Nail (anatomy)

A nail is a flattish claw-like plate at the tip of the fingers and toes
Nail
which is characteristically found on all primates. Nails correspond
to the claws found in other animals. Fingernails and toenails are
made of a tough protective protein called alpha-keratin, which is a
polymer. Alpha-keratin is found in the hooves, claws, and horns of
vertebrates.[1]

Structure
The nail consists of the nail plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed
below it, and the grooves surrounding it.[2]

Parts of the nail

The matrix, sometimes called[3] the matrix unguis, keratogenous

membrane, nail matrix, or onychostroma, is the active tissue (or
germinal matrix) that generates cells, which harden as they move
outward from the nail root to the nail plate.[4] It is the part of the
nail bed that is beneath the nail and contains nerves, lymph and
blood vessels. The matrix produces cells that become the nail plate.
The width and thickness of the nail plate is determined by the size,
length, and thickness of the matrix, while the shape of the fingertip
bone determines if the nail plate is flat, arched, or hooked. The
matrix will continue to produce cells as long as it receives nutrition A gorilla's fingernails
and remains in a healthy condition.[5] As new nail plate cells are Details
made, they push older nail plate cells forward; and in this way System Integumentary system
older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes
the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink Identifiers
color. Latin unguis
MeSH D009262 (https://meshb.nl
The lunula ("small moon") is the visible part of the matrix, the
whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can m.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D0
best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger. 09262)
The lunula appears white due to a reflection of light at the point TA98 A16.0.01.001 (https://ifaa.
where the nail matrix and nail bed meet. unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/
TA98%20Tree/Entity%20T
The nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate. It is the area of the
nail on which the nail plate rests. Nerves and blood vessels found A98%20EN/16.0.01.001%
here supply nourishment to the entire nail unit. Like all skin, it is 20Entity%20TA98%20EN.
made of two types of tissues: the dermis and the epidermis. The htm)
epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal "grooves" TA2 7065 (https://ta2viewer.op
called matrix crests (cristae matricis unguis).[4] In old age, the nail enanatomy.org/?id=7065)
plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible.
TH H3.12.00.3.02001 (https://i
The nail bed is highly innervated, and removal of the nail plate is
often excruciatingly painful as a result. faa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPa
The nail sinus (sinus unguis) is where the nail root is;[4] i.e. the ge/PDF/TH%20Chapter%
base of the nail underneath the skin. It originates from the actively 20H3.12.pdf)
growing tissue below, the matrix. FMA 54326 (https://bioportal.bi
oontology.org/ontologies/F
The nail plate (corpus unguis)[4] sometimes referred to as the nail
body, is the visible hard nail area from the nail root to the free MA/?p=classes&conceptid
edge, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, =http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.or
compacted cells cause the nail to be strong but flexible. Its g%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%
(transverse) shape is determined by the form of the underlying 2Ffma54326)
bone. In common usage, the word nail often refers to this part Anatomical terminology
only. The nail plate is
strongly attached to the nail Human nails
bed and does not contain any
nerves or blood vessels.

The free margin (margo liber)

or distal edge is the anterior
margin of the nail plate
corresponds to the abrasive or
cutting edge of the nail.[4] The
A. Nail plate; B. lunula; C. root; D. hyponychium (informally Fingernails
sinus; E. matrix; F. nail bed; G. known as the "quick")[6] is the
hyponychium; H. free margin. epithelium located beneath the
nail plate at the junction
between the free edge and the
skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed. The
onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the
hyponychium. It is just under the free edge, in that portion of the nail
where the nail bed ends and can be recognized in fair-skinned people
by its glassy, greyish colour. It is not visible in some individuals while
it is highly prominent on others.

Eponychium

Together, the eponychium and the cuticle form a protective seal. The
cuticle is the semi-circular layer of almost invisible dead skin cells that Toenails
"ride out on" and cover the back of the visible nail plate while the
eponychium is the fold of skin cells that produces the cuticle. They are
continuous, and some references view them as one entity; in this classification, the names eponychium,
cuticle, and perionychium are synonymous.[7] It is the cuticle (nonliving part) that is removed during a
manicure, but the eponychium (living part) should not be touched due to risk of infection. The eponychium
is a small band of living cells (epithelium) that extends from the posterior nail wall onto the base of the
nail.[4] The eponychium is the end of the proximal fold that folds back upon itself to shed an epidermal
layer of skin onto the newly formed nail plate. The perionyx is the projecting edge of the eponychium
covering the proximal strip of the lunula.[4]
The nail wall (vallum unguis) is the cutaneous fold overlapping the sides and proximal end of the nail. The
lateral margin (margo lateralis) lies beneath the nail wall on the sides of the nail, and the nail groove or fold
(sulcus matricis unguis) are the cutaneous slits into which the lateral margins are embedded.[4]

Paronychium

The paronychium is the soft tissue border around the nail,[8] and paronychia is an infection in this area. The
paronychium is the skin that overlaps onto the sides of the nail plate, also known as the paronychial edge.
The paronychium is the site of hangnails, ingrown nails, and paronychia, a skin infection.

Hyponychium

The hyponychium is the area of epithelium, particularly the thickened portion, underlying the free edge of
the nail plate. It is sometimes called the "quick", as in the phrase "cutting to the quick".

Function
A healthy fingernail has the function of protecting the distal phalanx, the fingertip, and the surrounding soft
tissues from injuries. It also serves to enhance precise delicate movements of the distal digits through
counter-pressure exerted on the pulp of the finger.[2] The nail then acts as a counter-force when the end of
the finger touches an object, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of the fingertip,[9] although the nail itself has
no nerve endings. Finally, the nail functions as a tool enabling a so-called "extended precision grip" (e.g.,
pulling out a splinter in one's finger), and certain cutting or scraping actions.

Growth

The growing part of the nail is under the skin at the nail's proximal end under the epidermis, which is the
only living part of a nail.

In mammals, the growth rate of nails is related to the length of the terminal phalanges (outermost finger
bones). Thus, in humans, the nail of the index finger grows faster than that of the little finger; and
fingernails grow up to four times faster than toenails.[10]

In humans, fingernails grow at an average rate of approx. 3.5 mm (0.14 in) a month, whereas toenails grow
about half as slowly (approx. average 1.6  mm (0.063  in) a month).[11] Fingernails require three to six
months to regrow completely, and toenails require twelve to eighteen months. Actual growth rate is
dependent upon age, sex, season, exercise level, diet, and hereditary factors.[12] The longest female nails
known ever to have existed measured a total of 8.65 m (28 ft 4.5 in).[13] Contrary to popular belief, nails do
not continue to grow after death; the skin dehydrates and tightens, making the nails (and hair) appear to
grow.[14]

Permeability

The nail is often considered an impermeable barrier, but this is not true. In fact, it is much more permeable
than the skin,[15] and the composition of the nail includes 7–12% water. This permeability has implications
for penetration by harmful and medicinal substances; in particular cosmetics applied to the nails can pose a
risk. Water can penetrate the nail as can many other substances including paraquat, a fast acting herbicide
that is harmful to humans, urea which is often an ingredient in creams and lotions meant for use on hands
and fingers, and several fungicidal agents such as salicylic acid, miconazole branded Monistat, natamycin;
and sodium hypochlorite which is the active ingredient in common household bleach (but usually only in
2–3% concentration).[15]

Clinical significance
Healthcare and pre-hospital-care providers (EMTs or paramedics)
often use the fingernail beds as a cursory indicator of distal tissue
perfusion of individuals who may be dehydrated or in shock.[16]
However, this test is not considered reliable in adults.[17] This is
known as the CRT or blanch test. The fingernail bed is briefly
depressed to turn the nail-bed white. When the pressure is released,
the normal pink colour should be restored within a second or two.
Delayed return to pink color can be an indicator of certain shock
states such as hypovolemia.[18][19]
Thumbnail of the right hand with
cuticle (left) and hangnail (top)
Nail growth record can show the history of recent health and
physiological imbalances, and has been used as a diagnostic tool
since ancient times.[20] Deep, horizontally transverse grooves
known as "Beau's lines" may form across the nails (horizontal, not along the nail from cuticle to tip). These
lines are usually a natural consequence of aging, although they may result from disease. Discoloration,
thinning, thickening, brittleness, splitting, grooves, Mees' lines, small white spots, receded lunula, clubbing
(convex), flatness, and spooning (concave) can indicate illness in other areas of the body, nutrient
deficiencies, drug reaction or poisoning, or merely local injury.

Nails can also become thickened (onychogryphosis), loosened (onycholysis), infected with fungus
(onychomycosis), or degenerate (onychodystrophy). A common nail disorder is an ingrowing toenail
(onychocryptosis).

DNA profiling is a technique employed by forensic scientists on hair, fingernails, toenails, etc.

Health and care

The best way to care for nails is to trim them regularly. Filing is also
recommended, as to keep nails from becoming too rough and to remove any
small bumps or ridges that may cause the nail to get tangled up in materials
such as cloth.[21]

Bluish or purple fingernail beds may be a symptom of peripheral cyanosis,

A set of professional nail
which indicates oxygen deprivation. care tools

Nails can dry out, just like skin. They can also peel, break, and be infected.
Toe infections, for instance, can be caused or exacerbated by dirty socks,
specific types of aggressive exercise (long-distance running), tight footwear, and walking unprotected in an
unclean environment. Common organisms causing nail infections include yeasts and molds (particularly
dermatophytes).[22]

Nail tools used by different people may transmit infections. Standard hygiene and sanitation procedures
avoid transmission. In some cases, gel and cream cuticle removers can be used instead of cuticle scissors.
Nail disease can be very subtle and should be evaluated by a dermatologist with a focus in this particular
area of medicine. However, most times it is a nail stylist who will note a subtle change in nail disease.

Inherited accessory nail of the fifth toe occurs where the toenail of the smallest toe is separated, forming a
smaller "sixth toenail" in the outer corner of the nail.[23] Like any other nail, it can be cut using a nail
clipper.

Effect of nutrition

Biotin-rich foods and supplements may help strengthen brittle fingernails.[24]

Vitamin A is an essential micronutrient for vision, reproduction, cell and tissue differentiation, and immune
function. Vitamin D and calcium work together in cases of maintaining homeostasis, creating muscle
contraction, transmission of nerve pulses, blood clotting, and membrane structure. A lack of vitamin A,
vitamin D, or calcium can cause dryness and brittleness.

Insufficient vitamin B12 can lead to excessive dryness, darkened nails, and rounded or curved nail ends.
Insufficient intake of both vitamin A and B results in fragile nails with horizontal and vertical ridges. Some
over-the-counter vitamin supplements such as certain multivitamins and biotin may help in growth of strong
nails, although this is quite subjective. Both vitamin B12 and folate play a role in red blood cell production
and oxygen transportation to nail cells. Inadequacies can result in discoloration of the nails.[25]

Diminished dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids may contribute to dry and brittle nails.[26]

Protein is a building material for new nails; therefore, low dietary protein intake may cause anemia and the
resultant reduced hemoglobin in the blood filling the capillaries of the nail bed reflects varying amounts of
light incident on the nail matrix resulting in lighter shades of pink ultimately resulting in white nail beds
when the hemoglobin is very low. When hemoglobin is close to 15 or 16 grams, most of the spectrum of
light is absorbed and only the pink color is reflected back and the nails look pink.

Essential fatty acids play a large role in healthy skin as well as nails. Splitting and flaking of nails may be
due to a lack of linoleic acid.

Iron-deficiency anemia can lead to a pale color along with a thin, brittle, ridged texture. Iron deficiency in
general may cause the nails to become flat or concave, rather than convex. As oxygen is needed for healthy
nails, an iron deficiency or anemia can lead to vertical ridges or concavity in the nails.[27] RDAs for iron
vary considerably depending on age and gender. The recommendation for men is 8 mg per day, while that
of women aged 19–50 is 18 mg per day. After women hit age 50 or go through menopause, their iron needs
drop to 8 mg daily.[28][29]

Society and culture

Fashion

Manicures (for the hands) and pedicures (for the feet) are health and cosmetic procedures to groom, trim,
and paint the nails and manage calluses. They require various tools such as cuticle scissors, nail scissors,
nail clippers, and nail files. Artificial nails can also be fixed onto real nails for cosmetic purposes.
 A person whose occupation is to cut, shape and care for nails
as well as to apply overlays such as acrylic and UV gel is
sometimes called a nail stylist. The place where a nail stylist
works may be a nail salon or nail shop or nail bar.

Acrylic nails are made out

of acrylic glass (PMMA).
When it is mixed with a
liquid monomer (usually
ethyl methacrylate mixed
with some inhibitor) it
Toenails painted magenta
forms a malleable bead.
This mixture begins to
cure immediately,
Nail art
continuing until completely solid in minutes. Acrylic nails can last up
to 21 days but can last longer with touch-ups. To give acrylic nails
color, gel polish, nail polish, and dip powders can be applied.[30]

Painting the nails with colored nail polish (also called nail lacquer and nail varnish) to improve the
appearance is a common practice dating back to at least 3000 B.C. With the rise of smartphones, some
analysts have noted a trend of the nelfie (nail selfie), wherein people share their nail art online.[31] Gel nails
can be utilized in order to create artificial nail extensions, but can also be used like nail polish. They are
hardened using ultraviolet light. They last longer than regular nail polish and do not chip. They have a
high-gloss finish and last for two to three weeks.[32]

Nail wraps are formed by cutting pieces of fiberglass, linen, silk fabric, or another material to fit on the
surface of the nail (or a tip attached prior), to be sealed onto the nail plate with a layer of resin or glue. They
do not damage the nail and also provide strength to the nail but are not used to lengthen it. It can also be
used to fix broken nails. The treatment is however more expensive.

With the dip powder method, a clear liquid is brushed onto a nail and the nail is then placed into pigmented
powder.[33] Dip nails tend to last about a month, 2-3 weeks longer than gel and acrylic nails. It can be worn
on natural nails, or with tips to create an artificial nail. Dip powder nails do not require any UV/LED light
to be cured, instead they are sealed using an activator. The quickest way to remove dip powder is to drill,
clip off, or buff out layers of the powder so, when they are soaking in acetone, they slide right off.[34][35]

Length records

Guinness World Records began tracking record fingernail lengths in 1955, when a Chinese priest was listed
as having fingernails 1 foot 10.75 inches (57.79 cm) long.

The current record-holder for men, according to Guinness, is Shridhar Chillal from India who set the record
in 1998 with a total of 20 feet 2.25 inches (615.32 cm) of nails on his left hand. His longest nail, on his
thumb, was 4 feet 9.6 inches (146.3 cm) long.

The record-holder for women is Lee Redmond of the U.S., who set the record in 2001 and as of 2008 had
nails with a total length on both hands of 28 feet (850 cm), with the longest nail on her right thumb at 2 feet
11 inches (89 cm).[36]

Evolution in primates
 The nail is an unguis, meaning a keratin structure at the end of a
digit. Other examples of ungues include the claw, hoof, and talon.
The nails of primates and the hooves of running mammals evolved
from the claws of earlier animals.[37]

In contrast to nails, claws are typically curved ventrally

(downwards in animals) and compressed sideways. They serve a
multitude of functions—including climbing, digging, and fighting—
and have undergone numerous adaptive changes in different animal
taxa. Claws are pointed at their ends and are composed of two
layers: a thick, deep layer and a superficial, hardened layer which
serves a protective function. The underlying bone is a virtual mold
of the overlying horny structure and therefore has the same shape as
the claw or nail. Compared to claws, nails are flat, less curved, and
do not extend far beyond the tip of the digits. The ends of the nails
usually consist only of the "superficial", hardened layer and are not
pointed like claws.[37]

With only a few exceptions, primates retain plesiomorphic (original,

Nails are a distinguishing feature of "primitive") hands with five digits, each equipped with either a nail
the primate order. or a claw. For example, nearly all living strepsirrhine primates have
nails on all digits except the second toe which is equipped with a
grooming claw. Tarsiers have a grooming claw on second and third
toes. Less commonly known, a grooming claw is also found on the second pedal digit of owl monkeys
(Aotus), titis (Callicebus), and possibly other New World monkeys.[38] The needle-clawed bushbaby
(Euoticus) has keeled nails (the thumb and the first and the second toes have claws) featuring a central ridge
that ends in a needle-like tip.

A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species indicated a
correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and:

1. expanded apical pads (fingertips),

2. developed epidermal ridges (fingerprints),
3. broadened distal parts of distal phalanges (fingertip bones), and
4. reduced flexor and extensor tubercles (attachment areas for finger muscles on bones).

This suggests that whereas claws are useful on large-diameter branches, wide fingertips with nails and
epidermal ridges were required for habitual locomotion on small-diameter branches. It also indicates keel-
shaped nails of Callitrichines (a family of New World monkeys) is a derived postural adaptation rather than
retained ancestral condition.[39]

See also
List of cutaneous conditions
Nail disease
Nail fetish
Onychogryphosis, overgrown, claw-like nails

References
1. Wang, Bin (2016). "Keratin: Structure, mechanical properties, occurrence in biological
 organisms, and efforts at bioinspiration" (https://escholarship.org/content/qt5sb7q6jp/qt5sb7
q6jp.pdf?t=o9xpu0) (PDF). Progress in Materials Science. 76: 229–318.
doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.06.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pmatsci.2015.06.001).
2. Onumah, Neh; Scher, Richard K (May 2009). "Nail Surgery" (http://emedicine.medscape.co
m/article/1126725-overview). eMedicine. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
3. "Nail matrix" (http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Nail_matrix). Biology Online. 2005.
Retrieved 10 March 2010.
4. Feneis, Heinz (2000). Pocket Atlas of Human Anatomy (https://archive.org/details/pocketatla
shuman00fene_901) (4th ed.). Thieme. pp. 392 (https://archive.org/details/pocketatlashuman
00fene_901/page/n400)–95. ISBN 3-13-511204-7.
5. D. Schoon, Dougles (2005). Nail Structure and Products Chemistry. Milady. p. 6.
6. Crouch, James Ensign (1985). Functional human anatomy (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=p8VqAAAAMAAJ&q=hyponychium+quick). Lea & Febiger. p. 80.
ISBN 9780812109306.
7. Elsevier, Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (http://dorlands.com/), Elsevier.
8. Jordan, Christopher; Mirzabeigi, Edwin (2000-04-01). Atlas of orthopaedic surgical
exposures (https://books.google.com/books?id=gMSW59keA4UC&pg=PA101). Thieme.
p. 101. ISBN 0-86577-776-4.
9. Wang, Quincy C; Johnson, Brett A (May 2001). "Fingertip Injuries" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20081013052327/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20010515/1961.html). American Family
Physician. 63 (10): 1961–6. PMID 11388710 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11388710).
Archived from the original (http://www.aafp.org/afp/20010515/1961.html) on 13 October
2008. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
10. Cartmill, Matt; Lemelin, Pierre; Schmitt, Daniel (2007). "Primate Gaits and Primate Origins".
In Ravosa, Matthew J.; Dagosto, Marian (eds.). Primate Origins: Adaptations and Evolution
(https://archive.org/details/primateoriginsad00ravo). pp. 403 (https://archive.org/details/prima
teoriginsad00ravo/page/n429)–35. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-33507-0_12 (https://doi.org/10.10
07%2F978-0-387-33507-0_12). ISBN 978-0-387-30335-2.
11. Yaemsiri, S.; Hou, N.; Slining, M. M.; He, K. (2010). "Growth rate of human fingernails and
toenails in healthy American young adults". Journal of the European Academy of
Dermatology and Venereology. 24 (4): 420–423. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2009.03426.x (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-3083.2009.03426.x). ISSN 1468-3083 (https://www.worldcat.
org/issn/1468-3083). PMID 19744178 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19744178).
S2CID 856692 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:856692).
12. Hunter, J. A. A., Savin, J., & Dahl, M. V. (2002). Clinical dermatology. Malden, Mass:
Blackwell Science. p. 173. ISBN 0-632-05916-8
13. "A nail-biting encounter with the woman who has the longest fingernails". Guinness World
Records. 2019-11-04. Retrieved 2020-11-07.
14. Vreeman, R. C; Carroll, A. E (2007). "Medical myths" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC2151163). BMJ. 335 (7633): 1288–9. doi:10.1136/bmj.39420.420370.25 (https://doi.
org/10.1136%2Fbmj.39420.420370.25). PMC 2151163 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC2151163). PMID 18156231 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18156231).
15. K. A. Walters and G. L. Flynn, Permeability characteristics of the human nail plate,
International Journal of Cosmetic Science 5, 231–46 (1983) (http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bi
tstream/2027.42/72442/1/j.1467-2494.1983.tb00348.x.pdf)
16. Monterey County EMS Manual (http://www.co.monterey.ca.us/health/EMS/pdfs/EMSManual.
pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081216214117/http://www.co.monterey.ca.us/h
ealth/EMS/pdfs/EMSManual.pdf) 2008-12-16 at the Wayback Machine. Chapter XI, Patient
assessment.
17. Schriger DL, Baraff LJ (Jun 1991). "Capillary refill – is it a useful predictor of hypovolemic
states?". Ann Emerg Med. 20 (6): 601–15. doi:10.1016/S0196-0644(05)82375-3 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2FS0196-0644%2805%2982375-3). PMID 2039096 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/2039096).
18. MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: Capillary nail refill test (https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003
394.htm)
19. St. Luke's Hospital (http://www.stlukes-stl.com/health-content/health-ency-multimedia/2/915
4.htm). Capillary nail refill test.
20. American Academy of Dermatology – Nail Health (https://www.aad.org/media/stats/preventio
n-and-care/nail-care)
21. Cohen, Philip R.; Scher, Richard K. (1992-04-01). "Geriatric nail disorders: Diagnosis and
treatment" (http://www.jaad.org/article/0190-9622(92)70075-Q/abstract). Journal of the
American Academy of Dermatology. 26 (4): 521–531. doi:10.1016/0190-9622(92)70075-Q (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1016%2F0190-9622%2892%2970075-Q). ISSN 0190-9622 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/issn/0190-9622). PMID 1597537 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1597537).
22. Denning, DW; Evans, EG; Kibbler, CC; Richardson, MD; Roberts, MM; Rogers, TR;
Warnock, DW; Warren, RE (November 11, 1995). "Fungal nail disease: a guide to good
practice (report of a Working Group of the British Society for Medical Mycology)" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2551187). British Medical Journal. 311 (7015): 1277–
81. doi:10.1136/bmj.311.7015.1277 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.311.7015.1277).
PMC 2551187 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2551187). PMID 7496239 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7496239).
23. Haneke E (May 2016). "Double Nail of the Little Toe" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/artic
les/PMC4908446). Skin Appendage Disorders. 1 (4): 163–7. doi:10.1159/000443378 (http
s://doi.org/10.1159%2F000443378). PMC 4908446 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC4908446). PMID 27386457 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27386457).
24. "Biotin" (https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Biotin-HealthProfessional/). Office of Dietary
Supplements, US National Institutes of Health. 10 January 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2023.
25. Langan, Robert C.; Zawistoski, Kimberly J. (15 June 2011). "Update on Vitamin B12
Deficiency" (https://www.aafp.org/link_out?pmid=21671542). American Family Physician. 83
(12): 1425–1430. PMID 21671542 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21671542).
26. Zempleni, J; R.B. Rucker; D.B. McCormick; J.W. Suttie (2007). Handbook of vitamins
(4th ed.).
27. Singal, Archana; Arora, Rahul (2015). "Nail as a window of systemic diseases" (https://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4375768). Indian Dermatology Online Journal. 6 (2): 67–
74. doi:10.4103/2229-5178.153002 (https://doi.org/10.4103%2F2229-5178.153002).
PMC 4375768 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4375768). PMID 25821724
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25821724).
28. "- Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D - NCBI Bookshelf" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK56068/table/summarytables.t3/?report=objectonly). 2011.
29. Cashman MW, Sloan SB (2010). "Nutrition and nail disease". Clinics in Dermatology. 28 (4):
420–25. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.037 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.clindermatol.2
010.03.037). PMID 20620759 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20620759).
30. "Secret Ingredient: Acrylic Liquid" (https://www.nailsmag.com/386817/secret-ingredient-acryl
ic-liquid).
31. Laneri, Raquel (18 April 2017). "Muslim women are showing off their insane nail art in
'nelfies' " (https://nypost.com/2017/04/18/muslim-women-are-showing-off-their-insane-nail-ar
t-in-nelfies/). NY Post. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
32. "Gel Manicures Look Good, but What's the Damage to Your Nails?" (https://www.huffingtonp
ost.co.uk/entry/are-gel-nails-damaging_uk_5d52b0bae4b05fa9df04c708). 12 October 2019.
33. "Everything You Need to Know About Dip Powder Nails" (https://www.glamour.com/story/dip
-powder-nails-are-they-safe). 3 January 2017.
34. Simms, Janet (2003). A Practical Guide to Beauty Therapy for NVQ Level 2 (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=qEO7daJsbCEC&pg=PA397). ISBN 9780748771509.
35. "How to Remove Dip Nails at Home" (https://www.allure.com/story/how-to-remove-dip-nails).
14 April 2020.
36. "Crash breaks woman's record-length fingernails" (http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29170772).
NBCNews. December 2009.
37. Ankel-Simons, Friderun (8 January 2007). Primate Anatomy: An introduction (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=Mwl3M6c5KzoC&q=nail+OR+nails) (3rd ed.). London, UK: Academic
Press. pp. 342–344. ISBN 978-0-12-372576-9.
38. Maiolino, S.; Boyer, D.M.; Rosenberger, A. (2011). "Morphological correlates of the grooming
claw in distal phalanges of platyrrhines and other primates: A preliminary study" (https://doi.o
rg/10.1002%2Far.21498). The Anatomical Record. 294 (12): 1975–1990.
doi:10.1002/ar.21498 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Far.21498). PMID 22042603 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22042603). S2CID 3939930 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39
39930).
39. Hamrick, Mark W. (1998). "Functional and adaptive significance of primate pads and claws:
Evidence from New World anthropoids". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Wiley-
Liss. 106 (2): 113–27. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199806)106:2<113::AID-
AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-R (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291096-8644%28199806%2910
6%3A2%3C113%3A%3AAID-AJPA2%3E3.0.CO%3B2-R). PMID 9637179 (https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9637179).

External links
Media related to Nails at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nail_(anatomy)&oldid=1165505822"