problem 3
A cantilever beam of span 4m is subjected to a udl of 20 kN/m over a entire length. Find
the maximum slope and deflection.Take E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, I = 15 x 108mm4
Given data:
Span  = 4m
Udl w = 20 kN/m
E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 20 KN/m
I = 15 x 108mm4 A B
B
Required max
Slope at θB = ? 4m
Deflection at B δB = ?
X= 3
a
(i) Bending Moment 160
w 2 20 x 4 2
B.M @ A due to udl load = = = 160 KN.m BMD
2 2
Draw BMD
A = area BMD
1
A = xbxh
3
1
A = x 4 x 160 = 213.33 kN.m2= 213.33x109 N.mm2
3
x = Centroid from free end
3 3
x = x l = ( x 4) = 3 m =3 x103 mm
4 4

(ii) Slope
A 213.34 x109
θB = = radians
EI (2.1x105 )(15 x108 )
θB = 6.772 x 10-4 radians
(iii) Deflection
Ax (213.34x3)x1012
max = = = 2.03 mm
EI (2.1x105 )(15x108 )
Result
max = 2.03 mm
Problem 4
A cantilever beam 3m span carries a point loads of 10 kN at free end and an udl of 2 kN/m
over its entire span. Find the max. slope and deflection. Take EI = 2 x 10 4 kN.m2
Given data:
Span  = 3m
Point load W = 10 kN
udl w = 2 kN/m
EI = 2 x 104 kN.m2
Solution:
(i) Bending Moment
Bending Moment @ A due to point load
= Wl =10 x 3=30kN.m
Bending Moment @ A due to udl
wl 2 2 x 32
= = = 9 kN.m
2 2
Draw BMD
A1 = area of BMD for point load
A2 = area of BMD for udl
Due to Point load
1
A1 = xbxh
2
1
A1 = x 3 x 30 = 45 kNm2
2
2
x1 = x 3 = 2m
3

Due to Udl
1
A2 = xbxh
3
1
A2 = x3x9 = 9 kNm2
3
3
x2 = x 3= 2.25m
4
(ii) Slope
A A A 
θB = =  1 2  radian
EI  EI 
1
θB = 4
[45+9]= 2.7 x10-3 radians
2 x10
(iii) Deflection
Ax 1
max = B = = (A1 x 1 + A2 x 2)
EI EI
1
=  (45 x 2)  (9x 2.25) 
2 x104
max =5.513x10-3m= 5.513mm
Result
B = 5.513mm
Problem 5
A Cantilever beam of span 5m is carrying a
point load of 16KN at 4m from fixed end.
Calculate the slope and deflection at load point
and at the free end by area moment theorem.
Take E = 1.5 x105 N /mm2 and I = 4 x108 mm4 .
Given data:
Cantilever beam with point load
Point load W = 16KN
Span = 5m
E = 1.5 x105 N/mm2
I = 4 x 108 mm4
To Find:
Max slope = θ = ?
Max deflection = δ = ?

Solution:
Area of BMD A = x bh
Bending moment = WL
= 16 x 4 = 64 kNm
A = xbx h
A = x 4 x 64
A = 128 kN.m2
A = 128 x 109 N .mm2
Centroid of BMD
2
x=( x4)+1
3
= 3.67m = 3.67x103 mm
Applying Mohr ‘ s theorem - I

A
(i) Slope = θ B = θ max =
EI
128x109
=
(1.5x105 )(4x108 )
θ B = θ max= 2.13 x 10-3 Radians
Applying Mohr ‘ s theorem - II

Ax
(ii) Deflection = δ B = δ max =
EI
(128x3.67)x1012
=
(1.5x105 )(4x108 )
Deflection = δ B = δ max= 7.83mm
Result:
Slope = θ B = θ max= 2.13 x 10-3 Radians
Deflection = δ B = δ max= 7.83mm
Problem 6
A cantilever beam 4m span carries an udl of 5 kN/m over 2m from fixed end and a point
load of 10 kN at free end. Find the max. slope and deflection. Take EI = 10 x 10 4 kN.m2.
Given Data:
Span  = 4m
udl w = 5 kN/m

EI = 10 x 104 kN.m2
x = 2m
Solution
(i) Bending Moment

BM due to point load w. 
= 10 x 4 = 40 kN.m
wx 2
BM due to udl at A=
2
=5x2x 2 = 10 kN.m
2
Draw BMD by parts as shown in fig.1.13

Due to point load,
1
A1 = xbxh
2
1
A1 = x 4 x 40 = 80kNm2
2
2
x1 = x4 = 2.67 m
3
Due to UDL,
1
A2 = xbxh
3
1
A2 = x 2 x 10 = 6.67 kNm2
3
 3 
x2 =  2  x 2  = 3.5m
 4 
(ii) Slope
A ( A  A2 ) 80  6.67
θB = = 1 = 4
= 8.67x 10-4 radians
EI EI 10 x 10
(iii) Deflection
Ax 1 1
max = B = = (A1 x 1 + A2 x 2) = (80x2.67+ 6.67x3.5)
EI EI 10 x 10 4
max = B = 2.37 x 10-3 m = 2.37mm
Result
max = 2.37mm

Problem 7
A cantilever beam 5m span carries an udl of 20 kN/m over a length of 3 m from fixed end
and two point loads of 40 kN and 30 kN at 3m and 5m from the fixed end respectively.
Determine the maximum slope and deflection at the free end using Mohr’s Theorem. Take
EI = 47.05 x 103 kN.m2.
Given data:
` Span  = 5m 40 KN 30 KN
udl w = 20 kN/m K/m
x =3m B
W = 30 kN at free end A C
W1 = 40 kN at ℓ1= 3 m 3m 2m
EI = 47.05 x 103 kN.m2 5
Required
X1= 23 x l
B = ? B =?
Solution: a1
(i) Bending Moment 150
Bending Moment at A due to udl

wx 2 20 x 32 X2 = 23 . x +(l - x)
= = = 90 kN.m
2 2
Bending Moment at A due to load W a2
W x ℓ = 30 x 5 = 150 kN.m 120
Bending Moment at A due to load W1
X3 = 43 . x + (l - x)
W . X = 40 x 3 = 120 kN.m
Draw BMD a3
1 90
A1 = xbxh
2 BMD
1
A1 = x 5 x 150 = 375 kN.m2
2
2 2
x1 = xl = x 5 = 3.33m
3 3
1
A2 = x bxh
2
1
A2 = x 3 x 120 = 180 kN.m2
2
2 2
x2 = x + (ℓ - x) = ( x 3) + 2 = 4m
3 3
1
A3 = xbxh
3
1
A3 = x 3 x 90 = 90 kN.m2
3
3 3
x3 = ( x ) + (ℓ - x) = ( x 3) + 2 = 4.25m
4 4

(ii)Slope
A  A  A2  A3 
B = = 1  radian
EI  EI 
1
B = 3
(375  180  90) 13.7088 x10 3 radians
47.05 x10
= 0.0137 radians
(iii)Deflection
Ax 1
max = B = = (A1 x 1 + A2 x 2+ A3 x 3)
EI EI
1
= [(375x3.33) + (180x4)+(90x4.25)]
47.05 x 10 3
max = 49.97 x 10-3m = 49.97mm
Result
B = 13.7088 x10 3 radians
B = 49.97 mm
Problem 8
A cantilever 2m long carries a point load of 9 kN at free end and a udl of 8 kN/m. Over a
length of 1m from the fixed end. Determine the deflection at the free end if E = 2 x 10 5
N/mm2. Take I = 2250 x 104 mm4.
Given data:
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
I = 2250 x 104mm4
Span  = 2m 9 KN
Point load W = 9 kN; K/m
Udl w = 8 kN/m B
A B
Solution 1m 1m
(i) Bending Moment
2
B.M. due to point load = Wx l
= 9 x 2 = 18 KN.m X1 = 23 x 2
wl 2
B.M. due to udl load = a1
2 18
1
= 8x1x = 4 KN.m X2 = 43 x 1 + (1+1)
2
a2
Draw BMD 4
1
A1 = xbxh BMD
2

1
A1 = x 2 x 18 = 18 kNm2
2
=18x109 Nmm2
1
A2 = x b x h
3
1
A2 = x 1 x 4 = 1.33 kNm2
3
= 1.33x109 Nmm2
2
x1 = x2 = 1.33 m= 1.33x103 mm
3
3
x2 = 1 + ( x 1) = 1.75 m = 1.75x103 mm
4
(ii) Slope
A 1 1
B = = (A1 + A2) = 5 4
(18 + 1.33)x109
EI EI (2x10 )(2250x10 )
B -3
= 4.30 x 10 radians
By Mohr’s Theorem - II
(iv) Deflection
Ax
max =
EI
1
= (A1 x 1 + A2 x 2)
EI
1
= 5 4
[(18 x 1.33) + (1.33x 1.75)] x1012
(2x10 )(2250x10 )
max = 5.84 mm
Result
B = 4.30 x 10-3 radians
max = 5.84 mm
Problem 9
A cantilever beam of span 4m is subjected to a udl of 20 kN/m over a entire length and a
point load of 15 kN acting at the centre. Find the maximum deflection for the beam. Given E
= 2.1 x 105 N/mm2, I = 15 x 108mm4
Given data:
Span  = 4m
Udl w = 20 kN/m
E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
I = 15 x 108mm4

Solution
(i) Bending Moment 15 KN
B.M. due to point load Wx l= 15 x 2 = 30 KN.m 20 KN/m

wl 2 20x42 A B
B.M. due to udl load = = 160 KN.m 2m 2m
2 2
Draw BMD l
1 X = 3.33
A1 = xbxh
2
C
1 30
A1 = x 2 x 30 = 30 kNm2
2
=30x109 Nmm2
X2 = 3
2
x1 = (2 + x 2) = 3.33 m= 3.3 x 103 mm
3 C
1 160
A2 = x bx h
3 BMD
1
A2 = x 4 x 160 = 213.33 kNm2
3
=213.33x109 Nmm2
3
x2 = x4 = 3m=3 x 103 mm
4
Ax 1
max =  (A1 x 1 + A2 x 2)
EI EI
1
= 5 8
[(30 x3.3) +(213.34x30)]x1012
(2.1x10 )(15x10 )
max = 2.35mm
Result
max = 2.35mm
Problem 10
A cantilever beam 3m long carries an udl of w/m over its entire span. The size of beam is
75mm x 150mm. If the max. deflection is 2.5mm, determine the load w/m. Take E = 2 x 105
N/mm2. Also find the max slope.
Given data:
b = 75mm
d = 150mm
B = 2.5mm = 2.5 x 10-3 m
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2

Solution:
(i). Moment of inertia (I)
bd 3 75 x 150 3
I = = = 21.09 x 106mm4
12 12 d
(ii). Total udl/m (w)

w 4 b
We know, B = = 2.5 mm
8 EI
w 4
= B
8 EI
δ B x 8 EI 2.5 x 8 ((2x105 )(21.09x106 ))
W= =
l4 30004
w = 1.04 N/mm or kN/m
(iii) Slope ()
w 3 1.04 x 30003
Slope = = 5 6
radian = 1.109 x 10-3 radians
6 EI 6 x (2x10 )(21.09x10 )
Result
W = 1.04 kN/m
B= 1.109 x 10-3 radians
Problem 11
A cantilever beam of 1m long of rectangular section of width 40mm and depth 60mm.
Calculate the maximum udl that can be allowed over the entire length of the beam without
exceeding a deflection of 3.5 mm at the free end. Also calculate the maximum slope at the
free end. Take E = 7 x 104 N/mm2.
Given data:
Span  = 1m=1000mm
Width b = 40 mm
depth d = 60 mm
δmax =3.5 mm
E = 7 x 104 N/mm2
Solution
(i) Moment of inertia (I)
bd 3 40 x 60 3
M.I. (I) = = = 720 x 103mm4
12 12
(ii) Safe udl (w/m)

δmax = δB = 3.5 mm
w 4
Cantilever beam with udl = δmax =
8 EI
w 4
= δmax
8 EI
wx10004
= 3.5 mm
8x(7x104 )(720 x103 )
w = 1.4112 N/mm or KN/m
Safe udl (w) = 1.4112 KN/m.
iii) Maximum Slope

θB = Maximum slope at B
w 3 1.4112 x10003
θB = = radians
6 EI 6 x (7x104 )(720x103 )
θB = 4.67 x 10-3 radian
Result
Safe udl (w) = 1.4112 KN/m.

1.1.7 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH CENTRAL POINT LOAD(W)

BOOK WORK – 6
SLOPE and DEFLECTION FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH CENTRAL POINT LOAD
SOLUTION
Consider simply supported beam loaded as shown in fig.
1
A = xbxh
2
1 l W  W 2
A = x x =
2 2 4 16
2 l l
x = x = = Centroid from A
3 2 3
i) Slope
A 1
max = = xA
EI EI
1  W 2  W 2
max =   =
EI  16  16 EI
W 2
max =
16 EI
W 2
It is symmetrically loaded A = B =max= `
16 EI
Ax 1 W 2 l  W 3
c = =  x 
EI EI  16 3  48 EI
W 3
c = max =
48 EI

1.1.8 Book Work – 7
Slope and Deflection for simply supported beam with udl over the entire span
Solution
Consider simply supported beam loaded as shown in fig.
Draw BMD
Consider two points B & C
Draw tangents at B & C
2
Let A = x bx h
3
2 l w 2 w 3
A = x x =
3 2 8 24
5 l 5
x = x =
8 2 16
(i) Slope
A 1 w 3 w 3
A/C = =  =
EI EI  24  24 EI
Since it is symmetrically loaded
w 3
A = B =
24 EI
(ii) Deflection
Ax 1  w 3 5 
c = =  x 
EI EI  24 16 
5w 4
c = max =
384 EI
Problem 12
A Simply supported beam 5m span is 200mm x 300mm of size . It carries an UDL of
5KN/ m over the entire span. Calculate the Max slope & deflection by area moment
method. Take E = 1.2 x 105 N / mm2.
Given data:
Udl w = 5KN/m
Span  = 5m
Breadth b = 200mm
Depth d = 300mm
E = 1.2 x105 N/mm2
To find
Max Slope = θ =?
Max deflection = δ =?

Solution:
Area of BMD
2
A = x bh
3
wl 2
Bending moment =
8
5x52
=
8
= 15.625 kN . m
2
A= x2.5x15.625
3
= 26.042 KN. m2
A = 26.042x109 N.mm2
Centriod of BMD
5
x =( xb)
8
5 
x =  x2.5 
8 
x =1.563m = 1563 mm
bd 3
Moment of inertia I =
12
200x3003
=
12
I= 450 x 106 mm4.
Applying Mohr ‘s theorem – I
A
(i) Slope = θ B = θ max =
EI
(26.042x109 )
=
(1.2x105 )(450x106 )
Slope = θ B = θ max = 4.82 x 10-4 Radians.
Applying Mohr ‘s theorem – II
Ax
(ii) Deflection = δ B = δ max =
EI
(26.042x1.563)x1012
=
(1.2x105 )(450x106 )
Deflection = δ B = δ max = 0.75mm.

Result:
Slope = θ B = θ max = 4.82 x 10-4 Radians.
Deflection = δ B = δ max = 0.75mm
Problem 13
A simply supported beam 6m long, 150mm x 300mm size carries a central point load of 40
kN. Determine the maximum slope and deflection. Take E = 1.5 x 10 5 N/mm2.
Given data:
Span  = 6m
Load W = 40 kN
Wide b = 150mm d
Depth d = 300mm
E = 1.5 x 105 N/mm2
b
Solution:
bd 3 150*3003
I =  = 337.5 x 106 mm4
12 12
Bending Moment:
W 40 * 6
Max. B.M. =   60 kN.m
4 4
Area of BMD
A = area of BMD between B & C
x = Centroid from B
1
A= xbxh
2
1
A = x 3 x 60 = 90 kNm2
2
=90x109 Nmm2
2 6
x = x  2m =2x103 mm
3 2
(ii) Slope ()
By Mohr’s theorem – I
A 90x109
A = B= = radians
EI (1.5x105 )(337.5x106 )
A = B= 1.78 x 10-3 radians
(iii) Deflection (max)

By Mohr’s theorem – II
C =
Ax
EI
=
1
EI
 
Ax

1
c = 5 6
(90x 2)x1012 = 3.56mm
(1.5x10 )(337.5x10 )
Result
max = 1.78 x 10-3 radians
c = 3.56mm
Problem 14
A simply supported beam 8m long carries a point load of 90 kN at centre and udl of 5 kN/m
over at entire span. The size of beam is 200mm x 400mm E = 1.5 x 104 N/mm2. Determine
the maximum slope and deflection.
Given data:
Udl w = 5 kN/m
Wide b = 200mm d
Depth d = 400mm
E = 1.5 x 104 N/mm2 b
Required:
Slope & Deflection
Solution:
i) Moment of inertia(I)
bd 3 200 x (400) 3
M.I. = I= = = 1.067 x 109 mm4
12 12
By Area Moment Method
ii) Free BMD
W 90 x 8
BM due to Point load = = = 180 kN.m
4 4
w 2 5 x 82
BM due to udl = = = 40 kN.m
8 8
iii) Area of BMD

1
Area of triangle A1 = xbxh
2
1
A1 = x4x180 = 360 kN.m2
2
= 360x109 Nmm2
2
Centroid x1 = x 4 = 2.67 m= 2.67x103 mm from B
3
2
Area of Parabola A2 = xbxh
3
2
A2 = x4x40= 106.67 kN.m2
3
= 106.67x109 Nmm2

5
Centroid x 2 = x 4 = 2.5 m= 2.5x103 mm
8
(iv) Slope ()
A 1
A = B = = [A1+A2]
EI EI
1
= 4 9
[360+106.67]x109 radians
(1.5 x10 )(1.067 x10 )
A = 29.16 x 10-3 radians = 0.0291 radians

(v) Deflection (max)
max =
Ax
EI
=
1
EI

A1 x1  A2 x2 
1
9 
max= 4
(360 x2.67)+(106.67 x2.5)  x1012
(1.5 x10 )(1.067 x10 )
max= 76.7 mm
Result
A = B = 0.0291 radians
c = max = 0.0767m
Problem 15
A Simply supported beam of span 4 m carries an UDL of 10KN/m over the full
length and a central point load of 20KN. determine the maximum slope and
maximum deflection by area moment method.
Take E = 2x 105 N /mm2 and I = 8x107 mm4 .
Given data:
S.S.B with UDL & P.L
UDL (w) = 10 KN/ m
P.L (W) = 20 KN
Span  = 4m
E = 2x105 N/mm2
I = 8x 107 mm4
To Find:
Slope = θ = ?
Deflection = δ =?
Solution:
(i) Area of BMD (Point load)
Area of BMD A1 = x bh

Wl
Bending moment =
4
20x4
=
4
= 20KN.m
1
A1 = x 2 x20
2
= 20 KN .m2
A1 = 20 x 109 N.mm2
(ii) Area of BMD (UDL)

2
Area of BMD A2 = x bh
3
Wl 2
Bending moment =
8
10 x 42
=
8
= 20 kN.m
2
A2 = x2 x 20
3
= 26.67 KN.m2
A2 = 26.67 x 109 N .mm2
Centriod of BMD (P.L)

2
x1 = x
3
2
= X2
3
= 1.33m
x 1 =1.33x103 mm.
Centriod of BMD (UDL)
5
x 2= x
8
5
= x 2 = 1.25m
8
x 2 = 1.25x103 mm.
Applying Mohr’s theorem - I
( A  A2 )
(iii) Slope = θ B =θ max = 1
EI
(20+26.67)x109
=
(2x105 )(8x107 )
Slope = θ B =θ max = 2.92X10-3 Radians.

Applying Mohr’s theorem - II
( A1 x1  A2 x2 )
(iv) Deflection = δ B =δ max =
EI
=
(20x1.33)+(26.67x1.25) x1012
(2x105 )(8x107 )
Deflection = δ B =δ max = 3.75 mm.
Result:
Slope = θ B =θ max = 2.92X10-3 Radians.
Deflection = δ B =δ max = 3.75 mm.
Problem 16
A Simply Supported beam 6m span carries two point loads of 15 kN each at one third span.
Determine the maximum slope and deflection.
Take EI = 2 x 104 kN.m2.
Given data:
W = 15 KN
 = 6m
l 6
A = = = 2m
3 3
EI = 2 x 104 KN.m2
Solution
(i) Bending moment

Since the load is symmetrical
Total load 15  15
RA = RB = = = 15 KN
2 2
MA = MB = 0
MC = MD = 15 x 2 = 30 KN
(ii) Area of BMD
1
Area of triangle A1 = x b x h
2
1
A1 = x2x30 = 30 kN.m2
2
2
Centroid x1 = x 2 = 1.33 m from B
3
Area of rectangle A2 = b x h
A2 = 1 x 30= 30 kN.m2
1
Centroid x 2 = 2+ = 2.5 m
2

(iii) Slope ()
A 1
A = B = = [A1+A2]
EI EI
1
= [30+30] radian
2 *10 4
B = 3 x 10-3 radian
(iv) Deflection (max)

max =
Ax
EI
=
1
EI

A1 x1  A2 x2 
1
max= [(30 x 1.33) + (30 x 2.5)]
2 x 10 4
= 5.745 x 10-3 m
max= 5.745 mm
Result:
Slope B = 3 x 10-3 radian
Deflection max= 5.745 mm
Problem 17
A girder of uniform section and constant depth 1800mm is freely supported over a span of
20 meter. Calculate the deflection for a uniformly distributed load on it such that the
maximum bending stress induced is 120 N/mm2. E = 2 x 105N/mm2.
Given data: 180° = π radians

d = 1800mm
 = 20m = 20000mm
b = 120 N/mm2
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
To find:
max =?
Solution:
Moment of Inertia (I)
We know
M  E
= b =
I y R

d 1800
y= = = 900mm
2 2
w 2
M= = B.M.
8
M w 2 900 w 2
b = xy= x = 112.5  
I 8 I  I 
w 2
b = 112.5   = 120 N/mm
2
 I 
w 2 120
  = = 1.067
 I  112.5
5 2  w 2 
max =  
384 E  I 
5 x (20000)2
max = x (1.067) mm
384 x 2 x 105
max = 27.79mm
Result
max = 27.79mm
Problem 18
A Simply Supported beam 4m long carries an udl over entire span if the maximum slope is
1 calculate the max deflection also udl.
Take EI = 1 x 104 kN.m2
Given:
 = 4m = 4000mm

A = B = x 1
180
= 17.45 x 10-3 radian
EI = 1 x 104 kN.m2
Required:
max = ?
Solution:
(i) Safe udl (w)
Simply supported beam with udl over entire span

We know,
w 3
Slope =
24 EI
θ x 24 EI
w =
3
17.45 x 10 -3 x 24 x 1 x 10 4
=
43
= 65.44 kN/m
5w 4
Deflection c =
384 EI
5 x 65.43 x 4 4
max = 4
= 21.81 x 10-3 m
384 x 1 x 10
max = 21.81mm
Result
w = 65.44 kN/m
max = 21.81mm
Problem 19
A beam of span 4.5m is Simply Supported at its ends. Calculate the maximum permitted
udl, if the maximum slope at the support is restricted to 1 also calculate the max deflection
also udl. Take EI = 0.8 x 104 kN.m2
Given
 = 4.5m = 4500mm

A = B = x 1
180
= 17.45 x 10-3 radian
EI = 0.8 x 104 kN.m2
Required
w = ? , max = ?
Solution
For a simply supported beam with udl over entire span
We know,
w 3
Max. Slope A =
24 EI

 A x 24 EI
w = 3
17.45 x103 x 24 x 0.8x104

=
(4.5)3
w = 36.77 kN/m
5w 4
Deflection c =
384 EI
5w 4
Deflection c =
384 EI
5 x 36.77 x 4.5 4
max = = 24.54 x 10-3 m
384 x 0.8 x 10 4
max = 24.54mm
Result
w = 36.77 kN/m
max = 24.54 mm
Problem 20
A steel pipe 50mm internal dia. 2.5mm thick is simply supported over a span of 6m, if the
1
deflection is limited to of span calculate the rate of loading and maximum slope. Take
325
E = 2 x 105N/mm2. Also find the maximum slope.
Given data:
Internal dia d = 50 mm
Thickness t = 2.5 mm
External dia D = (50 + 2 x 2.5) = 55 mm
Span ℓ = 6m = 6000 mm
1 6
ma = x span =
325 325
-3
= 18.46 x 10 m
E = 2 x 105N/mm2
Required:
w=?
Solution:
 t
I = (D4 – d4)
64 d

I = (554 - 504) D
64

I = 142.38 x 103 mm4
EI = 2x105x142.39x103
EI = 28.48x 109 N.mm2 = 28.48 kN.m2
We know,
By Area Moment Method
(ii) Free BMD
w 2 w x 62
BM due to udl = = = 4.5w kN.m
8 8
Draw BMD
(iii) Area of BMD

2
Area of Parabola a = x 3 x 4.5 w = 9 w
3
5
Centroid x = x 3 = 1.875 m from B
8
(iv) Safe udl (w)
max =
Ax
EI
=
1
EI
 ax  = 18.46 x 10
-3
1
max = [(9 w x 1.875)] = 18.46 x 10-3
28.48
w = 31.16 x 10-3 kN/m
(v) Slope ()
A 1
A = B = = [A]
EI EI
1 1
[9w] = [9x 31.16 x 10-3]
EI 28.48
A = 9.847 x10-3 radians
Results
w = 31.16 x 10-3 kN/m
A = 9.847 x 10-3 radians

Bending Moment diagram for standard cases of beam
1.
W /m
A B
A B
l l
(-)
l ²
W. l
(-)
2
BMD BMD
2. W /m
A B
A C B
l RA= l
l
RB= l
RA=W/2 RB=W/2
2 2
W.l
4 MC= W.l ²
(+) 8
0 0 (+)
BMD 0 0
BMD
W
3.
a b W W
A C B
l A
a a
B
RA= Wb RB= Wa C D
l l l
RA = W RB = W
Wab
MC =
(+)
l Mc =Wa MD =Wa
0 0
BMD (+)
0 0
BMD

1.1 HIGHLIGHTS
A
1. Mohr’s Theorem – I = = slope
EI
Ax
2. Mohr’s Theorem – II y= = deflection.
EI
3. Slope and Deflection
Deflect /
Beam Slope Deflection Slope
Ratio
W 2 W 3
B = B =
W
2
A B
B B 2 EI 3 EI 
3
w/m w 3 w 4
B = B = 3
A B B
B 6 EI 8 EI 
4
W
C W 2 W 3
A C B A = B = C = 1
16 EI 48 EI 
3
l
C
w/m
A C B w 3 5w 4 5
A = B = C = 
24 EI 384 EI 16
1.1 QUESTIONS for Homework

Part I
Each question consist only 2 marks
1. What is deflection of beam at free end for the beam carrying Point load at Free end?
2. What is the slope at support of a simply supported beam carrying point load at mid span?
3. Define: Indeterminate Structure.
4. Define: Slope and Deflection.
5. State the Maximum slope value in a simply supported beam subjected to a point load at mid
span.
6. Write the differential equation of flexure.
7. Draw the deflected shapes of any two beams.
8. Write the difference between roller and hinged supports.
9. Define elastic curve?
10. Write the equation of area moment method theorem of deflection

Part II
Three / Five mark Questions

1. State Mohr’s area moment theorems.
2. State Mohr’s area moment theorems for slope and deflection.
3. State Mohr’s Theorems 1 and 2 with respect to the deflected shape of a beam.
4. A cantilever beam of 3 meter length is subjected to a point load of 30 kN at its free end. Find
the deflection at the free end, using formula. if EI = 90 x 1012 N.mm2.
5. Explain slope and deflection
Part III
Ten mark Questions
1. A steel pipe 50mm internal diameter and 2mm wall thickness is simply supported on a span of
6m. If the deflection is limited to 1/325 of the span, calculate the rate of loading on the beam.
Also calculate the maximum slope at the supports. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2.
2. A cantilever beam 120 mm wide and 200 mm deep is 3 m long. What udl should the beam can
carry to produce a deflection of 8 mm at the free end. Take E = 210 GN/mm2.
3. A cantilever of 5 meter span carries an u.d.l. of intensity 20kN/m over a length of 3m from its
fixed end and two point loads of 40kN and 30kN at 3m and 5m from the fixed end
respectively. Determine the maximum slope and deflection at the free end using Mohr’s
Theorems if EI = 47.05 x 103kNm2.
4. A cantilever beam of span 4m is subjected to an UDL of 20kN/m over the entire length and a
point load of 30 kN is acting at free end. Calculate the slope and Take E = 2 x 10 5 N/mm2 and I
= 8 x 107mm4.
5. A cantilever beam of 1 m long is of rectangular section of width 40 mm and depth 60 mm.

calculate the maximum udl that can be allowed over the entire length of the beam without
exceeding a deflection of 3.5 mm at the free end. Also calculate the maximum slope at the
free end. Take E = 7 x 104 N/mm2.
6. A beam of span 4.5m is simply supported at its ends. Calculate the maximum permitted udl if
the maximum slope at the support is restricted to 1. Also calculate the maximum deflection.
Take EI = 0.80 x 104 kNm2.
7. A simply supported beam of span 4m carries an UDL of 10 kN/m over the full length and a
central point load of 20kN . Determine the maximum slope and maximum deflection by area
moment method. Take E=2x105N/mm2 and I=4x108mm4 and I = 8x107mm4
8. A simply supported beam of span 8m carries an UDL of 18 kN/m throughout its length and a
concentrated load of 60kN at the centre. EI = 2x105 KN.m2 Determine the maximum values of
slope and deflection in the beam, using Mohr’s theorem. (Formula shall not be used).

1.2 PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM
1.2 PROPPED CANTILEVERS

Statically determinate and indeterminate Structures- Stable and Unstable Structures-
Examples- Degree of Indeterminacy-Concept of Analysis of Indeterminate beams - Definition
of Prop –Types of Props- Prop reaction from deflection consideration – Drawing SF and BM
diagrams by area moment method for UDL throughout the span, central and non-central
concentrated loads – Propped cantilever with overhang – Point of Contra flexure.
1.2.1 Static Equilibrium Equations

According to the principle of statics, any structural member should satisfy the
following equilibrium conditions.
1. Algebric sum of all vertical forces should be equal to zero.
ie v = 0
Sum of upward vertical forces = Sum of down ward vertical forces.
()  v   ()
V
2. Algebric sum of all horizontal forces should be equal to zero.

ie H = 0
Sum of forces towards right side = Sum of forces towards side
H  H
() ( )
3. Algebric sum of moments of all forces should be equal to zero.

ie M = 0
(+) = (-)
Sum of anticlockwise moments = Sum of clockwise moments.
Determinate and indeterminate beams
Based on the static equilibrium equations the beams are classified as follows.
1. Statically determinate beams.
2. Statically indeterminate beams.
2.1.5. Statically determinate beams
When the reaction components of a beam can be analysed by using static equilibrium
equations (V = 0, H = 0, M = 0) only, it is called as statically determinate beam. In which the
degree of indeterminacy is equal to zero.
The examples for statically determinate beams as given below
i) Cantilever beam
ii) Simply supported beam
iii) Overhanging beam

1.2.1. (b) Statically indeterminate beam
When the reaction components of a beam cannot be analysed by using static equilibrium
equations (V = 0, H = 0, M = 0) only. The beam is called as statically indeterminate beam. In
which the degree of indeterminacy is not equal to zero. (One or more than one).
The examples for statically indeterminate beams are given below
i) Propped cantilever beam ii) Fixed beam iii) Continuous beam
1.2.1 (c) Degree of Indeterminacy

The difference between No. of unknown reaction components and No. of known equilibrium
equation is called Degree of Indeterminacy or degree of redundancy.
 No.of unknown   No.of known usingstatic 
Degree of indeterminacy =     
 reaction components  equilibirum equations 
1.2.1. (c) Example
MA
1. Cantilever beam W
Unknown reaction components MA & RA = 2 A B

Know static equilibrium equation (Σv = 0; ΣM = 0) = 2 l
 D.I = (2 – 2) = 0
RA
It is statically determinate beam.
2. Simply Supported beam

MA=0 W MB=0
Unknown reaction components RA & RB = 2
Known static equilibrium equation (ΣM = 0; ΣV = 0) = 2
 D.I = (2 – 2) = 0 l
It is statically determinate beam. RA= ? RB=?

MA = ? MB = 0
Unknown reaction components RA, RB & MA = 3 W
Known static equilibrium equation (Σv = 0; ΣM = 0) = 2 A B
 D.I = (3 – 2) = 1 l
It is statically indeterminate beam.
RA = ? RB = ?
4. Fixed beam
Unknown reaction components
(RA, RB, MA, MB) = 4 Nos.
MA=? MB=?
W
Known static equilibrium equations
(v = 0, M =0) = 2
 D.I. = (4-2) = 2 > 0 RA=? RB=?

5. Continuous beam
Unknown reaction components MA = ? W W1
MC = 0
(RA, RB, Rc, MA, MB) = 5 Nos.

Known static equilibrium equations A B C
(v = 0, M =0) = 2 l1 l2
 D.I. = (5 – 2) = 3 RA = ? RB = ? RC = ?
1.2.3. Method of analysis of indeterminate beam

The following are the various methods of analysis of indeterminate beams.
1. Area moment method.
MA
2. Theorem of three moment method. W
3. Moment distribution method. A B
4. Strain energy method. l

RA
5. Column analogy method
6. Slope deflection method.
1.2.4 Propped cantilever beam

Definition
When a cantilever beam is supported by vertical post at free end (or) near the free end is
called Propped cantilever beam. It is statically determinate beam and its degree of
indeterminacy is 1.
MA
W MA
w/m
A B A B
B
l l
RA = ? RB = ?
RA = ? RB = ?
Advantages of Propped cantilever beam

By providing propped at free end (or) nearby free end in a cantilever beam, the following are
the advantages.
1. Deflection at prop. is zero.
2. More shift and stable.
3. It can carry more load than cantilever beam.
4. Deflection is reduced.
5. Maximum +ve bending moment will be induced near the middle span.
6. Value of hogging moment at support is reduced.

1.2.5 Type of Prop.
The following are the various types of Prop.
B (+ve)
1. Rigid Prop. A
2. Sinking Prop. l
3. Elastic Prop. B
Rigid Prop
w/m
i) At Rigid prop. the upward deflection is
equal to downward deflection. A
B (-ve)
ii) There is no change in length of Prop. B

i.e. Upward deflection = Downward deflection. l
δB (+)ve = δB (-)ve
Sinking Prop.
At sinking Prop. a part of the deflection destroys by the load.
i.e. Upward deflection is not equal to Down load deflection due to
at Prop. End load.
δB (+)ve ≠ δB (-)ve
Elastic Prop.
At elastic Prop. a part of deflection destroys and also changes in length due to reaction in the
Prop. because the Prop. material is elastic.
2.3.6 Point of contra flexure
The point where the BMD changes its sign from (+)ve to (–)ve and vice versa as shown in fig. is
called point of contra flexure (or) point of inflexion. The B.M at this point is zero.
l W w/m
l
A 2 C 2 B A B
ELASTIC CURVE
Elastic curve
l RA = l RB =
p
p (+)
(+)
0 0
0 0 - w.l ² (-) y
(-) y
3
16 w.l 8
BMD
BMD

AREA MOMENT METHOD
Book Work – 1
1.2.6 Propped cantilever beam with central point load (W)
Solution
Consider a cantilever beam propped at free end and loaded as shown in
fig. W
l /2 C l /2
A B
Let RB = Prop. Reaction
BM at a due to Prop. Reaction = RB.ℓ l
 X1
BM at A due to load = w. RB. l C1 (+)
2
Draw BMD by parts.
1 X2
A1 = xbxh
2 C2 (-)
w.l /2
1 R 2 BMD by Parts
A1 = x  x RB  = B
2 2 11
16 w (+)
2 0 0 5
x1 =  (-)
16 w
3
SFD
1 l W () W 2
A2 = (-) x x = p
2 2 2 8 (+)
   5 0 0
x2 = = 3
w.l
(-)
y
2 6 16
Prop. Reaction BMD

Ax
max = =0
EI
A x = 0; A1 x 1 + A2 x 2 = 0
 RB  2  2  W 2   5 
  l -     = 0
 2  3  8  6
RB  3 5 W 3
=
3 48
3 x 5W 5
RB = = W
48 16
5
RB = W
16
5 11
RA = W - RB = W - W= W
10 16
Draw SFD as shown in fig.1.37

Bending Moment
MB = 0
5 l 5W
MC = Wx =
16 2 32
5   l  58 
MD =  W x   - W  W  
 16   2  16 
3
MA = W
16
Draw BMD
Point of Contra Flexure (P) :

Point of contra flexure will occur at “y” distance from B.
My = 0

My = RB x y – w (y – ) = 0
2
5 w.
. w . y – w. y + =0
16 2
11 
.y =
16 2
y= 8 ℓ from B
11
Book Work – 2
1.2.7 Propped Cantilever beam with udl (w) w/m
A B
Solution
Consider a propped cantilever beam loaded as shown in fig. RA = l RB =
Let RB = Prop. Reaction X1
Draw BMD by parts. RB.l C1 (+)
Prop. Reaction
1 (-)
A1 = xbxh w.l ²/2 C2
2 X2
1 R 2
A1 = x  x RB  = B BMD by Parts
2 2 5 3
2 8 w.l (+) X = 8.l
x1 =  0 (-)
0
3
3
8 w.l
SFD
1 w w 3
A2 = x x = p
3 2 6 (+)
3 0 0
x2 =  (-) y
4 - w.l ²/8
BMD

Ax
max = =0
EI
Ax =0
 RB  2   2   w 2   3 
    -     = 0
 2   3   62   4 
RB  3 w 4
=
3 8
3
RB = w 
8
3
 RA = w x  - RB = w  – w
8
5
RA = w
8
Draw SFD
Max. BM will occur at ‘x’ distance from B
x (  x)

3 5
w w
8 8 3
x= ℓ
6x = 3  – 3 x 8
8x = 3 
Bending Moment
MB =0
x
Mx = RB .x - w. x.
2
 3  3  3  1 3 
=  w    w   x x  
 8  8  8  2 8 
9w 2
9w 2
18 w 2  9 w 2 9 w 2
Mx =   
6 128 128 128
2
9w
Mx =
128
l
MA = RB x  - w x  x
2
3 2  3 4 
= w x  - w x = W 2  
8 2  8 
w 2
MA = 
8
Draw BMD

My = 0
y
My = RB x y – w. y . = 0
2
3 y2
. w ℓ. y – w. =0
8 2
y2 3
w. = l.y
2 8
y= 3ℓ from B
4
Book Work – 3
1.2.8 Propped cantilever beam with Non-central point load (W)
Solution
Consider a cantilever beam propped at free end and loaded as shown in fig.
Let RB = Prop. Reaction at B
BM at a due to Prop. Reaction = RB.ℓ
BM at A due to load = w. a W
A a b B
i) Area C
a1 =
1 R . 2
x ℓ x RB.ℓ = B
l
2 2
X1
2
x1 = x ℓ = 4m RB.l C1 (+)
3
1 W .a 2
a2 = x a x W.a =
2 2 X2
2 (-)
x 2 = [ x a] + b W.a C2
3
ii) Prop. Reaction (RB) BMD by Parts
By Mohr’s Theorem - II RA (+)

0 0
Ax (-)
max = = 0, A x = 0 SFD
RB
EI
Mc
Upward deflection at B due to RB = δB (+) (+)
0 0
Ax 1 MA (-)
δB (+) = = A1 x BMD
EI EI

1  R B . 2 2   R B . 3 
δB (+) =  x   =   -------------- (1)
EI  2 3   3 EI 
Downward deflection at B due to load W = δB (–)
A2 x2 1  w.a 2  2 
δB (–) = =  x b  b  
EI EI  2  3 
 w.a 2 
δB (–) =  3  a  -------------- (2)
 6 EI 
at Rigid Prop. Upward deflection = Downward deflection
δB (+) = δB (–)
 R B . 3   w.a 2 
  =  3  a 
 3 EI   6 EI 
 w.a 2 
RB =  3 3  a 
 2. 
RA = Total load – RB
 w.a 2 
= W  3  a 
 2. 3 
=  3 3 2  b 2 
 w.b 
RA
 2. 
Draw SFD
Bending Moment
MB = 0
 w.a 2   w.a.b 2 
MC = RB x b =  3 3  a x b =  3  a 
 2.   2.
3

 w.a 2 
MA = RB x ℓ – w.a =  3 3  a   W .a  = –  2  2  b 2 
 w.b 
 2.   2. 
Draw BMD

Problem 1
A propped cantilever beam 4m long carries a central point load of 20 kN. Determine the
prop. reaction and draw SFD and BMD.
Given data:
Span ℓ =4m
20 KN
Load W = 20 KN 2m 2m
Solution: A B
C
i) Bending moment
4m
RB = Prop. Reaction RA = 13.76 RB = 6.24
BM at A due to RB = RB x 4 X1
BM at A due to load = 20x2 = 40 KN.m 4 RB C1 (+)
Draw BMD
(-)
ii) Area of Bending Moment Diagram 40 C2
1 X2
A1 = xbxh
2
1 13.76 (+)
A1 = x  x h 0 0
2 (-) 6.23 kN
1 SFD
= x 4 x 4 RB
2 12.48 kN.m
A1 = 8 RB (+)
0 0
2 15.04
(-)
x1 = x 4 = 2.67 m BMD
3
1
A2 = x b x h
2
1
A2 = x 2 x 40 = – 40 kNm2
2
2
x2 = 2 + x 2 = + 3.33 m
3
iii) Prop. Reaction (RB)
Upward Downward
deflection = deflection
Ax δB (+) = δB (-)
max = =0 a1 x1 a x
EI = 2 2
Ax = 0 EI EI
a1 x1 = a2 x2
A1 x1 + A2 x 2 = 0 8 RB x 2.67 = 40x3.33
(8 RB x 2.67) – 40 x 3.33 = 0 RB = 6.24 KN
RB = 6.24KN Reaction = Total load – RB
8R x 2.67 = 40 x 3.33
B
RA = 20 – 6.24
RA = 20 – 6.23
Bending Moment RA = 13.76KN RA = 13.76 kN
MB = 0
MC = (6.24 x 2) = 12.48KN.m

MA = (6.24 x 4) – (20 x 2) = -15.04KN.m
Draw BMD
Point of Contra Flexure (y) :
Point of contra flexure will occur at “y” distance from B. (Similar triangles)
y 2 y
=
15.04 12.48
12.48 y = 15.04 (2 – y) = 0
12.48 kN.m
27.52 y = 30.08 y
30.08 (+)
y= = 1.09 0 0
27.52 15.04
(-) 2-y
y = 1.09 m from A
Problem 2
A Propped cantilever beam is 6m long. It carries an udl of 30 KN/m over its entire span.
Determine the Prop. reaction and Draw SFD and BMD.
Solution 30 kN/m
Span ℓ =6m
A B
udl w = 30 KN/m
let RB = Prop. reaction
6m
RA = RB =
i) Bending moment by parts
RB = Prop. Reaction X1
BM at A due to RB = RB x ℓ = 6 RB 6 RB C1 (+)
2
BM at A due to udl = 30 X 6
2 540 C2 (-)
= – 540 KN.m X2
3
Draw BMD X=8l
112.50 (+)
0
ii) Area 0 (-) 67.50
(6-x)
a1 = area of BMD due to RB
1 SFD
A1 = x 6 x 6 RB = 18 RB 75.90 kN.m
2 p
Centroid (+)
2 0 0
x1  x 6 = 4 m (-)
3 135
y
a2 = area of BMD due to udl BMD
1
A2 = x 6 x 540 = 1080 KN.m2
3
Centroid of BMD from B

3 
x 2 =  x 6  = 4.5m
4 
ii) Prop. Reaction

Upward deflection due to Prop. reaction = Downward deflection due to load

A1 x1 Ax
= 2 2
EI EI
A1 x1 = A2 x2
18 RB x 4 = 1080 x 4.5
RB = 67.50 KN
Reaction at A = Total load – RB
RA = (30 x 6) – 67.50 = 112.50 kN
Draw SFD
Maximum BM will occur at ‘x’ distance from B

x 6 x
=
67.50 112.50
112.50 𝑥 – 67.50 (6 – 𝑥) = 405 – 67.50 𝑥

x = 2.25 m from B
Bending Moment
MB = 0
x 2.25 2
Mx = RB x 2.25 – w.x. = 67.50 x 2.25 – 30 x = 75.94 kN.m
2 2
w. 2 62
MA = RB x ℓ – = (67.5 x 6) – (30x ) = – 135 KN.m
2 2
Draw BMD
My = 0
y
My = RB x y – w. y . = 0
2
67.50 x y – 15 y2= 0 112.50 X
(+)
2 0 0
y - 4.5 = 0 (-) 67.50
y2 = 4.5 (6-x)
y =2.12 m from B
2.1
2

Problem 3
A propped cantilever beam 8m span carries an udl of 5 kN/m over its entire length.
Determine the prop. reaction also draw SFD and BMD.
Solution
i) Prop. reaction
5 KN/m
3
we know, RB = w A B
8 ELASTIC CURVE
3 8
RB = x 5 x 8 = 15 kN
8 RA = 25 KN RB = 15 KN
RA = 5 x 8 – 15 = 25kN
Draw SFD 3m
25 (+)
0 0
Max. (+ve) BM will occur at ‘x’ (-) 15
distance from Prop. SFD
x 8 x 22.5 KN.m
=
15 25
25 x = 15 (8 – x ) (+)
0 0
25 x = 120 – 15 x (-)
40 x = 120 40
BMD
120
x = = 3m
40
Bending Moment
MB =0
 3
Mx = (15 x 3) –  5 x 3 x  = 22.5 kN.m
 2
 8
MA = 15 x 8 –  5 x 3 x  = - 40 kN.m
 2
Check
w 2
5 x 82
MA = = = - 40 kN.m
8 8
Problem 4
A propped cantilever beam 6m span carries a point load of 30 kN at 2m from propped end.
Find prop. reaction draw SFD and BMD.
Given data:
Span ℓ =6m
Load W = 30 KN
a = 4m ; b = 2m
Solution:
BM due to Prop. Reaction = RB x ℓ = 6 RB

BM at A due to load = 30x4 = 120 KN.m

ii) Area of BMD
1 30 KN
A1 = x b x h
2 A 4m 2m B
C
1 6
A1 = x 6 x 6 RB = 18 RB
2 X1
2 6 RB C1 (+)
x1 = x6 = 4m
3 (-)
120 C2
1 X2
A2 = xbxh
2
14.44 (+)
0 0
1
A2 = x 4 x 120 = – 240 m2 (-) 15.56
2 SFD
2 31.12
x2 = 2 + x4 = 4.67 m (+)
3 0 0
- 26.67 (-)
ii) Prop. Reaction (RB) BMD
By Mohr’s Theorem - II
Ax
δB/A = = 0, A x = 0
EI
(18 RB x 4) – (240 x 4.67) = 0
RB = 15.56 kN
RA = 30 – 15.56 = 14.44 kN
Draw SFD
Check
(or) we know
Wa 2
RB = (3  - a)
2 3
30 x 4 2
RB = (3 x 6 – 4) = 15.56 kN
2 3
RA = 30 – 15.56 = 14.44 kN
Bending Moment
MB = 0
MC = 15.56 x 2 = 31.12 kN.m
MA = 15.56 x 6 – 30 x 4 = - 26.67 kN.m
Draw BMD

Problem 5
A beam of length 6m is fixed at one end and supported by a rigid Prop. at the other end at
the same level. It carries an udl of 5 KN/m for a length of 4m from fixed end. Determine the
5 w/m
Prop. reaction and Draw SFD and BMD.
A B
4m 2m
Given data: 6
Span ℓ =6m X1
udl w = 5 KN/m 6 RB C1 (+)
ℓ1 =4m
(-)
let RB = Prop. reaction 40 C2
Solution X2

RB = Prop. Reaction
16.30
BM at A due to RB x ℓ = 4 RB (+)
x
2 0 0
BM at A due to udl = 5 x 4 = – 40 KN.m (4-x) (-)
2 3.70
SFD
Draw BMD by parts 8.77 KN.M 7.40 KN.M
(+)
0 0
ii) Area of BMD 17.80
(-)
BMD
A1 = area of BMD due to RB
1
A1 = x 6 x 6 RB = 18 RB
2
2
Centroid x1  x 6 = 4 m from B
3
A2 = area of BMD due to udl

1
A2 = x 4 x 40 = 53.33 KN.m
3
3 
x2 =  x 4  +2 = 5m from B
4 
ii) Prop. Reaction (RB)
A1 x1 Ax
= 2 2
EI EI
18 RB x 4 = 53.33 x 5
RB = 3.70 KN
RA = (5 x 4) – 3.70 = 16.30 kN
Draw SFD
Maximum (+ve) BM will occur at ‘x’ distance from C

x 4 x
=
3.70 16.30

16.30 x – 3.70 (4 – x) = 14.80 – 3.70 x
14.80
x= = 0.74 m from C
20
i.e. (2 + 0.74) = 2.74 m from B
Bending Moment
MB = 0
MC = RB x 2 = 3.7 x 2 = 7.40 kN.m
x 0.74 2
Mx = RB x 2.74 – w.X. = 3.70 x 2.74 – 5 x = 8.77 kN.m
2 2
w. 12 5x4 2
MA = RB x ℓ – = 3.7 x 6 – = – 17.80 KN.m
2 2
Draw BMD
16.30
x
(+)
0 0
(4-x)
3.70
SFD
Problem 6
A cantilever beam is supported by vertical post at free end 4m long and it carries a point
load of 20 kN at centre and udl of 5 kN/m over entire length. Draw SFD and BMD.
Solution
Span ℓ =4m
Load W = 20 KN
udl w = 5 KN/m
RB = Prop. Reaction
BM at A due to RB = 4 RB
2
BM at A due to udl = 5x 4 = 40 KN.m
2
BM at A due to load = 20x2 = 40 KN.m
Draw BMD by parts

ii) Area of BMD
1
A1 = xbxh
2

1
A1 = x 4 x 4 RB = 8 RB 20 KN
2 5 kN/m
2 A B
x1 = x4 = 2.67 m ELASTIC CURVE
3
1 4m
A2 = xbxh RA RB
3 X1
1
A2 = x 4 x 40 = 53.33 4 RB C1 (+)
3
3  40 C2 (-)
x2 =  x 4 = 3m
4  X2
1
A3 = xbxh (-)
2 40 C2
1 X3
A3 = x 2 x 40 = 40
2 26.85
2
x3 =2+ x2 = 3.33 m (+)
3 0 0
ii) Prop. Reaction (RB) (-)
By Mohr’s Theorem – II 13.75
SFD
Ax
δB/A = =0 17.50 KN.M
EI
(+)
0 0
Ax = 0 (-)
25 KN
Upward Downward BMD
=
deflection deflection
A1 x1 = [A2 x 2 + A3 x3 ]
(8 RB x 2.67) = [(53.33 x 3) + (40 x 3.33)]

21.36 RB = 293.19
293.19
RB = = 13.75 kN
21.36
RA = 20 + (5 x 4) – 13.75 = 26.25 kN
(or) we know,
5 3 
RB =  W   
 16 8 
5 3 
RB =  x 20  x 5x 4 
 16 8 
RB = 13.75 kN
RA = 20 + 5 x 4 – 13.75 = 26.25 kN
Draw SFD

Bending Moment
MB = 0
2
MC = (13.75 x 2) – (5 x 2)   = 17.50 kN.m
2

MA = 13.75 x 4 – (20 x 2) - 5 x 4 x 4
2= – 25 KN.m
MA = – 25 kN.m
Draw BMD
Problem 7
A beam of length 6m is Propped at one end. It carries two point loads of 5 KN each at 2m
and 4m from left supports. Determine the Prop. reaction by area moment method and
Draw SFD and BMD.
5 KN 5 KN
Solution
A B
Span ℓ =6m 2m D 2m C 2m
W1 = W 2 = 5 KN 6
RA = RB =
X1
let RB = Prop. reaction at B
6 RB C1
RA = Prop. Reaction at A (+)
i) Bending moment by parts 20 C2 (-)

RB = Prop. Reaction = RB x l = 6RB X2
BM at A due to W1 = RB x ℓ (5x4) = 20 KN.m

BM at A due to W2 = 5 x 2 = 10 KN.m 20 C2
X3
Draw BMD by parts
ii) Area 6.67 kN
A1 = area of BMD due to RB 6.67 (+) 1.67 kN
0 0
1
A1= x 6 x 6 RB = 18 RB (-) 3.33
2 SFD
2
Centroid x1  x 6 = 4 m 6.66 kN.m
3 3.32kN.m
A2 = area of BMD due to udl (+)
0 0
1 (-)
A2 = x 4 x 20 = 40 10.02
2 BMD
Centroid of BMD from B
x2 = 2 +  2 x 4  = 4.67m
3 
1
A3 = x 2 x 10 = 10
2
2
x3 = 4 + x 2 = 5.33 m
3

ii) Prop. Reaction (RB)
a1 x1 a x a x
= 2 2+ 3 3
EI EI EI
a1 x1 = a2 x2 + a3 x3 X1
RB.l C1
18 RB x 4 = (40 x 4.67) + (10 x 5.33) = 240.10 (+)
RB = 3.33 KN
Reaction at A = Total load – RB W2.a2 C2 (-)
X2
RA = (5 + 5 – 3.33) = 6.67 kN
Draw SFD W1.a1 C2
X3
Bending Moment
MB = 0 BMD by Parts
MC = RB x 2 = 3.33 x 2 = 6.66 kN.m
MD = RB x 4 – (5x2) = 3.33 x 4 – 5 x 2
Mx = 3.32 kN.m
MA = RB x ℓ – (5x4) – (5x2) = 3.33 x 6 – 5 x 4 – 5 x 2
MA = –10.02 KN.m
Draw BMD
Problem 8
A Cantilever beam of 6m length Propped at 2m from free end it carries an udl of 12 kN/m
over its entire span. Analyse the beam using area moment method Draw SFD and BMD
indicating the values of salient points.
Solution
Span ℓ =4m
Projection =2m
udl w = 12 KN/m
let RA = Reaction at A
RB = Prop. reaction

RB = Prop. Reaction
BM at A due to RB x ℓ = 4 RB
BM at A due to udl = 12 x 6 x 6 = 216 KN.m
2
2
BM at B due to udl = 12 x 2 = 24 KN.m
2
Draw BMD by parts

ii) Area
a1 = area of BMD due to RB
1 12 w/m B
a1 = x 4 x 4 RB = 8 RB A C
2 4m 2m
Centroid 6
2 RA RB =
x1  x 4 = 2.67 m from B X1
3 =
4 RB X4
a2 = area of BMD due to udl C1 (+) C4
a2 = 4 x 24 = 96 KN.m2 24 C2
192 C3 (-)
Centroid of BMD from B X2
4  X3
x2 =  = 2m
2  27.55
24 kN
1 x
a3 = x 4 x 192 = 256 kNm2 (+) (+)
3 0 0
3 (-)
(4-x)
x3 = x4 =3m 20.45
4
1 SFD
a4 = x 2 x 24 = 16 kNm2
3 6.58 KN.M
1 P1 y1
x4 = x2 = 0.5 m from B 0 (-) 0
4 (-)
38.20 (-) P2
ii) Prop. Reaction 24 KN.M
By Mohr’s Theorem – II BMD
(Are of +ve Bm x x ) = Area of –ve Bm x x )
a1 x1 a 4 x 4 a x a x
+ = 2 2+ 3 3
EI EI EI EI
a1 x1 + a 4 x 4 = a2 x2 + a3 x3
(8 RB x 2.67) + (16 x 0.5) = (96 x 2) + (256 x 3)
21.36 RB + 8 = 192 + 768 = 960
21.36 RB = 952
952
RB =
21.36
RB = 44.45 KN
RA = (12 x 6) – 44.45 = 27.55 kN
Maximum BM will occur at ‘x’ distance from C

x 4 x
=
20.45 27.55
27.55 x = 20.45 (4 – x)
27.55 x = 81.80 – 20.45x
48x = 81.80

81.80
x= = 1.70 m from B
48
Bending Moment
MC = 0
22
MB = – 12 x = 24 kN.m
2
3 .7 2
Mx = 44.45 x 1.70 –12 x = 6.58 kN.m
2
w. 2 62
MA = RB x ℓ – = 44.45 x 4 – 12 x = – 38.20 KN.m
2 2
Draw SFD & BMD
Problem 9
A beam of length 8m is fixed at one end and supported on a rigid prop. at the other end at
the same level. The beam carries an udl of 8 kN/m over its entire length. Determine the
prop. reaction and draw SFD and BMD.
Solution 8 KN/m
(i) Prop. reaction A B
3 3 8
RB = wx  = x8x8 RB = 24 KN
8 8 RA = 40 KN
RB = 24 kN
40 x
(+)
0
0 (-) 24
RA = (8 x 8) – 24 8-x
SFD
RA = 40 kN
36 KN.m
p
Draw SFD as shown in fig. 1.48 (+)
0 0
Max. (+ve) BM will occur at ‘x’ (-)
distance from Prop. 60 y
x 8 x BMD
=
24 40
40 x = 24 (8 – x )
40 x = 192 – 24 x
64 x = 192
x=3 m
Bending Moment
MB = 0
8
MA = (24 x 8) – 8 x 8 x = – 64 kN.m
2
3
Mx = (24 x 3) – 8 x 3x = 36 kN.m
2
Draw BMD

Point of contra flexure will occur at ‘y’ distance from B.
My = 0
y2
RB x y – w ( ) = 0
2
y2
24 x y – 8 x =0
2
4.y2 = 24 y
24
y =
4
Y = 6 m from B
1.2 HIGHLIGHTS

When a cantilever beam is supported by vertical post at free end (or) near the free end is
called Propped cantilever beam. It is statically determinate beam and its degree of
indeterminacy is 1.
2. Prop. Reaction
Sl. Prop. Reaction
Type of beam
No. (RA & RB)
1.
W
5
A B
RB = W
16
l 11
RA = W
RA RB 16
2. 3
RB = ω.ℓ
w/m 8
A B 5
RA = ω.ℓ
x 8
l
RA = RB = Position max. Bm.
3
x= ℓ
8
W
3. W.a 2
a b RB = (3ℓ – a)
A B 2. 3
l
RA RB
RA = (W – RB)

4.
W
A B
W
l a RB = (3ℓ + a)
2.
RA RB
5. w/m
A B 7
C RB = ω.ℓ
l 64
RA =
2.l
RB =
3. Cantilever and Propped cantilever beam.
Sl.
Cantilever beam Propped cantilever beam
No
1. One end fixed and another end One end fixed and another end
free. supported by vertical post.
W
W
B
A B B B
A
Elastic curve
l Elastic curve
2. It is a statically determinate beam It is statically indeterminate beam.
3. Degree of indeterminacy is zero Degree of indeterminacy is one

at fixed end is more. End support moment is zero.
4. There is no positive moment. There is a positive moment also.

5. Slope and deflection are more at Slope and deflection is zero at
free end. propped end.
4. Centroid and Area for standard cases.
Sl.No. Shape Centroid Area

1.
l 2.l 
l /3 xA 
A 3
B 3
C from ‘A’
h A=½xℓxh
2
xB  x ℓ
3
from ‘B’

2.  1
l 3l xA  A xxh
4 4 4 3
A B
from ‘A’
C 3
xB 
4
l from ‘B’
3. C= l² 5 1
8 xA  x b A xbxh
8 3
G h from ‘A’
3
A C
B xC  x b
X l /2 8
b
from ‘C’
1.2 QUESTIONS
One mark Questions

1. Define – A Prop
2. What is the degree of Indeterminacy of a propped cantilever beam?
3. Where the bending moment is maximum in a propped cantilever subjected to udl throughout.
4. Find the prop action of a propped cantilever beam subjected to point load at centre.
5. Draw the deflected shape of the any one-type of beam
6. What is the degree of indeterminacy of a Propped Cantilever beam?
7. State the prop reaction value of a propped cantilever beam with central point loaf ‘W’
8. State the degree of indeterminacy of a fixed beam
9. What will be the degree of indeterminacy of a propped Cantilever? (unit 1.2)
10. What is the degree of indeterminacy of a fixed beam? (unit 1.2)
Three/Five mark Questions
1. Find the prop reaction of a propped cantilever beam subjected to a point load at mid-span by
area Moment Method.
2. Draw the deflected shapes of cantilever beam, simply supported beam, propped cantilever
beam, fixed beam and continuous beam
3. Find the prop reaction of a propped cantilever beam subjected to UDL throughout the span by
area moment method.
Ten mark Questions

1. A beam of length 6m is fixed at one end and supported by a rigid prop at the other end at the
same level. It carries an UDL of 10KN/m for a length of 4m from the fixed end. Determine the prop
reaction and draw SFD and BMD.
2. A cantilever loaded with a point load at center of the span is propped at the free end. Find the
fixed support moment and prop reaction.

3. A propped cantilever of length 8m is fixed at one end and supported on a rigid prop at the other
end. It carries a point load of 40 kN at a distance of 5m from the fixed end. Determine the prop
reaction. Draw SFD and BMD.
4. A beam of length 6m is fixed at one end and supported by a rigid prop at the other end. It carries
an UDL of 5 kN/m for a length of 4m from the fixed end. Determine the prop reaction and draw
SFD and BMD.
5. A beam of length 6m is fixed at one end and supported by a rigid prop at the other end. It carries
an UDL of 30 kN/m over its length. Determine the prop reaction and draw SFD and BMD.
6. A Propped Cantilever of span 6m carries two equal point loads of 5kN act at 2m and 4m from left
support. Determine the prop reaction and draw SFD and BMD
7. A beam of length 8m is fixed at one end and supported on a rigid unyielding prop carries an udl of
4 kN/m throughout the length. Draw SFD and BMD.
8. A cantilever of 6 m length is propped at 2m from the free end. It carries an udl of 12 kN/m
throughout it length. Analyse the beam using area moment method and draw the SF and BM
diagrams indicating the values at salient points.
9. Construct SFD and BMD for a propped cantilever of length 5m. with end prop carrying two point
loads of 5KN, 10KN at 2m. and 3m. distances respectively from the fixed end.
10. A horizontal beam of 8 metre span is fixed at one end and simply supported at the other end. It
carries an u.d.l. of 12 kN/m for 6m length from the fixed support. Determine the reactions at the
supports and draw the SF and BM diagrams using area moment method. Determine also the
positions of Zero moments in the beam.
11. A cantilever beam is supported by vertical post at free end 4m long and it carries a point load of
20 kN at centre and udl of 5 kN/m over entire length. Draw SFD and BMD.

2.1. FIXED BEAMS – AREA MOMENT METHOD
Introduction to fixed beams:
θA θB
θA = 0 θB = 0
Fig 1 shows a simply supported beam AB carrying an external Load system.
Due to the load system a clockwise rotation at A (θA) and an anticlockwise rotation at B (θB) are
developed.
To make these rotations (θA & θB) zero, an anticlockwise moment MAB at A and a clockwise moment
MBA at B are to be applied.
These moments (MAB & MBA) can be developed by fixing the supports A & B.
These end moments are called “Fixed end moments” and such a beam is called a “Fixed beam”.
Advantages:
1) The fixed end moments reduce the max bending moment near the mid span.
2) Smaller c/s and hence economical.
3) Less deflection
4) Stiffer, stronger and stable.
Disadvantages:
1) Being an indeterminate structure, additional equations, besides static equilibrium equation
are necessary for the analysis.
2) Proper care should be taken for the effects due to temperature and secondary stresses.
Degree of indeterminacy of Fixed beam:
No of unknown reactions =4
(RA, RB, MAB and MBA)
No of available static equilibrium equation =2

Redundant reaction (excess unknown) = 2(4-2)
ஃ Degree of indeterminacy is 2.
Sagging and Hogging moments:
In case of fixed beams, both hogging bending moment and sagging bending moments are present.
The fixed end moments are usually hogging in nature.
The mid span moment (for symmetrical loading) is sagging in nature.

At the ends, the moments are hogging and gradually reduces to zero at the point of contra-flexure and
gradually increases to max sagging moment and then sagging moment gradually reduces to reach
another point of contra-flexure and after that increasing to hogging moments at other end.
Thus there are two point of contra-flexure.

Determination of Fixed end moments by Area moment method:
The fixed ends can be calculated by Area moment method which uses Mohr’s theorems.
In case of symmetrical loading, the fixed ends are equal (i.e.) MAB = MBA. For this case, the fixed end
moments can be calculated by applying Mohr’s theorem I.
In case of unsymmetrical loading, the fixed end moments are not equal. (i.e.) MAB is not equal to
MBA. For this case, the fixed end moments can be calculated by both the Mohr’s theorem.
(i.e.) Mohr’s theorems I and II.

Derivations of expression for standard cases of fixed beams:
The following are the standard cases
I. Fixed beam with central point load (symmetrical loading).
II. Fixed beam with UDL throughout (symmetrical loading).
III. Fixed beam with a non-central (eccentric) point load (unsymmetrical loading).

Standard case I
FIXED BEAM WITH CENTRAL POINT LOAD:
Notations:
W – Central point load.
L – Span of the beam.
MAB – Fixed end moments at A.
MBA – Fixed end moments at B.
Concept:
 This standard case is a case of symmetrical loading.
 The fixed end moments are equal.
(i.e.) MAB = MBA =M (say).
 The fixed end moments (MAB & MBA) are evaluated by applying Mohr’s theorem I.
Approach:
The given Fixed beam is converted into equivalent simply supported beam.
µ diagram (free BMD)

µ’ diagram (fixed BMD)

In the figure,
The BMD’s for the equivalent S.S beams are drawn.
The BMD for the S.S beam with loading is called as µ diagram or free BMD.
For this case the µ diagram is a triangle with a central ordinate of Wl/4.
The BMD for S.S beam with ends moments is called µ’diagram or fixed BMD.
For this case, the end moments are equal and hence µ’ diagram is a rectangle.
The end moments are calculated by equating,

Area of µ diagram = Area of µ’ diagram.
Derivation:
Step 1: Area of µ diagram
Area of µ diagram
= Area of triangle
= ½ bh
= ½×l×Wl/4
= Wl2 /8
Step 2: Area of µ’ – diagram:

Area of µ’ diagram
= Area of rectangle
= l×b
= l×M
= Ml
Step 3: Fixed end moments:

Area of µ’ diagram = Area of µ diagram
Ml = Wl2/8
M = Wl/8
(i.e.) MAB = MBA = M = Wl/8.
Result:
The fixed end moments
MAB = MBA = Wl/8.

Standard case II
FIXED BEAM WITH UDL THROUGOUT THE SPAN
Notations:
w - UDL throughout the span
l -Span of the beam
MAB - fixed end moment at A
MBA - fixed end moment at B
Concept:
 This standard case is a case of symmetrical loading.
 The Fixed end moments are equal.
(i.e.) MAB = MBA = M (say)
 The fixed end moments (MAB & MBA) are evaluated by applying Mohr’s Theorem I.
Approach:
The given fixed beam is converted to an equivalent S.S beam.
From the diagram,

The BMD’s for equivalent S.S beams are drawn.
The µ diagram (free BMD) is a second degree parabola with a central ordinate of wl2/8.
The µ’ diagram (fixed BMD) is a rectangle with length ‘l’ and breadth ‘M’.
The end moments are calculated by equating,

Area of µ’ diagram = Area of µ diagram.

Step 1: Area of µ diagram:
Area of µ diagram
= Area of parabola
= 2/3 bh
= 2/3 × l × wl2/8
= wl3/12.
Step 2: Area of µ’ diagram:
Area of µ’ diagram
= Area of rectangle
= l×b
= l×M
= Ml
Step 3: Fixed end moments:
Equating,
l×M = wl3/12
Therefore M = wl2/12
MAB = MBA = M = wl2/12
FIXED BEAMS WITH UNSYMMETRICAL LOADING
θA = 0 θB = 0
δA= 0 δB= 0
Example fig
In the fig,
a ≠ b; MAB ≠ MBA ;
RA≠ RB.
Boundary condition,
θA= 0; θB = 0 ; δA = 0; δB = 0;
When a fixed beam is subjected to unsymmetrical loading,

 Fixed end moments (MAB & MBA) are not equal (i.e.) MAB ≠ MBA.
 The vertical reactions (RA & RB) are also not equal.
 (i.e.) RA ≠ RB.
 Since the degree of indeterminacy or redundancy is two, the redundant reactions (excess
unknown reactions) are two.
 Hence we require two more equations in addition to the two static equilibrium equations.
 The two additional equations can be obtained from the geometric conditions of the elastic
curve at the ends (boundary conditions).
 Here we use the conditions that the slope and deflection at the ends are zero.
 (i.e.) θA = 0, δA = 0; (or) θB = 0, δB = 0;

 We make use of the area moment theorem (Mohr’s theorem) I & II between the two ends to
obtain the two equations.
 The first equation is obtained from theorem I making use of the condition that the slope at the
ends of the beam are zero.
 The second equation is obtained from theorem II making use of the condition that the
deflection at the ends are zero.
Hence from theorem I
∑aAB/ EI= 0
EI ≠0, therefore
∑aAB = 0 - (1)
Hence from theorem II
EI ≠ 0, ∑aAB × =0
Standard case III

FIXED BEAM WITH A NON - CENTRAL (ECCENTRIC) POINT LOAD
Notations:
W - Non – central point load
MAB - Fixed end moment at A
MBA - Fixed end moment at B
RA - Vertical reaction at A
RB - Vertical reaction at B
l - Span of the beam
Concept:
 This standard case is a case of unsymmetrical loading.
 The Fixed end moments are not equal. (i.e.) MAB≠ MBA.
 The Fixed end moments are evaluated by applying Mohr’s theorems I & II.
Approach:
The given fixed beam is converted into equivalent simply supported beams and the corresponding µ
diagram (Free BMD) and µ’ diagram (Fixed BMD) are drawn.
The µ diagram is a triangle with an ordinate of Wab/l at C.
Since MAB≠ MBA, the µ’ diagram is trapezium. The fixed end moments are evaluated by applying
Mohr’s theorems I & II.
From theorem I,
From theorem II,
Moment of area of µ diagram about A = Moment of area of µ’

Diagram about B
In this fig
Fig 2 & fig 3 are equivalent S.S beams
Fig 2(a) µ diagram (Free BMD)
Fig 3(a) µ’ diagram (Fixed BMD)
a1 X
a2
X
a3 µ diagram
X
a4 X
Derivation:
Step I: Area of µ diagram:
Area of µ diagram = Area of triangle
= ½ bh
= ×l×
= Wab /2
Step II: Area of µ’ diagram:

Area of µ’ diagram = Area of trapezium
= Area of rectangle + Area of triangle
= lb + ½ bh
= (l × MBA) + ½ × l × (MAB – MBA)
= l × MBA + ½ × l × MAB – ½ × l × MBA
= ½ × l × MBA + ½ × l × MAB
= (MAB + MBA) × l/2

Step III: Application of Mohr’s theorem I:
= 0 , EI ≠ 0
ஃ∑aAB = 0
Area of µ diagram – Area of µ’ diagram = 0
Area of µ diagram = Area of µ’ diagram
Wab/2 = (MAB + MBA) l/2
ஃ MAB + MBA = Wab / l - (1)
Step IV: Moment of area of µ diagram:

Moment of area of µ diagram about the left end A
= a1. a1 + a2. a2
a1 = ×a ×
a1 = a
a1. a1 = × a × × ×a
3
= Wa b / 3l
a2 = × b ×
a2 = (a + b/3) =
a2. a2 = × b × ×
= (3a + b)
ஃ Moment of area of µ diagram about A
= a1 . a1 + a2 . a2
= + × (3a + b)
= (2a + 3ab + b2)
2
Step V: Moment of area of µ’ diagram about A

Moment of area of µ’ diagram about A,
= a3 . a3 + a4 . a4
a3 = ½ bh
= ½ × l × (MAB – MBA)
= (MAB – MBA) × l/2
a3 = l/3
a3 . a3 = (MAB – MBA) × (l/2) × (l/3)
= (MAB – MBA) × l2/6
a4 = MBA × l
a4 = l/2
a4 . a4 = MBA × l × l/2
= l2
ஃ a3. a3 + a4 . a4 = l2 + MBA
= ×l2
= l2
ஃ Moment of area of µ’ diagram about A
l2 - (2)

Step VI: Fixed end moments:
(MAB + 2 MBA) × l2/6 = (2a2 + 3ab + b2)
MAB + 2 MBA = (a2 + ab + a2 + 2ab + b2)
= [a (a+b) + (a+b)2]
= (al + l2)
= l (a+l)
MAB + 2 MBA = (l+a) - (3)
MAB + MBA =
Equating 1 & 3
MBA = (l+a) -
= + -
ஃMB = (Hogging)
Substituting in 1
MAB + =
MAB = -
=
=
= (since l-a = b)
ஃ MAB = (Hogging)
Results:
Fixed end moments
MAB = (hogging).
MBA = (hogging).
Illustrative examples for symmetrical loading:

(1). A Fixed beam of span 6m carries a central point load of 20kN. Analyse the beam for shear, BM and
draw the SFD & BMD.
Given data:
To find:
To analyse the beam for shear & BM
Solution:
Consider MAB & MBA as redundant reactions. (Excess unknowns)

Step 1: µ diagram (Free BMD):
RA = RB =
= 20 / 2 = 10kN
MµA = 0 (simple support)
MµC = + RA × 3 – 20 × 0 = + 10 × 3
= + 30kNm
MµB = 0 (simple support)
Complete µ diagram.
Step 2: Fixed end moments: (MAB & MBA)
By symmetry MAB = MBA = M
For symmetrically loaded fixed beam
M×6 = ½ × 6 × 30
= 90kNm.
M = 15kNm
μ
diagra
m
μ’
diagram
Step 3: Vertical reactions (RA, RB):
By symmetry,
RA = R B =
= 20 / 2 = 10kN ( )

Step 4: Shear force (Vx):
VA (L)
=0
VA (R) = + 10kN
VC (L) = VA (R) = +10kN
VC (R) = VC (L) – 20 = +10 – 20
= -10kN
VB (L) = VC (R) = - 10kN
VB (R) = 0
Where L = left side, R = right side
Complete SFD.
Step 5: Bending moment (MX):

MA = - MAB (=M) = - 15kNm
MC = - M + RA × 3 = - 15 + (10 × 3)
= + 15kNm
MB = - MBA(= M) = - 15kNm
Points of contra – flexure:
Since the BM changes its sign from –ve to +ve from A to C and from +ve to –ve from C to B.
ஃ There are two points of contra – flexure.
Let one of the point of contra – flexure be D at a distance X from A.
ஃ MD = 0
+ RA × x – MAB = 0
+ 10 × x – 15 = 0
ஃX = 1.5m from A
By symmetry another point of contra – flexure at 1.5m from B.

SFD & BMD
(2). A fixed beam of span 6m carries a UDL of 30kN/m throughout the span. Analyse the beam for
shear, BM and draw SFD & BMD.
Given data:
To find: Loading Diagram

To analyse beam for shear, BM and draw SFD & BMD.
Solution:
The given fixed beam is a symmetrically loaded fixed beam.
Step 1: µ diagram (free BMD):
μ diagram

µ diagram is a second degree parabola with max value as Wl2 /8 at mid span and
with ends 0.
Area of µ diagram = × 6 × 135
= 540kNm2
Step 2: µ’ diagram (fixed BMD):

Since the loading is symmetrical.
MAB = MBA
The µ’ diagram is a rectangle.
Area of µ’ diagram = MAB × l = MAB × 6
= 6 MAB.
μ’
Step 3: Redundant reactions (M & M ):
Consider the fixed end moments MAB & diagram
AB BA
MBA as redundant reactions (excess unknown)

For symmetrically loaded fixed beam
6 MAB. = 540
MAB. = 540 / 6 = 90kNm.
By symmetry MAB = MBA
ஃ MAB = MBA = 90kNm (hogging).
Step 4: Vertical reactions (RA & RB):
By symmetry
RA = R B =
=
= 90kN.
Step 5: Shear force (VX):
VA = + RA = + 90kN
VC = + RA – wl = + 90 – (30 × 3) = 0
VB = - RB= - 90kN
Complete SFD.
Step 6: Bending moment (MX):

MA = - MAB = - 150kNm
MC = + RA × (l/2) – MAB – w × (l/2) × (l/4)
= + 90 × (6/2) – 90 – [30 × (6/2) × (6/4)]
= + 270 – 90 – 135 = 45kNm
MB = - MBA = - 150kNm
Point of contra – flexure:
For this standard case, the point of contra – flexure D & E are 0.211 l from the nearby support.
0.211 × 6 = 1.266m from either support.
Complete BMD.
SFD & BMD:
(3). A fixed beam of span 6m carries a point loads of 10kN at one – third points. Analyse the beam for
shear, BM and draw the SFD & BMD.
Given data:
To find:
To analyse the beam for shear, BM and draw the SFD & BMD.
Solution:
Step 1: µ diagram

a1 = ½ bh
= ½ × 2 × 20
= 20kNm2
a2 = l × b
= 20 × 2 = 40 kNm2
a3 = a1 = 20 kNm2
Area of µ diagram = a1 + a2 + a3 = 80kNm2
For concentrated loads (point loads) at 1/3rd points, the µ diagram is a trapezium.
Step 2: µ’ diagram
By symmetry
MAB = MBA = M
ஃ The µ’ diagram is a rectangle.
Step 3:Redundant reactions (MAB& MBA)

Consider MAB& MBA as redundants (excess unknowns)
But MAB = MBA = M (By symmetry)
There is only one redundant reaction.
ஃ By applying Mohr’s theorem I,
6M = 80
M = 80/6 = 13.33kNm
ஃMAB = MBA = 13.33kNm
Step 4: Vertical reactions (RA , RB)

RA = R B =
= = 10kN
Step 5: Shear force (VX)
VA (L) = 0
VA (R) = + RA = + 10kN
VD (L) = VA (R) = + 10kN
VD (R) = VD (L) – 10
= 10 -10 = 0
VE (L) = VD (R) = 0
VE (R) = VE (L) – 10
= 0 -10 = -10kN
VB (L) = VE (R) = - 10kN
VB(R) = 0
Where L = Left side, R = Right side
Complete SFD.
Step 6: Bending moment (MX)
MA = - MAB = - 13.33kNm
MB = + RA × 2 – MAB
= + 10 × 2 – 13.33 = + 6.67kNm

MC = + RA × 3 – MAB – 10 × 1
= + 10 × 3 – 13.33 -10 = -6.67kNm
ME = MD = + 6.67kNm
MB = - MBA = - 13.33kNm
Points of contra – flexure:

Since the BM changes its sign –ve to +ve from A to D and +ve to –ve from E to B. There are two points
of contra – flexure one in section AD and another in section EB.
By symmetry both will be equal distance from the nearby support.
Let the BM be 0 at a distance X from A.
MX = MD = 0
+RA × x – MAB = 0
+10 × x -13.33 = 0
10x = 13.33
x = 1.33m
By symmetry,
x1 = 1.33m from A
x2 = 1.33m from B
(4). A fixed beam of span 6m carries an u.d.l of 10kN/m run over a length of 1/3rd span from both the
supports. Calculate the fixed end moments and draw SFD & BMD.
Given data:
Solution:
Step 1:Redundant reaction (MAB, MBA)

The given loading is symmetrical
MAB = MBA
Using ΘB = 0,

µ’ diagram:
µ’ diagram
µ diagram
µA = 0kNm
µD = 20 × 2 – (10×2×2/2) = 20kNm
µC = 20 × 3 - 10×2× (2/2 + 1) = 20kNm
µE = 20 × 4 – 10×2×(2/2 + 2) = 20kNm
µB = 20 × 6 – 10×2×(2/2 + 2) – 10×2×2/2 = 0kNm
Complete µ diagram.3
l×b = 2 (2/3 × bh) + (l×b)
MAB × 6 = 2 (2/3 ×2×20) + (2×20)
6MAB = 93.33
MAB = 15.56kNm
MAB = MBA
MBA = 15.56kNm
Step 2: Vertical reactions ( RA & RB)

RA = RB . So,
RA =
= = 40/2
RA = 20kN
RA = RB = 20kN
VA(L) = 0kN
VA(R) =+ RA =+ 20kN
VD = +RA – (10×2) = +20 – 20 = 0kN
VC = 0kN
VE = 0kN
VB(L) = RA – (10×2) – (10×2) = 20 – 20 – 20 = -20KN
VB(R) = 0kN
Point of zero shear:
Shear Force is 0 at D, C, and E.
VD = VC = VE = 0kN.
Complete SFD.

MA = - MAB = - 15.56kNm
MD = RA × 2 - MAB - 10×2×2/2 = 20 × 2 – 15.56 – 20
= 4.44kNm
MC = RA × 3 – MAB – 10×2×(2/2 + 1) = 20×3 - 15.56 – 40
= 4.44kNm
ME = RA × 4 – MAB – 10×2×(2/2 + 2) = 20×4 – 15.56 – 60
= 4.44kNm
MB = RA × 6 – MAB - 10×2×(2/2 + 4) – (10×2×2/2)
= 20×6 – 15.56 – 60 – 20 = - 15.56kNm
Point of contra - flexure:
MF = RA × x – 15.56 – 10 × x × x/2 = 0
20x - 15.56 – 5x2 =0
2
5x – 20x + 15.56 =0
=
=
=
a = + 1.06m, b = + 2.94m
Take a distance of 1.06m as x.
x = y so, y = 1.06m

Complete BMD.
(Alternative Method using Formula)

(5). A fixed beam of span 6m carries an u.d.l of 10kN/m throughout the span. It also carries a central
point load of 20kN. Calculate the fixed end moments & draw SFD & BMD. Locate the point of contra
flexure.
Given data:
Solution:
Step 1: Fixed end moments

MAB = M1AB + M2AB
= +
= +
= 15 + 30 = 45kNm
Loading is symmetrical.
MAB = MBA = 45kNm (Hogging).
Step 2: Vertical reaction (RA & RB)

Loading is symmetrical
RA =
= = 40kN
RA = RB = 40kN
Step 3: Shear force
VA(L) = 0kN
VA(R) = 40kN
VC(L) = 40 – (10×3) = 10kN
VC(R) = 40 – (10×3) – 20 = - 10kN
VB(L) = 40 – (10×6) – 20 = - 40kN
VB(R) = 0kN
Point of zero shear:
S.F values suddenly changes exactly at C.
Point of zero shear is at C.
Complete SFD.
Step 4: Bending moment

MA = - 45kNm
MC = - 45 + (40×3) – (10×3×3/2) = +30kNm
MB = - 45 + (40×6) – (10×6×6/2) – 20×3 = - 45kNm
Point of zero shear at C.
Mmax = MC = 30kNm

Point of contra – flexure:
Since BM values change from –ve to +ve in the portion of point of contra – flexure is in the portion AC
& BM values changes from +ve to –ve is in the portion CB, another point of contra – flexure is in the
portion CB.
Let the BM be 0 at D at a distance x.
MD = 0
-45 + (40×x) - 10×x×x/2 = 0
5x2 - 40x + 45 =0
=
=
= 6.65m & 1.35m
The points of contra flexure are x= 1.35m from A and also y = 1.35m from B.
x = y, D =E
ஃ acceptable value 1.35m from A.
Since the loading is symmetrical.
Y = 1.35 from B
Illustrative example for unsymmetrical loading

(1). A fixed beam of span 6m carries a point load of 50kN at a distance of 2m from the left end and
another point load of 40kN at a distance of 2m from the right end. Calculate the fixed end moments
and draw SFD & BMD. Locate the point of contra – flexure.
Given data:

To find:
1. Fixed end moments (MAB, MBA)
2. Draw SFD & BMD
3. Locate point of contra – flexure
Solution:
Though symmetry exists with respect to type of load and position, the values are not same.
This is case of unsymmetrical loading.
ஃMAB ≠ MBA
Step 1: (1) µ diagram
Considering the beam with loading as simply supported µ diagram
RA + RB = 50 + 40
= 90kN
Taking moments about A,
RB × 6 = 50 × 2 + (40 × 4)
6RB = 260
RB = 260/6 = 43.33kN ( )
ஃ RA = 90 – 43.33
= 46.67kN( )
µ diagram

MµA= 0 (simple support)
MµC= + RA × 2 = +46.67 × 2
= + 93.34kNm
MµD = + RA × 4 – (50 × 2) = + 46.67 × 4 – 100
= + 86.68kNm
MµB= 0
Complete µ diagram
(2) Centroidal distances:
a1 = × 2 = 4/3 = 1.33m from A
a2 = 2 + ×2 = 2.66m from A
a3 = 2 + 2 + × 2 = 4.66m from A
a4 = 2 + = 3m from A
(3). Area of µ diagram
Area of (1) a1= ½ bh
= ½ × 2 × 93.34
= 93.34kNm2
Area of( 2) a2= ½ bh
= ½ × 2 × (93.34 – 86.68)
= ½ × 2 × 6.66 = 6.66kNm2
Area of (3) a3 = ½ bh
= ½ × 2 × 86.68 = 86.68kNm2
Area of (4) a4= l × b
= 2 × 86.68 = 173.36kNm2
ஃ Area of µ diagram = Area of (1) + Area of (2)+ Area of (3) + Area of (4)
= 93.34 + 6.66 + 86.68 + 173.36
= 360.04 kNm2
(4). Moment of area of µ diagram about A:
= ∑a. a
= a1 . a1 + a2 . a2 + a3 . a3 + a4 . a4
= (93.34 × 1.33) + (6.66 × 2.66) + (86.68 × 4.66) +
(173.36 ×3)
= 124.14 + 17.72 + 403.93 + 520.08
= 1065.87kNm3.
Step 2: µ’ diagram

Since the loading is unsymmetrical µ’ diagram is a trapezium. Assuming MA> MB.
Centroidal distances:
a5 = × 6 = 2m from A
a6 = l/2 = 6/2 = 3 from A
Area of µ’ diagram:
= Area of (5)a5 + Area of (6)a6
Area of (5) a5 = ½ bh
= ½ × 6 ×(MA – MB)
= 3 × (MA – MB)
= 3MA – 3MB
Area of (6) a6 = l × b
= 6 × MB
= 6MB
ஃ Area of µ’ diagram = a5 + a6
= 3MA - 3MB + 6MB
= 3MA + 3MB
Moment of area of µ’ diagram about A:
=a5 . a5 + a6 . a6
a5 . a5 = 3(MA – MB) × 2 = 6(MA – MB)
a6 . a6 = 6MB× 3 = 18 MB
a5 . a5 + a6 . a6 =6 × (MA – MB) + 18 MB
= 6MA – 6MB + 18 MB
= 6MA + 12MB

Since the loading is unsymmetrical MAB≠ MBA
Applying Mohr’s theorem I
3MA + 3MB = 360.64
MA + MB = 120.21 - (1)
Applying Mohr’s theorem II
Moment of area of µ’ diagram about A = Moment of area of µ
diagram about A
6MA + 12MB = 1065.67
6 (MA + 2MB) = 1065.67
MA + 2MB = 177.61 - (2)
MA + MB = 120.21 - (1)
Subtracting (1) from (2)
MB = 177.61 – 120.21
ஃMB = 57.4kNm (hogging)
MA = 62.81kNm (hogging)
Step 4: Vertical reactions (RA, RB)

Already calculated in step 1.
ஃ RA = 46.67kN RB = 43.33kN

VA (L) = 0
VA (R) = + RA = + 46.67kN
VC (L) = + VA (R) = + 46.67kN
VC (R) = + RA – 50 = + 46.67 – 50
= - 3.33kN
VD (L) = VC (R) = - 3.33kN
VD (R) = + RA – 50 – 40
= +46.67 – 90 = - 43.33kN
VB (L) = VD (R) = - 43.33kN
VB (R) = 0
Since S.F changes its sign exactly at C, +Mmax occurs at C.
MA = - MAB
=-
62kNm
MC = - MAB + RA × 2
= -62 + 46.67 × 2 = + 31.34kNm
MD = - MAB + RA × 4 – 50 × 2
= -62 + 46.67 × 4 – 100 = + 24.68kNm
MB = - MBA = - 57.74kNm
Step 7: Summary
θA = 0
δA = 0 δC = δmax
θB = 0
δB = 0

Slope and Deflection of symmetrically loaded Fixed beams by Area – moment method
In case of symmetrically loaded fixed beams, the slopes and deflections at the fixed supports are 0.
 In case of symmetrically loaded fixed beams, the max deflection occurs at mid span (Centre).
 For finding the maximum deflection, Mohr’s theorem II is applied between A & C or B & C.
 Only half the BMD is considered.
WORKED EXAMPLE ON DEFLECTION FOR SYMMETRICALLY LOADED FIXED BEAMS.

(1) A fixed beam of span 6m carries concentrated load of 10kN at a distance of 2m from the left end
and another concentrated load of 10kN at a distance of 2m from the right end. Calculate the max
deflection by Area – moment method.
Given data:
δ =δ
C max
To find:
The max deflection by Area – moment method.
Solution:
Mohr’s theorem II is applied between the points A & C.
Step 1: Fixed end moments (MAB = MBA = M):

For symmetrically loaded fixed beam MAB = MBA = M
ஃ Applying Mohr’s theorem I,
Area of half µ diagram = a1 + a2
a1 = ½ bh
= ½ × 2 × 20
= 20kNm2 µ’ diagram
a2 = lb
= 1 × 20
= 20kNm2
Total area of µ diagram = 2 (20 + 20)
= 80kNm2
Area of µ’ diagram (a3) = l b
=6M
6 M = 80
M = 80 / 6 = 13.33kNm.
Step 2: Max deflection (δmax): µ diagram
δmax = δC
Applying Mohr’s theorem II between A & C
δmax = δC =
∑aC A= a1 . + a2 . – a3 .
= × 2 = 4 / 3 = 1.33m from A
=2+1/2 = 2.5m from A
=3/2 = 1.5m from A
ஃ∑aC . A= 20 × 1.33 + 20 × 2.5 – 3 × 13.33 × 1.5
= 16.61
ஃδmax = δC = = m.

When EI is in kNm2.
Result:
Maximum deflection = m.
HIGH LIGHTS
1). Fixed beam:
SI.no Beam MA MB δmax
1. - -
2.
- -
3.
- -
4.
- -
5. _
- -
_
6. - -

2). Net bending moment:
Mc = +
1)
Mc = +
2)
3). Simply supported beam and Fixed beam:
SI.no Simply supported beam Fixed beam

1. Ends are simply supported Ends are fixed
2. Ends are free to rotation Ends are restricted against rotation
Slope at the ends are zero
3. Slope at the ends are maximum
Moment at the ends are zero Moment at the end is maximum
4. Moment at the centre is much reduced
Moment at the centre is maximum Deflection at the centre is less
5. Deflection at the centre is more
6. It is a determinate beam. It is a indeterminate beam.
7.

4). Free BMD & Fixed BMD:
SI. Free BMD Fixed BMD
no
1) The bending moment diagram drawn The bending moment diagram drawn only for
considering the beam as a simply supported the fixed end moments are called fixed
beam is called free bending moment diagram. bending moment diagram.
It is denoted by µ diagram It is denoted by µ’ diagram.

2)
It is sagging bending moment It is hogging bending moment.
3)
QUESTIONS
Two mark Questions:
1) Draw the bending moment diagram for the fixed beam carrying UDL throughout.
2) What is the fixed beam and How is differ from Simply supported beam?
3) What will be slope at the fixed end of the fixed beam carrying UDL throughout its length?
4) Draw the BMD for a fixed beam subjected to a point load at the mid-span.
5) State the maximum deflection value in a fixed beam subjected to a UDL throughout the span.
6) State any two advantages of a fixed beam.
7) Write any one advantage of a fixed beam compared to simply supported beam.
8) Define free BMD.
9) Show that the area of free BMD and fixed BMD in a fixed beam are equal.
10) Define Free BMD? (unit 2.1)
Three mark Questions:
1) Calculate fixed end moment and maximum deflection in a fixed beam of span 5m subjected to
a central point load of 30kN. Take EI = 1.20 × 104 kNm2.
2) A fixed beam of 6m span subjected to a UDL of w/m over its full length. The net BM at the
centre is 30kN/m. find the value of w.
3) Show that the area of BMD and fixed BMD in a fixed beam are equal.
4) State the different method of Analysis of Indeterminate structures.

Ten mark Questions:
1) A fixed beam of span 9m is subjected to an UDL of 20kN/m over the entire length. It is also
carries two concentrated loads of 10kN each at 3m from the ends.
i. Determine the values of fixing moments.
ii. Sketch the BMD marking the maximum values there in.
2) A fixed beam of 12m span carries two point loads of 60kN and 30kN at distance of 3m & 6m
from left end support respectively. Draw the SF and BM diagrams, using area moment
method.
3) A fixed beam of span 8m is subjected to an UDL of 4kN/m over a length of 4m. Symmetrically
placed at centre portion. Determine the support moments and draw the BMD.
4) A fixed beam of span ‘l’ carries a non-centric concentrated load of ‘w’ at distance ‘a’ from the
left support and ‘b’ from the right support. Derive the expression for the fixed end moments
using Mohr’s Theorems (Area-moment method).
5) A fixed beam of span 5m carries two equal point loads of 20kN each at 2m from each end.
Find the fixed end moments. Draw the SFD and BMD.
6) A fixed beam of span 6m carries a central point load of 20kN in addition to an UDL of 10kN/m
over the entire span. Calculate the fixed end moments. Draw the BMD.
7) A fixed beam of span 6m carries a central point load of 30kN and 50kN at 2m and 4m from the
left support respectively. Find the support moments and draw SFD and BMD.
8) A fixed beam of span 5m carries a central point load of 16kN. Determine the fixing moments
and draw SFD and BMD. Find the maximum central deflection.
9) A fixed beam of 6m span subjected to a two concentrated load of 30kN at a distance of 2m
from both ends. Draw SFD and BMD.
10) A fixed beam of span 8m carries an UDL of 45kN/m over the entire span. It also carries two
point loads of 150kN each at 2m from the ends. Calculate the support moments. Draw the
BMD.

2.2. CONTINUOUS BEAMS
THEOREM OF THREE MOMENTS METHOD
Introduction to Continuous beams:
When the beam has more than two supports, it is called as continuous beam. Hogging moment will be
developed at the intermediate supports. Hence, it is stiffer and stronger than other beams.
It is statically in determinate beam. The slope and deflection are less. It can carry more loads than
other type of beams. Continuous beams are economical.
Degree of indeterminacy of continuous beam:
The difference between number of known reaction components and number of known static equation
is called Degree of indeterminacy.
i.e. D.I. = (No of known reaction components – No of known static equation)
The degree of indeterminacy is depend upon the end conditions, no of spans and type of supports as
given below.
a. Two span continuous beam:
1. Continuous beam with both end simply supported:
No of unknown reaction components (RA, RB, RC and MB) =4
No of available static equilibrium Equations (∑V = 0, ∑M = 0) = 2
Degree of indeterminacy = (4 – 2) =2
2. Continuous beam with one end simply supported and other end with overhanging:

No. of unknown reaction components (RA, RB, RC & MB) = 4
No. of available static equilibrium eqns (∑V = 0, ∑M = 0) = 2
Degree of indeterminacy = (4 – 2) = 2
3. Continuous beam with one end fixed and other end simply supported:
No. of unknown reaction components (RA, RB, RC & MA, MB) = 5
No. of available static equilibrium eqns (∑V = 0, ∑M = 0) =2
4. Continuous beam with one end fixed and other end with over hanging:
No. of unknown reaction components (RA, RB, RC & MA, MB) = 5
5. Continuous beam with both ends fixed:
No. of unknown reaction components (RA, RB, RC, MA, MB & MC) = 6

b. Three span continuous beam:
1) Both ends are simply supported:
No. of unknown reaction components (RA, RB, RC, RD, MB & MC) = 6
General methods of analysis of continuous beam:
Method of analysis of continuous beam.

A. Theorem of three moments method
B. Moment distribution method
C. Area moment method
D. Slope and deflection method
E. Strain energy method
F. Khani’s rotation method
G. Column analogy method
H. Influence line method
Theorem of Three Moment’s Method (or) Clapeyron’s Theorem of Three Moment Method:
In this method Mohr’s theorem I & II are used for determinate the support moment of a continuous
beam. It is based on the geometric condition of the deformed continuous beam.
This method was introduced by Engineer Clapeyron’s using three support moments. Hence, it is called
Clapeyron’s theorem of three moment’s method.
Statement of Clapeyron’s Theorem of three moments:
Clapeyron’s theorem states that if a beam has ‘n’ supports, the end being fixed than the same number
of equations required to determining the support moments may be obtained from the consecutive
pairs of spans i.e. AB – BC, BC – CD, CD – DE and so on.
Continuous beam ABC loaded as shown in fig.

Let,
MA, MB, MC are the support moments.
MA + 2 MB =-
Theorem of three moments equation
When,
I1 = I2 = I
MA, l1 + 2 MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = -
Where,
= area of free BMD for span AB

= area of fixed BMD for span BC
= c.g of BMD from left end (A)
= c.g of BMD from right end (C)
Application of Clapeyron’s Theorem of three moments:
The following solved problems are the examples for the Application of Clapeyron’s Theorem of three
moments.
Area of free BMD for standard cases:
1) Simply supported beam with central point load:
Max B.M =
Area, a = ½ × l × =
= centroid from supports.
ஃ = =
2) Simply supported beam with UDL of w/m over its entire span:
Max B.M =
Area a = =
= centroid from either supports
ஃ = =

3) Simply supported beam with non – central load (W):
Max B.M =
Area a = ½ × l × a=
Centroid from left end =
Centroid from right end =
ஃ from left end A = =
= =
= from left end
III ly = from right end
TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM
TYPE – 1 Both Ends Are Simply Supported

Problem 1:
A Continuous beam ABC is Simply Supported at A and C such that AB = 6m and BC = 5m. The span AB
carries an UDL of 20kN/m and the span BC carries a point load of 50kN at the centre. Find the support
moments by using theorem of three moments draw SFD and BMD.
Solution:
1) Simply Supported beam moments:
Considering a each span as Simply
Supported beam and draw free BMD
Span AB:
M= = = 90kNm
Span BC:
M= = = 62.5kNm
Using theorem of three moments method.
2) Support moments:
Span AB & BC
AB = l1 = 6m; BC = l2 = 5m
Since end A & C are simply supported
MA = M C = 0

Applying theorem of three moment equation
MAl1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = - 6
0 + 2MB (6+5) + 0 = - 6
22 MB = -1548.75
MB = 70.40kNm.
Draw SFD and BMD:
Final support moments:
MA = 0
MB = - 70.40kNm
MC = 0

Reactions:
support A B C
Reaction due to free BM +60 +60 +25 +25
,
Reactions due to fixing -11.73 +11.73 +14 -14
moments
,
Net reactions 71.72 39

RA = RC =
48.27kN RB=110.73kN 11kN
Alternate method:
For span AB
Taking moment about ‘B’
MA + = RA × l + M B
0 + 20 × 6 × = RA × 6 + 70.40
RA = 48.27kN.
For span BC
Taking moment about ‘B’
M B + RC × l = + MC
70.40 + RC × 5 = 50 × + 0
RC = 11kN
RB = Total load – (RA + RB) = (20×6×50) – (48.27 + 11)
RB = 110.73kN
Net BM:
Max BM will occur at x distance from A,
71.73 x = (6-x) (48.27)
= 289.62 – 48.27x
120 x = 289.62
x =

x = 2.40m
MA = 0
Mx = 48.27×2.40- 20×2.40× = 58.25kNm
MB = - 70.40kNm
MD = RC× = 11× = 27.50kNm
Draw BMD
Problem 2:
A continuous beam ABC of length 8m has two equal spans. The span AB carries an UDL of 20kN/m
over its entire length and the span carries a point load of 20kN at 3m from B. Draw SFD and BMD. Take
ends A & C are simply supported. Apply the theorem of three moments.
Solution:
i) Draw free BMD for each span

For span AB
MAB = = = 40kNm
For span BC
MBC = = = 15kNm
ii) Support moments:

Applying theorem of three moment equation for span AB & BC
MA l1 + 2MB (l1+l2) + MC l2 = - 6
(Or)
MA l + 2MB (l1+l2) + MC l2 = - (1)
Since the ends A and C are simply supported.
MA = MC = 0.

Using formula for standard cases:
i. Simply supported beam with UDL over entire span, =
ஃ = = 320
ii)simply supported beam with non-central load

= from right end
ஃ = = 80
Substituting in equation (1)
MA×4 + 2MB (4+4) + MC×4 = - [320+80]
0 + 16MB + 0 = - 400
MB = = - 25kNm
Reactions:
Consider span AB
Taking moment at B
MA + = RA × l + MB
0+ = 4 RA + 25
RA = = 33.75kN
Consider span BC
Taking moment about B
RC × l + MB = MC + (W × a)
RC × 4 + 25 = 0 + (20 × 3)
RC = = 8.75kN
∑V = 0
RA+RB+RC = Total load
RA = Total load – (RA + RB)
RB = (20×4) + 20 – (33.75 + 8.75)
RB = 57.50kN.

Draw SFD & BMD
Problem 3:
A two span continuous beam ABC of uniform flexural rigidity is supported to UDL of w/m. The two
spans AB = BC = l. Determine the support moments by using Clapeyron’s Theorem of three moments
method. Ends A & C are simply supported Draw BMD.
Solution:
Span AB = BC = l
I. Free Bending Moment Diagram:

B.M for span AB: MAB = kNm
B.M for span BC: MBC = kNm
II. Support Moments:

Ends A & C are simply supported:
MA = M C = 0
Applying theorem of three moments
Spans AB & BC
AB = l1 = l; BC = l2 = l
Applying Clapeyron’s three moments equation:
MA l1 + 2MB (l1+l2) + MC l2 = -

Since spans AB = BC = l and carries equal UDL of w/m
a1 = a2 = × l × =
= from A; = from C
= =
III ly =
MA l1 + 2MB (l1+l2) + MC l2 = -
0 + 2 MB (l+l) + 0 = - + ;
0 + 4 MB . l + 0 = -
MB = - × =-
Results:
Final moments
MA = 0
MB = -
MC = 0

Type II One End Simply Supported
and Other End With Over Hanging
Problem 4:
A continuous beam ABCD is 12m long is simply supported at A, B & C span AB is 6m long and carries a
point load of 10kN at its centre, span BC = 4m. Carries UDL of 2kN/m to its full length. Span CD carries
a point load 5kN at free end D. Draw BMD by using theorem of three moments.
Solution:
i. Draw free BMD for each span:

Span AB
MAB = = = 15kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = 4kNm
MC = - W. a = - (5×2) = - 10kNm
ii. Support moments:

Applying theorem of three moments equation
Span AB & BC
MA l1 + 2MB (l1+l2) + MC l2 = - (1)
End A is simply supported

ஃ MA = 0
Supported C is with over hanging
ஃ MC = - 5 × 2 = - 10kNm
Using formula for standard cases
1. Simply supported with central point load, =
ஃ = = 135
2. Simply supported with UDL, =
ஃ = = 32
MA×6 + 2MB (6+4) + MC×4 = - [135 + 32]
0 + 20 MB + (-) 10 × 4 = - 167
20 MB = - 167 + 40 = - 127
MB = = - 6.35kNm

Reaction:
Consider span AB
MA + = RA × l + MB
0+ = RA × 6 + 6.35
6 RA = (30 - 6.35) = 23.65kNm
RA = = 3.94kNm
Consider span BCD

RC×4 + MB = (2×4× ) + 5×6
4 RC + 6.35 = 16 + 30 = 46
RC = = 9.90kN
∑V = 0
RA + RB + RC = Total load
RB = Total loads – (RA + RC)
RB = (10 + (2×4)+5)
– (3.94+9.90)
RB = 9.16kN.
Draw SFD & BMD:
Problem 5:
A continuous beam of ABCD of length 12m is simply supported by three supports at A, B and C with an
equal spacing of 5m. It carries an UDL of intensity 20kN/m over the two spans. There is a 30kN load on
the free end, D. Analyse the beam using Clapeyron’s Theorem and draw SFD & BMD.
Solution:
1. Free BMD for each span:

Span AB & BC
MAB = MBC =
= = 62.50kNm
Moment at C
MC = - 30×2 = - 60kNm

2. Support moments:
Applying Theorem of three moment equation for span AB & BC
MA l1 + 2MB (l1+l2) + MC l2 = - (1)
Since end A is simply supported, MA = 0
Support ‘C’ is with over hanging MC = -30×2 = -60kNm
l1 = l2 = 5m
For standard cases
a) Simply supported with UDL, =
= = = 625
MA×5 + 2MB (5+5) + (-60×5) = - [625 + 625]
0 + 20MB – 300 = - 1250
MB = = - 4750kNm
Reactions:
Consider span AB taking moment about B
MA + = RA × l × M B
0+ = 5 RA + 47.50 A B
RA = = 40.50kN
Consider span BC:

RC×1 + MB = + (30×7)
RC×5 + 47.50 = (250+210) = 460
RC = = 82.50kNm
∑V = 0
RB = Total load – (RA+RC)
RB = (20×10) + 30 – (40.50+82.50)
RB = 107kN.

Draw SFD and BMD:
Type III One End Fixed And Other End Simply Supported
Problem 6:
A continuous beam ABC of span 10m is fixed at end A and simply supported at C span AB is 4m long
and carries an UDL of 30kN/m over entire span and span BC carries a point load of 60kN at 2.5m from
B. Determine the support moments by using theorem of three moments. Draw BMD.
Solution:
I. Free BMD for each span

For span AB
MAB = = = 60kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = 87.50kNm
II. Support moments:

Since end A is fixed,
Assume an imaginary beam A1A
of span l0 = 0m
ஃ MA1 = 0
Applying Clapeyron’s three moment

Equation for span A1A and AB
A1A = l0 = 0, AB = l1 = 4m,
MA l0 + 2MB (l0+l1) + MB l1 = - (I)
For standard cases:
= 0 (No load)
i) Simply supported with UDL, =
ஃ = = 480
MA1×l0 + 2MA (0+4) + MB×4 = - [0+480]
0 + 8MA + 4MB = - 480
2 MA + MB = - 120 (1)
From span AB & BC
Applying Clapeyron’s three moment equation for span AB & BC
AB = l1 = 4m, BC = l2 = 4m
Since end C is simply supported, MC = 0
MA l1 + 2MA (l1+l2) + MC l2 = - (II)
For standard cases:
1. Simply supported with UDL, =
ஃ = = 480
2. Simply supported with non-central load, =
= = 831.25
Substituting in equation (II)
MA×4 + 2MB (4+6) + MC×6 = - [480 + 831.25]
4MA + 20MB + 0 = - 1311.25 (2)
Solving equation (1) & (2)
(2) 4 MA + 20 MB = - 1311.25
(1) × (2) - 4 MA – 2 MB = - 240.00

0 + 18 MB = -1071.25
MB = = - 59.91kNm
2 MA + (-59.51) = -120
MA = - 30.25kNm

MA = - 30.25kNm
MB = - 59.51kNm
MC = 0
Reactions:
Consider span AB
MA + (30×4) × = RA × 4 + MB
30.25 + 240 = 4 RA + 59.51
RA = 52.68kN
Consider span BC:
Taking moment about B:
RC × 6 + MB = MC + 60 × 2.5
6 RC × 59.51 = 0 + 150
RC = = 15.08kN
∑V = 0
RB = Total load – (RA + RC)
= (30×4) + 60 – (52.68 + 15.08)
RB = 112.24kN.
Draw SFD & BMD:

Problem 7:
A two span beam ABC of length 9m is fixed at ‘A’ and simply supported at ‘C’. The span AB is 6m long
carries a point load 40kN at 2m from A. The span BC is 3m long carries an UDL of 20kN/m. Find the
support moments using Theorem of three moments method and draw SFD and BMD.
Solution:
i. Free BMD:
Span AB, a = 2m, b = 4m
MAB = = = 53.33kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = 22.50kNm

Since end A is fixed, assume an imaginary beam A1A of span
l0 = 0m.
Applying Clapeyron’s three moment equation for span A1A and AB
A1A = l0 = 0, AB = l1 = 4m,
MA l0 + 2MA (l0 + l1) + MB l1 = - (I)
For standard cases:
= 0 (no load)
Simply supported with non-central load, = from end B
= = 533.33
Substituting in equation (I)
MA1 × l0 + 2MA (0+6) + MB × 6 = - [0 + 533.33]
0 + 12 MA + 6 MB = - 533.33
2 MA + MB = - 88.89 (1)
Applying Clapeyron’s three moment
Equation for span AB and BC
AB = l1 = 6m, BC = l2 = 3m,
Since end C is simply supported, MC = 0
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = - (II)

For standard cases
Simply supported with non-central load, = from end A.
= = 426.67
i. Simply supported with UDL, =
ஃ = = 135
MA × 6 + 2 MB (6+3) + 0 = - [426.67 + 135]
6 MA + 18 MB = - 561.67
MA + 3 MB = - 93.61 (2)
Solving equation (1) and (2)
(1) 2 MA + MB = - 88.890
(2) ×2 2 MA + 6 MB = - 187.223
0 - 5 MB = - 98.33
MB = - 19.67kNm
2 MA + (-19.67) = - 88.89
MA = - 34.61kNm
MA = - 34.61kNm
MB = - 19.67kNm
MC = 0
iii. Reactions:
Consider span AB taking moment about B
MA + W. b = MB + RA × l
34.61 + (40×4) = 19.67 + RA × 6
RA = 29.16kN
Consider span BC taking moment about B
RC × l + MB = MC +
RC × 3 + 19.67 = 0 +
RC = = 23.44kN

∑V = 0
RB = 40 + (20×3) – (29.16 + 23.44)
RB = 47.40kN
Draw SFD and BMD
Problem 8:
A continuous beam ABC of uniform section, with span AB as 6m is fixed at A and simply supported at B
and C. The beam carries an UDL of 10kN/m and span BC carries an UDL of 5kN/m. It also carries a
point load of 20kN at 2m from the end C. Find the support moments using three moment equation.
Draw SFD and BMD.
Solution:
i. Free BMD:
Span AB
MAB = = = 80kNm

Span BC
l = 6m; a = = = 2m
Due to UDL = = = 22.50kNm
Due to central point load = = = 26.67kNm
Draw free BMD

End A is fixed, hence assume an imaginary beam A1A of span l0 = 0m
Hence assume an imaginary beam of A1A & C1C
Applying theorem of three moments equation span A1A & AB,
A1A = l0 = 0m MA’ = 0
AB = l1 = 8m
MA’ l0 + 2MA (l0 + l1) + MB l1 = - (I)
= 0;
For standard cases:
Simply supported beam with UDL,
= = = 1280
0 + 2 MA (0+8) + MB × 8 = - [0+1280]
16 MA + 8 MB = - 1280
2 MA + MB = - 160 (1)
Applying theorem of three moments equation for span AB and BC
AB = l1 = 8m, BC = l2 = 6m,
Since ‘C’ is simply supported MC = 0
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = - (II)
For standard cases:
Simply supported beam with UDL
= = 384

= = 1280
Simply supported beam with non-central load
l = 6m, a = 4m, b = 2m,
= from end ‘C’
= =
= [270 + 2013.33] = 483.33
MA × 8 + 2 MB = - [1280 + 483.33] = - 1763.33
8 MA + 28 MB = - 1763.33 (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2)
1) × 28 56 MA + 28 MB = - 4480.00
2) 8 MA + 28 MB = - 1763.33
48 MA + 0 = - 2716.70
MA = - 56.60kNm
Substituting in (1)
2 MA + MB = - 160 (1)
2 × (- 56.60) + MB = - 160
MB = - 160 + 113.2 = - 46.80
MB = - 46.80kNm
III. Result:
Final Support Moments:
MA = - 56.60kNm
MB = - 46.80kNm
MC = 0
Reactions:
Consider span AB
Taking moment at B

MA + = RA × l + M B
56.60 + = 8 RA + 46.80
RA = 41.23kN
Consider span BC:
RC × l + MB = MC + (W × a) +
RC × 6 + 46.80 = 0 + (20 × 4) +
RC = 20.53kN
∑V = 0
41.23 + RB + 20.53 = (10×8) + (5×6) + 20
RB = 68.24kN.
Draw SFD
Net BMD:
MC = 0
MD = 20.53 × 2 = 31.06kNm
MB = - 46.80kNm
ME = RA × 4 – MA -
= RA × 4 – 56.60 -
= (164.92 – 56.60 – 80) = 28.32kNm
MA = - 56.60kNm

Type – IV One End Fixed and Other End With Over Hanging
Problem 9:
A continuous beam ABCD is fixed at A and simply supported at B and C. Span AB is 6m long and carries
point load of 30kN at its mid span, the span BC is 4m long carries an UDL of 10kN/m over its entire
span, span CD is 2m long carries a point load of 5kN at free end D. Find the support moments by
Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments. Draw SFD and BMD.
Solution:
I. Free BMD:
Span AB
MAB = = = 45kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = 20kNm
Support ‘C’ is with overhanging
ஃ MCD = - 5 × 2 = - 10kNm

End A is fixed, introduce an imaginary beam A1A of span
l0 = 0m; MA1 = 0; a0 = 0
Applying theorem of three moments equation span A1A and AB
A1A = l0, AB = l1 = 6m
MA l0 + 2MA (l0 + l1) + MB l1 = - (I)
=0
For standard cases:
Simply supported with central load, = Wl 2
= × 30 × 62 = 405
0 + 2 MA (0+6) + MB × 6 = - [0+405]
12 MA + 6 MB = - 405 (1)
(1) Applying theorem of three moments equation for span AB and BC.
AB = l1 = 6m, BC = l2 = 4m,

MC = - 10kNm
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = - (II)
For standard cases
Simply supported with central load, = Wl2
= × 30 × 62 = 405
Simply supported with UDL, =
= = = 160
6 MA + 2 MB (6+4) + 4 × 10 = - [405 + 160]
6 MA + 20 MB = - 65 + 40 = - 525
6 MA + 20 MB = - 525 (2)

1. 12 MA + 6 MB = - 405
2. × 3 12 MA + 40 MB = - 1050
34 MB = - 645
MB = - 18.97kNm
6 MA + 20 × (- 18.97) = - 525
6 MA – 379.40 = - 525
MA = = - 27.67kNm
MA = - 24.27kNm
III. Reactions:
Consider span AB
Taking moment about left of ‘B’
M A + W = RA × l + M B
24.27 + 30 × = 6 RA + 18.97

6 RA = 99.85
RA = 16.47kN
Consider span BCD

Taking moment about right of B
RC × l + MB = w l + W (l+a)
4RC + 18.97 = 10 × 4 × + 5 (4+2)
4RC + 18.97 = 110
RC = = 22.75kN
∑V = 0
RB = 30 + (10×4) + 5 – (16.47 + 22.75)
RB = 35.78kN

MA = - 24.27kNm
MB = - 18.97kNm
MC = - 10kNm
Draw SFD and BMD:

Type – V Both Ends Fixed
Problem 10:
A continuous beam ABC is fixed at A and C simply supported at B each span AB and BC is 6m. The span
AB carries an UDL of 20kN/m and span BC carries a point load of 60kN at mid span. Using theorem of
three moments find support moments. Draw SFD and BMD.
Solution:
i. Free BMD:
Span AB
MAB = = = 90kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = 90kNm

Since ends A and C are fixed, assume an imaginary spans A1A & CC 1 of each length l0 = 0m
and l3 = 0m
MA’ = 0; MC’ = 0
Applying theorem of three moments for span A1A and AB
MA1 l0 + 2MA (l0 + l1) + MB l1 = - (I)
=0
For standard cases:
= = = 1080
MA l0 + 2MA (0 + 6) + MB × 6 = - [0 + 1080]
0 + 12 MA + 6 MB = - 1080
2 MA + MB = - 1080 (1)
(1) Applying theorem of three moments equation for span AB and BC.
AB = l1 = 6m, BC = l2 = 5m,
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = - (II)

For standard cases:
= = = 1080
Simply supported with central point load, =
= = × 60 × 6 2 = 810
MA × 6 + 2 MB (6+6) + 6 MC = - [1080 + 810]
6 MA + 24 MB + 6 MC = - 1890
MA + 4 MB + MC = - 315 (2)
Applying theorem of three moments for span BC and CC 1
BC = l2 = 6m; CC 1 = l3 = 0m, MC1 = 0
MB l2 + 2MC (l2 + l3) + MC1 l3 = - (III)
We know,
= = × 60 × 6 2 = 810kNm from end C
=0
Substituting in equation III
MB × 6 + 2 MC (6+0) + 0 = - [810 + 0]
6 MB + 12 MC = - 810
MB + 2 MC = - 135 (3)
(3) MB + 2 MC = - 135
(2) × 2 2 MA + 8 MB + 2 MC = - 630
(Solving 2&3) - 2 MA – 7 MB + 0 = 495
2 MA + 7 MB + 0 = - 495 (4)
Solving (1) and (4)
(4) → 2 MA + 7 MB = - 495
(1) 2 MA + MB = - 180

6 MB = - 315
MB = = - 52.50
MB = - 52.50kNm
Substituting in (1)
2 MA + (-52.50) = - 180
MA = = - 63.75kNm
MA = - 63.75kNm
Substituting value of MB in equation (3)
MB + 2 MC = - 135 (3)
- 52.50 + 2 MC = - 135
MC = - 41.25kNm
Reactions:
support A B C
Reaction due to simply +60 +60 +30 +30

supported beam ,
Reactions due to fixing -1.88 +1.87 +1.88 -1.87

moments
,
Final reactions + 58.12 61.87 31.88 28.13

RA,RB & RC = RA RC
93.75 RB
Result:
MA = - 63.75kNm
MB = - 52.50kNm
MC = - 41.25kNm

Draw SFD and BMD
Problem 11:
A two span continuous beam of 4m and 6m spans are fixed at both of its end. The size of the beam is
uniform in both spans. The span AB is 4m carries an UDL of 24kN/m throughout its length. The 6m
span carries two point loads of 30kN each at its one third points. Find out the support moments by
Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments.
Solution:
I. Free BMD
Span AB
MAB = = = 48kNm
Span BC
l = 6m; a = = = 2m
MBC = w.a = 30×2 = 60kNm
Draw free BMD.

End A and C are fixed
Hence assume an imaginary beams of A1A & C 1C
A1A = l0 = 0m; C 1C = l3 = 0m; MA’ = MC’ = 0

Applying theorem of three moments equation Span A1A and AB,
AB = l1 = 6m
MA’ l0 + 2MB (l0 + l1) + MB l1 = -
= 0; = = = 384
0 + 2 MA (0+4) + MB × 4 = - [0 + 384]
8 MA + 4 MB = - 384
2 MA + MB = - 96 (1)
Applying theorem of three moments equation for span AB and BC
AB = l1 = 4m, BC = l2 = 6m,
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = -
= = 384
a2 = = × 60 = 240
= = 3m
= = 720
4 MA + 2 MB (4+6) + 6 MC = - [384 + 720]
4 MA + 20 MB + 6 MC = - 1104
2 MA + 10 MB + 3 MC = - 552 (2)
Applying theorem of moments equation for span BC and CC 1
BC = l2 = 6m, CC 1 = l3 = 0m,
MB l2 + 2MC (l2 + l3) + MC l3 = -
= = 720; = 0;
6 MB + 2 MC (6+0) = - [720+0]
6 MB + 12 MC = - 720
MB + 2 MC = - 120 (3)
2 MA + MB = - 96 (1)
2 MA + 10 MB + 3 MC = - 552 (2)

MB + 2 MC = - 120 (3)
(2) 2 MA + 10 MB + 3 MC = - 552
(1) 2 MA + 0 MB = - 96
0 + 9 MB + MC = - 456
3 MB + MC = - 152 (4)
(4) × 2 6 MB + 2 MC = - 304
(3) MB + 2 MC = - 120
5MB + 0 = - 184
MB = = - 36.80kNm
Substituting in (3)
MB + 2 MC = - 120
- 36.80 + 2 MC = - 120
2 MC = - 120 + 36.80
2 MC = - 83.20
MC = = - 41.60kNm
Substituting MB in (1)
2 MA + MB = - 96
2 MA – 36.80 = -96
2 MA = - 96 + 36.80
2 MA = - 59.20
MA = = -29.60kNm
Result:
Final support moments
MA = - 29.60kNm
MB = - 36.80kNm
MC = - 41.60kNm

Three Span Continuous Beam
Problem 12:
Draw BMD for a continuous beam ABCD as shown in fig by theorem of three moments method.
Solution:
I. Free BMD
Span AB
MAB = = = 90kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = 120kNm
Span CD
MCD = = = 120kNm

Since ends A and D are simply supported
MA = 0; MD = 0
Applying theorem of three moments for span AB and BC
AB = l1 = 6m, BC = l2 = 5m,
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 + l2) + MC l2 = - (I)
For standard cases
Simply supported with UDL, = from end ‘A’
= = = 1080
l = 5m, a = 3m, b = 2m,
= from end ‘C’
= = = 840
Applying theorem of three moments:
0 + 2 MB (6+5) + MC × 5 = - [1080 + 840]
22 MB + 5 MC = - 1920 (1)

Applying theorem of three moments for span BC and CD
BC = l2 = 5m, CD = l3 = 4m,
MD = 0
MB l2 + 2MC (l2 + l3) + MD l3 = - (II)
For standard cases:
l = 5m, a = 3m, b = 2m,
= from end ‘B’.
= = = 960
Simply supported with central point load, = from end D
= = ×120 × 4 2 = 720
Substituting in equation II
5 MB + 2 MC (5+4) + 0 = - [960 + 720]
5 MB + 18 MC = - 1680 (2)
(2) × 22 110 MB + 396 MC = - 36960
(1) × 2 -110 MB + 25 MC = - 9600

0 + 371 MC = - 27360
MC = = - 73.75
MC = - 73.75kNm
Substituting value of MC in equation (3)
5 MB + 18× (-73.75) = - 1680
5 MB = - 1680 + 1327.5 = - 352.50
MB = = - 70.50
MB = - 70.50kNm
Draw SFD and BMD:

Result:
MA = 0
MB = + 70.50kNm
MC = - 73.75kNm
MD = 0
Propped Cantilever Beam
(By theorem of three moments method)
Problem 13:
A cantilever beam of span 6m is propped at 2m from free end it carries an UDL of 12kN/m over its
entire span. Determine
a. The prop. Reaction
b. Support moments and
c. Draw SFD and BMD by theorem of three moment method.
Given:
Span l = 4m; Projection = 2m; UDL, w =12kN/m
Solution:
i. Free BMD:
Span AB
Mmax = = = 24kNm;
Span BC
MB = - = = -24kNm.

Since end A is fixed assume an imaginary beam of A1A
A1A = l0 = 0m;
Applying theorem of three moments equation of span A1A
MA1 = 0m; AB = l1 = 4m
MA’ l0 + 2MB (l0 + l1) + MB l1 = - (I)
For standard cases:
= 0; = = = 192
0 + 2 MA (0+4) + MB × 4 = - [0 + 192]

MA + 4 MB = - 192
2 MA + 4(-24) = - 192
MA = = - 48kNm
iii. Prop reaction:

Let RB = prop reaction at B; RA = reaction at A
Taking moment about A
RB × 4 + MA = 12 × 6 ×
4 RB + 48 = 216
RB = = 42kNm
RA = Total load – RB = (12×6 – 42) = 30kNm
Draw SFD and BMD as shown in fig
iv. Results:
MA = - 48kNm; MB = - 24kNm
RA = 30kNm; RB = 42kNm.

HIGH LIGHTS
Statement of Clapeyron’s Theorem of three moments.

Clapeyron’s theorem states that if a beam has ‘n’ supports, the end being fixed then the same
number of equations required to determining the support moments may be obtained from the
consecutive pairs of spans i.e. AB-BC, BC-CD, CD-DE and so on. Continuous beam ABC loaded as shown
in fig.
MA l1 + 2MB (l1 +l2) + MC l2 = - +
Where,
a1 = area of free BMD for span AB
a2 = area of fixed BMD for span BC
1 = c.g. of BMD from left end (A)
2 = c.g. of BMD from right end (C)
Area of Free BMD for standard cases
SI.no Types of from left from right end

Beam BMD
end
Simply supported
1. beam with central
point load

2. Simply supported
beam with UDL of
w/m
Simply supported
beam with non-
3. central load
QUESTIONS
Two mark questions
1. State the degree of indeterminacy of a fixed beam

2. When a beam is called indeterminate?
3. Give two examples of indeterminate beams.
4. Where the (-ve) moment is maximum in a two span continuous beam having simple supports at the
ends?
5. State the application of theorem of three moment equation for continuous beams with fixed ends.
Ten mark questions
1. A continuous beam ABCD of length 12m is simply supported by three supports at A, B and C with an
equal spacing of 5m. It carries an UDL of intensity 20kN/m over the two spans. There is 30kN load on
the free end, D. Analyse the beam using Clapeyron’s Theorem and draw the SF and BM diagram.
2. A continuous beam ABC is simply supported at A and C such that AB = 6m and BC = 5m. The
span AB carries an UDL of 20kN/m and the span BC carries a point load of 50kN at its mid - span. Find
the support moments by theorem of three moments. Draw the BMD and SFD.
3. A continuous beam ABC of length 8m has two equal spans. The AB carries an UDL of 20kN/m over
its entire length and span BC carries a point load of 20kN at 3m from B. Draw the BMD and SFD. Apply
theorem of three moments method. End A & C are simply supported.
4. A continuous beam ABCD of length 9m is fixed at A and simply supported at C. The span AB of
length 6m carries a point load of magnitude 40kN at 2m from A. The span BC of length 3m carries an
UDL of intensity 20kN/m. The size of beam is uniform throughout its length. Analyse the beam using
three moments and draw the BMD and SFD diagrams.
5. Analyse the continuous beam shown in fig. By the use of Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments.
Draw the BMD.

6. Analyse the continuous beam shown in fig. by the use of Clapeyron’s Theorem of three moments.
Take EI constants. Draw the BMD.
7. Determine the support moments for the beam shown in figure by Clapeyron’s theorem of three
moments. Draw the bending moment diagram. EI is constant.
8. A continuous beam ABC of length 8m has two equal spans. The span AB carries an UDL of 20kN/m
over its entire length and the span carries a point load of 20kN at 3m from B. Draw SFD and BMD. Take
ends A & C are simply supported. Apply theorem of three moments.
9. A continuous beam ABC of span 10m is fixed at end A and simply supported at C span AB is 4m long
and carries an UDL of 30kN/m over entire span and span BC carries a point load of 60kN at 2.5m from
B. Determine the support moments by using theorem of three moments. Draw BMD.
10. A continuous Beam ABC is fixed at A and C simply supported at B each span AB and BC is 6m. The
span AB carries an UDL of 20kN/m and span BC carries a point load of 60kN at mid - span. Using
theorem of three moments find support moments. Draw SFD and BMD.
11. A continuous beam ABC of uniform section, with span AB as 6m is fixed at A and simply supported
at B and C. The beam carries an UDL of 10kN/m and span BC carries an UDL of 5kN/m. it also carries a
point load of 20kN at 2m from the end C. Find the support moments using three moment equation.
Draw SFD and BMD.

3.1 CONTINUOUS BEAMS – MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
Introduction:
The moment distribution method was first introduced by Prof. Hardy cross, an American structural
engineer in 1930. It is also popularly known as Hardy cross method and widely used for the analysis of
all indeterminate structure like continuous beams and portal frames.
Concept:
 The moment distribution method consists of successive approximations using a series of cycles,
each converging towards a precise final result.
 It is initially assumed that all the joints are fixed or clamped and then the fixed end moments
(FEM) due to external loads are calculated and those calculated moments at every joint are
checked for equilibrium after releasing the initially introduced clamps by applying equal and
opposite moment to balance a joint and evaluating its effects on opposite joints.
The process is repeated till the required accuracy is got.
Fundamental concepts:
1) Beam stiffness
2) Relative stiffness or stiffness ratio
3) Distribution factor
4) Distribution moment
5) Carryover moment
6) Carryover factor
1). Beam stiffness:
Stiffness is a measure of resistance of a structural member for deflection.

(a). Stiffness of a beam hinged at both ends:
θA θB
Stiffness of a beam hinged at both ends, k =
(b). Stiffness of a beam hinged at near end and fixed at far end (k):
θA
Stiffness of a beam hinged at near end and fixed at far end,

k=
2). Relative stiffness:

The ratio of stiffness of various members meeting at a structural joint is known as “relative
stiffness”.
Explanation:
For the continuous beam shown in fig, B is the joint where members BA & BC meet.
Stiffness of BA = (far end A is fixed)
Stiffness of BC =
Relative stiffness
Stiffness of BA: Stiffness of BC
If the beam is made of same material, then relative stiffness
= :
(Or)
Dividing by 4,
Relative stiffness
= :
3). Distribution factor:
The ratio of stiffness of a member meeting at a structural joint to the sum of the stiffness of all
members meeting at that joint is known as “distribution factor”.
For ex:
D.FBA =
4). Distribution moment:
The moment shared by a member at a joint in proportion to its stiffness or in relation to its
distribution factor (D.F) is known as “distribution moment”. It is also known as “balancing moment”.
5). Carryover moment:
The moment produced at the far end of a beam due to application of a moment at the near end is
called “carryover moment”.

i. When the far end is fixed:
The carry over moment is ½ the applied moment in the same direction.
ii. When the far end is hinged:
No carryover
There is no carry over.When the far end is hinged.
6).Carry over factor:
The ratio of carry over moment at the far end to the applied moment at the near end is known
as carry over factor.
Carry over factor =
Sign convention:
The new sign convention different from conventional sign in followed in the process of moment –
distribution method. After the analysis is over, the end moments are converted back to conventional
bending moments by merely changing the sign to the left of each span.
Based on rotational sense, Clockwise moments are +ve, anticlockwise moments are –ve as shown in
figure.
Moment distribution method procedure (Theory):
1) Assume all the supports (joints) are fixed.

2) Calculate the fixed end moments (FEM) due to external loads considering each span
as a separate fixed beam.
3) Calculate the stiffness, relative stiffness and hence the distribution factors of
members meeting at each intermediate joint.
Note:
i. D.F of a member at its fixed end is zero.

ii. D.F of a member at its hinged end is one.
iii. D.F of an overhanging member at its joint is zero.

4)Prepare a moment – distribution table in tabular form and enter D.F & F.E.M with proper signs.
5) Release each clamped support in succession. Distribute the unbalanced moment at each joint
among the connecting members according to their distribution factor with a sign opposite to the
unbalanced moment. This is called as ‘Balancing the joint’.
6) Do carry over, one half of each distributed moment with the same sign to the farther end of each
span.
Note:
i. Do carry over to farther fixed ends and intermediate supports only.

ii. Do not do carry over to farther simply supported end and farther overhanging ends.
This completes one cycle of moment distribution.
7) The carry over moments in step 6 cause new unbalanced moments. Hence perform distribution and
carry over as explained in steps 5&6 to complete the second cycle.
8) Repeat the process of distribution and carryover until the carry over moments become zero or
negligibly small.
Note:
i. The accuracy depends upon the no. of cycles.

ii. Generally 4 or 5 cycles will be sufficient as the unbalanced moments caused by carryover
decrease rapidly.
9) Stop the process with distributor at the intermediate supports when the end supports are simply
supported.
(Or)
With carry over to the fixed ends when the supports arefixed.
10) Arrive at the final moments at each joint by finding the algebraic sum of moments in each vertical
column.
11) Change the signs of final moments to the left of the support to get conventional moments.
APPLICATION OF MOMENT – DISTRIBUTION TO TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Worked examples
CONTINUOUS BEAM WITH FIXED ENDS
1) A continuous beam ABC is fixed at A & C. It is loaded as shown in fig. Calculate the support
moments and draw SFD & BMD. Assume EI as constant.
Considering each span as fixed.

Span AB:
Adopting clockwise as +ve & anticlockwise as –ve.
5m
MAB = =-
= - 41.67kNm
MBA = =+
= + 41.67kNm
Span BC:
MBC = =
= - 9kNm
MCB = =
= + 9kNm
Step 2: Distribution Factor
(1) Joint: Only one joint: B
Joint Member Stiffness Relative stiffness Ʃk Distribution factor

(k) (D.F)
= KBA : KBC =KBA + D.FBA =
B BA KBC
(far end A is fixed)
: = 6/11
=6+5
=
6:5 D.FBC =
(far end C is fixed) = 11
BC
= 5/11

(2) Supports (A & C):
A & C are end supports and they are fixed supports. No distribution is done at the fixed ends and D.F
at the fixed ends are 0.
Step 3: Moment distribution table
(support) A (joint) B (support) C
Member AB BA BC CB
Distribution factor (D.F) 0 6/11 5/11 0

Fixed end moments -41.67 +41.67 -9.00 +9.00
(FEM)
I Distribution at B 0.00 -17.82 -14.85 0.00
Carry Over (C.O) to A & C
-8.91 -7.43
Final moments (algebraic -50.58 +23.85 -23.85 +1.57

sum)
Conventional BM
(change the sign at left -50.58 -23.85 -23.85 -1.57
of B & C)
Moment distribution process (explanation):
 A moment distribution table is prepared and FEM & DF are entered.

 A & C are fixed supports. Hence there is no distribution at A & C.
 At joint B,
Unbalanced moment = +41.67 – 9.00 = +32.67
ஃ Balancing moment at B = - 32.67
I distribution to BA (acc to DFBA) = × – 32.67 = -17.82
I distribution to BC (acc to DFBC) = × -32.67 = -14.85
These values are entered in second step at table. (acc – according)

 The far ends A & C are fixed. Hence one half of distributed moments with the same sign are
carried over (C.O) to A & C.
C.O to A from B = -17.82 × ½ = - 8.91kNm
C.O to C from B = -14.85 × ½ = - 7.43kNm
These values are entered in the third step.
 Since there is no chance for further distribution or carry over, the process comes to a halt and
the process is stopped.
 To get the final moments, all the moments at each support are algebraically added.
 To get back the conventional moments, the sign of final moments to the left of each support
are changed. (Here +sign to – sign).

BMD:
Superpose the free BMD & fixed BMD.

Free BMD:
Span AB
Max free BM at D = =
= + 62.5kNm
Span BC
Max free BM at E = =
= 18kNm
Fixed BMD:
MA = - 50.58kNm
MB = - 23.85kNm
MC = - 1.57kNm
SFD:
Let VA, VB & VC be the vertical support reactions.
(i). Taking moments about B & considering left of B.
RA × 5 – MAB – (20 × 5 × 5/2) + MBA = 0
5RA - 50.58 - 250 + 23.85 =0
RA = 55.35kN
(ii). Again taking moments about B & considering right of B.
-RC × 6 + MCB + 12 × 3 – MBC = 0
-6RC + 1.57 + 36 – 23.85 =0
RC= 2.29kN
From ΣV = 0
RA + RB + RC – 20 × 5 -12 = 0
55.35 + RB + 2.29 -100 -12 = 0
RB= 54.36kN
Shear force (VX):
VA = + RA = + 55.35kN
VB(L)= + RA – 20 × 5 = + 55.35 -100

= - 44.65kN
VB(R) = + RA -20 × 5 + RB = + 55.35 – 100 +54.36
= + 9.71kN
VE(L) = VB(R) = + 9.71kN
VE(R) = VE(L) – 12 = + 9.71 - 12
= - 2.29kN
VC(L) = VE(R) = - 2.29kN
VC(R) = 0
Complete SFD.
Results:
CONTINUOUS BEAM WITH SIMPLY – SUPPORTED ENDS

2) For the continuous beam ABC shown in fig, find the support moments by moment – distribution
method. Draw BMD.

Solution:
Span AB
MAB = = = - 4kNm
MBA = = + 4 kNm
Span BC
MBC = =
= - 14.69kNm
MCB = = = + 11.02kNm
Step 2: Distribution Factor (D.F)
(1). Joint: Only one joint B

(k) (D.F)
KBA = KBA : KBC =KBA + D.FBA =
B BA KBC
=
: = 7/11
(since far end A is =7+4
simply supported)
7:4 D.FBC =
= 11
KBC =
= 4/11
BC =
(since far end C is
simply supported)

(2). End supports (A & C)
A & C are simply supported ends. The distribution factor is 1.
ஃ D.FAB = 1 ; D.FCB = 1
Step 3: Moment – distribution table
(support) A (joint) B (support) C

Member AB BA BC CB
Distribution factor(D.F) 1 7/11 4/11 1

Fixed end moments (FEM) -4.00 +4.00 -14.69 +11.02
Release simple supports A & C.
+4.00 C.O+2.00+2.00
to B -5.51 C.O-11.02
to B -11.02
Adjusted initial FEM 0.0 +6.00 -20.20 0.00

I distribution at B +9.04 +5.16
Final moments (algebraic sum) 0.00 +15.04 -15.04 0.00
Conventional moments 0.00 -15.04 -15.04 0.00
Moment distribution process (Explanation):
 A moment distribution table is prepared and FEMs & DFs are entered.
 A & C are simply supported ends. The BM at A & C should be 0. Hence A & C are released by
applying balancing moments of 4.00kNm at A and -11.02kNm at C and half their amounts are
carried over with the same sign to B and thus the FEMs are adjusted and entered in the third
row.
 Now the joint B is unbalanced
Unbalanced moment at B = +6.00 – 20.20 = -14.20kNm
ஃ Balancing moment at B= + 14.20kNm
I distribution to BA (acc to DFBA) = +14.20 × = +9.03 kNm
I distribution to BC (acc to DFBC) = +14.20 × = +5.16 kNm
 Since there is no chance for further distribution & C.O, the process is stopped.
 To get the final moments, the moments at each support are algebraically added.
 To get back the conventional moments the sign of final moments to the left of each support
are changed. (Here +sign to –sign).
BMD:
(1). Free BMD
Consider each span as simply supported.
Span AB
Mmax = = = +8kNm

Span BC
Mmax = = = +25.71kNm
Complete free BMD
(2). Fixed BMD
MA = 0
MB = -15.04kNm
MC = 0
Complete fixed BMD.
Superpose fixed BMD over free BMD to get BMD.
Complete final BMD

CONTINUOUS BEAMS WITH OVERHANGS
1) A continuous beam ABCD is fixed of A, simply supported at B, C & free at D. It is loaded as

shown in fig. EI is constant throughout. Calculate the support moments and draw SFD & BMD.
Span AB
MAB = = = - 9 kNm
MBA = = = + 3 kNm
Span BC
MBC = = = - 18.75 kNm
MCB = = + 18.75 kNm
Span CD
It behaves like a cantilever.

MCD = = = - 18 kNm
MDC = 0 (free end)
Step 2: Distribution factor (D.F)
Joint B & C.

(k) (D.F)
BA KBC
=
: = 5/8
(since far end A is =5+3
fixed)
1: 3/5 D.FBC =
B =8
KBC = 5:3
= 3/8
BC =
(since far end C is
simply supported)
CB 1 1:0 1 D.FCB =1
C
CD 0 D.FCD= 0
A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC
Distribution factors
0 5/8 3/8 1 0
Fixed end moments
(FEM) -9.00 +3.00 -18.75 +18.75 -18.00
Release C & C.O to B -0.38 -0.75
Initial/ Adjusted FEM -9.00 +3.00 -19.13
I distribution at B
+10.08 +6.05
Carry over (To A from +5.04 - - - -

B)
Final moments (Σ)
(algebraic sum) -3.96 +13.08 -13.08 +18.00 -18.00 0
Conventional -3.96 -13.08 -13.08 -18.00 -18.00 0

moments

SFD:
Left of B
Considering left of B and taking moments about B.
MA + RA × 4 -16 × 3 + MB =0
-3.96 + RA × 4 – 48 + 13.08 = 0
4RA = 38.88
RA = 9.72kN
Considering right of B
Taking moments about B
-MB + 9 × 7 × 7/2 – RC × 5 = 0
- 13.08 + 220.5 -5RC =0
RC = 41.48kN
From ΣV = 0
RA + RB + RC= 16 + 9 × 7
9.72 + RB + 41.48 = 79
RB = 27.8kN
Shear force (VX):
VA(L) = 0
VA(R) = + RA = + 9.72kN
VE(L) = VA(R) = + 9.72kN
VE(R) = VE(L) – 16 = + 9.72 – 16

= - 6.28kN
VB(L) = VE(R) = - 6.28kN
VB(R) = VE(R) + RB = - 6.28 + 27.8
= + 21.52kN
VC(L) = VB(R) – 9 × 5 = + 21.52 – 45
= -23.48kN
VC(R) = VC(L) + RC = -23.48 + 41.48
= + 17.7kN
VD =0
Complete SFD.
BMD:
Span AB – free BMD (sagging BM)
Max free BM for span AB
= =
= + 12kNm
Span BC
Max free BM for span BC
= =
= + 28.13kNm
Span CD
No free BM since it behaves like a cantilever.
Fixed BMD (hogging BM)
At support A MA = - 3.97
At support B MB = - 13.06
At support C MC = - 18.00
Complete BMD by superposing fixed BMD over free BMD.
Final BMD:

TWO – SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAMS
(EI not constant: EConstant, I Varying)
4. Find the support moments for the continuous beam loaded as shown in fig.
Solution:
Step 1: Fixed End Moments:
Span AB:
MAB =-
=-
= -5.63kNm.

MBA =+
=+
= + 1.88kNm.
Span BC:
MBC =-
=-
= -6.67kNm.
MCB =+
= +6.67kNm.
Step 2: Distribution Factors (DF):
1. Joints (Only one joint B)
Joint Member Stiffness Relative Stiffness ⅀k D.F = k/⅀k
KBA= DFBA =
(sinceA is simply =
BA
supported)
= KBA:KBC
= . 9+16
B = = 25
KBC = 4.5 : 8
DFBC =
(since C is fixed) (i.e.) 9 : 16
BC = =
= .
2. End supports:
i. A is simply supported ஃ DFAB = 1
ii. C is fixed ஃ DFCB = 0
Step 3: Moment Distribution Table:
A B C

Member AB BA BC CB
Distribution Factor 1 9/25 16/25 0
FEM -5.63 +1.88 -6.67 +6.67
Release A & C.O to B +5.63 2.82
Initial / Adjusted FEM 0.00 +4.70 -6.67 +6.67
I – distribution at B +0.70 1.27

C.O to C 0.64
Final moments ⅀ 0.00 +5.40 -5.40 +7.31
Conventional moments 0.00 -5.40 -5.40 -7.31
Moment Distribution Process :( Explanation)
 The FEM & DF are calculated and are entered in the moment distribution table.
 Since A is a simple support, it is released to make the moment zero. Half the moments is
carried over to B. thus the FEMs are initially adjusted.
 Since B is unbalanced, it is balanced and distribution is done to BA & BC according to DF.
 One half of the balanced moment is carried over to C from B.
 Since there is no chance for further distribution or C.O, the process is stopped.
 To get the final moments algebraic sum from adjusted FEM is done.
 To get back the conventional moments the sign of moment is changed at the left of each
support.
BMD
1. Free BMD
Maximum free BM for span AB =+
=+
= +7.5kNm
Maximum free BM for span BC = +
=+
= +10kNm

2. Fixed BMD
MA = 0
MB= - 5.40kNm
Mc = - 7.31kNm
3. Final BMD
TWO - SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM
(EI not constant, I Varying)
5. Find the support moments for the two-span continuous beam ABC shown in fig. Also draw BMD.
Step 1: Fixed End Moments:
Span AB:
No loading in span AB
ஃ MAB = MBA = 0
Span BC:
MBC = -
= -

= - 30kNm
MCB = +
= +
= + 30kNm
Step 2: Distribution Factors (DF):
i. Joints (only one joint B)

Joint Member Stiffness Relative Stiffness ⅀k D.F = k/⅀k
KBA= KBA : KBC

BA
= DFBA =
= . = =
4+3 DFBC =
BC
KBC = : =7 =
B
= 24 : 18
= . (i.e.) 4:3
ii. Supports:
1. A is fixed ஃ DFAB = 0.
2. C is simply supported ஃ DFCB = 1.
Step 3: Moment distribution Table:
A B C
Member AB BA BC CB
Distribution Factor 0 4/7 3/7 1
FEM 0.00 0.00 -30.00 +30.00

Release C & C.O to B -15.00 -30.00
Initial / Adjusted FEM 0.00 0.00 -45.00 0.00
I – distribution +25.72 +19.28

C.O to A +12.86
Final moments ⅀ +12.86 +25.71 -25.71 0.00
Conventional moments -12.86 -25.71 -25.71 0.00

Moment Distribution Process: (Explanation)
 A moment distribution table is prepared. The FEM & DF are entered.
 Since C is a simple – support, to make the moment zero, it is released by balancing it and half
the balanced moment is carried over to B and thus the FEM are adjusted.
 Now I distribution is done at B.
 Since ‘A’ is a fixed support, half the moment is carried over to A from B.
 Since there is no chance for further distribution & C.O, the process is stopped.
 To get final moments, add the moment algebraically from adjusted FEM.
 To get back the conventional moments, the signs in the left support moments are changed.
Step 4: BMD
1. Free BMD: (sagging)

Maximum free BM for span AB = 0 (since no loading)
Maximum free BM for span BC =+
=+
= +45kNm.
2. Fixed BMD: (hogging)

MA = - 12.86kNm.
MB= - 25.72kNm.
MC = - 0kNm.
Final BMD:
THREE SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAMS
6) A continuous beam ABCD is fixed at A & D. It is loaded as shown in fig. Calculate the support
moments by moment distribution method. Sketch BMD.

Solution:
Step 1: Fixed end moments (FEM)
Span AB
MAB = =
= - 32kNm
MBA = =
= + 32kNm
Span BC
MBC = =
= - 9kNm
MCB = = + 9kNm
Span CD
MCD = =
= - 40.83kNm
MDC = =
= + 40.83kNm

Step 2: Distribution factors (D.F)
(1). Joints B & C

(k) (D.F)
BA KBC
=
: = 3/7
B =6+8
KBC = 6: 8
BC = 14 D.FBC =
=
= 4/7
CB KCB = KCB : KCD 7+6 D.FCB = 7/13
= 13
:
C
KCD = 7:6
CD D.FCD= 6/13
=
2) End supports (C, D):

End supports C & D are fixed, ஃ no distribution is done at C & D
ஃ DFAB = 0; DFDC = 0
Step 3: Moment distribution table:

A B C D
(DF) 0 3/7 4/7 7/13 6/13 0
Fixed end moments
(FEM) -32.00 +32.00 -9.00 +9.00 -40.83 +40.83
I distribution -9.86 -13.14 +17.14 +14.69
Carry over(C.O) -4.93 +7.35
II distribution +8.57 -6.57
-3.67 -4.90 +3.54 +3.03
C.O -1.84 +1.77 -2.45 +1.52
III distribution -0.76 -1.01 +1.32 +1.13

C.O -0.38 +0.66 -0.51 +0.57
IV distribution -0.28 -0.38 +0.75 -0.24

Final moments (Σ)
(algebraic sum) -39.15 +17.43 -17.43 +22.22 -22.22 +50.27
Conventional -39.15 -17.43 -17.43 -22.22 -22.22 -50.27

moments

Moment distribution process (Explanation):
 The FEM and DF are entered in the table.

 The distribution and carry over process is continued upto IV distribution.
 Since the C.O moments after III distribution is very small, the process is stopped up to
IV distribution. (Normally four distributions will be sufficient).
BMD:
1). Free BMD
Span AB
Max free BM at E = =
= + 48kNm
Span BC
Max free BM at F = =
= + 18kNm
Span CD
Max free BM at G = =
= + 61.25kNm
2). Fixed BMD
MA = - 39.15kNm
MB = - 17.43kNm
MC = - 22.22kNm
MD = -50.27kNm
Superpose fixed BMD over free BMD to get BMD.
Results:

HIGH LIGHTS
1. a) Stiffness factor (k)
i. When far end is fixed stiffness factor =

ii. When the far end is hinged stiffness factor =
b) Relative stiffness
i. When the far end is fixed relative stiffness =

ii. When the far end is hinged relative stiffness =
c) Carry over moment
Carry over moment = carry over factor × applied moment.
2. Carry over factor
Carry over factor (COF) =
a. When the far end is fixed, COF = ½
b. When the far end is hinged, COF = 0
Distribution Moment
Distribution moment = distribution factor ×applied moment.
Distribution factor (DF)
Distribution factor =
E.g.
In figure,
DFOA = Distribution Factor for member OA

DFOA=
DFOB =
DFOC =
QUESTIONS
Two mark questions:
1) Where the (-ve) moment is maximum in a two span continuous beam having simple supports
at the ends?
2) Define stiffness factor.
3) Define distribution factor.
4) Where the hogging (-ve) moment is maximum in a two span continuous beam, having simple
supports at the ends?
5) Give examples of indeterminate beams.
6) State any two methods of analysis of indeterminate structures.
7) Define Distribution factor and Distribution moment.
8) What is Carry over factor?
Three mark questions:
1) A three span continuous beam with hinged ends carries UDL on its interior panel only. Draw
the shapes of the SF and BM diagrams with proper signs (values need not be mentioned).
2) How do you analyse a continuous beam by Hardy cross method?
3) Prove that the stiffness of a simply supported beam of uniform cross section is 3EI/l.
4) Derive and expression for the stiffness of a beam when it is simply supported at both the
ends.
5) Derive the expression for the stiffness of a beam when it is fixed at one end and freely
supported at the other end.
Ten mark questions:
1) A continuous beam of ABC, simply supported at A and C, carries an UDL of 20kN/m on AB =

6m and carries a central point load of 120kN on BC = 6m. Take EI as constant. Draw SFD and
BMD by moment distribution method.
2) A continuous beam of ABC, fixed at A& C, carries a point load of 5kN at 4m from A on the span
AB = 6m and carries an UDL of 1.5kN/m on the span BC = 4m. Take EI as constant. Draw SFD
and BMD by moment distribution method.
3) Compute the support moments by Hardy cross method for the two span continuous beam
ABC with simply supported ends. All carries an UDL of 20kN/m. BC carries a point load of 90kN
at 2m from B. IBA = I, IBC = 2I.
4) A beam ABCD, 9m long is simply supported at A, B and C, such that the span AB is 3m, span BC
is 4.5m and the overhanging CD is 1.5m. It carries an UDL of 30kN/m in span AB and a point
load of 10kN at the free end. The MI of the span AB is I and in span BC is 2I. Compute the
support moments by moment distribution method.

5) A continuous beam ABCD has three equal spans AB = BC = CD = 4m. It is simply supported at
the ends A & D. AB carries an UDL of intensity 20kN/m; BC carries a central point load of 40kN;
span CD carries an eccentric point load of 30kN at 1m from D. The flexural rigidity, EI is
constant. Analyse the beam by Moment Distribution method (3 cycles sufficient) and draw the
SF & BM diagram.
6) A continuous beam of ABC, fixed at A & C, carries an UDL of 30kN/m on AB = 6m and carries a
central point load of 180 kN on BC = 6m. Take EI as constant. Draw SFD and BMD by moment
distribution method.
7) A continuous beam of ABC, fixed at A and C, carries a point load of 5kN at 4m from A on the
span AB = 6m and carries an UDL of 1.5kN/m on the span BC = 4m. Take EI as constant. Draw
SFD and BMD by moment distribution method.
8) A two span continuous beam ABC is fixed at support A and simply supported at support C. AB
= 8m; BC = 4m. Span AB carries an UDL of 16kN/m; BC carries a central point load of 80kN. I AB
= 1.5 IBC. Analyse the beam by moment distribution method and draw BMD.
9) Analyse the continuous beam shown in fig. By moment distribution method. Find the support
moments and draw the BMD. Assume EI as constant.
10) Analyse the continuous beam shown in fig. By moment distribution method. Draw the BMD. EI is
constant.
11) Using Hardy cross method, determine the support moments and draw the BMD for the continuous
beam shown in fig.

3.2 PORTAL FRAMES MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD
Frames:
A structure built – up of several members (beam over columns) joined together by rigid at their ends
to support the external loads (vertical and horizontal) is called a frame. It is an indeterminate
structure.
Types of frames:
Frames may be classified as
1. Based on bays
(i) Single bay single storey frame (Portal frame)
(ii) Single bay multi – storey frames
(iii) Frames multi bay frame
2. Based on storey
(i) Single storey frame
(ii) Multi storey frame

a) Single bay frame:
When a frame consists of single bay it is called single bay frame. It may be of single storey or multi-
storey as shown in fig.
When a frame consists of single bay with multi-storey as shown in fig.
b) Multi bay frame:

When a frame consists of two or more bays it is called multi bay frame. It may be of multi bay multi-
storey frame as shown in fig.
Portal frame:
A frame consisting of beam resting on columns with rigid joints is known as portal frame.
Classification of portal frame:
Portal frame classified as
a) Symmetrical portal frame
b) Unsymmetrical portal frame
c) Sway type portal frame
d) Non – sway type portal frame
a) Symmetrical portal frame:
A portal frame, in which both the columns are having of the same length, geometry shape,
similar end conditions, moments of inertia, modulus of elasticity and subjected to symmetrical loading
as shown in fig. is called symmetrical portal frame.

b) Unsymmetrical portal frame:
A portal frame, in which both the columns are not having of the same length, geometry shape,
similar end conditions, moments of inertia, modulus of elasticity and subjected to unsymmetrical
loading as shown in fig. is called unsymmetrical portal frame.
c) Sway type portal frame:

In case of unsymmetrical portal frame, the frame deflects horizontally. The frame having horizontal
deflection is called sway type portal frame. In this case sway moments are considered. If the
symmetrical portal frame is loaded asymmetrically sway moments are also considered.
These may be classified into
i) Pure sway frame
ii) General sway frame

d) Non – sway type portal frames:
In case of symmetrical portal frame with symmetrical load horizontal deflection will not occur, this
frame is called non – sway type portal frame.
This type of portal frame are analysed as in the case of continuous beams.
Analysis of symmetrical (non – sway) portal frames by moment distribution method

Problems: WORKED EXAMPLE 1
A portal frame ABCD is shown in fig. AB is loaded with central point load of 40kN at 8m and BC is
loaded with an u.d.l of 30 kN/m throughout and CD is loaded with the same central point load of 40kN
at 8m. If EI is constant throughout. Calculate the bending moments in the frame and draw the BMD.

Solution:
Stretch out the frame horizontally. The frame is equivalent to a continuous beam as shown in
fig.
Step 1: Fixed end moments (FEM)

Consider each span as fixed:
Span AB
MAB = =
= - 40kNm
MBA = =
= + 40kNm
Span BC
MBC = =
= - 90kNm
MCB = =
= + 90kNm
Span CD

MCD = =
= - 40kNm
MDC = =
= + 40kNm
Step 2: Distribution factors (DF)

(1) joints (B, C)
(k) (D.F)
BA KBC
=
: = 3/7
B =6+8
KBC = 6: 8
BC = 14 D.FBC =
=
= 4/7
KCB = KCB : KCD 8+6 D.FCB = 8/14

CB
= 14 = 4/7
:
C
KCD = 8:6
D.FCD= 6/14
CD =
= 3/7
(2)End supports (A & D)

End supports A & D are fixed. No distribution is done at A & D.
ஃ DFAB = 0
DFDC = 0

A B C D
Distribution
factors(D.F) 0 3/7 4/7 4/7 3/7 0
(FEM) -40.00 +40.00 -90.00 +90.00 -40.00 +40.00
I distribution +21.43 +28.57 - 28.57 -21.43

Carry over (C.O) +10.72 -14.29 +14.29 -10.72
II distribution
+6.12 +8.17 -8.17 -6.12
C.O +3.06 -4.09 +4.09 -3.06
III distribution +1.75 +2.34 -2.34 -1.75

C.O +0.88 -1.17 +1.17 -0.88
IV distribution +0.50 +0.67 -0.67 -0.50

Sum Σ -25.34 +69.80 -69.80 +69.80 -69.80 +25.34
Conventional -25.34 -69.80 -69.80 -69.80 -69.80 -25.34
moments
 The frame is stretched out and equivalent continuous beam is drawn.
 The FEM & DF are calculated and entered in the moment distribution table.
 The distribution & C.O process is continued up to IV distribution.
 Since the C.O moments after III distribution is very small, the process is stopped at IV
distribution.
 The final moments are arrived by algebraic sum of the in each column.
 To get back the conventional moments, by changing the sign of moments at the left end of
each span.
BMD:
Free BMD (Sagging):
Max free BM for span AB = =
= + 80kNm
Max free BM for span BC = =
= + 135kNm
Max free BM for span CD = =
= + 80kNm

Fixed BMD (Hogging):
MA = -25.34kNm.
MB = -69.80kNm.
MC = -69.80kNm.
MD = -25.34kNm.
Final BMD:
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
1) Analyse the portal frame shown in fig. by moment distribution method and draw BMD.
EI not constant: I varying.
The frame is stretched & equivalent continuous beam is drawn.

Step 1: FEM
Span AB

MAB = =
= - 10kNm
MBA = =
= + 10kNm
Span BC
MBC = =
= - 30kNm
MCB = =
= + 30kNm
Span CD (symmetrical)
MCD = -10kNm
MDC = + 10kNm
Step 2: Distribution factors:

1) Joints (B, C)
Joint Member Stiffness Relative stiffness Sum Distribution

(k) Ʃk factor(D.F)

BA KBC
=
: = 3/7
B (A is hinged) =3+4
LCM is 12 units
9: 12 D.FBC =
KBC = =7
i.e. 3:4
BC = = 4/7
=
(c is fixed)

KCB = KCB : KCD 4+3 D.FCB = 4/7
CB
= =7
:
C =
(B is fixed) 12:9
4:3
KCD =
CD = D.FCD= 3/7
(D is hinged)
(2)End supports (A, D)
A & D are hinged. ஃ DFAB = 1 DFDC = 1
Step 3: Moment distribution table:

A B C D
1 3/7 4/7 4/7 3/7 1
FEM -10.00 +10.00 -30.00 +30.00 -10.00 +10.00
Release A & D & C.O +10.00 +5.00 -5.00 -10.00

to B, C
Initial/ Adjusted FEM 0.00 +15.00 -30.00 +30.00 -15.00 0.00
I distribution
+6.43 +8.57 -8.57 -6.43
C.O (from B to C & C -4.29 +4.29
to B)
II distribution +1.84 +2.45 -2.45 -1.84
C.O -1.23 +1.23
III distribution +0.53 +0.70 -0.70 -0.53

C.O -0.35 +0.35
IV distribution +0.15 +0.20 -0.20 -0.15

Final moments(Σ)
0.00 +23.95 -23.95 +23.95 -23.95 0.00
Conventional moment 0.00 -23.95 -23.95 -23.95 -23.95 0.00

 The given frame is stretched and an equivalent continuous beam is drawn.
 The FEM & DF are calculated and entered in the moment distribution table.

 Since A & D are hinged , A & D are released (balanced) to make the moments zero, and half
the moment is C.O to B from A and IIly from D to C. Thus the FEM’s are initially adjusted.
Algebraic sum at the end (Σ) should start from here only.
 Distribution and C.O process are done at B & C up to IV distribution.
 Since the C.O moments are gradually small, the process is stopped at IV distribution.
 For final moment, algebraic sum of moments from adjusted FEM are done.
 To get back the conventional moments the signs are changed at the left of each support.
BMD:
Free BMD (Sagging):
Max free BM for span AB = =
= +20kNm
Max free BM for span BC = =
= + 45kNm
Max free BM for span CD = =
= +20kNm
Fixed BMD (Hogging):

MA = 0 (hinged).
MB = - 23.95kNm.
MC = - 23.95kNm.
MD = 0 (hinged).
Final BMD:
HIGH LIGHTS
1. Portal Frame:
A Frame consisting of beam resting on columns with rigid joints are known as portal frame.

2. Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical portal frames:
SI.no Symmetrical Portal Frame Unsymmetrical Portal Frame
1. Both the columns are same length. Columns are in different length.
2. Modulus of elasticity is same. Modulus of elasticity may be different.

3. Moment of inertia is same for both the Moment of inertia may be different.
columns.
4. Both the end conditions are same. End conditions are different.
5. Loading is symmetrical. Loading is unsymmetrical.

3. Sway type Portal Frame:
In case of unsymmetrical portal frame, the frame deflects horizontally. The frame having horizontal
deflection is called sway type portal frame. In this case sway moments are considered. If the
symmetrical portal frame is loaded asymmetrically sway moments are also considered.
These may be classified into
i) Pure sway frame
ii) General sway frame
4. Non – sway type portal frame:
In case of symmetrical portal frame with symmetrical load horizontal deflection will not occur, this
frame is called non – sway type portal frame.
QUESTIONS
Ten mark Questions
1. Analyse the portal frame shown in figure by moment distribution method and draw the BMD.
2. Analyse the portal frame shown in figure and draw the bending moment diagram by moment
distribution method.

4. COLUMNS AND STRUTS
4.1 COLUMNS AND STRUTS

columns and struts – Definition – Short and Long columns – End conditions – Equivalent length /
Effective length - Slenderness ratio – Axially loaded short column – Axially loaded long column –
Euler’s Theory of long columns – Derivation of expression for critical load of columns with
hinged ends-Expressions for other standard cases of end conditions (separate derivations not
required)-Problems- Derivation of Rankine’s formula for crippling load of columns-Factor of
safety-safe load on columns-simple problems
Chapter 4
4.1. STRUTS AND COLUMN
Any member of structure subjected to axial compressive force is known as strut. A strut inclined
at 90o to the horizontal (i.e. a vertical strut) is known as column, pillar or stanchion.
4.1.1.DEFINITIONS
(a) Column: A long vertical slender member or bar subjected to an axial compressive
force is known as column.
(b) Strut: A slender member in any position other than vertical subjected to axial
compressive force is known as strut.
(c) Slenderness ratio: It is the ratio of length of column to the least radius of gyration.
Slenderness ratio has no unit.
Slenderness ratio =Length of column/Least radius of gyration=L/K
It represents the extent to which the column is long and slender .As the slenderness ratio of
a column increases its compressive strength decreases. A slenderness ratio of 200 is
extremely large for a column.
(a) Buckling load: The maximum axial compressive load at which the column starts
buckling is known as buckling load or crippling load or critical load. Buckling always
takes place about the axis having least moment of inertia. The value of buckling
load is less than the crushing load.
(b) Safe load: It is the load which a column can withstand safely without any
buckling/failure. It is the ratio of buckling load and factor of safety.
Safe load=Buckling load/Factor of safety
(c) Buckling factor: Buckling factor is the ratio of equivalent length to the least radius
of gyration.
4.1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS
Depending upon the length to diameter ratio or slenderness ratio, a column can be
calssified as:
(a) Short column: If the lenth of a column is less than 8 times its least lateral
dimension then the column is said to be a short column.If the slenderness ratio
of a column is less than 32, then the column is also called a shortcolumn.In short
column, buckling is negligible and the column fails due to direct crushing only.

(b) Medium size column: A column is said to be medium size column if its length
varying from 8 times to 30 times of its least lateral dimension. If the slenderness
ratio of a column lies between 32 to 120, then the column is also said to be
medium size or intermediate column. In these column, both buckling as well as
direct stresses are of significant value. In the design of medium size column, both
the stresses are taken into account.
(c) Long column: A column is said to be long column if its length is more than 30
times the least lateral dimension or the slenderness ratio of the column is more
than 120. In this type of column, direct compressive stress is very small as
compared to buckling stress, i.e., the failure is only due to buckling stress. Hence,
long columns are designed to withstand buckling stresses.
4.1.3. FAILURE OF COLUMN
The failure of a column takes place due to any of the following stresses:
i. Direct compressive stress
ii. Buckling stress
iii. Combination of direct and buckling stresses
(A)Failure of short column
Consider a short column of cross-sectional area ‘A’ subjected axial compressive load p,
then
Compressive stress =
If the compressive load is gradually increased, a stage will be reached at which the column
will be at a point of failure by crushing. The stress inducted in the column corresponding to
this load is called crushing stress and the load is known as crushing load (p c).
Crushing stress = =
(B) Failure of a long column:

Figure 4.1 shows a long column of cross-sectional area ‘A’ subjected to an axial compressive
load p.In case of long column, the failure is due to crushing as well as buckling (bending).
The load at which the column just buckles is known as buckling load. The buckling load is
less than the crushing load.
Let, p = Axial compressive load
l = length of the column
A = Cross-sectional area
e = Maximum bending at the centre of the column
z = Section modulus in the axis of bending
Direct stress, d=
Bending stress, b =
Stresses at the mid-section of the column are:
Maximum stress,max = 𝞼b +𝞼d

Maximum stress, 𝞼min = 𝞼b – 𝞼d
If the maximum stress is more than crushing stress, the column will fail. In long columns,
direct compressive stress is negligible as compared to buckling stress. Hence, very long
columns are subjected to buckling stresses only.
4.1.4. END CONDITIONS OF COLUMN
The following end conditions of columns are important:
(a) Both the ends hinged [Fig. 4.2(i)]
(b) Both the ends fixed [Fig. 4.2(ii)]
(c) One end fixed and other end hinged [Fig.4.2(iii)]
(d) One end fixed and other free [Fig.4.2(iv)]
Fig.4.2
4.1.5 EQUIVALENT LENGTH OR EFFECTIVE LENGTH
Equivalent length is the length of the long column which is actually involved in bending.
Equivalent length of a column is also defined as the distance between adjacent point of
inflexion*.The equivalent length of a column is obtained by multiplying it with some
constant factor ‘C’. The constant factor ‘C’ depends on end conditions of the column. If is
the actual length of a column, then its equivalent length, L = c x
Hence, in case of column with:
(a) Both ends fixed, equivalent length, L =
(b) Both ends hinged, L =
(c) One end fixed and other end free, L =
√
(d) One end fixed and other hinged, L =
√

Fig.4.3
Table 4.1. Equivalent Length
S.NO. End conditions of Relation between Value of Crippling load in terms
column effective length (L) factor ‘C’ of
and actual length ( Actual Effective
length length
1. Both ends fixed L P= P=
2. Both ends hinged L= 1 P= P=
3. One end fixed and L = 2 2 P= P=

other end free
4. One end fixed and L = P= P=
√
other hinged √
4.2.0. SLENDERNESS RATIO
We have already discussed in art 22.11 that the euler’s formula for the crippling load
PE =
We know that the buckling of a column under the crippling load will take place about the
axis of least resistance. Now substituting I = Ak2 (where A is the area and K is the least radius
of gyration of the section) in the above equation,
pE = =
( )

where is known as slenderness ratio. Thus slenderness ratio is defined as ratio of
equivalent (or unsupported ) length of column to the least radius of gyration of the section.
slenderness ratio does not have any units.
Note : It may be noted that the formula for crippling load, in the previous articles, have
been derived on the assumption the slenderness ratio is so large, that the failure of the
column occurs only due to bending, the effect of direct stress (i.e., ) being negligible.
4.2.1.AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMN
If the line of action of load coincides with the axis of the column, the column is called an
axially loaded column. The load passes through the Centroid of the column section. They
are also known as centrally loaded columns or concentrically loaded columns.
Consider a short column subjected to axial compression P.
Compressive stress, ςc = Load/Area = P/A
If the compression is increased, the column fails by crushing. The load corresponding to this
crushing is called crushing load. All short columns fail by crushing.
Crushing load, Pc = ςc * A
Where ςc= Ultimate crushing stress in N/mm2
A = Area of cross section of the column in mm2
4.2.2. AXIALLY LOADES LONG COLUMN
Consider a long slender column, perfectly straight, subject to axial compression (P) as
shown in fig 4.1.1. For small values of P, the column remains straight. When the axial load P
is gradually increased the column starts deflecting laterally (Buckle). The column will be
under stable equilibrium upto a particular stage and lateral deflection disappear on the
removal of load (P). Further increase in load beyond this stage affect the stability of the
column and lead to failure by lateral buckling.
The axial load just sufficient to keep the column in stable equilibrium with slight deflected
shape is called BUCKLING LOAD or CRIPPLING LOAD or CRITICAL LOAD. The lateral
deflection of the column is known as BUCKLING or (lateral bending)
At buckling load the stress in the column material will be well with in the proportional limit.
Depending upon the flexural rigidity (EI), the column will buckle about a plane of least
moment of inertia of the section in a direction perpendicular to the axis. Hence stability is
more important than strength in the design of columns.
4.2.3. COMPARISONS BETWEEN AXIALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMN AND LONG COLUMN
S.No. Axially loaded short column Axially loaded long column
1 Short column has slenderness ratio Long column has slenderness ratio greater
less than 12 than 12
2 Failure is due to crushing Failure is due to buckling
3 The cross section of short column The cross section of long column is less
is more compared to short column

4.2.4. FORMULAE FOR FINDING BUCKLING LOAD IN COLUMNS
The following formulae are used to find out buckling load in columns:
(a) Euler’s formula
(b) Rankine Gordon formula
(c) Johnson’s parabolic formula
(d) IS formula
(e) Straight line formula.
4.2.5. ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE EULER’S THERY
Euler’s formula for crippling load is based on the following assumptions:
(e) The section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
(f) The column is initially perfectly straight and axially loaded.
(g) The column material is homogeneous and isotropic.
(h) The column material is perfectly elastic and obeys Hooke’s law.
(i) The length of the column is very large as compared to the lateral dimensions.
(j) The self-weight of the column is neglected.
(k) The direct stress is very small as compared to bending stress.
(l) The column will fail by buckling alone.
Sign Convention for Bending Moment: A bending moment is taken as positive if it bends
the column with its convexity towards the actual centre line as shown in figure 4.3(i).
A bending moment is taken as negative if it bends the column with its concavity towards
the actual centre line, as shown in Fig. 4.3(ii).
Fig.4.4
4.2.6. COLUMN WITH BOTH ENDS HINGED OR PINNED
Consider a column AB of length ‘l’ hinged at both its ends A and B ana carries an axial
crippling load i.e., load at which the column just buckles, as shown in fig. 4.4.
Consider a section X-X at a distance x from B.
Let the deflection at XX be y.
Bending moment at XX due to p,
M = -Py
[BM is –ve as per the sirn convention]
We know,

EI M = -py
EI = -py
= y
Where
+ =0
Solution of this differential equation is given by
y = A cosKx+B sin Kx Fig.4.5
where
A and B are constants
or
y=A (√ ) ( √ )
At B,
y = 0, x = 0
A=0
At A,
y =0, x = l
0 = B sin l √
Or
sin ( √ )
√ = 0, π, 2π, 3π…
Considering the least significant value, we get
Or

Squaring both sides we get,
P= .
4.2.7. LIMITATION OF EULER’S FORMULA

we have discussed in Art. 32.12 that the Euler’s formula for the crippling load,
pE =
( )
Euler’s crippling stress,
= =
( )
A little consideration will show that the crippling stress will be high, when the slenderness
ratio is small. We know that the crippling stress for a column cannot be more than the
crushing stress of the column material. It is thus obvious that the Euler’s formula will give
the value of crippling stress of the column (equal to the crushing stress of the column
material) corresponding to the slenderness ratio. Now consider a mild steel column. We
know that the crushing stress for the mild steel is 320 MPa or 320 N/m 2 and young’s
modulus for the mild steel is 200 GPa or 200x103 N/mm2.
Now equating the crippling stress to the crushing stress,
( )
320 = =
( ) ( )
( )
( ) =
= 78.5 say 80
Thus if the slenderness ratio is less than 80 the Euler’s formula for a mild steel column is not
valid.
Sometimes, the column , whose slenderness ratio is more than 80 are known as long
columns and those whose slenderness ratio is less than 80 are known as short column. It is
thus obvious that the Euler’s formula holds good only for long columns.
Note: In the Euler’s formula for crippling load , we have not taken into account the direct
stresses induced in the material due to the load , (which increases gradually from zero to its
crippling load). As a matter of fact, the combined stress, due to direct load and slight
bending reaches its allowable value at a load, lower than that require for bulking; and
therefore this will be the limiting value of the safe load.

EXAMPLE 4.1. A mild steel tube 4 m long, 30 mm internal diameter and 4 mm thick is
used as a strut. Determine the safe compressive loads when this strut is used with the
following end conditions :
(i) Both ends are hinged
(ii) Both ends are fixed
Take the factor of safety = 3 and E = 2 x 105 N/mm.
Solution:
Given:
Actual length, = 4 m = 4000 mm
Internal diameter, di = 30 mm
Thickness, t = 4 mm
Outer diameter, d0 = Internal diameter + 2t
= 30 + 2 x 4 = 38 mm
Moment of inertia,
I= ( - )
= (384 – 304)
= (2085136 – 810000)
= 62593.09 mm4
Let the crippling load be P.
(i) When both ends are hinged
Effective length,
L = = 4000 m
Crippling load,
P=
= = 7722.11 N
Safe load = =
= 2574.04 N Ans.
(ii) When both ends are fixed
Effective length,
L= = = 2000 mm
Crippling load,
P= ,
P= =
= 30875 N

Safe load = =
=10291.67 N Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.2. Find the maximum length of a solid mild steel rod having diameter 40 mm
used as a column with both ends fixed to carry a load of 20 KN. Allow factor of safety = 3.
Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2.
Solution:
Given :
Diameter, d = 40 mm
Safe load = 20 KN
FOS =3
E = 2 X105 N/mm
Moment of inertia,
I= =
= 125663.71 mm4
Crippling load,
P = Safe load x FOS
= 20 X 3 = 60 KN = 60000 N
Let the effective length be L and actual length be
P=
60000 =
=
= 4134170.35
L =√ = 2033.27 mm
For a column with both end fixed
L = or Actual length = 2L
= 2 X 2033.26 = 4066.54 mm
= 4.1 m Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.3. A solid round bar 4 m long and 50 mm in diameter was found to extend 4.6
mm under a tensile load of 50 KN. This bar is used as a strut with both ends hinged.
Determine the buckling load for the bar and also the safe load taking factor of safety as 4.
Solution.
Given:
Actual length of bar, m = 4000 mm

Change in length, d = 4.6 mm
Tensile load, P = 50 KN = 50000 N
FOS = 4
Diameter of bar, d = 50 mm
Area of cross-section of bar,

A = X (50)2 = 1963.5 mm2
Stress = = = 25.46 N/mm2
Strain = = = 0.00115
Modulus of elasticity,
E= = = 2.2 x 104 N/mm2
Moment of inertia,
I= =
= 306796.16 mm4
Effective length,
L = = 4000 mm
Let Pc be the buckling load
We know,
Pc =
= 4162.5 N Ans.
= 1040.63 N Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.4. Find the safe load for an elastic column made of a solid steel rod of dia 20
mm and length 1.5 mm. It is fixed at both ends. The factor of safety is 2.5 and modulus of
elasticity for the rod is 210 GPa.
Solution.
Given:
Diameter, d = 20 mm
Length, = 1.5 mm = 1500 mm
FOS = 2.5
E = 210 GPa = 210 x 109 Pa = 210 x 109 N/m2
= = 210 X 103 N/mm2

Moment of inertia,

I= = = 7853.98 mm4
Column is fixed at both the ends
Effective length,
L= = = 750 mm
Let P be the crippling load,
We know by Euler’s formula
Crippling load
P= = = 28939.19 N
Safe load = =
= 11575.68 N Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.5. A column of timber saction 150 mm x 200 mm is 6 m long both ena being
fixed. Find the safe load for the column. Use Euler’s formula and allow a factor of safety of
3. Take E = 17500 N/ mm2.
Solution:
Given:
Width, b = 150 mm
Depth, d = 200 m
Length, = 6 m = 6000 mm
FOS =3
E = 17500 N/mm2
Fig.4.6
Least Moment of inertia,
I= =
= 5.625 X 107 mm4
Effective length of column when both ends are fixed,
L= = = 3000 mm
Let P be the crippling load.
By Euler’s formula
Crippling load,
P= =
= 1079488 N
Safe load = = = 359829.33 N
= 360 KN Ans.

EXAMPLE. 4.6. Compare the ratio of the strength of a solid steel column to that of a
hollow of the same cross-sectional area. The internal diameter of the hollow column is ¾
of the external diameter. Both the columns have the same length and are pinned at the
ends.
Solution.
Hollow circular column:
Let D and d be the external and internal diameter of hollow column respectively.
d= D
Moment of inertia,
Ih= (D4 – d4)
= { ( ) }= x D4( )
=
Cross sectional area,
Ah = (D2 – d2) = { ( ) }
= x D2( ) = x D2 x
=
Crippling load,
Ph = =
Solid Column:
Let d1 be the diameter of the solid column
Cross-sectional area,
A s = d 12
According to question As= Ah
d 12 =
d 12 = x =
√
d1 =
Moment of inertia,
√
Is = d14 = x( ) = x
Crippling load,
Ps = = =

Dividing (i) and (ii), we get
= x = = 4.48
EXAMPLE 4.7. A steel rod 5m long and of 40 mm diameter is used as a column, with on
end fixed and the other free. Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula. Take E as
200 GPa
Solution.
Given:
Length(l) = 5m = 5 x 103 mm;
Diameter of column (d) = 40 mm
modulus of elasticity (E0 = 200 GPa = 200 x 103 N/mm2.
We know that moment of inertia of the column section,

I= x (d)4= x (40)4 = 40,000 mm4
Since the column is fixed at one end and free at the other, therefore equivalent length of
the column,
Le= 2 l = 2 x (5 x 103) = 10 x 103 mm
Euler’s crippling load,
( )
PE = = = 2480 N
= 2.48 kN Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.8. A hollow alloy tube 4m long with external and internal diameter of 40mm
and 25mm respectively was found to extend 4.8mm under a tensile load of 60KN. Find the
bulking load for the tube with both ends pinned. Also find the safe load on the cube,
taking a factor of safety as 5
Solution:
Given :
length l = 4m,
External diameter of column (D) = 40mm ;
Internal diameter of column (d) = 25mm;
Deflection ( ) = 4.8mm;
Tensile load = 60KN
Factor of safety =5
Buckling load for the tube,
We know that area of the tube,
A = X (D2– d2) = ((40)2– (25)2) = 765.8 mm2
And moment of inertia of the tube,
I= X (D4– d4) = X ((40)4– (25)4) = 106488.95mm4

We also know that the strain in the alloy tube,
e= = = 0.0012
and modulus of elasticity for the alloy,
E= = = 65291.20 N/mm2
since the column is pinned at its both ends, therefore equivalent length of the column,
= l = 4 103
Euler’s bukling load,
PE = = = 4288.83 N
= 4.29 KN Ans.
Safe load for the tube
We also know that safe load for the tube
= = = 0.858 KN Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.9. Compare the ratio of the strength of a solid steel column to that of a hollow
of the same cross-sectional area. The internal diameter of the hollow column is¾ of the
external diameter. Both the columns have the same length and are pinned at both ends.
Solution.
Area of solid steel column = (where = Area of hollow column );
internal diameter of hollow column (d) = 3 D/4 ( where D = External diameter )
length of solid column ( ) = = (where = Length of hollow column).
Let = Diameter of the solid column,

= Radius of gyration for hollow column and
= Radius of gyration for solid column.
Since both the columns are pinned at there both ends, therefore equivalent length of the
solid column,
= = = =L
We know that Euler’s crippling load for the solid column,
Ps = = D1
Dividing equation (ii) by (i),

( )
= ( )2 = = =
Since the cross-sectional areas of the both the columns is equal, therefore

xD = = [ ( ) ]= x
Now substituting the value of in equation (iii),
= = Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.10.An I section joist 400mm x 200mm x 20mm and 6m long is used as a strut
with both ends fixed. What is Euler’s crippling load for the column? Take young’s modulus
for the joist as 200 GPa.
Solution.
Given :
Outer depth (D) = 400 mm;
Outer width (B) = 200 mm;
Length (l) = 6m = 6x mm
modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 x 103N/mm2.
From the geometry of the figure, we find that inner depth,
d = 400 – (2 x 20) = 360 mm
And inner width,
b = 200 – 20 = 180 mm
We know that moment of inertia of the joist section about X-X axis,
Ixx = [ ]
= [ ]mm4
= 366.8 x 106 mm4

Similarly,
Iyy = * ++ mm4
= 2.91 x 106 mm4

Since Iyy is less than Ixx, therefore the joist will tent to buckle in Y-Y direction. Thus, we shall
take the value of Iyy = 2.91 x 106 mm4. Moreover, as the column is fixed at its both ends,
therefore equivalent length of the column.
Le = = = 3 x 103 mm
Euler’s crippling load for the column,
PE = = = 638.2 x 103 N
= 638.2 KN Ans.

EXAMPLE 4.11. A T-section 150 mm x 120 mm x 20 mm is used as a strut of 4 m long with
hinged at its both ends. Calculate the crippling load, If Young’s modulus for the material
be 200 GPa.
Solution.
Given:
Size of T-section = 150 mm x 120 mm x 20 mm;
Length (l) = 4 m = 4 x 103 mm
Young’s modulus (E) = 200 GPa
= 200 x 103 N/mm.
First of all, let us find the centre of the T-section; Let bottom of the web be the axis of
reference.
Web
a1 = 100 x 20 = 2000 mm2
y1 = = 50 mm
Flange
a2 = 150 x 20 = 3000 mm2
y2 = 100 + ( ) = 110 mm
We know that distance between the centre of gravity of the T-
section and bottom of the web
̅ = = =86 mm
We also know that moment of inertia of the T-section about X-X axis, Fig.4.8
Ixx = ( ) ( ) mm4
= (4.26 x 106) + (1.83 x 106) = 6.09 x 106 mm4
Similarly,
Iyy= = 5.692 x 106 mm4

Since Iyy is less than Ixx, therefore the column will tend to buckle in Y-Y direction. Thus, we
shall take the value of I as Iyy = 5.69 x 106 mm4. Moreover, as the column is hinged at its
both ends, therefore length of the column,
Le = l = 4 x 103 mm
Euler’s crippling load,
( ) ( )
PE = = = 702 x 103 N
= 702 kN Ans.

4.2.8. RANKINE’S FORMULA
Euler’s formula gives correct result only for very long column which fails by buckling. Short
column fails by crushing. In practice we come across struts and columns which are neither
too short nor long. The failure of the column will be due to the combined effect of crushing
and buckling. Rankine devised an empirical formula based on experiments for the collapse
load which is applicable for both short and long columns.
Let P = Crippling load by Rankine’s formula

Pc = Crushing load or compressive load
Pe= Crippling load by Euler’s formula.
Then the Rankine’s formula is given by
= +
Where Pc = xA
= Compressive stress (yield stress)
And
Pe =
A = cross-sectional area of column
We have,
= +
=
Dividing numerator and denominator of RHS by Pe
P= = and =
= =
( )
=
( )
where =Slenderness ratio
Rankine’s constant =
4.2.9. Applicability
(i) In case of short column,Pewill be large as L is small.As Peis large, will be small enough
compared to . Hence may be neglected and equation (i) becomes

=
Or
P = Pc
Hence, crippling load by Rankine’s formulae, for a short column is approximately equal to
crushing load.
(ii) In case of long column,Pe will be small as L is large. As Peis small, will be large enough
as compared to . Hence may be neglected and equation (i) becomes
P=
Hence, crippling load by Rankine’s formula for a long column is approximately equal to
crippling load by Eiler’s formula.
So Rankine’s formula give satisfactory result for both long and short columns.
Table 4.2.Rankine’s constants (
S.No Material =
2
1. Mild steel 320
2. Cast iron 550
3. Wrought 250
iron
Timber
4. 50
Table 8.3 Rankine’s Critical stress for Mild Steel columns
For = 320 N/mm2 and =
S.No Slenderness Rankine’s critical N/mm2

1. 10 316
2. 20 304
3. 30 286
4. 40 264
5. 50 240
6. 60 216
7. 70 193
8. 80 173
9. 90 153
10. 100 137
11. 110 122

12. 120 110
13. 130 98
14. 140 89
15. 150 80
16. 160 72
17. 170 66
18. 180 60
19. 190 55
20. 200 50
21. 210 47
22. 220 43
23. 230 40
24. 240 37
25. 250 34
4.3.0. FACTOR OF SAFETY
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio between crippling load and safe load.
The values of factor of safety in engineering design varies from 3 and 12.
4.3.1.SAFE LOAD
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio between crippling load and safe load.
EXAMPLE .4.12. An ISMB 250 Rolled steel joist is to be used as a column 4.0 m long with
both ends fixed. Find the safe load on the column allowing a factor of safety of 3. Take
= 320 N/mm2 and = .
Properties of column section are:
A = 4755 mm2
=
5.1316 x 107 mm4
=
3.345 x 106 mm4
Solution:
Given :
Actual length of column,
= 4.0 m = 4000 mm
FOS = 3S
= 320 N/mm2
=
A =4755 mm2
Least moment of inertia,

I= 3.345 X 106 mm4
Effective length of column,
L= = = 2000 mm
I = AK2
K=√ =√ = 26.52
Rankine’s crippling load is given by
P= =
( ) ( )
= = 864545.45 N
Safe load = =
= 288181.82 N Ans.
EXAMPLE.4.13. A hollow cast iron column of external diameter 250 mm and internal
diameter 200 mm is 8 m long with one end fixed and the other end hinged. Find the safe
load with a factor of safety of 5. Take 𝞼c = 550 N/mm2 and α = .
Solution.
Given :
Actual length of column,
= 8 m = 8000 mm
Outer diameter, D = 250 mm
Inner diameter, d = 200 mm
FOS =5
Compressive stress,
𝞼c = 550 N/mm2
Rankine’s constant,
α= .
When one end fixed and other end hinged
Effective length of column,
L= = = 5656.85 mm
√ √
Least moment of inertia,

I= (D4 – d4) = (2504 – 2004)
= x 2.306 x 109 = 1.132 x 108 mm4

A= (D2 – d2) = (2502 – 2002)
= x 22500 = 17671.46 mm2

I = AK2

K = √ =√ =√ = 80.04
Rankine’s crippling load is given by

P =
( ) ( )
= = 2359054.1 N
Safe load = =
= 471810.83 N
= 471.81 KN Ans.
EXAMPLE.4.14. Find the Euler’s crippling load for a hollow cylindrical steel column of
38mm external diameter and 2.5mm thick. Take length of the column as 2.3m and hinged
at its both ends. Take E=205 GPa. Also determine crippling load by Rankine’s formula
using constants as 335MPa and
Solution.
Given:
External diameter D = 38mm
Thickness, = 2.5 mm
Internal diameter d = 33 mm (38-2x2.5)
Length of the column = 2.3m
Yield stress = 335 MPa =335 N/mm2
Rankine’s Constant (a) =
Euler’s Crippling load
I=
I=
= 14.05x103 mm4
Le
= = 2.3 x 103mm
Euler’s Crippling load,
PE =
( ) ( )
PE = = 16880 N =16.88 kN
Rankine’s Crippling load
A=

A=
= 88.75 mm2
k=
√
k=
√
= 12.6mm
PR =
( )
PR =
( )
= 17169 N = 17.17 kN
EXAMPLE 4.15. Figure 4.9 shows a built-up column consisting of 150 mm x 100 mm R.S.J.
with 120 mm x12 mm plate riveted to each flange.
Fig.4.9
Calculate the safe load, the column can carry, if it is 4 m long having one end fixed and the
other hinged with a factor of safety 3.5. Take the properties of the joist as Area = 2167
mm2, Ixx = 8.391 x 106 mm4, Iyy= 0.948 x 106mm4 . Assume the yield stress as 315 MPa
and Rankine’s constant (a) = .
Solution.
Given :
Length of the column ( ) = 4 m = 4 x 103 mm ;
Factor of safety = 3.5 ;
Yield stress( = 315 MPa = 315 N/mm2 ;
Area of joist = 2167 mm2 ;
Moment of inertia,
about X-X axis (Ixx) = 8.391 x 106 ;
about Y-Y axis Iyy = 0.948 x 106 mm4

Rankine’s constant (a) = .
From the geometry of the figure, we find that theare of the column section,
A = 2167 + (2 x120 x 12) = 5047 mm2
And moment of inertia of the column section about X-X axis,
Ixx=( 8.391 x 106) + 2* +mm4
= ( 8.391 x 106) + ( 18.93 x 106) = 27.32 x 106 mm4

Similarly,
Iyy= (0.948 x 106) + 2* + mm4
= (0.948 x 106) +(3,456 x 106) = 4.404 x106 mm4
Since Iyyis less than Ixx, therefore the column will tend to buckle inY-Y direction.Thus we shall
take I equal to Iyy = 4.404 x 106 mm4 (i.e., least of two). Moreover as the column is fixed at
one end and hinged at the other, therefore equivalent length of the column.
Le = = = 2.83 X 103 mm
√ √
We know that least radius of gyration,
K = √ =√ = 29.4 mm
Rankine’s crippling load on the column

PR = =
( ) ( )
= 716 x 103 N = 716 kN

And safe load on the column
= = = 204 kN Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.16.A column is made up of two channels. ISJC 200 and two 250mm x 10 mm
flange plates as show in Fig. 4.10.
Fig.4.10

Determine by Rankine’s formula the safe load, the column of 6 mm length, with both ends
fixed, can carry with a factor of safety 4. The properties of one channel are Area = 1777
mm2 ,Ixx = 11.612 x 106 mm4 and Iyy = 0.842 x 106 mm4 . Distance of centroid from back
to web = 22.7 mm. Take = 320 MPa and Rankine’s constant =
Solution.
Given :
Length of the column ( =6m=6x mm ;
Factor of safety =4;
Area of channel = 1777 mm2 ;
Moment of inertia, about X-X axis (Ixx) = 11.612 x 106 mm4 ;
Moment of inertia, about Y-Y axis Iyy = 0.842 x 106 mm4 ;
Distant of centroid from
the back of web = 22.7 mm ;
crushing stress ( = 320 MPa = 320 N/mm2
Rankine’s constant (a) = .
From the geometry of the figure, we find that area of the column section,
A = 2[ ] = 8554 mm2
And moment of inertia of the column section about X-X Axis.
IXX= (2x11.612 x 106) +2* +mm4
= (23.224 x 106 ) + mm4

= 78.391 105 mm4
Similarly, IYY = 2* + =
=2[ ] =44.992 mm4
Since LYYis less than IXX , therefore the column will tend to buckle in Y-Y direction. Thus we
shall take I equal to IYY =44.992 mm4 (i.e., least of the two). Moreover as the column is
fixed at its both ends, therefore equivalent length of the column.
We know that least radius of gyration
Rankine’s crippling load on the column
= =
( ) ( )
= 2228.5 N =2228.5kN
and safe load on the column = = = 557.1 kN Ans.

COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESS
4.2. COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESS

Direct and Indirect stresses – combination of stresses – Eccentric loads on Columns –
Effects of Eccentric loads / Moments on Short columns – Combined direct and bending
stresses – maximum and minimum stresses in sections – problems – Conditions for no
tensions – limit of eccentricity – middle third rule – core or kern for square, rectangular
and circular sections – chimneys subjected to uniform wind pressure – combined stresses
n Chimneys due to self weight and Wind load – chimneys of hollow square and hollow
circular cross sections only - problems
4.2. DIRECT STRESS

If a column is loaded with axial load P, then the column is subjected to direct stress and is
given by
ςd = , where A is the cross-sectional area of the columnFigure 4.11 shows a direct stress.
4.2.1. COMBINED DIRECT AND BENDING STRESS
Figure 4.12 shows a column subjected to a load Pwhose line of action is at a distance ‘e’
from the axis of the column. Apply two equal and opposite forces along the axis of the
column as shown in Fig. 4.12(ii). Now the three forces acting on the column
can be converted into two systems.
(i) An axial force P which will produce direct stress in the column,
as shown in Fig. 4.12 (iii)
(ii) Two equal and opposite forces forming a couple. The arm of the couple is
‘e ’. The moment of the couple will be Pxe and will produce bending stress
(ςb) in the column [Fig. 4.12 (iv)].
So a column Subjected to eccentric loading, is subjected to both direct and
bending stress.
Fig4.11
Fig4.12

Considered a column of width ‘b’ and depth ‘d’ subjected to an eccentric load P as shown in
Fig.4.13.
Cross-sectional area, A=b x d.
Direct stress, ςd= =
Due to eccentricity of load, the column is subjected to B.M = P x e. this B.M. will produce
bending stress in the column.
Bending stress, ςb=
Where
Z = section modulus =
db 2 / 12 db 2
= =
b/2 6
db 3
(As the eccentricity6Pe
of the load is from Y-Y axis, I = )
12
Ab
ςb= =
db 2
The resultant6 stress at any point is the sum of direct and
bending stress at that point.
Total stress = ςd+ςb= + Fig4.13
The + veand-vesign depends upon the position of the load. The stress will be maximum at
the face BC as the load is near to BC. The stress will be minimum at the face AD as the load
is away from AD.
6Pe
ςmax= + = + = [ 1+ ]
Ab
6Pe
and ςmin= + = - = [ 1- ]
Ab
ςmaxis always compressive. If ςminis +ve then it is compressive and if the value of ς min is –ve,
then it is tensile.
4.2.2. ECENTRIC LOAD
A load whose line of action passes through the center of gravity of the section, then the
load is said to be axial load. A load whose line of action does not passes through the center
of gravity of the section, then the load is called eccentric load.
Figure 4.14 (i) shows a section of column loaded with axial load P and Fig. 4.14 (ii) shows a
section of column loaded with eccentric load. The distance between the line of action of
load and axis of the column (passing through C.G.) is the eccentricity 'e' of the load. The
eccentricity of a load may be about one axis or about both the axes.

4.2.3. LIMIT OF ECCENTRICITY
If a column is eccentrically loaded, then both direct and bending stress is simultaneously
developed. If the direct stress (ςd) is more than bending stress (ςb), the stress in the section
all through will be compressive. If the bending stress is more than direct stress, then there
will be tensile stress. As the concrete columns are weak in tension, load should be applied in
such a way that there is no tensile stress in the column. To avoid tensile stress, the bending
stress (ςb) should be less than or equal to direct stress (ςd).
Hence,
ςb<ςd
<
<
e<
This shows that for tension in the column, eccentricity should be less than or equal to
4.2.4. LIMIT OF ECCENTRICITY FOR A RECTANGULAR SECTION

Figure 4.15 shows a rectangular section of width 'b' and depth 'd'. Let the section be
subjected to a load at a distance 'e', along x - x axis, from y - y axis. The bending will take
place along y-yaxis.
db 3
Ixx= and y = b/2
12

Iyy
Section modulus, Z =
Y
db 3 db 3
= x =
12 6
Area of cross section, A = bd.
For no tension, e<
db 2
e<
6bd
e< Fig4.15
This means that for no tension, load can be applied on both sides of y-y at a distance b/6 on
x-x axis as shown in Fig. 4.15.
Therefore, for no tension, the load must be placed with-in + = i.e., middle third of the
width of section.
Similarly, for no tension, the load can be placed on y-y axis, on both sides of x-x axis, with in
middle third of depth i.e., d/3.
If we join the four points on x-x and y-y axis, we get a rhombus. This rhombus is known as
core or kernel as shown in Fig. 4.15. Thus, core or Kernel of the section is the area in which
any eccentric load, if placed will not produce any tension in the section.
(ii) Limit of eccentricity for a circular section

Figure 4.16 shows a circular section of diameter'd'.
Let the section be subjected to a load at a distance ‘e’ from centroid on x-x-axis
Ixx = Iyy =
Y = d/2
Iyy
Section modulus, Z =

= x =
Area of cross-section, A =
For no tension
e< Fig4.16
e< x
e<
This means that for no tension, the load can be eccentric, on either sides of centroid d/8
distance.
Diameter of core = 2X = d/4
Thus, for no tension in a circular section, the load must be placed within middle fourth of
the section.
4.2.5. EFFECT OF ECCENTRIC LOADING
Consider a column subjected to an eccentric load ‘w’ at an eccentricity ‘e’ as shown that in
fig.4.17 (a). the effect of eccentric load is equal to the effect of an axial load and a moment
bending stress.
Fig4.17
The know the effect of eccentric load, W

(i) Introduce two equal and opposite loads, each of value W, along the axis of the 4.17
column.

(ii) Now, treat the whole system of loading as consisting of a statically equivalent algebraic
system of loads as shown in fig.(c).
That is
a) A direct compressive force W along the longitudinal axis which produce direct
compressive stress plus.
b) A couple due to eccentric load W and the other upward load W along the axis
which produce the couple causes a BM, M = We which produce bending stresses.
(iii) Finally, the effect of eccentric load is reduced to consist of statically
Equivalent centrally applied load or producing direct stress (ςa) and a couple M=We
producing bending stress (ςa).
4.2.6. EFFECT OF ECCENTRIC LOADING ON SHORT COLUMN
Consider a short column of uniform cross section b x d subjected to an eccentric load ‘P’
acting on XX axis at an eccentricity ‘e’ from the Centroid of the section shown in fig 4.18
The axial load produces uniform direct compressive stress throughout the cross section. The
moment due to couple produces bending stress. Fig4.18
Direct compressive stress, ςd = Load/Area
= P/A
Bending moment,
M = load * eccentricity
M= p*e
Bending stress,
ςb= ± M/I*y
Where, I = moment of inertia about yy axis = db3/12
Y = distance of the fibre YY axis, ymax= b/2
ςb = ± 12*Pe/db3 * b/2 = ± 6Pe/db2
Combined direct and bending stress
The total stress or resultant stress due to eccentric loading at any section is the algebraic
sum of direct stress and bending stress.
ς = ςd+ ςb = P/A ± M*y/I
Maximum and minimum stresses
The maximum and minimum stresses are in the extreme fibres
ςmax = ςd + ςb = P/A ± M*y/I
ςmin =ςd- ςb = P/A – M*y/I
for a rectangular column section,
A = b*d and m = P * e
ςmax =ςd+ ςb = P/A + 6M/db2 = P/A + 6Pe/db2
= P/A + 6 Pe/A*b = P/A [1+ 6e/b]
ςmax = P/A [1 + 6e/b]
ςmin =ςd- ςb= P/A – 6 Pe/A x b =P/A[1 – 6e/b]
ςmin = P/A[1 – 6e/b]
Maximum and minimum stress for a rectangular section,

ςmax = P/A[1 + 6e/b]
ςmin = P/A[1 + 6e/b]
When ςmin value is positive, there is compressive stress.
When ςmin value is negative, there is tensile stress.
When ςmin value is zero, there is no tension.
4.2.7. MIDDLE THIRD RULE
To avoid tension, the limiting value of eccentricity on either side of the geometric axis is b/6
and d/6 for rectangular sections and a/6 for square sections. This means if the load lies in
the middle third portion, the section will be completely in compression.
The middle third rule states that, “when the point of application of the load lies within the
middle third of the section, then the stress will be of compressive in nature throughout the
section and there will be no tension anywhere in the section.
4.2.8. CHIMNEYS SUBJECTED TO UNIFORM WIND PRESSURE
Tall structures like chimneys, water tanks, towers are subjected to horizontal wind pressure
on one side. It causes bending moment at the base. The bending moment reduces bending
stress. Also the chimney has self-weighted and it produces direct or axial compressive stress
at the base. The resultant stress at any section at the base of the chimney is the algebraic
sum of bending stress due to wind pressure and axial stress due to self-weight.
Chimney may be square or circular in cross section. Sometimes the chimney may be tapered
from large section at the bottom to a small section at the top.
The direct stress or axial stress, ςd= W/A

The bending stress, ςb= M/I*y (or) M/Z
Where,
W is the weight of chimney
A is the area of cross section
M is the bending moment due to horizontal wind pressure
I is the moment of inertia about YY axis
Y is the extreme fibre distance
Z is the section modulus, Z = I/y
The horizontal wind force on a unit area of a vertical plane is known as wind pressure. If the
area exposed to wind pressure is curved, the magnitude of the force will be less than, when
the area is a flat surface. The reduction factor ‘k’ is called as coefficient of wind resistance.
Its value varies from 0.5 to 0.75. For cylindrical shafts k = 2/3, unless stated otherwise for
square and rectangular chimney k = 1.
The total horizontal wind pressure, P = k*P0*Ap
Where,
P = Total horizontal wind pressure
K = Coefficient of wind pressure
P0 = Horizontal intensity of wind pressure
Ap = Projected area on which wind acts.

Maximum and minimum stress in square chimney
Consider a hollow square chimney of outer dimension B * B and inner dimensions b * b
subjected to a horizontal wind pressure of intensity P 0 KN/m2.
Let h be the height of the chimney.
Ƴ be the unit weight of masonry.
Cross sectional area of chimney, = Aext - Aint
A= (B * B) – (b * b)
Self-weight of chimney,
W = unit weight of masonry * Area * Height
W = Ah
Direct stress, ςd = W/A
Moment of inertia, I = 1/12 [B4-b4]
Extreme fibre density, = B/2
Projected area, Ap = Bh
Total wind pressure, P = Coefficient of wind resistance
*Intensity * wind pressure * projected area
i.e., P = k*P0*Ap
This pressure acts at h/2 from the base.
Bending moment, M = P*h/2
Bending stress, ςb = M/I*y
Total stress ς= ςd + ςb Fig4.19
Maximum stress, ςmax = ςd± ςb
Minimum stress, ςmin= ςd - ςb
If the total stress is positive, it is compressive.
If the total stress is negative, it is tensile.
Maximum and minimum stress in circular chimney
Consider a hollow circular chimney of outer diameter ‘D’ and inner
diameter‘d’ subjected to a horizontal wind pressure of intensity P0 KN/m2.
Let h be the height of the chimney.
be the unit weight of masonry.
Cross sectional area of chimney,
A = Aext- Aint
= /4 [D2 – d2]
Self-weight of chimney,
W = Unit weight of masonry * area* Height
W = Ah
Direct stress,
ςd = w/A
Moment of inertia,
I = /64 [D4 - d4]

Extreme fibre distance,
y = D/2
Projected Area,
Ap = Dh
Total wind pressure, P= Coefficient of wind resistance * intensity of
wind pressure * Projected area
i.e., P = k*P0*Ap Fig4.20
This pressure acts at h/2 distance from the base.
K = 2/3 for circular sections.
Bending moment, M = P * h/2
Bending stress, ςb = M/I * y
Total stress, ς = ςd ± ςb
Maximum stress, ςmax = ςd + ςb
Maximum stress, ςmin = ςd- ςb
SOLVED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE.4.17. A rectangular column of width 200 mm and of thickness 150 mm carries a
point load of 240 KN at an eccentricity of 10 mm in a plane bisecting the thickness. Find
the maximum and minimum stresses in the section.
Solution:
Given:
Point load, P = 240 KN = 240000 N
Eccentricity, e = 10 mm
Width, b = 200 mm
Thickness, d = 150 mm
Area A = bd = 200 x 150 = 30000 mm2
Let ςmaxandςminuse the maximum and minimum stress in the
section
Using the relation
ςmax= ( )= ( )
= 8(1+0.3) = 10.4 N/mm2 (comp)
ςmin= ( )= ( ) Fig4.21
= 8(1-0.3)
= 5.6 N/mm2 (comp) Ans

EXAMPLE 4.18. A short column of hollow cylindrical section 250mm outside diameter and
150 mm inside diameter carries a vertical load of 400 KN along one of the planes 100 mm
away from the axis of the column. Find the extreme stress intensities and state their
nature.
Solution: Given Fig4.22
Inner diameter, di = 150 mm
Outer diameter, d0 = 250 mm
Point load, P = 400 KN = 400000 N
Eccentricity, e = 100 mm
Distance of extreme fiber,
Y = = 125 mm
Area, A = ( d02 – di2 ) = ( 2502 – 1502 )
= 31415.93 mm2
Moment of inertia, I = ( 2504 – 1504 )
= 1.67 x 108 mm4

Moment about the axis of the column,
= 4 x 107 N-mm
Section modules, Z = = = 1336000 mm3
Using relation
ςmax = = = 12.73 + 29.94
= 42.67 N/mm2 (compressive) Ans.
ςmax = = = 12.73 - 29.94
= 17.21 N/mm2 (Tensile) Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.19. A short column of external diameter 400 mm and internal diameter 200
mm carries an eccentric load of 80 KN. Find the greatest eccentricity which the load can
have without producing tension on the cross-section.
Solution:
Given
Inner diameter, di = 200 mm
Outer diameter, d0 = 400 mm
Point load, W = 80 KN = 8 x 1000= 8000 N

Let the greatest eccentricity be x mm which the load can have without producing
tension.
Area, A = ( d02 – di2 ) = ( 4002 – 2002 ) Fig 4.23
= 94247.78 mm2
Moment of inertia,
I= (d02 – di2) = (4002 – 2002)
= x2.4 x 1010= 1.18 x 109 mm4
y = = = 200 mm
Section Modulus,
Z = = = 5.9 x 106 mm2
Moment about the axis of the column,

M = P x e = 80000x N-mm
For no tension
ςmax = =0
or, =
or, =x
x = = 62.6 mm Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.20. In a compression testing specimen 13 mm is diameter the line of thrust is

parallel to the axis of the specimen but it displace from it. Determine the distance of the
line of thrust from the axis, when the maximum stress is 15 % greater than the mean
stress on a section normal to the axis.
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of specimen,
d = 13 mm
ςmax = 15 % greater than mean stress
Area, A = = = 132.79 mm2
Moment of inertia, I = = = 1401.98 mm4
Section modulus, Z = = = 215.69 mm3

Let the eccentricity be x mm.
Moment, M = Px
Mean stress = = N/mm2
Maximum stress = Mean stress + 15% of mean stress
ςmax = Mean stress
ςmax = N/mm2…..(i)
Using relation
ςmax =
= [from(i)]
or, =
or, =
or, 0.0087 – 0.0075 =
0.0012 x 215.69 =x
x = 0.2588 0.26 mm
EXAMPLE 4.21. A hollow rectangular masonry pier is 1.2 mm x 0.80 m, overall, the wall
thickness being 0.15m. a Vertical load of 100 KN is transmitted in the vertical plane
bisecting 1.2m side at an eccentricity of 0.1 m from the geometric
axis of the section. Calculate the maximum and minimum stress
intensities are the section.
Solution:
Given:
Point load, P = 100 KN = 100000 N
Eccentricity, e = 0.1 m = 100 mm
b0 = 1200 mm
Outer diameter,d0= 800 mm
bi= 1200 -150-150 = 900 mm
Inner diameter,di = 800-150-150 = 500 mm
Cross –sectional Area,
A = 1200× 800 – 900×500
= 960000 – 450000

Fig4.24
= 510000 mm2
Moment of inert
I= x 1200 x 8003 - x 900 x 5003
= 5.12 x 1010 – 9.37 x 109

= 4.18 x 1010 mm4
Moment,
M = P x e = 100000 x 100
= 10 x 106 N-mm
Section modulus,
Z = = = 10.45 x 107 mm3
Using relation
ςmax = =
0.196 + 0.096 = 0.292 N/mm2 Ans.
ςmax = =
= 0.196 - 0.096 = 0.1 N/mm2 Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.21. A short hollow pier 1.5m square outside and 1 m square inside, supports
a vertical point load of 7 KN located on a diagonal 0.8 m from the vertical axis of the pier.
Neglecting the self weight of the pier. Calculate the normal stresses at the four outside
corners on a horizontal section of the pier
Solution: Given:
Outer area, A0 = 1.5×1.5
= 2.25 m2
Inner area, Ai = 1 ×1 = 1 m2
Point load, P = 7kN
Eccentricity, e =0.8m
Area of cross section of pier = A - At
= 2.25 – 1 = 1.25m2
Moment of inertia about the diagonal
I = 2× (2.12×1.063-1.41×0.703)
= ×(2.52-0.48) =0.34m4.
y = = 1.06 m
Section modulus,
z= = = 0.32m3
Moment,
M= p × e
= 7×0.8 =5.6 KN-m
Direct stress,
ςd= = =5.6 KN/m2
Bending stress,
ςb = = = 17.5 KN/m2
At the corners 2 and 4 there will be no bending stress

...Stress at cornet 1 = ςd + ςb=5.6 + 17.5
= 23.1KN/m2 (Compressive)
Stress at corner 2 = ςd =5.6 KN/m2 (Comp.)
Stress at corner 3 = ςd -ςb5.6 – 17.5
= -11.9 KN/m2
= 11.9 KN/m2 (Tensile)
Stress at corner 4 = ςd =5.6 KN/m2(Comp.)
EXAMPLE 4.22. A masonrypies of 3 m × 4 m supports a vertical load of 80KN as

Shown in Figure 9.12.
(a) Find the stress developed at each corner of the pier.
(b) What additional load should be placed at the center of the pier,so that there
Is no tension anywhere in the pier section?
(c) What are the stresses at the corners with
The additional load in the center?
Solution. Given:
Width, b=4m
Depth, d=3m
Point load, p = 80 KN
Eccentricity from x-x axis
ex= 0.5 m
Eccentricity from y-y axis is
ey = 1 m
Area,
A = 4×3 = 12 m2
Moment of inert about x-x,

Ixx= ×4×33 = 9 m4
Moment of inert about y-y,
Iyy= ×3×43 = 16 m4
Moment about xx axis,

Mx = 80 ×0.5 = 40 KN-m
Moment about yyaxis,
My = 80 ×1 = 80 KN-m
Direct stress,
ςd = = 6.67 KN/m2
Bending stress due to ex,
ςbx = = = 6.67 KN/m2
Bending stress due to ey,
ςby = = = 10 KN/m2
(a)
(i)Resultant stress at point A,
ςA =ςd-ςbx+ςbym[... Point A is in 2nd quadrant]
ςA= 6.67-6.67+10 = 10 KN/m2
(ii) Resultant stress at point B,
ςB= ςd+ςbx+ςby= 6.67 + 6.67+10
= 23.34 KN/m2(Compressive)
(iii)Resultant stress at point C,
ςC= ςd+ςbx-ςby= 6.67 + 6.67-10
= 3.34 KN/m2(Compressive)
(iv)Resultant stress at point D,
ςD= ςd-ςbx-ςby= 6.67 - 6.67 - 10
= -10 KN/m2(Compressive)
(b) Let P, be the additional load that should be placed in the pier section for no tension.
For no tension,
Compressive stress = Tensile stress
=10
P1= 10 ×A= 10 ×10 = 120 KN

(c)stress due to additional load of 120 KN at the center
= = 10 KN/m2
(i) Stress at point A=10 + 10 = 20 KN/m2

(ii)Stress at point B = 23.34 + 10 = 33.34 KN/m2
(iii)Stress at point C = 3.34 + 10 = 13.34 KN/m2
(iv)Stress at point D = - 10 + 10 = 0.
EXAMPLE 4.23. A short column of rectangular cross-section 80mm ×60mm carries a load
of 40 KN at a point 20 mm from the longer side and 35 mm from the shorter side.
Determine the maximum compressive and Tensile stresses in the section.
Solution. Given:
Width, b = 80 m
Depth, d = 60m
Point load, p = 40 KN = 40000 N
ex = 10 mm
ey = 5 mm
Area,
A= b×d = 80×60
= 4800 m2
Moment of inert about x-x,
Ixx= bd3
= ×80 × (60)3 = 1.44 ×106 mm4
Moment of inert about y-y,
Iyy= bd3= ×60×(80)3= 2.56 ×106m4
y= = 30 mm
x= = 40 mm
Moment about x-x axis,

Mx= P×ex =40000×10 = 400000 N-mm
Moment about y-y axis,
My =P×ey= 40000×5 = 200000 N-mm
Direct stress, ςd= = 8.33 N/mm2
Bending stress due to ex, ςbx = =
= 8.33 N/mm2

Bending stress due to cy,
ςby = =
= 3.125 N/mm2
Maximum stress = ςd+ςbx+ςby= 8.33 + 8.33 + 3.125
=19.78 N/mm2
Maximum stress = ςd-ςbx-ςby= 8.33 - 8.33- 3.125
= -3.125 N/mm2
= 3.125 N/mm2(Tensile)
EXAMPLE 4.24. A short column of diameter D and internal diameter d carries ecentric
load W find the greatest ecentricity which the load can ha e without producing tension
on the cross-section of the column.
Solution: Given :
Outer diameter = D
Inner diameter = d
Point load,p = w
Let the greatest eccentricity for no tension bee.
Cross-sectional area, A= ( D2 – d2)
Moment of inertia, I= ( D4 – d4 )
Moment, M= W e
Y=
Direct stress, ςd= =

–
Bending stress, ςb= =

–
For no tension
Direct stress = Bending stress
=
– –
=
–
Dividing both sides by ( )

we get 1 =
–
Or, =e
…Greatest eccentricity,
e= Ans.

EXAMPLE 4.25. A column section 300 mm external diameter and 150 mm internal
diameter support an axial load of 2600 KN and an eccentric load of P KN at an eccentricity
of 400 mm. if the compressive and tensile stresses are not to exceed 149 N/mm 2and 60
N/mm2 respectively, find the magnitude of the load P .
Solution: Given :
Outer diameter, do = 300 mm
Inner diameter, di = 150mm
Axial load W = 2600 kn = 2600 1000 N
Eccentric load = 400 mm
A = ( do2 – di2) = (3002 – 1502 )
=53014.38 mm2
Moment of inertia,
I= ( do2 – di2) = (3004 – 1504 )
= 7.59 109 = 37.26 107mm4.
Y= = 150 mm
Sectional modulus, Z = =
= 2484666.67 mm3
Moment,
M= P e = P 400
=400P KN-mm
=400000 PN-mm
Direct stress,
ςd= = 0.019 (2600+P )
Bending stress,
ςb= =0.16 P N/mm2
ςmax= ςd + ςb
Or
140 = 0.019 (2600 + P) + 0.16 P
140 =49.4 + 0.019P + 0.16P
140 – 49.4 = 0.179 P
… 90.6 = 0.179P

… p= = 506.15 KN …(i)
ςmin= ςb -ςd
60= 0.16P- 0.019 ( 2600 + p)
=0.16P - 49.4 -0.019P
60 + 49.4 = 0.141 P
90.6 = 0.179P
… p= KN
The magnitude of P will be minimum of (i) and (ii)
i.e., P = 506.14 KN Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.26. A square chimney 24 m high has an opening of 1 m 1 m and wall
thickness 0.25 m, calculate tha maximum stress in the masonry if the horizontal wind
pressure is 2000 N/m2 and masonry weight 20000 N/m3
Solution: Given :
Area of opening = 1 m 1 m
Wall thickness = 0.25 m
Wind pressure, P = 2000 N/m
Unit weight of masonry,
γ = 20000 N/m3
Height of chimney, h = 24 m
Cross-sectional area of chimney,
A = (1.5 1.5 ) - (1 1)
= 1.25m2
Weight of chimney, W = γAh
Direct stress,
ςd= =
=γh= 20000 24
= 480000 N/m2
Wind load,
P = p 1.5 24
= 2000 1.5 24
=72000 N
Moment about the base of the chimney =P
=72000 12 = 864000 N-m
Moment of inertia, I= (1.54 – 14 ) = 4.06 = 0.338 m4 .

Y= = 0.75 m
Bending stress, ςb= =
=1917159.8 N/m2
ςmax= ςb+ ςd= 480000 + 1917159.8
=2397159.8 N/m2 (Compressive) Ans.
EXAMPLE 4.27. A masonry chimney of a hollow circular section has external and internal
diameters of 2.5 m and 2 m respectively. It is subjected to uniform horizontal wind
pressure of 1800 N/m2 .determine the maximum height of chimney for developing no
tension at the base. Density of masonry is 20000 N/m3 .
Solution : Given :
do= 2.5 m
di= 2.0 m
p =1800 N/m2
γ = 20000 N/m3
Let the height of chimney be hm .
Weight of chimney = γAh
Direct stress,
ςd = = γh = 20000 h N/m2
Wind load,
P = p 2.5 h
= 1800 2.5 h= 4500 h N
Moment due to P about the base
M = P e = 4500 h
=2250 h2 N-m
Moment of inertia, I = (2.54 – 24 ) = 1.132 m4
Y= = 1.25 m
Section modulus, Z = = = 0.906
Bending stress, ςb = =
=2483.44 h2 N/m2
For no tension ςd =ςb
20000 h = 2483.4 h2
= h = 8.05 m Ans.

5. DAMS AND RETAINING WALL
5.1 MASONRY DAMS

Gravity Dams – Derivation of Expression for maximum and minimum stresses at Base – Stress
distribution diagrams – Problems – Factors affecting Stability of masonry dams – Factor of
safety- Problems on Stability of Dams– Minimum base width and maximum height of dam for
no tension at base – Elementary profile of a dam – Minimum base width of elementary profile
for no tension.
5.1. MASONRY DAMS

5.1.1. Introduction
Dam is a Massive structure constructed by concrete or masonry to retain water. A massive
wall constructed across the river to store the water is also called Dam or Masonry dam.
1.Rectangular section dam.
2.Trapezoidal section with water face vertical.
3.Trapezoidal section with water face inclined.
The water stored on the u/s side of the dam exerts the horizontal water pressure.
The following forces are acting on the gravity dam.

1.Selfweight of dam (W).
2.Horizontal water pressure (P).
3.Uplift pressure at the base.
4.Due to horizontal water thrust and self weight of dam, the resultant thrust (R) will hits
the base.
5.1.2. Derivation for maximum and minimum stresses

Consider a trapezoidal section masonry dam as shown in fig.
Let
a = Top width
b = bottom width D C
Free Board
H = Height of dam
h = Depth of water
 = Specific weight of masonry G
x H
 = Specific weight of water h
P
Consider 1m length of dam V=W
h = h/3 W R
Heel Toe
i. Weight of dam/m (W) A B
W =  x volume =  x A x  b/2
Z
e
( a  b) ( a  b)
W = xHx1= H
2 2
W= H
kN ……………  (1)

This will act at a distance of x from vertical face
a 2  ab  b 2
x =
3 ( a  b)
ii. Horizontal water pressure/m (P)

The intensity of pressure at the top is zero, and at bottom is ‘h’.
Draw pressure distribution diagram as shown in fig. 0
Total water pressure = area of pressure diagram
1 h 2
P = x (h) x h =
2 2 h
P
P= kN …………..  (2) h = h/3
h
Pressure Diagram
This will act at the c.g. of pressure diagram.

h
ie h  from base
3
Total vertical force at the base (V) = (W)
Resultant thrust (R)

The combined effect of water pressure and self weight of dam produces the resultant thrust
‘R’
R= V2  P2  W2  P2 R
V=W
This resultant thrust cuts the base at a W
distance ‘Z’ from vertical face (A).
Position of resultant thrust (Z) P

(v x z) = W x + P h
W x Z = W x + Ph
 (V = W)
Z= +
Eccentricity (e)
The eccentricity of resultant thrust is ‘e’ y
e = (Z - b 2)
G V
x x
Stresses at the base of dam 1m
Consider in one meter length of wall.

Area A = b x 1 = b x 1 b/2
y
e
Z = Section modulus about yy axis b
db 2 1 x b 2 b 2
 Z = Zy = = =
6 6 6

M = Moment due to eccentric load
M=Wxe
W
c = direct compressive stress
A
M Wxe
b =  = Bending stress
Z Z
Total stress at the base ()

 = c  b
 W We   1 e 
=    W   2 
A Z   b x1 b 6 
W  6e 
= 1  
b  b 
W  6e 
max = 1   at toe
b  b 
W  6e 
min = 1   at heel
b  b 
5.1.3. Stress diagram at the base

The stress distribution diagram is drawn according to the maximum and minimum stresses
as given below.
min
(-)
A B A B A B
min min = 0 (+)
(+) (+)
max max
(ii) e > b/6 max
(i) e < b/6 (i) e = b/6
5.1.4. Factors affecting the stability of masonry dams

The following are the causes of failures of masonry dam.
1. Tension at the base
2. Sliding along the base
3. Overturning about the toe
4. Crushing of masonry at the base.
5. Uplift pressure
5.1.4.1. Conditions for stability of masonry dams
1. To avoid tension at the base
2. To avoid sliding of the wall along the base
3. To avoid overturning of dam
4. To avoid crushing of masonry at the base.
5. To avoid uplift pressure at the base.

1. Conditions to avoid tension at the base
To avoid tension at any where, in the dam, the minimum stress (min) should be greater
than or equal to zero.
ie min  0
W  6e   6e  6e
1    0 ; 1   0 ; 1 
b  b   b  b
6e
1
b e
ieTo avoid tension the resultant force must cut the base within the middle third of the base.
Note: We know,
The position of resultant thrust from heel is ‘Z’.
b b b 2
Z = e   b
2 2 6 3
2
Z b
3
ie To avoid tension
b
e  (or ) Z  2 b
6 3
2. Conditions to avoid sliding

To prevent sliding of the wall along the base, the total frictional force ( x W) should be
greater than total horizontal water pressure (P).
 ( x W) > P
Factor safety  Total frictional force

against sliding  Total horizontal water pressure
μxW
F.S. (Sliding)  1.00
P
Where
µ = Coefficient of friction
For design purpose the F.S. (Sliding) is considered as 1.5.
3. Conditions to prevent overturning

The horizontal water pressure (P) may tend to overturn about the toe.
 h= h 
 3
To prevent overturning of dam, the stabilizing moment should be greater than the
overturning.
Factor of safety  Balancing moment
  1.0
against overturning  Overturning moment
W (b  x )
F.S. (overturning) =  1.0
Ph
For design purpose, the factor of safety against overturning is taken as 1.5 to 2.0.

4. Conditions to prevent crushing at the base
W  6e 
The maximum compressive at the base max = 1  
b  b
To avoid crushing at the base
Maximum compressive stress should be less than the safe bearing capacity of soil (or)
allowable compressive stress.
ie max  SBC of soil (or) allowable compressive stress
5. Condition to avoid uplift pressure

To avoid uplift pressure at the base of the dam, the weight of dam should be greater than
uplift pressure W > .b.h
Where
W = Total weight of dam at base
( x h) (b x 1) = .b.h = Total uplift pressure.
5.1.5. Minimum base width for no tension

The bottom width (b) of a dam is calculated using the conditions of stability of dam.
(i) To avoid tension at the base

The eccentricity should be with in the middle third.
b 2
ie e ; Z ≤ b
6 3
b  6e,
(ii) To avoid sliding of dam

Factor of safety  Frictional force
  1.5
(sliding)  Horizontalwater pressure
μxW
F.S. (Sliding) =  1.5
P
(iii) To avoid overturning of dam
Balancing moment
Factor of safety overturning =  1.5
Overturning moment
W (b - x )
F.S. (overturning) =  1.5 (or) 2
Ph
(iv) To avoid crushing at the base

The allowable compressive stress should be greater than maximum compressive stress.
SBC of soil or allowable ≥ max
The minimum base width required is the maximum value of base width for the above
conditions.

5.1.6. Maximum height of dam for no tension
The height dam is calculated for the stability conditions.
The maximum height of the dam is the minimum height value for the stability conditions.
5.1.7. Elementary profile of a dam

To avoid tension, the resultant force (R)
must cut the base with in the middle third.
b x G
e = on either side of geometrical axis. P
6
R
h = h/3 W
This must be satisfied for both dam full
and dam empty. b/3 b/6 b/6 b/3
b
The right angled triangle cross section of

G
a dam will be satisfied the middle third rule when
the dam is full or empty, and is called elementary e e
b/3 b/3 b/3
profile of a dam.
5.1.8. Minimum base width of elementary profile for no tension

Consider a triangular section masonry dam of bottom width ‘b’ and height ‘H’. Retains
water on its vertical face to full depth (h = H) as shown in fig.
C
Let
 = Specific weight of masonry
 = Specific weight of water
 
S =   = Relative density.
  x G h= H
P
Consider 1m length of wall.
R
1   bH h = h/3 W
W =  x (  x b x H  x 1
2  2 A B
x = b b/3
3 b/2 e
2 ω H2
P= h  , h H b
2 2 3
W x Z = W x  Ph
 P 
Z = x h
 W 
 
 H 2 
 b ω 2 H   b ω H2 
Z=  x   
 3  b H 3   3 3 b 
     
  2  

To avoid tension
Z= 2 b
3
2  b ω H2  1 ω H2 
 b       b  
3 3 3 b  3  b 
ω H2
2b = b 
6 b
ω H2 H2 H2
(2b – b) =  
 b   Sx b
 b
ω
H 2

b2 = (S = )
S 
2 H
b= H  ; (b) =
S S
The minimum base width for a right angled triangular section

H
b = .
S
Note: Practically the trapezoidal cross section is provided.
Problem 5.1
A trapezoidal section masonry dam 8m height, 1.5m wide at top and 3.5m wide at base,
retains water on its vertical face to height of 7.5m if the relative density of masonry is 2.4.
determine the stress intensities at base and draw stress distribution diagram.
Given
a
D C
Top width a = 1.5m
Bottom width b = 3.5m
Height of dam H = 8m
x G H
Depth of water h = 7.5m h
P
Specific gravity S = 2.4 ; h = H/3 W
V=W
R
Toe
Assume unit wt. of water  = 9.81 kN/m3 Heel
A B
e
Unit weight of masonry,  =Sx
b/2
Z
 3 b
Required
W  6e 
= 1  ?
b  b
Solution

Consider 1 m length of dam
i. Weight of dam 1m (W)
( a  b)
W =  H
2
 1.5  3.5 
W = 23.544  8
 2 
W = 470.88 kN
This will act at x from vertical face

a 2  ab  b 2
x =
3 ( a  b)
1.5 2  1.5 x 3.5  3.5 2

x =
3 ( 1.5  3.5)
x = 1.316 m
ii. Total horizontal water pressure / m (P)

 h2 9.81 x 7.5 2
P =   275.90 kN
2 2
This will act at h from base.

7.5
h = h 3  2.5m
3
iii. Position of resultant pressure (Z)

P
Z = x + h
W
 275.9 
Z = 1.316 +  x 2.5  = 2.78m
 470.88 
Z = 2.780m
iv. Eccentricity (e)
 3.5 
e = (Z – b 2 ) =  2.78   = 1.038m
 2 

v. Stresses at the base of dam ()
w 6e 
 = 1  
b  b
w  6e 
max = 1   at toe (B)
b  b
470.88  6 x 1.03 
max = 1 
2
 = 372.09 kN/m (Comp.)
3.5  3.5 
w 6e 
min = 1   at heel (A)
b  b
470.88  6 x 1.03 
min = 1 
2
 = – 103.017 kN/m (Tension)
3.5  3.5 
Stress diagram
min
(-)
A B
(+)
max
Problem 5.2
A masonry dam of trapezoidal section 2m wide at top 6m wide at base and 12m height
retains water on its vertical face, unit weight of masonry and water are 23 kN/m 3 and
9.81 kN/m3 respectively. Determine the stresses at the base of dam.
a. When the dam is full
a
D C
b. When the dam is empty
Given
Top width a = 2m
Bottom width b = 6m h x G H
P
Heath H = 12m V=W
h = h/3 W R
Unit weight of water = 9.81 kN/m3 Heel Toe
Unit weight of masonry  = 23 kN/m 3 A B

b/2 e
Z
b
Required
w  6e 
= 1   =?
b  b

Solution
( a  b)  26
W = H = 23   x 12 = 1104 kN
2  2 
This will act at x distance from vertical face

a 2  ab  b 2 2 2  (2 x 6)  6 2
x = = = 2.16m
3 ( a  b) 3 (2  6)
a) When the dam is full (h = H = 15 m)

 h2 9.81 x 12 2
P =  = 706.32 kN
2 2

h 15
h = = = 4m
3 3
iii. Position of resultant thrust (Z)
P 706.32
Z = x + h = 2.16 + x 4 = 4.72 m
W 1104
iv. Eccentricity
e = (Z – b 2 ) = (4.72 – 6 2 ) = 1.72 m
v. Stress at the ()

w 6e 
 = 1  
b  b
w 6e  1104  6 x 1.72 
max = 1  = 1   at toe (B)
b  b 6  6 
max = 500.48 kN/m2 (Comp.)
w 6e  1104  6 x 1.72 
min = 1   at heel (A) = 1  
b  b 6  6 
min = – 132.48 kN/m2 (Tension)

min
(-)
Stress diagram A B
(+)
max
b. When the dam is empty (h = 0)
Horizontal water thrust/m (P)
h 2 9.81 x 0 2
P =  =0
2 2
P
Z = x + h [P = 0]
W
Z = x = 2.16 m
Eccentricity(e)
e = Z – b 2 = (2.16 – 6 2 ) = – 0.84 m
Stress at the base ()

w 6e 
 = 1  
b  b
w  6e  1104  6 x (  0.84) 
max = 1  = 1  
b  b 6  6 
max = 29.44 kN/m2 (Comp.)
w 6e  1104  6 x (  0.84) 
min = 1  = 1  
b  b 6  6 
min = 338.56 kN/m2 (Comp.)
Stress diagram
A B
min
(+)
max
Problem 5.3
A trapezoidal dam 1.5m wide at top 3.5m wide at base and 8m height retains water on its
vertical face with free board of 0.5m. Specific gravity of masonry is 2.4. Check the stability
of dam coefficient of friction 0.6 Max. allowable stress = 300 kN/m2.
Given
Top width a = 1.5m
Bottom with b = 3.5m

a
Height H =8m D C
Free Board = 0.5 m
Free board = 0.5 m
Depth of water h = 8-0.5 = 7.5 m
 x G H
= S = 2.4 h
 P
V=W
 = 2.4 x 9.81 = 23.54 kN/m3 h = h/3 W R
Heel Toe
 = 9.81 kN/m3 A B
b/2 e
Solution Z
b
( a  b)  1.5  3.5 
W = H = 23.54   x8
2  2 
W = 470.88 kN
This will act at x from vertical face

a 2  ab  b 2 1.5 2  (1.5 x 3.5)  3.5 2
x = =
3 ( a  b) 3 (1.5  3.5)
x = 1.316m
ii. Total horizontal pressure / 1m (p)
 h2 9.81 x 7.5 2
P =   275.90 kN / m
2 2

7.5
h = h 3  2.5m
3
iii. Position of resultant pressure (Z)
P 275.9
Z = x + h = 1.316 + x 2.5
W 470.88
Z = 2.78m
iv. Eccentricity (e)
e = (Z – b 2 ) = (2.78 – 3.5 2 ) = 1.03m
v. Stress at the base ()

w  6e 
 = 1  
b  b
w  6e  470.58  6 x 1.03 
max = 1   = 1 
2
 = 372.09 kN/m (Comp.)
b  b  3.5  3.5 

w  6e  470.88  6 x 1.03 
min = 1  = 1   = – 103.017 (Tension) kN/m
2
b  b 3.5  3.5 
Stress diagram
min
(-)
A B
(+)
Check for stability of dam

i. To avoid tension at base
max
min  0
e  b 6 (or) Z  2 3 b
e = 1.03m
b 6 = 3.5 = 0.58
6
e > b 6 Hence tension will develop at base.
ii. To avoid sliding
w 0.6 x 470.38
F.S = = 1.0, = = 1.02 > 1.00
P 275.9
F.S = 1.02 > 1.0 Hence safe against sliding
iii. To avoid failure from over turning
w (b  x) 470.88 (3.5 1.30)

F.S = = 1.0, = = 1.48 > 1.00
Ph 275.9 x 2.5
1.48 > 1.0 (Safe)
Hence safe against overturning.
iv. To avoid from crushing
SBC > max
SBC = 300 kN/m2
max = 372.06 kN/m2
SBC < max
Hence not safe.
Problem 5.4
A trapezoidal dam 4m high has top width of 1m, with vertical face exposed of water it
retain water up to its top level. Find the min. base width required. To avoid tension and
sliding. Take unit wt. masonry as 22 kN/m3 and that of water as 9.81 kN/m3. Take μ = 0.6
and F.S. = 1.5
Given
Top width a = 1m
Height of dam H = 4m

Depth of water h=H =4m a
D C
 = 22 kN/m 3
 = 9.8 kN/m3
Condition : No tension at base h x G H
P
Required
V=W
h = h/3 W R
b=? Toe
Heel
A B
Solution b/2 e
Z
i. Weight of dam / m (W)
b
( a  b)  1 b 
W = H = 22   x4
2  2 
W = 44 (1 + b) ………………. (1)
a 2  ab  b 2 12  1 x b  b 2
x = =
3 ( a  b) 3 (1  b)
= ………………. (2)
ii. Total horizontal water thrust / 1m (p)

 h2 9.81 x 4 2
P =   78.48 kN
2 2
h = h 3  (4 3)
iii. Position of resultant pressure
P  b 2  b  1  78.48 4
Z = x + h =  + x 
W  3 (1  b)   44 (1  b) 3 
b 2  b 1 7.13
Z = 
3 (1  b) 3 (1  b)
b 2  b  8.13
Z = ……… (3)
3 (1  b)
Bottom width required

a) To avoid tension at base
e  b 6 (or) Z  2 3 b

2 b 2  b  8.13
b =
3 3 (1  b)
2b (1 + b) = b2 + b + 8.13
2b + 2b2 = b2 + b + 8.13
b2 + b – 8.13 = 0 ………. (4)
 1  12  4 x 1 x 8.13
b= = 2.4 m
2 x1
b1 = 2.40m
b) To avoid sliding
 xw
F. S. (sliding) = ≥ 1.50
P
0.6 x 44 (1  b)
=
78.48
= 1.5
0.6 x 44 (1+b) = (1.5 x 78.48)
26.40 (1+b) = 117.72
117.72
1+b = = 4.46
26.40
b = 4.46 – 1 = 3.46 m
b2 = 3.46 m
Minimum bottom width required (b) = Maximum of b 1 and b2

Result:
b = 3.46 m
Problem 5.5
A masonry dam 1m wide at top 3m wide at base retains water on its vertical face, the
dam is full. Determine the max height of dam required.
i. For no tension at base
ii. To avoid sliding, F.S. against sliding = 1.5
iii. To avoid overturning,F.S. over turning = 2.0
Take μ = 0.60 Unit weight of masonry = 23 kN/m3 and Unit weight of water= 9.81 kN/m3

Given a
D C
a = 1m
b = 3m
 = 0.6
 = 9.81 kN/m3 h x G H
 = 23 kN/m3 P
F.S (Sliding) = 1.5 V=W
F.S. (Overturning) = 2 h = h/3 W R
Heel Toe
Required A B
b/2 e
H=h=? Z
b
Solution
i. Weight of dam 1m (w)
( a  b) (1  3)
W = H = 23 H = 46 H ………. (1)
2 2
a 2  ab  b 2 12  (1  3)  3 2
x = = = 1.16m
3 ( a  b) 3 (1  3)
ii. Total horizontal thrust / 1m (P)

 h2 9.81 x H 2
P = = =
2 2
P = 4.905 H2 kN ……….. (2)
h = H 3
P
Z = x + h
W
4.905 H 2
Z = 1.16 + x H 3 = (1.16 + 0.0355H2) ………. (3)
46 H
Maximum height
i. To avoid tension
Z ≤ 2 3 b= 2 3 x3
Z = (2/3)x3 m =2m
(1.08 + 0.0355H2) =2
0.0355 H2 = 2 – 1.16 = 0.84
0.84
H = = 4.86 m H1 = 4.86m
0.0355

F.S. (sliding) = 1.5
w 0.6 x 46.4
F.S. = = = 1.5
P 4.905 H 2
0.6 x 46
H = = 3.75 m
4.905 x 1.5
H2 = 3.75m
iii. To avoid overturning

F.S (overturning) = 2.0
W (b  x)
F.S = = 2.0 m
Ph
(46 xH ) ( 3  1.08)
= = 2.0
4.905 H 2 x ( H 3)
46 ( 3 1.08) 3
= = 2.0
4.905 x H 2
46 ( 3 1.08) 3
H2 = = 27 ; H = 27 = 5.19 m
4.905 x 2
H3 = 5.19m
Maximum height required = min of H1, H2 & H3

Result:
H = 3.75 m

Additional Problems
Problem:1
A concrete dam trapezoidal section of 15m height retains water on its vertical face to its full
height. The top width of the dam is 3m and the bottom is 8m, weight of concrete is
24KN/m3. Find i) the resultant thrust on the base per meter length of dam .ii) the point
where the resultant cuts the base. iii) intensities of maximum and minimum stresses at the
base.
Given data:
Height of the dam , H=15m
Height of water, h =15m
Top width, a = 3m
Bottom width, b = 8m
Weight of concrete, γm= 24KN/m3
Specific weight of water, γw = 9.81KN/m3
Solution:
Maximum stress, σ max = (1+ )
consider 1m length of dam
Width of dam w = ( ) x γm x H
=( )x 24 x 15 = 1980 kN
w= 1980 KN acting at x from the vertical face.

Eccentricity :
e= z-
Z = x+ ( )
x=
x =2.94m
Water pressure ,
= 2700 kN
Z = 2.94 + ( )
Z = 9.76m.

Eccentricity :
e=z-
= 9.76 -
e = 5.76m.
Maximum stress ,
σ max = (1+ )
= (1+ )
ς max =1316.7 kN/m2(compression)

Minimum stress ,
σ mini = ( 1- )
= ( 1- )
ς mini = 821.7kN/m2 (compression)

Resultant thrust
R= √
=√
R= 3348.2 kN
Problem:2
A trapezoidal masonry dam 2m wide at top and 6m wide at base has to retain water on
its vertical face up to top. Calculate maximum height of dam to ensure that no tension is
developed at the base. take weight of masonry as 20 kN/m3 and weight of water as 9.81
kN/m3.
Given data:
Top width, a=2m
Bottom width, b=6m
Height of dam, H= height of water, h
Specific weight of masonry, γm= 20 KN/m3
Weight of water, γw =9.81 KN/m3
To find:
Maximum height of the dam
Solution:
Consider 1m length of wall
Lateral water pressure ,

=
= = 4.905 H2
Weight of dam ,
w=( ) x γm x H
=( ) x 20 x H
w = 80H
x=
x =2.17 m
Z= x+( )
Z = 2.17 + ( )
Z = 2.17 +0.02H2 -------------------(1)

For no tension condition
e=( )
e=z-( )
Z= e + ( )
Z=( )+( )
Z=( )
Z=( )
Z =4 m ------------------------(2)
Equating (1) & (2)
Z =2.17+0.02 H2
4 =2.17+0.02 H2
H2= ( ) = 91.5 m
H = 9.56 m.

Problem :3
A masonry dam 8m high retains water to a depth 7m. The top width of the dam is 1.5m and
bottom width 5m. The relative density of masonry is 2.4. Calculate the normal stress
intensities at base of dam. Sketch the distribution.
Given data:
Height of dam, H=8m
Height of water, h=7m
Top width of dam, a=1.5 m
Bottom width of dam, b=5m
Relative density of masonry,
To find:
Normal intensities at the base
i.e., and
Solution:
Relative density of masonry =
i.e., ρ =
Take m= 9.81 kN/m3

2.4 =
m=23.54 kN/m3
P = 240.35 kN
Weight of dam,
w=( )xγmxH
=( ) x 23.54 x 8
W = 612.04 kN
x =1.78m.
Z=x+( )
Z=1.78+ ( )

Z=2.69 m.
Eccentricity (e),
e = z- ( )
= 2.69 - ( )
e = - 0.81m. (hogging)
Maximum stress
σ max = (1+ )
= (1+ )
ς max =148.13 kN/m2

Minimum stress
σ mini = (1- )
= (1- )
ς min =26.72 kN/m2.

problem :4
A masonry dam 1m wide at the top, 4m wide at the base and 6m height with the water
side is vertical. The water stored up to the top of wall. Find the maximum and minimum
normal intensities at the base, it’s the specific weight of masonry is 22kN/m 3. Calculate
also the normal stress intensities when reservoir empty.
Given data:
Top width, a=1m
Bottom width, b=4m
Height of dam, H=6m
Height of water, h=6m
Specific weight of masonry ,γm=22 KN/m3
Specific weight of water ,γw=9.81 KN/m3
To find :
1.Maximum stress ,σ max
2.Minimum stress ,σ mini
3.Normal stress intensity when reservoir empty
Solution:
Weight of dam,
w=( )x γm x H
=( ) x22x 6
=330 KN

x=
=
x=1.4m
=
=
=176.58 kN
Z=x+( )
Z =1.40 + ( )
Z=2.47 m
Eccentricity(e) ,
e=z-( )
= 2.47 - ( )
e = 0.47m.
(i) When the reservoir is full:
Maximum stress
σ max = (1+ )
= (1+ )
ς max =140.66 kN/m2
Minimum stress
σ mini = (1- )
= (1- )
ς mini =24.34 kN/m2
(ii) When the reservoir is empty
Lateral water pressure,
P=0
Weight of dam ,
w= 330 kN
x=1.40m
z= x=1.40m
e = z- ( )
e = 1.40 - ( )
= - 0.6 m
Maximum stress
σ max = ( 1+ )

= (1+ )
ς max =156.75 KN/m2(compression)
Minimum stress
σ mini = ( 1- )
= (1- )
ς mini = 8.25 KN/m2(compression)
answer:
i)When the reservoir is full:
σ max= 140.66 KN/m2 (compressive)
σ mini= 24.34 KN/m2 (compressive)
ii)When the reservoir is empty
σ max= 156.75 kN/m2 (compressive) @A
σ mini= 8.25 kN/m2 (compressive) @B
Problem:5
A trapezoidal masonry dam 1.5m width at top and 5m wide at the base .it is 8.0m height
with a vertical water face and retains water face and retains water to a depth of 7.5m. find
the maximum and minimum stress intensities at the base. take weight masonry as 22
kN/m3 and weight of water as 9.81 kN /m3.
Given data
Top width , a = 1.5m
Height of dam, H = 8m
Height of dam, h = 7.5m
Specific weight of masonry, γm= 22kN/m3
Specific weight of water, γw= 9.81 kN/m3
To Find
Max. and min. stresses at the base.
Solution
Consider 1m length of wall.
γ
P=
= =275.91 kN
Weight of dam,
W= x γm x H
= x 22 x 8 = 572.00 kN
̅=

= = 1.782 m
Z= ̅ + x
=1.782 +( x
Z = 2.99 m
e=z-
=2.99 - = 0.49 m
Max stress,
= (1+ )
= (1+ ) = 181.67 kN/m2(comp)
Min stress,
(1- )
= (1– ) = 47.13 kN/m2 (comp)
Result:
(i) Max. stress, ς = 181.67 kN/m2(comp)
(ii) Min .stress, ς = 47.13 kN/m2 (comp)
Problem: 6
A masonry dam 20 m high retains water to a depth of 18m.The top width of the dam is 5m
and bottom width is 15m. The relative density of masonry is 2.4.Calculate the normal stress
intensities at the base of the dam. Sketch the stress distribution.
Given data
Height of dam, H = 20 m
Height of water, h = 18 m
Top width of dam, a = 5m
Bottom width of dam, b = 15m
Relative density of masonry, ρ = 2.4
To Find:
Normal stress intensities at the base.
i.e.,
Solution
Relative density of masonry =
i.e.,ρ =
Take γw =9.81 kN/m3
i.e., 2.4 =
λ = 2.4 x 9.81 = 23.54 kN/m3

Consider 1m length wall
P=
= = 1589.22kN
Weight of dam,
W= x γm x H
= x 23.54 x 20 = 4708 kN
̅ =
= = 5.42 m
Z = ̅ +( x
=5.42 +( x ) = 7.45 m
Eccentricity,
e=z-
=7.45 - = - 0.05 m
Max stress,
= (1+ )
= (1+ ) = 320.144 kN/m2 at (A)
Min stress,
(1- )
= (1– ) = 307.59 kN/m2 (B)
Result:
i)Max. stress, ς = 320.144 kN/m2(comp) at (A)
ii)Min .stress, ς = 307.59 kN/m2 (comp) at (B)
Problem: 7
A trapezoidal masonry dam is 3m wide at top. It is 52m high with a vertical water face
retains water to a depth of 51m. Calculate the necessary minimum base width of the dam
to ensure no tension is developed at the base. Weight of masonry is 24 kN/m 3 and weight
of water is 10kN/m3.
Given data
Top width, a = 3m
Height of dam, H= 52m
Height of water h= 51m
Specific weight of masonry, = 24 kN/m3
Specific weight of water, = 10 kN/m3
To Find:
Minimum base width, b = ?
Solution

P=
= = 1125 kN
Weight of dam,
W= x γm x H
= x 24 x 52 = 624 (3+b)
̅=
= =
Z= ̅ + x
= + x
= +
Z= --------(1)
For no tension condition,
e=
z = +e
= =
z= ---------------(2)
equating (1) and (2)
=
i.e., 2b (3+b) = + 3b + 91.94
i.e., 6b + 2 - – 3b – 91.94 = 0
i.e., + 3b -91.94 = 0
a = 1 , b = 3 , c = - 91.94
√
= 8.205 m (or) -11.205m

Adopt b = 8.205 m
Result:
Min.base width of dam to ensure no tension = 8.205 m

Problem:8
Calculate the minimum bottom width required for a dam of height 7m. Maximum depth of
water to be impounded is 6m.The top width of section is 1.25 m. The specific weight of
masonry is 22.5 kN/m3. Take Co- efficient of friction between masonry and earth is 0.6.
Given data
Height of dam, H = 7m
Height of water, h = 6m
Top width, a = 1.25m
Specific weight of masonry, γm = 22.5 kN/m3
Take Specific weight of water, γw = 9.81 kN/m3
Co- efficient of friction between
Masonry and earth, µ = 0.6
To find:
Minimum base width of the dam
i)To avoid tension at the base
ii)To avoid sliding
Solution
P=
= = 176.58kN
Weight of dam,
W= x γm x H
= x 22.5 x 7= 78.75 (1.25+b) kN
̅=
= =
Z= ̅ + x
= + x
= +
Z= --------(1)
(i) To avoid tension at the base
We know,
e=
z= +e
= =
z= ---------------(2)
=

i.e., 2b (1.25+b) = + 1.25b + 15.017
i.e., 2.5 b + 2 - – 1.25b – 15.017 = 0
i.e., + 1.25b -15.017 = 0
a = 1 , b = 1.25 , c = - 15.017
√
= 3.3m (or) -4.55m

Adopt b = 3.3 m
(ii) To avoid sliding

Force of safety against sliding =
i.e., = 1.5
= 1.5
i.e., 1.25 + b = 5.606
b = 4.356m
Result: Minimum base width = max. of all values of b= 4.356 m
Problem: 10
A trapezoidal masonry dam 3m wide at the top and 7m wide at base has to retain water an
its vertical face up to the top. Calculate maximum height of the dam to ensure no tension at
the base. Take weight of masonry as 20 kN/m3 and weight as 9.81 kN/m3.
Given data
Top width, a = 3m
Height of dam H= height of water h
Specific weight of masonry, γm = 20 kN/m3
Specific weight of water, γw = 9.81 kN/m3
To Find:
Height of dam, H to avoid tension at the base
Solution
P= (
= = 4.905
Weight of dam,
W= x γm x H
= x 20 x H= 100 H
̅=

= = 2.633 m
Z= ̅ + x
= 2.633 + x
Z= 2.633 + 0.0164 -------------(1)
For no tension condition
e=
z = +e
= =
z= ---------------(2)
2.633 + 0.0164 = 4.667
Result
Height of dam required to avoid tension, H = 11.136 m
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Two mark questions
1. What are the failure of Dams?
2. Define middle third rule.
3. State the shape of the elementary profile of a masonry dam.
4. State the conditions to avoid tension at the base.
5. Draw the elementary profile of a Masonry dam.
6. What is minimum base width of elementary profile of masonry dam?
7. Which are the main factors affecting the stability of a masonry dam?
8. When tension is developed at the base of a dam?
9. On what bass the base width of a masonry dam is determined?
Three mark questions
1. What are the causes of failure of masonry dams? State the conditions to check the
stability of dams.
2. What is an elementary profile of a dam? Sketch the same.
3. A trapezoidal masonry dam having 12m height retains of water to a height of 10m on its
vertical face. Find the horizontal water pressure if r =9.81KN/m8.
4. State and explain middle third rule for no tension at the base of dam.
5. Derive the condition for no tension at the base of masonry dam.
6. State the procedure to find the minimum base width of a masonry dam for no tension.
Ten mark questions
1. A trapezoidal masonry dam m wide at top, 5m wide at the base is 8m high. It retains
water to a depth of 7.5m on its vertical face. Calculate the maximum and minimum
stress intensities at the base. Take weight of masonry as 22 kN/m3 and that of water
as 9.81 kN/m3.
2. explain in details how the various checks are being done for ensuring the safety and
stability of a gravity type masonry dam.

3. A trapezoidal masonry dam 1m wide at top,4m wide at its bottom and 6m high is
retaining water on its vertical face to a height equal to the top of the dam. Determine
the maximum and minimum intensities of stress at the base. Take weight of masonry
as kN/m3 and that of water as 9.81 kN/m3.
4. A trapezoidal dam 3m wide at top, 8m wide at the base is 12 m high. Its retains water
up to a depth of 11m on the upstream vertical face. Take the weight of masonry as24
kN/m3 and that of water as 9.81 kN/m3.Check the stability of the dam for overturning
and sliding if µ= and F.O.S=1.5.
5. A trapezoidal masonry dam having 3m top width,8m bottom width and 12m high
retains water to a height of 11m on its vertical face. Check the stability of the dam, if
the masonry weighs 20 kN/m3 and co-efficient of friction between the bottom of
masonry and soil is 0.6.Take allowable compressive stress as 400 kN/m3 and weight of
water as 9.81 kN/m3.
6. A trapezoidal masonry dam 2.5m wide at toip 5.5m wide at the base is 15m high. It
retains water to a depth if 12m on its vertical face. Check the stability of the dam for
overturning and sliding if µ=0.60 and F.O.S =1.5.Take weight of masonry as 25 kN/m 3
ands that of water as 9.81 kN/m3.
7. A masonry dam of 11m height retains water on its vertical face for a height of 9m.The
width of the dam is 2m in the top 2m height and varies gradually to 5m at bottom,
with slope on one side only. Find the factor of safety of the dam against overturning if
unit weights of masonry and water are 20 kN/m3 and 10 N/m3respectively.
8. A gravity dam of trapezoidal cross section of 20m height stores water on its vertical
face for 18m height, with 2m free board. The top and bottom widths of dam are 4m
and 10m respectively. Draw the pressure distribution diagram at base. specific weight
of masonry ans water are 20 kN/m3and 10 kN/m3 respectively
9. A trapezoidal masonry dam 3m wide at top,12m wide at the base is 18m high. it
retains water up to a depth of 17m on its vertical face. Check the stability of the dam
for tension, sliding and crushing if µ=0.6 and F.O.S=1.5.Take the weight of masonry as
20 kN/m3 and that of water as 10 kN/m3.allowable compressive stress=400 kN/m3.
10. A trapezoidal masonry dam 3m wide at top,7m wide at the base has retains water on
its vertical face. Calculate the maximum height of the dam to ensure no tension at the
base. take weight of masonry as 22 kN/m3 and that of water as 9.81 kN/m3.
11. A masonry retaining wall 1m wide at top, 3m wide at base retains earth on its its
vertical face level with top. Determine the max height of dam required.
i) For no tension at base.
ii) To avoid sliding, F.S. against sliding=1.5
iii) To avoid over turning , F.S. against overturning=2.0
Take Unit weight of masonry = 23kN/m3 and Unit weight of earth= 18 kN/m3.
Angle of repose of soil=30°,µ=0.60.
12. A trapezoidal masonry dam 2m wide at top and 6m wide at base has to retain water
on its vertical face up to the top. Calculate the maximum height of the dam to ensure
that no tension is developed at the base. Take weight of masonry as 20kN/m 3 and
weight of water as 9.81kN/m3
5. DAMS AND RETAINING WALL
5.2 EARTH PRESSURE AND RETAINING WALLS

Definition – Angle of repose /Angle of Internal friction of soil– State of equilibrium of soil – Active
and Passive earth pressures – Rankine’s theory of earth pressure – Assumptions – Lateral earth
pressure with level back fill / level surcharge (Angular Surcharge not required)– Earth pressure
due to Submerged soils – (Soil retained on vertical back of wall only) – Maximum and minimum
stresses at base of Trapezoidal Gravity walls – Stress distribution diagrams – Problems – Stability
of earth retaining walls – Problems to check the stability of walls- Minimum base width for no
tension.
5.2. EARTH PRESSURE AND RETAINING WALL
5.2.1. Definition
A masonry structure constructed to retain the earth is called retaining wall. The
retained earth exerts pressure on the retaining wall is called earth pressure.
Types of retaining wall
a. Based on the cross section
1. Rectangular section
2. Trapezoidal section with vertical (or) inclined back.
b. Based on the forms of back fill
1. Retaining wall, earth level with top.
2. Retaining wall, retaining earth surcharged soil.
3. Retaining wall, retaining earth with surcharged load.
4. Retaining wall retaining submerged soil.

1) Retaining earth 2) Retaining earth with

level with top surcharged soil
q
H1 1
H2 2
3) Retaining wall with 4) Retaining earth with

submerged soil
surcharged load

5.2.2. Angle of repose of soil ()
Earth cannot be retained at a steeper slope, as it tends to slide and slip. The maximum natural
slope at which the soil particles will rest permanently due to internal friction, without further
slipping (or) sliding is called angle of repose of soil. It is denoted by .
5.2.3. State of equilibrium of soil

1. Elastic equilibrium of soil
A soil mass in the natural state of rest is said to be in the state of elastic equilibrium.
Let
pv = Vertical intensity of pressure. h
Pv
pv= h
pH= Intensity of lateral earth pressure. PH PH
pH= Ka x Pv = Ka x h
Where Pv
Ka= Coefficient of earth pressure
 = Specific weight of soil
h = Depth of soil mass from free surface of earth.
2. Plastic equilibrium of soil
When the soil mass is allowed to retained or contract laterally, until failure takes place, the
soil is said to be in plastic equilibrium of soil. The failure will be shear failure and exert the
pressure may active earth pressure or passive earth pressure.
5.2.4.1 Active earth pressure

The pressure exerted by the retained earth on the retaining wall is called active earth
pressure. Due to this pressure retaining wall tend to move way from earth.
pa = Intensity of active earth pressure
p a = Ka x  x H
Where
 1  sin   2 
Ka = 
 1  sin   = tan (45- 2 )
 
= coefficient of active earth pressure
5.2.4.1 Passive earth pressure.

The pressure exerted by the retaining wall (or) contract soil on the retained earth is called
passive earth pressure. Due to this pressure retaining wall tend to move towards the earth.
But it will happen rarely.
Pp = The intensity of passive earth pressure
Pp = Kp x  x H
Where
 1  sin   2 
Kp =   = tan (45 + 2 )
 1  sin  
= Coefficient of passive earth pressure
 = Unit weight of earth
H = Height of retaining walls

5.2.5. Rankine’s theory of earth pressure.
Rankine’s theory and coulomb’s theory of earth are available to determine the earth pressure
on retaining walls.
British Engineer Prof. W.J. Rankine was given the theory of earth pressure in 1857.
5.2.6. Assumption made in theory of Rankine’s earth pressure.

1. The retained soil mass is in the state of plastic equilibrium.
2. The retained soil mass is homogeneous, cohessionless.
3. The back of wall is smooth so that the frictional resistance between the wall and
retained earth is negligible.
4. The retained soil surface is a straight line.
5. The failure of retained earth is by shear along a plane called rupture plane.
5.2.7. Rankine’s lateral earth pressure on retaining wall

Case 1:
Retaining wall back fill level with top.
P = Rankine’s lateral earth pressure
H 2
P = Ka
2
0 a

H
P
h = H/3
Ka..H b
i) Pressure Diagram ii) Section

Where
 1  sin  
Ka =   = tan2 (45 -  )
 1  sin  
2

 = specific weight of earth
H = Height of retaining wall
 = Angle of repose of soil
Total earth pressure P = Area of pressure diagram

K H 2
P = 1 x (Ka..H) x H = a
2 2
= Ka H
2
P
2
This pressure will act at centre of gravity of pressure diagram.
ie at h from base
h =H
3
Case 2:
Retaining wall back fill with surcharged soil
 = Angle of surcharge of soil
 = Angle of repose of soil
 = Unit weight of earth
Cos   cos 2   cos 2 
Ka = Cos
cos   cos 2   cos 2 
The lateral pressure will be parallel to the inclined earth surface.
0 
P H
P
PH 
P Pv
h = H/3
Ka..H
i) Pressure Diagram ii) Section
H 2
Rankines earth pressure P = Ka
2
This pressure will act parallel to the inclined earth surface.
PH = Horizontal component of earth pressure
P
PH = P x cos  Pv

This will act at h = H from base.
3
PV = Vertical component of earth pressure

PV = P x Sin
This will act along the vertical face of the wall.
Case 3:
Retaining wall with surcharged load
Let
q = Intensity of uniform surcharged load (or) superimposed load over
the retained earth.
P = Total lateral earth pressure
P = P1 + P2
P1 = Pressure due to surcharged load
P1 = Area of pressure diagram of rectangle BCDE
P1 = (Ka x q) x H
This will act at ‘y1’ distance from base.
y1 =
P2 = Pressure due to retained earth

P2 = Area of pressure diagram of triangle ADE
1 H 2
P2 = x (Ka x .H) x H = Ka
2 2
C
q - Uniform surcharged load
D
P1 C1
H
G P
y1 C2
y y
y2 A
E B
Ka..H Ka.q
Pressure Diagram Section

This pressure will act at y2 distance from base
y2 = H distance from base.
3
P = (P1 + P2) = resultant pressure
This will act at y distance from base.
Taking moment about bottom of wall.
P x y = P1 x y1 + P2 y2
1
y = (P1 y1 + P2 y2)
P

Case 4:
Retaining wall with sub merged soil.
When a part or entire depth of retained earth is submerged, the lateral pressure on
the retaining wall is due to (i) Hydro static pressure (ii) Pressure due to dry earth (iii) Pressure
due to the submerged weight of soil.
Let
1 = Specific weight of dry soil to a depth H1 from top.
2 = Specific weight of saturated soil to a depth H2 from bottom.
 = 9.81 = Specific weight of water kN/m3.
 (sub) = (2 - ) = Specific weight of submerged soil (or buoyant weight)
 1  sin  
Ka =   = coefficient of active earth pressure
 1  sin  
P1 = Pressure due to top soil to a depth H1
P1 = Area of pressure diagram of le section
P1 = Ka 1 H12
This will act at y1distance from base y1 =  H 2  1 
H
 3
P2 = Area of pressure diagram of rectangular section
P2 = (Ka 1 x H1) H2
This will act at ‘y2’ distance from bottom. y2 = H 2
2
P3 = Pressure due to hydrostatic fore (water) and submerged soil.
P1 H1 1
D C1 E
P2 C2
2 H
y1 P P
C H2
y2 P3 y
y C3
y3
A F G B
.H2
Ka.(2-)xH2 Ka.1.H1
Pressure Diagram Section
1
P3 = x ( water H2 + Ka sub H2) H
2
This pressure will act at ‘y3’ distance from base.
P = P1 + P2 + P3 = (Total earth pressure)
This will act at y distance from base.
Taking moment about base
P x y = (P1.y1 + P2.y2+P3.y3)

1
y = (P1 y1 + P2 y2 + p3 y3)
P
5.2.8. Maximum and Minimum stress
Consider a trapezoidal section masonry retaining wall, retaining earth on its vertical face level
with top as shown in fig.
Let
a = Top width of wall
b = Bottom width of wall
 = Unit weight of masonry
 = Unit weight of soil
 = Angle of repose of soil a
D C

i. Weight of wall/m run (W)

 ab  x G H
W =  volume =  x   xHx1 P
 2 
V= W
W=x xH kN h = H/3
 W R
Toe
A B
This will act at x from vertical face.
b/2 e
Z
a 2  ab  b 2
x = b
3 ( a  b)
Rankine’s earth pressure/m (P)

H 2 R
P = Ka W
2 
Where
 1  sin  
Ka =   = tan2 (45 -  )
 1  sin   2
This will act at h from base h = H
3
V = Total vertical force at the base
V = W.
R = Resultant thrust [ V = W]
R = V P  W P
2 2 2 2
Position of resultant thrust (Z)

Taking moment about Heel (A)
W x Z = W. x + P x h
Z= +

y
e = (Z - b ) = eccentricity of resultant thrust
2
M = (W x e) = moment due to eccentric force x G W x
1m
Area A = b x 1
 db 3 

 
I yy  12  1 x b 2

3
  b/2 e
Zy =
x b  
2
b
2
b
y
2
b
Zy =
6
Stresses at base ()
W
c = = Direct compressive stress due to weight of wall
A
M W x e 6W . e
b = = 2  2 = Bending
Z b b
6
 = c  b = Total stress at base
 W 6W . e  W  6 e 
 =   2   1  
 (b x 1) b  b b 
W  6e 
max =1   = maximum stress at toe (B)
b b 
W  6e 
min = 1   = minimum stress at heel (A)
b b 
Stress distribution diagram
The value of maximum and minimum stresses are based on the eccentricity (e) of
vertical force at base as given below.
min
A B (-)
A B
A B
min min = 0
(+)
(+)
max
(+)
max
max
(ii) e > b/6 (iii) e = b/6
(i) e < b/6
5.2.9. Stability of retaining wall

Causes of failures of retaining wall.
1. Tension at the base of wall
2. Sliding of wall along the base
3. Overturning of wall about toe.
4. Crushing of masonry at the base of wall.
Stability of retaining wall

Following are the conditions of stability of wall.
i. To avoid tension at base
b
e< (or) Z 2 b
6 3

 6e 
min  1    0
 b 
Total frictional force
Horizontal force
 xw
P
for design purpose F.S.  1.5
iii. To avoid overturning
Balancing moment
F.S. (Overturning) =  1.0
Overturning moment
W (b  x)
F.S. (Overturning) =  1.0
P xh
Design purpose FS = 1.5 to 2.00
iv. To avoid crushing
Maximum compressive stress should be less than allowable compressive stress. (Safe bearing
capacity of soil)
max < SBC of soil.
RETAINING WALL
Problem 1
A trapezoidal masonry retaining wall 1m wide at top, 3m wide at its bottom is 8m high. It
retaining earth having level with the top of the wall on its vertical face. Find the max. min
stress intensities at the base of the wall. If wt. of masonry is 24 kN/m 3 and earth is 18
kN/m3 the angle of repose of earth is 40.
Given
D C
a = 1m 
b = 3m
H = 8m
 = 24 kN/m3
x G H
 = 18 kN/m3
P
 = 40
V=W
h = H/3 W R
Required Heel Toe
 6e 
A B
w
= 1   = ? b/2 e
b  b  Z
Solution b
i. Weight of wall per metre (W)

 a b   1 3 
W =  xH = 24  x 8 = W = 384 kN
 2   2 
This will act at x distance from vertical face
a 2  ab  b 2 12  (1 x 3)  3 2
x = = = x = 1.08m
3 ( a  b) 3 (1  3)

ii. Rankine’s earth pressure per metre run (P)
 H 2 
P = Ka.  
 2 
 1  sin    1  sin 40 

Ka =   =   = 0.2174
 1  sin    1  sin 40 
18 x 82
P = 0.2174 x
2
P = 125.25 kN
This will act at a distance h from base

h = H 3 8
3
iii. Position of resultant thrust (R)

P
Z = x h
W
125.25 
Z = 1.08 +  x 2.67 = Z = 1.95m
 384 
Eccentricity (e)
e =Z– b 2 = (1.95 – 3 2 ) = e = 0.45
Stress at base ()

W  6e 
 = 1  
b  b 
W  6e  384  6 x 0.45 
max = 1   at toe = 1  
b  b  3  3 
max = 243.2 kN/m

(Compression)
2
w  6e  384  6 x 0.45 
min = 1   = 1   (Compression)
b  b  3  3 
min = 12.8 kN/m2
Stress diagram
A B
min
(+)
max

Problem 2
A retaining wall 1m wide at top 3m wide at base 6m high retains earth on its vertical face
leveled with top unit wt. of masonry and earth are 23 kN/m 3 and 18 kN/m3 respectively.
Determine
i. Rankines earth pressure 1m run
ii. Resultant thrust
iii. Stresses at the base
iv. Check the stability of wall
Take  = 0.6, max allowable stress = 300 kN/m2 the angle of repose of soil is 30.
Given D C
a = 1m

b = 3m
H = 6m
 = 23 kN/m2
 = 18 kN/m2 x G H
 = 30
 = 0.6
P
SBC = 300 kN/m2 V=W
h = H/3 W R
Heel Toe
Required
A B
w  6e 
= 1   b/2 e
b  b  Z
Solution b
i. Weight of wall 1m (w)

 a b   1 3 
W =  H = 23x   x6 W = 276 kN
 2   2 
a 2  ab  b 2 12  (1 x 3)  3 2
x = = x = 1.08m
3 ( a  b) 3 (1  3)
ii. Rankine’s earth pressure per metre (P)

 H 2 
P = Ka .  
 2 
 1  sin    1  sin 30 
Ka =   =   = 0.333
 1  sin    1  sin 30 
18 x 62
P = 0.333 x
2
P = 108 kN
This will act at a distance h from base

h = H 36
3

Resultant earth pressure (R)
R = W 2  P2 = 276 2 108 2 R = 296.38 kN
Position of Resultant pressure (Z)

P 108
Z = x h = 1.08 + x2 Z = 1.86m
W 276
Eccentricity (e)
e =Z– b 2 = 1.86 – 3 2 e = 0.36m
Stress at base
W  6e 
 = 1  
b  b 
W  6e  276  6 x 0.36 
max = 1   = 1   at toe
b  b  3  3 
max = 158.24 kN/m2 (Compression)
w  6e  276  6 x 0.36 
min = 1   = 1   at heel
b  b 3  3 
min = 25.76 kN/m2 (Compression)
Stress diagram
A B
min
(+)
max
Check the stability of wall

i. To avoid tension
min  0 (or) e b6 (or) z 23b
e = 0.36 m
b6 =36 = 0.5m
e < b 6 (Safe)
Hence tension will not be developed at base
iii. To avoid sliding
w
F.S. =  1.0
P
0.6 x 276
F.S. (Sliding) = = 1.53
108
1.53  1.0 ; Hence safe against sliding.
iii. To avoid failure from crushing
SBC > max
SBC = 300 kN/m2
max = 158.24 kN/m2
SBC > max (Hence safe)

iv. To avoid over turning
W (b  x)
F.S. = = 1.0
Ph
276 (3 1.08)
F.S. = = 2.45 > 1.0 (Hence Safe)
108 x 2
Hence safe against over turning.
Problem 3
A retaining wall 1m wide at top 6m high retains earth on its vertical face level with top. The
unit wt. of masonry and earth are 23 kN/m3 and 16 kN/m3 respectively. Determine the min.
base width required to avoid.
i) Tension and ii) Sliding F.S. against sliding = 1.5
The angle of repose of soil is 30, Take  = 0.6
Given
a = 1m D C
H = 6m 
 = 0.6
 = 23 kN/m3
 = 16 kN/m3
 = 30 x G H
P
Required V=W
b=? h = H/3 W R
Heel Toe
Solution A B
i. Weight of wall per metre (W) b/2 e
 ab  1  b 
Z
W =   H = 23  x 6 b
 2   2 
w = 69 (1 + b) kN .......... (1)
a 2  ab  b 2 12  1 x b  b 2
x = =
3 ( a  b) 3 (1  b)
. . . . . . . . . . = (2)
ii. Rankine’s earth pressure (P)

 H 2 
P = Ka.  
 2 
 1  sin    1  sin 30 
Ka =   =   = 0.333
 1  sin    1  sin 30 
16 x 62
P = 0.333 x
2
P = 96 kN

iii. Position of Resultant pressure (Z)
P 1 b  b 2 96 6
Z = x h = + x
W 3 (1  b) 69 (1  b) 3
1 b  b2 0.348 b 2  b1  1  8.348
=  =
3 (1  b) 3 (1  b) 3 (1  b)
Z=
Maximum base width required (b)
a) To avoid tension
Z 23b
2 b 2  b  9.348
b =
3 3 (1  b)
2b (1 + b) = b2 + b + 9.348
2
2b + 2b = b2 + b + 9.348
b2 + b – 9.348 = 0
 1  12  4 x 1 x ( 9.348)
b=
2
b1 = 2.6m
b) To avoid sliding
w
F.S =  1.5
P
0.6 x 69 (1  b)
= 1.5
96
96
1+b = x 1.5 = 3.48
0.6 x 69
b = 3.48 –1
b2 = 2.48 m
Minimum base width = Maximum of b1 & b2
Result
Minimum base width required (b) = 2.6m
Problem 4
A masonry retaining wall of trapezoidal section with a vertical face of 1m wide at top
and 3m wide at bottom with a height of 6m. It retains sand over the entire height
with an angle of surcharge 20. Determine the stress intensities at the base of the
wall. The sand wt. is 18kN/m3 and an angle of repose of soil is 30. The masonry wt.
of 24 kN/m3.

Given
Top width a = 1m
Bottom width b = 3m  a
Height H = 6m D C
Angle of surcharge  = 20
Angle of repose of soil  = 30
P
Weight of masonry  = 24 kN/m3 x G H
Weight of soil  = 18 kN/m3
PH
V = (W + Pv)
Required h = H/3 PV W R
V  6e  Toe
 =
Heel
1   A B
b b b/2 e
Solution Z
b
i. Weight of wall run per metre run (W)
 ab   1 3 
W =  H = 24  6
 2   2 
W = 288 kN
a 2  ab  b 2 12  (1 x 3)  3 2
x = =
3 ( a  b) 3 (1  3b )
= 1.08m
ii. Rankines earth pressure per metre run (P)

 H 2 
P = Ka x  
 2 
 cos   cos 2   cos 2  
Ka 
= cos 
 cos   cos 2   cos 2  

 cos 20  cos 2 20  cos 2 30 
Ka 
= cos 20 
 cos 20  cos 2 20  cos 2 30 
 
0.9397  0.9930  0.75
Ka = 0.9397 x
0.9397  0.883  0.75
 0.9397  0.3647  0.575
Ka = 0.9397 x   = 0.9397 x
 0.9397  0.3647  1.3044
Ka = 0.414
2 2
P = Ka x ω H = 0.414 x 18 x 6 = 134.14 kN
2 2
PV = P x sin  = 134.14 x sin 20 = 45.88 kN
Pv = 45.88 kN

This will act along the vertical face of wall
PH = P x cos 
This will act at h distance from base.
P
h = H = 6 = 2m Pv
3 3
= 2m 
H
Total vertical force (V)
V = W + PV = (288 + 45.88) = 333.88 kN
V = 333.88 kN
Resultant thrust per metre run (R)

= V 2  PH  333.88 2 126 2
2
R
R = 356.86 kN
This resultant pressure will hits the base at ‘Z’ distance from vertical face.

Taking moment about A (heel)
V x Z = (W x ) + (PH x h ) + (PV x 0)
1
Z = (W x + PH h )
V
1
Z = ((288 x 1.08) + (126 x 3))
333.88
Z = 1.60m
 3
Eccentricity e = (Z – b ) = 1.60   = 0.1m
2  2
Stress intensities at the base ()
V  6e 
 = 1  
b  b 
V  6e 
max = 1   at toe (B)
b  b 
333.88  6 x 0.1 
max = 1 
2
 = 133.55 kN/m (Comp.)
3  3 
V  6e 
min = 1   at heel (A)
b  b 
333.88  6 x 0.1 
min = 1  
3  3 
min = 89.03 kN/m2 (Comp.)

Stress diagram
A B
min
(+)
max
Problem 5
A retaining wall 1.5m wide at top 4m wide at base and 8m high retains earth on its vertical
face with surcharge of 15 and angle of repose of 30 unit wt. of masonry and earth are 23
kN/m3 and 18 kN/m3 of the respectively. Determine
i. Rankine’s earth pressure
ii. Stress intensities at base
iii. Check the stability of wall
for tension sliding, overturning and crushing,
Take  = 0.6, maximum allowable stress = 300 kN/m2
Given
Top width a = 1.5m
Bottom width b = 4m  a
Height H = 8m D C
Weight of masonry  = 23 kN/m3
Weight of soil  = 18 kN/m3 P
 = 0.6 x G H
2
Maximum allowable stress = 300 Kn/m PH
Angle of repose  = 15 V = (W + Pv)
h = H/3 PV W R
Required Heel Toe
V  6e  A
e
B
i)  = 1  
b/2
b b  Z
ii) Check for the stability. b
Solution
i. Weight of wall per metre run (W)
 ab   1.5  4 
W =   H = 23  8
 2   2 
W = 506 kN
a 2  ab  b 2 1.5 2  (1.5 x 4)  4 2
x = =
3 ( a  b) 3 (1.5  4)
= 1.47m
ii. Rankine’s earth pressure per metre run (P)

 cos   cos 2   cos 2  
Ka = (cos )  
 cos   cos 2  cos 2  
 

 cos 15  cos 2 15  cos 2 30 
Ka = (cos 15)  
 cos15  cos 2 15  cos 2 30 
 
0.9659  0.933  0.75
Ka = 0.9659 x
0.9659  0.933  0.75
 0.9659  0.4277  0.5382
Ka = 0.9659 x    0.9659 x
 0.9659  0.4277  1.3936
Ka = 0.373
H2  18 x 8 2 
P = Ka x = 0.373 x  
2  2 
P = 214.86 kN
PV = P x sin 
= 214.86 x sin 15
P
PV = 55.60 kN Pv

H
This will act along the vertical face of wall.
PH = P cos 
Pv = 214.86 x cos 15
PH = 207.54 kN
This will act as h from base.

h = H  8 = 2.67
3 3
= 2.67
Total vertical force (V)

V = W + PV = 506 + 55.60
V = 561.60 kN
Resultant thrust (R)

= V 2  PH 561.60 2  PH
2 2
R =
R = 598.72 kN

Taking moment about A.
1 1
Z = [W x + (PH h ) + (PV x 0)] = [W x PH h + (PV x 0)]
V V
1
Z = (560 x 1.47 + 207.54 x 2.67)
561.60
Z = 2.31m

Eccentricity (e)
e =Z- b = 2.45 - 4
2 2
e = 0.45m
Stresses at base ()

V  6e 
 = 1  
b  b 
V  6e 
max = 1   at toe (B)
b  b 
561.60  6x 0.45 
max = 1  at toe
4  4 
max = 235.08 kN/m2 (Comp.)
V  6e 
min = 1   at heel (A)
b  b 
561.60  6x 0.45 
= 1 
4  4 
min = 45.63 kN/m2 (Comp.)
Stress diagram
A B
min
(+)
max

(i) To avoid tension at base
min  0
e  b (or) Z  2 b
6 3
e = 0.45 m
b = 4 = 0.67 m
6 6
e < b
6
Hence safe against tension.
(ii) F.S. against sliding

V
F.S. =  1.0
PH
0.6x 561.60
=
207.54
= 1.62 > 1.0 (Safe)
Hence safe against sliding.

(iii) F.S. against overturning
V (b  x) 561.60 (4 1.47)
F.S. = =
PH h 207.54 x 2.67
F.S = 2.56 > 1.0 Safe.
(iv) To avoid crushing

SBC > max
360 > 235.08 kN/m2 (Safe)
Hence safe against crushing.
Problem 6
A trapezoidal section retaining wall 2m wide at top, 4m wide at base and 6m high retains
earth level with top. The retained earth which transmits a uniform surcharged load 60
kN/m2. The angle of repose of soil is 30. The unit weight of masonry and earth are 24
kN/m3 and 18 kN/m3 respectively, calculate the magnitude and position of line of action
and position of line of action of horizontal earth pressure per meter length of wall.
Given
Top width a = 2m
Bottom width b = 4m
Height H = 6m
Uniform surcharged load q = 60 kN/m2
Specific weight of masonry  = 24 kN/m3
Specific weight of earth  = 18 kN/m3
Required
i) Horizontal pressure P = ?
ii) Position of horizontal pressure y = ?
Solution
Draw pressure diagram as shown in fig.
q - Uniform surcharged load

D C
P1 C1
H
P G P
y1 C2
y P2 y
y2 A
E B
Ka..H Ka.q
i. Coefficient of active earth pressure (Ka)
1  sin   1  sin 30 
Ka = =   0.333
1  sin   1  sin 30 
Horizontal earth pressure/m run (P)

P = P1 + P2
P1 = Pressure due to surcharged load
P1 = Area of rectangle BCDE
P1 = (Ka x q) x H = 0.333 x 60 x 6 = 120 kN
This will act at y1 distance from base.
H 6
y1 = = = 3m
2 2
P2 = Pressure due to retained earth
P2 = Area of triangle AED
1 1
P2 = x (Ka x  x H) x H = (0.333 x 18 x 6) x 6
2 2
P2 = 108 kN
H 6
y2 =  = 2m
3 3
Total horizontal pressure P = P1 + P2 = (120 + 108) = 228 kN.
This pressure will act at y distance from bottom.
Position of horizontal earth pressure (from base y )
Taking moment about bottom of wall.
P x y = P1 y1 + P2 y2
1 1
y = (P1 y1 + P2 y2) = (120 x 3 + 108 x 2)
P 228
y = 2.52m from base
Result
P = 228 kN
y = 2.52m
Problem 7
A trapezoidal retaining wall of 6m height is 2 metre wide at top 4 m wide at its bottom. It
retains earth on its vertical face to its full height. The bottom layer of soil of 1.5m height is
fully submerged in water, check the stability of the wall against overturning. If the unit
weights of dry soil, wet soil and masonry are 16 kN/m3, 19 kN/m3 and 23 kN/m3
respectively and angle of repose of soil is 30. Take unit weight of water 10 kN/m3.
(Oct. 2009)
Given
Top width a = 2m
Bottom width b = 4m
Height H = 6m
H2 = 1.5m
H1 = (6 – 1.5) = 4.5m
1 = 16 kN/m3
2 = 19 kN/m3
Weight of masonry  = 23 kN/m3
(water) = 10 kN/m3
 = 30
Unit weight of submerged soil (sub) = (2 - water)
(sub) = (19 – 10) = 9 kN/m3
Required
Check the stability
Solution
Consider one metre length of wall.
i. Weight of wall/m run (W)
( a  b) 23 (2  4)
W=( xH  x 6 = 414 kN
2 2
This will act at a distance x from Vertical face
a 2  ab  b 2 2 2  (2 x 4)  4 2
x  = 1.55m
3 ( a  b) 3 (2  4)
Draw pressure diagram as shown in fig.
C a
P1 H1 1
D C1 E
P P x G
G H
y1 P2
C2 H2 2
y P3 W
y2 C3 V=W
y3
A F G B
b/2 e
(Water).H2
Z
Ka.Sub).H2 Ka.1.H1 b
(1  sin  ) 1  sin 30 1
Ka =   = 0.333
(1  sin  ) 1  sin 30 3 Pressure Diagram Section
Intensity of pressure due to top soil to a depth of (H1) = K a x 1 H1

= (0.333 x 16 x 4.5) = 24 kN/m2
Intensity of pressure due to water to a depth of (H2) = water x H 2
2
= 10 x 1.5 = 15 kN/m
Intensity of pressure due to submerged soil = K a x ( sub) x H 2
= 0.33 x 9 x 1.5 = 4.5 kN/m2
i. Total horizontal pressure/m run (P)

P = P1 + P2 + P3
P1 = Pressure due to top soil to a depth ‘H1’

= Area of e CDE = 1 x (Ka x 1 H1) H1
2
1 
P1 =  x 24 x 4.5  = 54 kN
2 
 H   4.5 
y1 =  H 2  1  1.5    = 3.0m
 3   3 
= Area of rectangle BCEF
= (Ka 1 H1) x H2 = 24 x 1.5 = 36 kN
This will act at a depth y2 from base
H 2 4.5
y2 =  = 2.25m
2 2
P3 = Pressure due to water and due to submerged soil
= Area of triangle AFE
1
= x (Ka x (sub) x H2 + water x H2)
2
1
= [(0.333 x 9 x 1.5) + (10 x 1.5)] x 1.5
2
1
P3 = (4.5 + 15) x 1.5 = 14.625 kN
2
This will act at ‘y3’ distance from base
H 1.5
y3 = 2  = 0.5m
3 3
 P = P1 + P2 + P3 = (54 + 36 + 14.625) = 104.625 kN
This total horizontal pressure will act at y from base.
Taking moment about bottom
P x y = (P1 y1 + P2 y2 + P3 y3)
104.625 y = (54 x 3) + (36 x 2.25) + (14.625 x 0.5) = 250.31
 250.31 
y =  = 2.39m
 104.62 

P
Z= x + x y
W
 104.625 
Z = 1.55 +   x 2.39 = 2.15m
 414 
Eccentricity e = (Z - b ) = (2.15 - 4 )
2 2
e = 0.15m
iv. Stresses at the base

W  6e 
= 1  
b  b 
W  6e 
max = 1   at base
b  b 

414  6 x 0.15 
max = 1 
2
 = 126.78 kN/m (Comp.)
4  4 
W  6e 
min = 1   at heel
b  b 
414  6 x 0.15 
min = 1 
2
 = 80.21 kN/m (Comp.)
4  4 
Stress diagram
A B
min
(+)
max
Check the stability
i. To avoid tension
b b 4
e ≤ = = = 0.6 mm
6 6 6
b
e = 0.15 < Hence no tension at base.
6
ii. To avoid overturning
W (b  x) 414 (4 1.55)
F.S = 1.0 =  4.0 1.0
P xh 104.625 x 2.39
iii. To avoid sliding

 x W 0.6 x 414
F.S =  = 2.37 > 1.00
P 104.625
Hence safe.
Solved Problems:
Problem:1
A trapezoidal masonry retaining wall 1.2m wide at top, 3.6m wide at base is 6m high. The
vertical face retains earth up to the top with an angle of repose of soil as . Take weight
3 3
of masonry as 23 kN/m and that of earth as 16KN/m . Check the sliding of retaining wall
for overturning and sliding. If µ=0.60 and F.O.S= 1.5
Given data:
Top width, a=1.2m
Bottom width, b=3.6m
Height, H=6m
Angle of repose of soil =
Weight of masonry, γm =23 KN/m3
Weight of soil, γ = 16 KN/m3
To Find :
(i) ς= (1 )
(ii) Check the stability of retaining wall for overturning and sliding.

Solution:
(i) weight of wall per meter run ( W )
W = γm ( )H
=23 ( x6
This will act as ̅ distance from vertical face

̅ =
= =1.3 m
(ii) rankine’s earth pressure per meter run (P)
P=
= =(
=( ) = 0.33
P = 0.33x( )
P = 95.04 kN.
It will act at a distance ̅ from base
̅ = = = 2m
(iii) resultant thrust (R) per meter run
R =√ =√ = 344.56 kN
(iv) position of resultant thrust (R)
z=̅ ̅
= 1.3+ (
z =1.87 m
(v) eccentricity
e=z-
= 1.87 - = 0.07m
e = 0.07 m
(vi) stress at base (σ)
ς= )
= )
2
=102.73 kN/m
= 102.73 kN/m2 (compression )

= ) =81.267 kN/m2
To avoid over turning
̅̅̅
F.S = ̅
= = 4 > 1.0 ( Hence safe )
Hence safe against overturning
To avoid sliding
F.S = = 1.0
F.S(sliding) = = 2.07
2.09 1.0
Hence safe against sliding
Problem:2
A retaining wall 7.5m high a vertical face supports loose earth at a surcharged of to the
horizontal. If the earth has of repose of and has an angle. Specific weight of 16KN/m3.
Calculate the earth pressure per meter length of wall by rankine’s formula. Also Calculate
the horizontal and vertical components of the above earth pressure
Given data:
Height of wall h=7.5 m
Surcharge angle α =
Angle of repose Φ=
Specific weight of earth γe =16kN/m3
To Find
(i) earth pressure =?
(ii) Horizontal pressure = ?
(iii) Vertical pressure=?
Solution:
Co -efficient of active earth pressure
√
= cos α x
√
√
= Cos x √
√
=0.9397 x = 0.57
√
=0.32
Earth pressure per meter length oh wall
p=
=
P =144kN
Horizontal component,
=P
= 144 x
= 135.32 kN
Vertical pressure component,
=P
= 44 x
= 49.25 kN

Result:
(i) Earth pressure per meter length of wall P=256.5 kN
(ii) Horizontal component, = 241.03 kN
(iii) Vertical component, = 87.7 kN
Problem:3
A masonry retaining wall of 1m wide at top and 3m wide at bottom retains earth on the
vertical face up to the top. Calculate the maximum height of the wall to ensure safety
against sliding. If the factor of safety against sliding is 1.5 co-efficient of friction is 0.6.
specific weight of masonry is 22KN/m3 and specific weight of soil is 18KN/m3 angle of
repose 300
Given data:
Top width of wall, a=1m
Bottom width of wall, b= 3m
F.O.S against sliding = 1.5
Specific weight of masonry γm = 22 KN/m3
Co – efficient of friction, µ = 0.6
Angle of repose, Φ = 300
Specific weight of soil γ =18 kN/m3
To Find:
Maximum height of the wall to ensure safety against sliding
Solution:
Co-efficient of action earth pressure
= =(
=( ) = 0.333
Lateral earth pressure
P=
= 0.333x( )
P = 3h2
Weight of retaining wall
W= (a+b)
= (1+3)
W= 44h
To avoid sliding F.O.S =
1.5 =
h= 5.87m
Problem:4
A retaining trapezoidal in section 10m high,1m wide at top, 3.2 m wide at bottom with a
vertical face retains earth level with the top of the wall. If the weight of the masonry is 24
kN/m3 and that of earth is 18 kN/m3 with an angle of repose of 400. Calculate the maximum
and minimum stresses at the base.

Given data:
Height of wall, h =10m
Top width, a =1m
Bottom width, b =3.2m
Specific weight of earth, γe= 18 kN/m3
Specific weight of masonry, γm =24 kN/m3
Angle of repose of soil, Φ =400
To Find:
Maximum and minimum stresses at the base.
i.e., and
Co-efficient of active earth pressure
= = 0.217
P=
= 0.217x( )
P = 195.30 kN
W= (a+b)
= (1+3.2)
W= 504 kN
̅ =
=
=1.146 m
Z=̅
= 1.146+ (
Z = 2.44m
eccentricity (e),
e=z-
= 2.44 – = 0.84 m
e = 0.84 m
stress at base (σ)
ς= )
= ) =393.75 kN/m2
= ) = - 78.75 kN/m2
= 78.75 kN/m2 (tension )

Result:
= 78.75 kN/m2 (tension )
Problem:5
A retaining wall trapezoidal in section is 8m high. 1m wide at top and 3m wide at the
bottom with a vertical earth face retains earth level with the top of the wall. If the weight
of masonry is 24 kN/m3 and that of the earth is 18 kN/m3 with an angle of repose of 300.
Calculate the maximum and minimum stress at base.
Give data:
Height, h =8m
Top width, a =1m
Bottom width, b =3m
Weight of masonry, γm= 24 KN/m3
3
Weight of earth e= 18 KN/m
Angle of repose Φ =300
To Find:
check the stability of wall
Solution:
Co-efficient of action earth pressure
= = 0.333
= 0.333
Lateral earth pressure =
=
P = 191.808 kN
W= (a+b)
= (1+3)
W= 384 kN
̅=
=
̅ =1.08 m
Z= ̅
= 1.08+ (
Z =2.41 m
eccentricity
e=z-
= 2.41 – = 0.91m
e = 0.91 m
check for stability
(i) Check for tension at the base
e = 0.91m

= = 0.5m
e > , the retaining wall is not safe against tension.
(ii)Check the overturning
Overturning moment = P x
= 191.808 x
=511.48 kN.m
Stabilizing moment = W ( b - ̅
= 384 ( 3 – 1.08 )
=737.28 kN.m
Factor of safety =
= = 1.44 < 1.5
The retaining wall is not safe

(iii) Check for sliding
Force causing sliding P= 191.808 KN
Force resisting sliding =µ.W
=0.6 x 384
= 230.4 kN
Force of safety =
= = 0.6 < 1.5
The retaining wall is not safe against sliding
Problem:6
A retaining wall 2m wide at top, 4m wide at the base and 6m high retains earth to its full
height on the vertical face. There is a road on the top of retaining earth which transmits
uniform surcharged load of 60 KN/m2. Take weight of masonry and earth are 24KN/m3 and
18kN/m3. An angle of earth as 400. Calculate the magnitude and the position of line of
action of horizontal earth pressure per meter length of wall.
To Find :
(i) Horizontal pressure P=?
(ii) Position of horizontal pressure ̅ =?
Solution :
(i) Co-efficient of active earth pressure ( )
= = 0.217
= 0.217

Given data:
Top width, a=2m
Bottom width, b= 4m
Height, H= 6m
Uniform surcharged load,q= 60 kN/m2
Angle of repose of soil, Φ=400
Specific weight of earth, = 18 kN/m3
Specific weight of masonry, = 24 kN/m3
(ii) Pressure diagram

Intensity of pressure due to surcharged load at top = xq
Intensity of pressure due to surcharged load at bottom =
Draw pressure diagram of rectangle BCDB as shown in figure.
Intensity of pressure due to earth at top (h=0) =
Intensity of pressure due to earth at bottom (h=H) =
Draw pressure diagram of triangle AED as shown in figure.
(iii) Horizontal earth pressure per meter run (P)

P=P1+P2
P1= pressure due to surcharged load
P2= area of rectangle BCDE
P1= 0.218x60x6=78.48kN
This will act at y1 distance from base
Y1=
P2= pressure due to retained earth

P2=area of triangle AED
P2 = x (
= ( 0.217 x 18 x 6 ) x 6
P2 =70.308 kN
This will act at y2 distance from base
Y2= = =2m
Total horizontal pressure P =P1+P2
= 78.12+70.308=148.428 kN
This pressure will act at ̅ distance from bottom

(iv) Position of horizontal earth pressure ( from base ̅)
Px ̅ = P1Y1+P2Y2
̅ = (P1Y1+P2Y2)
= (78.12x3+70.308x2)
̅ =2.56 m from base
Result:
P=148.428kN
̅= 2.56m
Problem: 7
A retaining wall, 6m high with a smooth vertical back,
retains earth level with the top of the wall. Determine
the magnitude and line of action of the horizontal thrust per meter length of wall. The
weight of sand is 20 kN/m3 and its angle of repose is 400.
Given data
Height, h = 6m
Unit weight of sand, γ = 20 kN/m3
Angle of repose , Φ = 400
To Find:
Horizontal thrust ‘P’ =?
Line of action of P,y =?
Solution
Co- efficient of active earth pressure,
Ka =
= = 0.2174
Horizontal thrust per meter length of wall,

P=
= 0.2174 x
= 78.264 kN
Line of action y = =2m
Result
Horizontal thrust P = 78.264 kN acting of 2m above the base.

Problem: 8
A retaining wall of 5m high has a vertical earth face retains earth level with the top of the
wall. In the top 3m, the weight of retained material is 20 kN/m3 while below this level it
is 24kN/m3. The angle of repose of the two retained material is 30 0. The wall also carries
an uniform surcharge load of 18kN/m2 at the top. Calculate the magnitude and position of
lateral thrust on the wall.
Given data
Height of wall, h = 5m
Sp. Weight of soil for the top 3m γ1 = 20 kN/m3
Sp. weight of soil for the bottom 2m γ2 = 24kN/m3
Surcharge load at top q = 18 kN/m2
Angle of repose, Φ = 300
To Find:
Horizontal thrust P = ?
Line of action of horizontal thrust, y =?
Solution
Co- efficient of action earth pressure,
ka=
= = 0.333
P1 = pressure due to surcharge load ‘q’
= ka.q.h= 0.333 x 18 x 5 =29.97 kN
Y1 = = 2.5 m above the base.
Pressure due to the top soil of γ1 = 20 kN/m3
P2 = = 0.333 x = 29.97 kN
Y2 = 2+ x 3 = 3 m above the base
P3 = ka.γ1.h1.h2 = 0.333 x 20 x 3 x 2 =39.96 kN
Y3 = = 1m above the base

Pressure due to the bottom soil of = 24 kN/m3
P4 = = 0.333 x = 15.984 kN
Y4 = x 2 = 0.667 m above the base
Total horizontal earth pressure,
P = P1+P2+P3+P4
= 29.97 + 29.97 + 39.96 + 15.984
= 115.884 kN
Line of acting of P ,
Y=
=
= 1.776 m above the base
Result:
Total horizontal earth pressure, P = 115.884 kN acting at y = 1.776 m the base.
Problem: 9
A retaining wall triangular in section is 8m high and 4m wide at the base, with a vertical
face retaining earth level with the top of the wall. Draw curves of variation of (1) intensity
of earth pressure on the vertical face. (2) the nominal stress intensity on the base, if the
specific weight of earth is 20 kN/m3 with an angle of repose of 300 and the specific weight
of masonry is 24 kN/m3.
Given data:
Height of wall, h = 8m
Bottom of width, b = 4m
Specific weight of earth, γe = 20 kN/m3
Specific weight of masonry, γm = 24 kN/m3
Angle of repose of soil, Φ = 300
To Find:
(1) Intensity earth pressure on the vertical face.
(2) Nominal stresses at the base
Solution
Co- efficient of action earth pressure,
ka=
= = 0.333
(1)Intensity of earth pressure on the vertical face:
Intensity of earth pressure at top = 0
Intensity of earth pressure at the base = ka.γe . h
= 0.333 x 20 x 8
= 53.28 kN/m3
Lateral earth pressure,

P=
= 0.333 x
= 213.12 kN
Weight of retaining wall,
W=
= = 384 kN
̅ = = = 1.333 m
Z=̅+ x
= 1.333+
= 2.813 m
e = z - = 2.813 - = 0.813 m
2) Nominal stresses at the base:

= (1+ )
= (1+ )
= 213.072 kN/m2 (comp)
= (1- )
= (1- )
= - 21.072 kN/m2 (tension)

Result :
1. Intensity of earth pressure at the base = 53.28 kN/m2
2.Nominal stress at the base,
= 213.072 kN/m2 (comp)
= -21.072 kN/m2 (tension)
Problem: 10
A masonry retaining wall is 10 m high and has a vertical face on the earth side. The top
width of retaining wall is 1m and bottom width is 4m. The angle of repose is 300. Weight
of earth is 18 kN/m3 andweight of masonry is 24 kN/m3. Check the stability of the
retaining wall with respect to No tension state, (ii)over turning and (iii) sliding if µ = 0.6
and F.OS = 1.5.

Given data:
Height of wall h = 10m
Top width a = 1m
Bottom width b = 4m
Angle of repose Φ = 300
Specific weight of earth γe = 18 kN/m3
Specific weight of masonry γm = 24 kN/m3
Co- efficient of friction, µ = 0.6
Factor of safety F.O.S = 1.5
To Find:
Solution
Co- efficient of active earth pressure
ka =
= = 0.333
P=
= 0.333 x
= 299.97 kN
Weight of retaining wall,
W= ( a+b)
= ( 1+4) = 600 kN
̅=
= = 1.4m
Z=̅+ x
= 1.4 + x
= 3.07 m
e = z - = 3.07 - = 1.07 m
Check for stability
(i)Check for tension at the base
e = 1.07 m
= = 0.667 m
e > , the retaining wall is not safe against tension.
(ii) Check for over turning
Over turning moment = P x = 299.97 x = 999.9 kN.m
Stability moment = W ( b - ̅ )
= 600 ( 4 – 1.4 ) = 1560 kN.m
Factor of safety =
= = 1.56 > 1.5

The retaining wall is safe against over turning
(iii)Check for sliding
For causing sliding = P = 299.97 kN
Force resisting sliding = µ . W
= 0.6 x 600 = 360 kN
Force of safety =
= = 1.2 < 1.5
The retaining wall is not safe against sliding.
HIGHLIGHTS
Difference between active and passive earth pressure
Sl Active earth pressure Passive earth pressure

No
The lateral pressure exerted by the The lateral pressure exerted by the
1 retained earth on the retaining wall is retaining wall on the retained soil is known
known as active earth pressure. as passive earth pressure.
The wall tends to move away from the The retaining wall tends to move against
2 soil. the soil.
3 It is due to the expansion of soil. It is due to the contraction of soil.

The angle made by the failure plane with The angle made by the failure plane with
4 horizontal, i= 45+ horizontal i=45 -
The intensity of active earth pressure is The intensity of passive earth pressure is
5 given by Pa= ka . γ . h. given by Pp= kρ . γ . h. where
where h= height of soil retained and
h= height of soil retained and ka= coefficient passive earth pressure.
ka= coefficient active earth pressure. =
=
The active earth pressure is the practical The passive earth pressure is the
6 pressure which acts on the retaining wall. theoretical pressure which rarely comes
into play.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Two mark questions
1. Define angle of repose of soil.
2. Write the Rankine’s total earth pressure formula for the retaining wall retaining earth
with level back fill.
3. Write the Rankine’s total earth pressure formula for the retaining wall retaining earth
with angular surcharge.
4. What is an active earth pressure?
5. What is passive earth pressure?
6. What are state of equilibrium of soil?
7. What is meant by plastic equilibrium of soil?
8. What is an elastic equilibrium of soil?
9. At which point of the base, the bearing pressure will be maximum in a retaining wall?
10. What will be the co-efficient of passive earth pressure of soil having angle of repose
30°?
Three marks
1. Explain state of equilibrium of soil.
2. Explain active and passive earth pressure in retaining wall.
3. Explain the angle of repose of soil.
4. Distinguish between active and passive earth pressure.
5. What are the assumption made in Rankine’s theory of earth pressure?
6. Explain the Rankine’s theory of earth pressure.
7. What are the forces acting on the retaining will to keep it in equilibrium? Draw the
normal stress distribution diagram to avoid tension at the base.
8. State the conditions to check the stability of retaining wall.
9. Develop Rankine’s total earth pressure formula for the retaining wall retaining earth
with uniform surcharge.
10. Develop Rankine’s total earth pressure formula for the retaining wall retaining earth
with angular surcharge.
Ten marks
1. A retaining wall trapezoidal in section is 9m high, 2m wide at top and 3m wide at the
bottom with a vertical earth face retaining earth level with the top of wall. If the weight
of masonry is 24kN/m3 and that of the earth is 18 kN/m3 with an angle of repose of 30°.
Calculate the maximum and minimum stress at the base.
2. A retaining wall 7.5m high with a vertical face supports loose earth at a surcharge of 20°
to the horizontal, if the earth has an angle of repose of 35° and has a specific weight of
20 kN/m3. Calculate the earth pressure per meter length of wall by Rankine’s formula.
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the above earth pressure.

3. A retaining wall 6m high with a smooth vertical back retains earth level with the top of
the wall. Determine the magnitude and the line of action of the horizontal thrust per
meter length of wall. The weight of sand is 20 kN/m3 and its angle of repose 40°.
4. A trapezoidal masonry retaining wall 1m wide at top, 2m wide at the base is 7.5m high.
It retains earth on its vertical face with the top of the wall. The angle of repose of soil is
30°. Take weight of masonry as 22 kN/m3 and weight of earth as 18 kN/m3. Check the
stability of retaining wall, if the co-efficient of friction between masonry and soil as 0.60
and factor of safety as 1.50.
5. A retaining wall 2m wide at the top, 4m wide at the base and 6m high retains earth to its
full height on the vertical face. There is road on the top of retained earth which
transmits uniform surcharged load of 50 kN/m2. Take weight of earth as 18 kN/m3 and
angle of repose of earth as 30°. Calculate the magnitude and the position of line of
action of horizontal earth pressure per meter length of wall.
6. A trapezoidal masonry retaining wall 1.5m wide at the top, 5m wide at the base and 9m
high with a vertical face retains earth level with the top of the wall at 2m below the top
level, the foundation of structures transmits a uniform surcharged load of 120 kN/m2.
Take weight of earth as 20 kN/m3 and angle of repose of earth as 35°. Calculate the
magnitude and the position of the earth pressure on the retaining wall.

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Team Members for Theory of Structures

1.1 SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

1.1 SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 1

Fig 1.1 Elastic curve

Elastic curve Elastic curve

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 2

Fig 1.6 For a continuous beam

ie. Flexural rigidity = Young’s modulus x M.I

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 3

1.1.3 (b) Method of finding the slope and deflection

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 4

We know Fig 1.10

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 5

Where M dx = area of BMD

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 6

Consider a cantilever beam loaded as shown in fig.

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 7

By Mohr’s Theorem – II;

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 8

(ii) Slope & Deflection

(iii) Deflection (B)

(ii) Deflection (B)

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 10

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 11

Bending Moment @ A due to udl

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 12

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 13

Applying Mohr ‘ s theorem - I

Applying Mohr ‘ s theorem - II

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 14

(i) Bending Moment

Draw BMD by parts as shown in fig.1.13

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 15

Bending Moment at A due to udl

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 16

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 17

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 18

B.M. due to point load Wx l= 15 x 2 = 30 KN.m 20 KN/m

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 19

(ii). Total udl/m (w)

(ii) Safe udl (w/m)

iii) Maximum Slope

Safe udl (w) = 1.4112 KN/m.

1.1.7 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH CENTRAL POINT LOAD(W)

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 21

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 22

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 23

(iii) Deflection (max)

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 24

iii) Area of BMD

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 25

A = 29.16 x 10-3 radians = 0.0291 radians

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 26

(ii) Area of BMD (UDL)

Centriod of BMD (P.L)

THEORY OF STRUCTURES Page 27

(i) Bending moment