RESEARCH APTITUDE

Research: Meaning, types, and characteristics

The term research comprises two words, namely ‘re’ and ‘search’. Generally, ‘re’
means again and ‘search’ means to find out. According to Advanced Learner‟s
Dictionary, „research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially to search for new
facts in any branch of knowledge‟.
According to Creswell, „research is a process of steps used to collect and analyse
information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue‟.

Meaning, Types, And Characteristics

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a
particular topic. “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, How I Wonder What You Are” The use
of the words how and what essentially summarizes what research is. It is an
investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and
systematic analysis.
● It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths.
● Here knowledge means information about matters.
● The information might be collected from different sources like experience,
human beings, books, journals, nature, etc.
● Research can lead to new contributions to existing knowledge

From the definitions mentioned above, there is a general agreement that research
1. Is a process of enquiry and investigation
2. Is systematic and methodical and
3. Increases the knowledge.

By Mr. Cook
R = Rational way of thinking
E = Expert and exhaustive treatment
S = Search and solution
E = Exactness
A = Analysis
R = Relationship of facts C = Critical observation, careful planning, constructive
attitude and condensed generalisation
H = Honesty and hard working

Objectives of Research
The prime objectives of the research are :
 ● To discover new facts
● To verify and test important facts
● To analyses an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and
effect relationship
● To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and nonscientific problems
● To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and
● To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

Conclude -
1. Research is not confined to science and technology only.
2. There are vast areas of research in other disciplines such as languages, literature,
history and sociology.
3. Whatever might be the subject, research has to be an active, diligent and systematic
process of inquiry to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours and theories.

Characteristics of Research
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: It
must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable,
empirical and critical.

1) Controlled– in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of
control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set
up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship.
2) Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour
varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
3) Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation
follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard
way. Some procedures must follow others
4 ) Valid and verifiable- this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis
of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
5) Empirical- this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or observations.
6) Critical- critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial
to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.
Pure / Fundamental/ Basic
Pure research (Fundamental) involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses
that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have a
practical application at the present time or in the future.
The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of research methods.

Examples
• A study looking at how alcohol consumption impacts the brain
• A study to discover the components making up human DNA
• A study assessing whether stress levels make people more aggressive

• A study looking to see if gender stereotypes lead to depression

• A study searching for the causative factors of cancer
• A study on the growth process of oak trees
Benefits
•Expanding knowledge through basic research can have several benefits.
•Understanding living systems and living processes
•Helping to prepare for the future by equipping society for issues that may arise
•Providing a foundation for applied research
•Leading to medical advances

Applied Research
Applied research (Action Research) is done to solve specific, practical questions; for
policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon.
•It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive.
•It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.
•Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions.
•Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research
program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program.

Examples
•A study on how to improve illiteracy in teenagers
•A study on how to treat patients with insomnia
•A study trying to decrease fraud on social media platforms
•A study searching for ways to encourage high school graduates to attend college

Types of Applied Research

1) Action research: Action research helps businesses find practical solutions to
problems by giving them guidance.
2) Evaluation research: In evaluation research, researchers analyze existing
information to help clients make an informed decision.
3) Research and development: Research and development focuses on creating new
products or services to meet a target market's needs.

Action Research
Action research also means „learning by doing‟. The term „action research‟ was
coined during 1940s by Kurt Lewin, a German-American social psychologist who is
widely considered to be the founder of „Action Research’. He said „if you want to
know how things really are, just try to change them‟.

Action research refers to a wide variety of evaluative, investigative and analytical

research methods designed to diagnose problems or weaknesses, and help
researchers to develop practical solutions to address them quickly and efficiently.
-It may also be applied to programs or educational techniques that are not necessarily
experiencing any problems, but that researchers simply want to learn more about the
techniques and improve their knowledge.

Features of Action Research:

1. Situational and problem solving perspective: It usually emerges out of situational
needs and a solution to a problem is also designed with respect to the situation.
2. Intervention in real world: As problem emerges in practical real life situation, so
action is to be taken in real world as well.
3. Adoption of alternative practices: Through action research, we intend to discover
new and alternative ways to achieve our objectives, be it teaching or management
sector.
4. Immediate problematic situation: The focus may be more on problems that need
urgent attention.
5. Goals of social science: It is mostly in social situations, such as in educational
institutions.
6. Collaborative and participatory.
7. Co-learning: As action research is a collaborative approach, co-learning is also the
outcome.
8. Self-evaluative: Just as action research is self-initiated since it evolves out of the
perception of problems by the practising individual or group, it becomes self evaluative
where the action research team evaluates the outcome of the exercise.
9. Action research is a process
• Action research is a process by which change and understanding can be pursued at one
time.
• It is usually described as cyclic, with action and critical reflection taking place in
turn.
• The reflection is used to review the previous action and plan the next one.
• It is commonly done by a group of people, though sometimes individuals use it to
improve their practice

Stephen Kemmis has developed a simple model of the cyclical nature of the typical
action research process, that consists of four steps, such as planning, acting,
observing and reflecting

Scope of action research in education:

• Action research is a well-developed research technique.
• It is also widely used in various sectors, especially in sector education,
It covers almost every area of education as mentioned below.
1. Curriculum planning and course material development
2. Programme delivery and learning strategies
3. Student assessment and evaluation
4. Staff development
5. Management and administration
6. Behavioural changes, like attitudes, values, staff motivation, etc.
Thus, almost all areas have the potentiality of using action research for solving
problems and for improvement of practices.

Here, action research comes handy.

1. Suggesting a solution based on the above analysis.
2. Testing the solution herself or himself.
3. Accepting the solution only when it satisfies the above test.
Such a process adopted by the teacher to solve her or his own problem is called ‘action
research’.
Action research is done by practitioners themselves rather than professional researchers
Development and research
Development and research in any field of life cannot be separated from each other.
In order to effectively handle the intricacies of teaching-learning process, apart from
being properly trained, a teacher must also be able to comprehend the problems
emerging at every step of the process and to find their appropriate and scientific
solution.
A teacher may face many problems and he or she tries to find an instant solution based
on previous experiences, but many times such solution is either partial or temporary.
Thus, a teacher needs to find a solution which is based on research, so that the
solution obtained really solves the problem.

What is Variable ?
A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you
are trying to measure in some way.
• Dependent Variable
The variable that depends on other factors that are measured.
• For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change
depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got
the night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it.
• Independent Variable
The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to
measure.
• It is a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying
to measure.
• For example, someone's age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as
what they eat, how much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't
going to change a person's age.

Historical Research
1. It is another dimension of descriptive research and somewhat similar to ex post facto
research.
2. It usually focuses on the historical aspect of an issue of interest or problem.
3. Examples are growth of trade unions in India, evolution of modern education system
in India, etc.
Historical research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to interpret the
facts and explain the cause of events, and their effect in the present events. In doing
so, researchers focuses on primary historical data (direct accounts of events, archival
data - official documents, personal records, and records of eyewitnesses) and less
frequently on secondary historical data (information from persons who didn’t witness
the event; e.g. textbooks, newspapers, encyclopaedias).

Analytical research
1. In this method, the researcher uses facts or information already available.
2. It attempts to make critical evaluation of the material.
Examples. Examining the fluctuations of U. S. international trade balance during
1974-1995 is an example of descriptive research; while explaining why and how U.S.
trade balance move in a particular way over time is an example of analytical
research.

On the Basis of Objectives

1. Descriptive Research
2. Exploratory Research
3. Correlational Research
4. Explanatory Research
5. Experimental Research

Descriptive Research
• Attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or
programme, or provides information about, say, the living condition of a community, or
describes attitudes towards an issue.
• Descriptive research describes records, analyzes ′ and interprets the conditions that
exist, practices that prevail, beliefs, points of views or attitudes that are held, processes
that are going in effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.
• It involves some type of comparison or contrast and attempts to discover relationships
between existing non-manipulated variables.
• It can be of various types, like survey studies, interrelationship studies, causal
comparative studies and development studies.
• For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends
among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather
population data and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.

(a) How is the performance of learners related to their learning skills and study habits?
(b) Whether a relationship exists between the number of years spent in full-time
education and subsequent annual income?
(c) Whether there is a link between personality and achievement?

Types Of Descriptive Research

• Survey research, correlational studies, and causal comparative studies are the main
types of descriptive research.
• Ex post facto, historical, exploratory and analytical research are other variants of
descriptive research and many times are used interchangeably
1. Survey studies:.
• Surveys are conducted to create authentic descriptions of existing situation,
phenomena that help carrying out situational analysis, diagnosing problems and make
more informed decisions and intelligent plans for improving the situation.
•Researcher needs to collect data according to the purpose of survey

2. Correlational studies:.
The value of correlational research is to discover relationships among phenomena with
a view to predict and in some situations, controlling their occurrence. Much of social
sciences research in general and educational research in particular, is concerned with
establishing interrelationships .
Correlational studies are generally intended to answer the following three questions.
1) Is there a relationship between two variables (or two sets of data)? If ‘yes’, then two
other questions follow:
2) What is the direction of the relationship and is it positive or negative?
3) What is the magnitude of the relationship as indicated by the coefficient of
correlation?
Correlation Research
As the name indicates, the purpose of correlational studies is to explore whether there is
any relationship or interdependence between two variables or characteristics, and to
ascertain the degree of such relationships Attempts to discover or establish the existence
of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
• Cross-sectional research
• Cross-sectional research is a study in which subjects of different ages are compared
at the same time.
• It is often used in developmental psychology, but also utilized in many other areas
including social science, education, and other branches of science.
• This study type is also known as cross-sectional analysis, transverse study, or
prevalence study.
Ex; 1) The more time you spend running on a treadmill, the more calories you will burn.
2) Taller people have larger shoe sizes and shorter people have smaller shoe sizes.
3) The longer your hair grows, the more shampoo you will need.

Ex Post Facto Research

1. It is used in social sciences and business organisations.
2. It is conducted in context of a phenomenon after it has occurred or at the time of its
occurrence.
3. It basically deals with non-manipulated variables of a phenomenon.
4. Also known as "after the fact" research
5. An ex post facto design is considered quasi-experimental

Causal Comparative Studies

• Causal-comparative research seeks to find relationships between independent and
dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred.
• The researcher's goal is to determine whether the independent variable affected the
outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing two or more groups of individuals.
• An investigator conducted a study to examine the effect of gender on attitude towards
the dowry system. The nature of this study was ex post facto or causal comparative
study
• For example: the psychological impact on all children who lost their parents in a
natural disaster Tsunami.
• In the given example, Causal-comparative research is used to identify cause-effect
relationships or to examine the consequences of differences that already exist between
two groups.
• Causal-comparative research is also sometimes referred to as "expost-facto"
research because the researcher is attempting to determine the cause or reason for
differences that already exist among groups of individuals
 Exploratory Research
Is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study pilot study).
Literature searches, depth interview, focus groups, and case analysis.
Ex; -A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing
communication channel.
-An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within
hospitality sector

● It is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the

possibilities of undertaking a particular research study and is akin to
feasibility study or pilot study.
● A ‘small-scale study’ is undertaken to decide whether it is worth carrying
out a detailed investigation. It attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
● The purpose of exploratory research is to gain background information, to
define terms, to clarify the problems, to develop hypothesis, to establish
research priorities and objectives, and to develop questions to be answered.
● It makes use of secondary data (mainly literature review), experience
surveys, case studies, interviews (mainly focus groups’ interviews),
projective techniques, and Delphi techniques.

Explanatory Research
● Attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or
more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
● Explanatory research also examines the extent of a cause-and-effect
relationship between two items.
● Explanatory research is a method for finding details in areas with small
amounts of information.
● Investigators use this type of research in the early stages of their descriptive
research to create a general understanding of their topic. Questions for this
type of research usually begin with "Why is...?
These questions are about explaining the causes for something.
Ex; A science teacher describing to his students how plants need sunlight to grow

Experimental Research
-Experimental research describes what will be when certain variables are carefully
controlled or manipulated.
-The focus is on variable relationship.
-The main method for cause-effect research is experimentation Deliberate manipulation
is always a part of experimental method.
-Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or what will
occur, under carefully controlled conditions in which one factor is varied and the others
are kept constant and can be repeated by another investigator, by the same investigator
or another occasion with nearly identical results.
-This classification is dependent on the nature of research.
-An experimental research is one where the independent variables can be directly
manipulated by, experimenter.
-It is further divided into two main types-Laboratory experiment and field experiment.

In its simplest form, an experiment has three characteristics as follows:

1. An independent variable is manipulated.
2. All other variables except the independent variables are held constant.
3. The effect of manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is
observed.

For example,
*In order to test the effects of a new drug intended to treat a certain medical condition
like dementia, if a sample of dementia patients is randomly divided into three groups.
With the first group receiving a high dosage of the drug,
*The second group receiving a low dosage, and
*The third group receives a placebo such as a sugar pill (control group), Then the first
two groups are experimental groups and the third group is a control group.
*After administering the drug for a period of time, if the condition of the experimental
group subjects improved significantly more than the control group subjects, we can say
that the drug is effective.

Feature
1) Control: Control is the first essential ingredient of experimental method.
2) Manipulation: Manipulation of a variable is another distinguishing characteristic of
experimental research. It refers to a deliberate operation performed by the researcher.
3) Observation: In experimentation, we are interested in the effect of the manipulation
of the independent variable on a dependent variable
• A reflexive relationship is bidirectional with both the cause and the effect affecting
one another in a relationship in which neither can be assigned as causes or effects.
• For example, poverty is the main cause of unemployment and unemployment is the
main cause of poverty.
1. Laboratory experiment
• A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly controlled
conditions (not necessarily a laboratory), where accurate measurements are possible.
• The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which
participants, in what circumstances and using a standardized procedure.
• Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.
• An example is Milgram’s experiment on obedience or Loftus and Palmer's car
crash study.

• Strength: It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a

standardised procedure is used.
• Strength: They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables.
This allows a cause and effect relationship to be established.
• Limitation: The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour that does
not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to
generalise the findings to a real life setting.
• Limitation: Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and
become confounding variables.

2. Field Experiment.
• Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a
real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).
• An example is Holfing’s hospital study on obedience.
• Strength: behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of
its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment.
• Strength: There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as
participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert.
• Limitation: There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.
This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same
way.

3. Natural Experiment
• Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the independent variable as it
occurs naturally in real life.
• For example, Hodges and Tizard's attachment research (1989) compared the long term
development of children who have been adopted, fostered or returned to their mothers
with a control group of children who had spent all their lives in their biological families.
• Strength: behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of
its natural setting, i.e. very high ecological validity.
• Strength: There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as
participants may not know they are being studied.
• Strength: Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to
manipulate the independent variable, e.g. researching stress.
• Limitation: They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments.
• Limitation: There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.
This makes it difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same
way.

Non experimental research

•A non experimental research is one where independent variables cannot be
manipulated and therefore cannot be experimentally studied.
•A non experimental research can be divided into three main types field studies, ex
post factor research and survey research

Classification of research on the basis of logic in research

Deductive Approach
-It is also termed as top-down or general-to-specific approach.
-In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of
available information.
-The deductive method involves the following three steps.
1. State the hypothesis (based on theory or research literature).
2. Collect data to test the hypothesis.
3. Make decision to accept or reject the hypothesis.
-Examples
1. All men are mortal (general fact, applies to all men).
2. Socrates is a man.
3. (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal (specific).

Inductive Approach
- It is also termed as bottom-up approach. In inductive research, we move from specific
to general.
-This approach also involves the following three steps.
1. Observe the different phenomena in the world.
2. Make a search for a pattern in what is observed.
3. Make a generalisation about what is occurring.
Examples
1. Socrates is mortal (specific).
2. Alexander is mortal (specific), Pluto is mortal and so on (specific).
3. All men are mortal (general).
Take another example: 3 + 5 = 8 and eight is an even number. 7 + 59 = 66 and the result
is again an even number Therefore, the conclusion is when an odd number is added to
another odd number, the result will be an even number

Classification of research on the basis of inquiry mode

Basically, the process adopted to find answers to research questions involves two
approaches, they are structured and unstructured

Structured approach
1. The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
2. Everything that forms the research process, such as objectives, design, sample and
the questions that a researcher plans to ask of respondents, is predetermined.
3. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation.
For example, how many people have a particular problem?
How many people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach
1. The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
2. It allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
3. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon
without quantifying it.

Classification of research on the basis of process

Quantitative research
-It is similar to deductive research.
-It is also termed as linear research as it typically follows a linear path.
1. Stating with testable hypothesis
2. Collection of data
3. Analyzing the data
4. Accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
-Quantitative research is mostly associated with the positivist or postpositivist
paradigm.
-It involves collecting and converting data into numerical form.
-We can do statistical calculations and draw conclusions.

Qualitative research
1. This is basically an approach and not just a method to conduct research.
2. Qualitative research is basically inductive or spiral in nature and has a very different
structure.
-The researcher starts with a tentative idea or question and these questions become more
specific with progress in research.
-Then, a pattern may emerge in research.
-Thus, in qualitative research, one starts with observation and ends with a theoretical
position or stance.
-Thus, it is inductive in nature, i.e., the research moves from specific to theory.

Qualitative research is appropriate when:

1. The intended research area is not well studied or understood.
2. A subject needs to be studied in depth.
3. A holistic perspective is needed.
4. Behavioural aspects of people need to be studied.
5. Measurement techniques like questionnaires are not considered suitable.
6. A researcher is more interested in the process (how it works) and not the product (the
outcome).

Methods and approaches used in qualitative research

1. In-depth interview:
-This is usually one-to-one interview, with one participant at a time.
-Though it is systematically planned, it may have unstructured elements as well.
-The researcher prepares questions in advance to make sure that only the most
important questions are asked to the participant.
-The interview can last anywhere between twenty minutes to half an hour, during which
the researcher tries to collect as many meaningful data as possible from the participants
to draw inferences.

2. Focus group:
-A focus group comprises of around 6–10 participants who are usually subject matter
experts.
-A moderator, usually an experienced person, is assigned to a focus group to facilitate
the discussion.
-The role of a moderator is to probe the participants by asking the correct research
questions so as to collect research related information.

3. Narrative research:
-It is an approach to review the literature.
-Sometimes, it is contrasted with a systematic review.
-It tends to be less focused than a systematic review and seeks to arrive at a critical
interpretation of the literature that it covers

4. Phenomenology:
-It is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how
one or more individuals experience a phenomenon.
-For example, interview he wives of 10 prisoners of war and asking them to describe
their experiences.
-Phenomenology is derived from the Greek word "phenomenon" which means
"appearance".
-Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger who are German philosophers developed
phenomenology whereby it is the method of inquiry in philosophy

5. Ethnography:
-It is the process of studying and describing a culture (a culture is the shared attitudes,
values, norms, practices, language and material things of a group of people).
-Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people are observed in
their natural environment without any changes.
-It intends to provide an insider’s picture of a community under study.
-A researcher may go and live in that specific community and study the culture and
their educational practices.

6. Case study research:

-Case study research is mostly used to study an organization or an entity.
-This research method has evolved over the years as one of the most valuable
qualitative research methods.
-This type of research is used in the areas of management, education sector,
philosophical and psychological.
-This method involves a deep digging into the developments and collects data

7. Content analysis:
-Content analysis is also known as text analysis, this method is a bit different from other
qualitative research methods.
-It is used to analyse social life by decoding words, texts, etc., through any available
form of documentation.
-The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are
furnished with the information and then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it.
-In modern times, researchers follow activities on a social media platform and try to
understand the pattern of thoughts.

8. Grounded theory:
-It is a qualitative approach to generate and develop a theory from data that the
researcher collects.
-Role play, simulation and diary methods are also used in qualitative research

Conceptual
• Related to abstract ideas or concepts.
• It doesn’t particularly involve any practical experimentation.
• However, this type of research typically involves observing and analyzing information
already present on a given topic.
• Philosophical research is a generally good example for conceptual research.
• Conceptual research can be used to solve real-world problems.
• Conceptual frameworks, which are analytical tools researchers use in their studies, are
based on conceptual research.
• In simple words, a conceptual framework is the researcher’s synthesis of the literature
(previous research studies) on how to explain a particular phenomenon.
• It explains the actions required in the course of the study based on the researcher’s
observations on the subject of research as well as the knowledge gathered from previous
studies.

Empirical
• Empirical research is basically a research that uses empirical evidence.
• Empirical evidence refers to evidence verifiable by observation or experience rather
than theory or pure logic.
• Thus, empirical research is research studies with conclusions based on empirical
evidence. Moreover, empirical research studies are observable and measurable.
• Empirical evidence can be gathered through qualitative research studies or quantitative
research studies.
• Qualitative research methods gather non-numerical or non-statistical data.
• Thus, this type of studies helps to understand the underlying reasons, opinions, and
motivations behind something as well as to uncover trends in thought and opinions.
• Quantitative research studies, on the other hand, gather statistical data.
• These have the ability to quantify behaviours, opinions, or other defined variables.
• Moreover, a researcher can even use a combination of quantitative and qualitative
methods to find answers to his research questions.

• Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that deals with abstract concepts, such as
being, knowing, identity, time and space.
• It is intimately connected with epistemology.
• Epistemology is the study of knowledge.
• It deals with the origin, nature, scope and methods to acquire knowledge.
• This term was first used by Frederick Ferrier.
• There are basically two ways to acquire knowledge and they are rationalism and
empiricism.
1. Rationalism: Rationalism tends to believe that logic and reason as the means of
acquiring knowledge. Mind is given the authority over senses. This is basically a prior
use of logic and reason comes first to conclude something before experience.
Rationalism is associated with deduction.
2. Empiricism: Empiricists claim that sensing experience is the ultimate starting point
for all our knowledge. The senses give us all our raw data about the world and without
this raw material, there would be no knowledge at all. This is termed as a posteriori. It is
related to induction

• Theory:
• A theory is a set of systematically related statements, including some law-like
generalizations that can be tested empirically.
• These generalizations provide hypothesis and these hypothesis determine what must
be measured.
• Research paradigms:
• A paradigm is a model of the functions and interrelationships of a process, a ‘way of
thinking’ about something and how to study it.
• There is a difference between natural sciences and social sciences and so is the
difference between research approaches relating to them.
• Hence, there are two competing paradigms to acquire knowledge.
• The paradigms are grouped as positivist paradigm and interpretive paradigms
Positivism and post-positivistic approach to research
• The term positivism was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in 19th
century and reflected by Francis Bacon, John Locke, Isaac Newton and contemporary
thinkers like Mortiz Schlick, Ernst Mach, Rudolf Carnap among others.
• In philosophy, positivism mainly adheres to the idea that ‘factual’ knowledge gained
through observation (senses and measurement) is trustworthy.
• Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that lead to statistical analyses.
• Here, the role of the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation in an
objective way.
• He is independent from the study and there are no provisions for human interests
within the study.
• Positivists usually adopt deductive approach, the concentration is on facts.

Specifically, positivism relies on the following aspects of science.

1. Science is deterministic as it explains the cause and effect relationships.
2. Science is mechanistic as researchers develop hypotheses to be proved or disproved
via application of specific research methods.
3. Science uses methods such as selection of sample, measurements, analysis and
reaching conclusions about hypotheses.
4. Science deals with empiricism, where it is assessed as objective, as seen or measured.
Science must be value free

Drawbacks of positivism
Positivism as an epistemology is associated with the following set of disadvantages.
1. Positivism relies on experience as a valid source of knowledge.
2. All types of processes can be perceived as a certain variation of actions of individuals
or relationships between individuals.
3. Adoption of positivism in business studies and other studies can be criticized for
reliance on status quo.
4. Sometimes positivism is a rejection of metaphysics. It is a position that holds that the
goal of knowledge which is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience

Post-positivism
According to Collins, we can categorize four sociological traditions and they are listed
below.
1. Tradition of conflict: Society is inherently conflictual.
2. Utilitarian-rationalist tradition: Human beings are rational.
3. Holistic tradition: ‘Durkheimian’ Durkheim believed that society exerted a powerful
force on individuals. People's norms, beliefs, and values make up a collective
consciousness, or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the world.
4. Micro-interactionist: Interactions must be analyzed at the micro-relational level.
Two people observe the same event and understand it differently, based upon their own
experiences and beliefs.
Objectivity can be achieved by using multiple measurements and observations and
triangulating the data to gain a clearer understanding of what is happening in reality

• the focus of research shifted from ‘reality’ to ‘critical reality

• Logical empiricists (or post-positivists) support the idea that social scientists and
natural scientists share the same goals for research and employ similar methods of
investigation.
• It can be distinguished from positivism according to whether the focus is on theory
verification (positivsm) or on theory falsification (post-positivist).
• A milion white swans cannot prove that all swans are white, but one black swan can
disprove this contention.
• Critical realism recognizes that observations may involve error and theories can be
modified.
• Reality cannot be known with certainty.
• Observations are theory laden and influenced by the observer’s biases and worldview

There can be many approaches to carry out the research.

1) Positivist/post-positivist paradigm: To discover laws that are generalizable and

govern the universe.
2) Constructivist/interpretive paradigm: To understand and describe human nature.
3) Transformative/ emancipatory paradigm: To destroy myths and empower people
to change society radically.
4) Postcolonial/indigenous research paradigm: To challenge deficit thinking and
pathological descriptions of the former colonised and reconstruct a body of knowledge
that carries hope and promotes transformation and social change among the historically
oppressed.

The following terms are also important

• Interpretive paradigm:
• It is usually associated with qualitative research strategies.
• It is specifically applicable in social sciences, such as sociology, political science, etc.
• According to interpretive approach, the research design should be flexible and
unstructured, the methods should be valid and the research design should generate
small-scale and intensive data, using insider accounts and based on descriptions of what
is seen and what is heard.
• Verstehen:
• The term is closely associated with the work of the German sociologist, Max Weber.
• Empathic understanding of human behaviour
• In social sciences, such as anthropology and sociology, Verstehen means a systematic
interpretive process in which an outside observer of a culture attempts to relate to it and
understand others.
• Verstehen roughly translates to ‘meaningful understanding’ or ‘putting yourself in the
shoes of others to see things from their perspective’.