The Republic of Uganda

MINISTRY OF WATER AND ENVIRONMENT

DIRECTORATE OF WATER DEVELOPMENT

SHALLOW WELLS
TECHNOLOGY MANUAL

March 2007

(Water and Sanitation Sector District Implementation Manual Annex 6.2)

 Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 3

2 COMMUNITY SELECTION AND MOBILISATION ................................................. 4

3 SITING ............................................................................................................................... 4

3.1 DESK STUDY AND INFORMATION GATHERING ............................................................. 4

3.1.1 Water resource maps.............................................................................................. 4

3.1.2 Village identification and information gathering................................................... 5

3.1.3 Environmental issues and pollution sources .......................................................... 5

3.1.4 Analysis .................................................................................................................. 6

3.2 PENETRATION TESTS..................................................................................................... 7

3.3 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING ........................................................................................... 8

3.4 SELECTION OF SITE AND TECHNOLOGY ........................................................................ 9

4 WELL DESIGN................................................................................................................. 9

5 DRILLING....................................................................................................................... 12

5.1 DRILLING .................................................................................................................... 12

5.2 INSTALLATION OF CASINGS / SCREENS ...................................................................... 12

5.3 INSTALLATION OF GRAVEL PACK ............................................................................... 13

5.4 YIELD TESTS FOR HAND PUMP SOURCE ..................................................................... 13

5.5 WELL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................. 13

5.6 INSTALLATION OF CLAY SEAL .................................................................................... 14

5.7 INSTALLATION OF BACKFILL ...................................................................................... 14

5.8 GROUTING ................................................................................................................... 14

5.9 AFTER CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................... 14

6 TEST PUMPING............................................................................................................. 14

6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 14

6.2 TYPES OF PUMPING TEST ............................................................................................ 15

6.3 EQUIPMENT CHECK ..................................................................................................... 15

6.4 START OF PUMP TEST ................................................................................................. 15

6.5 DURING THE PUMPING TEST ....................................................................................... 16

6.6 AFTER THE PUMPING TEST ......................................................................................... 16

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1 INTRODUCTION
A shallow well comprises a dug or drilled hole that penetrates the water table, enabling water
to be drawn up to the surface. In Uganda, a shallow well is defined as a well to a depth of
30m. This manual provides guidance for technicians, engineers and supervisors on shallow
well siting (for hand dug, hand augered and drilled wells) and construction (of drilled wells).

Table 1 provides a definition for groundwater sources by the Ministry of Water and
Environment (MWE)/Directorate of Water Development (DWD).

Table 1 Definitions of Groundwater Sources

Facility Definition
Shallow Well - Hand dug Construction of max 15m depth at 1 - 2m diameter well using hand tools
in high water table area, installed with hand pump.
Shallow Well - Hand augured Construction of max 15m depth at 200mm diameter well using a tripod
and winch with drill bits and rods in high water table area, installed with
hand pump.
Shallow Well - Motorised Construction of max 30m depth at 200mm diameter using drilling rig in
drilled high water table area, installed with hand pump. Can be consolidated or
unconsolidated formation.
Deep Boreholes Drilling Drilling more than 30m depth, abstraction is by a hand pump. Can be
(Hand pump) consolidated or unconsolidated formation.
Deep Borehole drilling Drilling more than 30m depth, abstraction is by powered motorisation
(Motorised pump) (usually a submersible pump).
Groundwater is often found within the overburden that overlies hard bedrock1. The
overburden is referred to as unconsolidated formation, whereas the bedrock is referred to as
consolidated formation. As shallow wells are defined by depth (to 30m), they may penetrate
consolidated or unconsolidated formation.

The required drilling depth, and type of formation determine the construction method. In
cases of unconsolidated formations to a depth of 15m, hand digging or hand auger equipment
can be used to construct wells. Wells that are more than 15m in depth, or penetrate
consolidated formation require use of a light motorized drilling machine. Table 2 provides an
overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the three shallow well construction methods.

Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Shallow Well Technologies

Hand dug wells Hand augered wells Motor drilled wells
Advantages  High storage capacity  Faster to construct  Construction takes less
 Longer construction than hand dug wells time than than hand dug
duration can bring about or hand augered wells
more community  Can penetrate slightly
ownership harder formation than
hand dug or hand augered
wells (depending on rig
capability)
Disadvantages  Susceptible to seasonal  May not penetrate  Higher costs due to
water fluctuations boulders equipment amortization
 Long construction period  Less community
can cause loss of interest by involvement than for hand
communities dug or hand augered wells
 Dewatering required

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In Uganda saturated soils, sand and weathered rocks (collectively termed ‘overburden’) frequently
constitute shallow aquifers, which will yield water to shallow dug or drilled wells.

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2 Community selection and mobilisation
A demand responsive approach (DRA) is followed whereby community members, once aware
of the benefits of improved water supplies and good sanitation can demand service
improvements with the support of local Governments and NGOs/CBOs. This is through the
established administrative and communication channels & mechanisms. Selection of
communities for water source improvements is undertaken through the District local
Government planning process.

The software steps (Steps in Implementation of Water and Sanitation Software Activities,
MWE/DWD, December 2004) provide guidance awareness creation, capacity building,
provision of services and follow-up of communities in the water and sanitation sector. There
are 19 steps, which are grouped into four phases: (i) general planning and advocacy; (ii)
preconstruction mobilization and training; (iii) construction and (iv) post contstruction. The
full document of software steps is given in Annex 5.1 of the District Implementation manual.

3 Siting
Prior to construction of a shallow well, a suitable location must be found. This usually
involves balancing favourable hydrogeological conditions against the community’s location
desires. These may be contradictory. Negotiation and careful explanations are required. The
siting procedures for shallow wells comprise (i) desk study and information gathering; (ii)
penetration tests; (iii) geophysical survey (if appropriate) and (iv) selection of site and
technology. These are set out below.

3.1 Desk Study and Information Gathering

A list of communities who have identified a need for a water supply source and who have
fulfilled the necessary conditions (as set out in the Critical Requirements of the OP5) should
be made available to the technical staff responsible for siting.

In general, shallow wells tend to be positioned in areas where others already exist and are
successful. However, existing information (eg District MIS and GIS data, survey reports,
water resource maps), as well as information obtained form village identification and
information gathering visits should also be utilized in selecting suitable locations.

3.1.1 Water resource maps

Water resources maps (previously referred to as base maps) have been produced for the
Districts of Pallisa, Iganga, Bugiri, Tororo, Butaleja, Busia, Mbale, Bukwo and Kapchorwa.
The mapping exercise is ongoing and will cover all other Districts. In future, as the
groundwater mapping exercise covers more parts of the country, more Districts will be able to
use water resource maps to assist in their shallow well siting.

The Water Resource Maps should be first used to identify which of the selected communities
lie in a potential “shallow well” area2. In addition, the following information for the
surrounding area should be examined:

2
Definition of these areas is based on air photo interpretation, identifying areas of high relief and abundant
bedrock outcropping as suitable for deep boreholes only. Swampy areas were also discarded, thereby rendering the
remaining areas suitable for shallow wells. Although this procedure gives an adequate regional picture of shallow
well potential, a more detailed local investigation is required to confirm a particular shallow well site.

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 • Depth of existing boreholes/wells
• First water strike
• Main water strike
• Static water levels
• Yield of existing boreholes/wells
• Casing depth (ie. overburden thickness) of existing boreholes/wells
• Geological description of boreholes/wells drilled
3.1.2 Village identification and information gathering

Village identification and information gathering visits are extremely useful to establish the
following:
• Verification of village name, confirmation of request for a water source and
confirmation that community mobilization activities are taking place.
• Identification of village centre and grid reference. The latter using a Global
Positioning System (GPS) unit.
• Collection of information regarding existing sources (eg springs, hand dug wells,
open wells) and pit latrines in order to build up understanding about water levels,
formation type, seasonal fluctuations, water quality, attitudes towards existing water
sources.
• Consideration of environmental issues and pollution sources (set out in 3.1.3).
The village identification visit should be integrated into the visits made in carrying out the
Software Steps. A community mobiliser should thus be present during the village
identification and information gathering exercise. Discussions regarding the preferred sites
of the community should be held, taking environmental issues onto consideration.

3.1.3 Environmental issues and pollution sources

Domestic waste, mostly from latrines, is the most common source of contamination to rural
water supplies in Uganda. The principal contaminants include faecal coliform bacteria and
nitrates. Bacteria in water are easily filtered out in unsaturated soil and granular media.
Nitrates are removed through plant uptake and denitrification in the unsaturated zone.
Therefore the thickness of the unsaturated zone and the nature of the materials within it are
the key factors in determining the likelihood of contaminants reaching the water table and
polluting the local groundwater resource.

There are 3 main factors that determine the risk of the source being contaminated from a pit
latrine:
• Depth to the water table. The thicker the zone between the bottom of the pit and water
table, the greater capacity for attenuation of contaminants. Usually 2-3 metres is
considered adequate for a normal latrine (used by 10 persons). Water table fluctuations
must be taken into account.
• Nature of soil material. Seepage in clay is poor, which may cause effluent to rise to the
surface. Silt and sand offer effective treatment for bacteria, whereas gravel and
weathered rock provide poor treatment.
• Local groundwater gradient. The nature of the hydraulic gradient between the latrine and
the water source also has a bearing on the direction and speed of contaminant transport.
Natural hydraulic gradients usually mimic topographical gradients, therefore where the
ground is sloping it can be assumed that the underlying groundwater (and any
contaminants) is flowing downgradient in the same direction. The steeper the gradient,
the faster the flow of groundwater. Therefore it is preferable to place shallow wells
upgradient of any contaminant sources.

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 Natural gradients can be disturbed by pumping at a shallow well. If pumping is carried
out at a high enough rate, a cone of depression will be created around the source inducing
flow towards the well. For hand pumps the effect is unlikely to be severe, however it
should noted that the cone of influence can extend quite far when the aquifer is confined
under a considerable thickness of clay. If pumping rates are high enough, natural
gradients may be reversed. In this case a well which is upgradient of a pollution source
has the potential to be contaminated.

All efforts should be made to try and site a shallow well source at least 50m away from a
contamination source. In cases where a significant slope exists, the shallow well should be
placed upgradient of the pollution source. If the site must be placed downgradient, then a
minimum separation distance of 100m should be used.

It is realised that in some cases a shallow well cannot be sited according to the above
guidelines. This is likely to occur in high-density areas where an abundance of pollutant
sources such as latrines exist. All efforts should be made to try and site outside the high
density area, however this is pointless if the well will not be used because it is too far for the
community to go and collect water. In this type of situation the hydrogeologist should adhere
to the guidelines in the table below. Note that depth to water and the nature of the formation
needs to be considered. Since a latrine is likely to be the problem, the community should be
able to give you some idea of this information from their experience digging the latrine. Other
nearby sources can also give some indication of hydrogeological conditions. The guidelines
are based on those currently used by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in the
Republic of South Africa, which were derived based on both theoretical and practical
considerations. For further information the reader is referred to “A Guideline for Groundwater
Protection for the Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programme” by the DWAF in
RSA, 1995 edition.
Depth to Water Minimum Separation Distance (m)
Table (m) Thin Soil (0 – 2 m)* Sand & Gravel Silt / Loam Clay
<5 50 45 40 35
5-15 45 40 35 30
15-30 40 35 30 25
*Thin Soil is the vertical zone between the base of the latrine pit and the water table.

In addition to locating sites away from pit latrines, it is essential that they are located at a
sufficient distance from all potential sources of pollution, ie:
• Pit latrines (>50m distance; >100m distance of the pit latrine is up slope of the proposed
water source);
• Graves and cemeteries (>50m distance)
• Existing open wells (>50m distance)
• Major roads and railways (should be >50m away)
• Flood areas should be avoided
• Cattle pens (>50m distance)
To avoid surface contamination, the rest water level must be at least 4m below ground level
(bgl)
Taking the above issues into consideration, the District Water Office, together with the
extension staff should note three potential shallow well sites selected by the community.

3.1.4 Analysis

The information from the desk study and village verification and information gathering visit
should be analyzed to determine whether a particular site is suitable for shallow well drilling.

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The following should be taken into consideration when carrying out a shallow well
investigation and data analysis:

1. A shallow static water level (SWL) does not always indicate shallow well potential. It is
common for some aquifers to be confined by impermeable sediments such a clay. In such
a hydrogeological setting the first water strike (FWS) will coincide with the base of the
confining layer, followed by a rise in the water level in the hole. The resultant SWL will
therefore be shallower than the FWS. Should an area be underlain by a considerable
thickness of confining material, hand auger drilling may not be able to reach the level of
the FWS, even where the SWL is within a shallow well range. Be sure to closely study
the relationship between FWS and SWL.

2. A deep SWL in an existing borehole does not necessarily mean that water is not available
at a shallow depth. It is possible that in some cases that the upper water bearing unit has
been cased off upon construction of the borehole, thus preventing water from entering in
at this level. In this case the SWL reflects water entering in from a deeper water-bearing
unit. Check the casing depth and screened interval against the FWS and MWS.

3. An area covered with deep boreholes is not necessarily unsuitable for shallow wells, as
water may be available at a shallow depth. Check the first and main water strikes
accordingly as well as information from the community.

4. Note that lower yields may be a reflection of the capacity of the pump used for testing
rather than the potential yield of the aquifer. For instance, the jolly jump test pump
(outlined in section 5) has a maximum capacity of about 1.5 – 2.0 m3/h, and a standard
UIII pump a capacity of about 1 m3/h.

5. A shallow first water strike does not necessarily indicate shallow well potential. If the
nature of the overburden is such that hand augering will not be able to penetrate, the site
is not suitable for a shallow well. This will occur where the overburden is very thin,
where laterites are hard and extensive or where boulders are present at a shallow depth.

3.2 Penetration Tests

Penetration tests are to be used for all sites that are being considered for shallow wells to a
depth of 20m. In order to reduce costs, District local Governments (and NGOs) are
encouraged to undertake many penetration tests in one area at a go. Penetration tests are
especially useful for:
• Identifying the nature of the subsurface material to be penetrated
• Determining whether laterite horizons can be penetrated
• Verifying the presence of boulders
• Verifying the depth to the water table
• Assessing the yield of water bearing strata (if using a jolly jump test pumping kit)
Note that in cases where a nearby source (eg. dug well, borehole) exists, some of the above
information may be confirmed through visual inspection and discussion with local
community. Information about pit latrines is also useful.

A detailed description of penetration test procedures is found in “Hand Drilled Wells – A

Manual on Siting, Design, Construction and Maintenance” by Bob Blankwaardt.

Penetration tests are carried out using light-weight hand augering equipment as follows:
• ∅ 22mm handle
• ∅ 22mm extension rods, 20 x 1m lengths
• ∅ 70mm combination and riverside auger bits

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 • ∅ 100 mm combination and riverside auger bits
• ∅ 70 mm / ∅ 100 mm stone catcher
• jolly jump test pump with PVC rising mains, ball valve and discharge hose
Penetration tests usually take ½ to one day. The maximum depth achieved by penetration tests
is about 20m. The main reasons for termination include:
• boulders
• hard laterites
• collapsing formation
Weathered laterites are often penetrated after shear persistence. Collapsing formations are
usually encountered at or below the water table.

A crude estimate of yield may be obtained using a jolly jump test pumping kit. The test
should be carried out for 1 hour, although often the hole will dry up before then. If this
happens, the clock should be kept running while allowing the water level to recover, after
which pumping can resume. This may occur a few times during the hour. At the end of the
test an actual volume removed from the hole in the hour will give an accurate yield estimate.
Extrapolation of shot-term testing gives inaccurate yield estimates and should be avoided.
For instance pumping for 20 minutes then multiplying the volume removed by 3 produces a
false hourly yield capability of the hole. Should test pumping be shortened, usually due to
lack of human resources or blocking up of the ball valve, then the yield should be reported as
measured. For instance, 200 litres in 20 minutes - not 600 litres per hour!

Once the penetration test is completed the hole should be covered with a stone or a brick and
the site pegged accordingly. A complete driller's log (of the penetration test) is to be
completed and placed in the Village File.

3.3 Geophysical Surveying

In cases where drilling depths are anticipatd to be more than 15m geophysical surveying may
be utilised for siting. The two main surveying methods are resistivity traversing and vertical
electrical soundings (VES). Resistivity traversing is usually carried out to identify fracture
zones in consolidated formation. Therefore only VES are to be carried out during shallow
well siting in unconsolidated formation.

Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES)

Vertical electrical soundings (VES) are used to determine depths to subsurface interfaces that
are approximately horizontal. The two requirements for a resistivity survey are the
introduction of current into the ground and the detection of voltage. Both these operations are
carried out using electrodes, which are usually simple metal stakes hammered into the
ground. During VES surveys current is sent progressively deeper into the ground by moving
the electrodes further and further apart. The electrodes are hooked up to a Terrameter, a
single module that generates the current internally, measures the voltages and computes a
resistance value. This value is then multiplied by a geometric factor that is specific to the
array being used to obtain a quantity known as the apparent resistivity, measured in ohm-
metres.

All VES data collected in the field should be analysed with respect to the existing
information. The results from previous studies indicate that VES are particularly useful for
identifying the following:
• Potential water bearing formations
• Depth to bedrock
• Laterite horizons

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The highly resistive, basal layer represents bedrock, and the upper one or two thinner layers
usually represent dry topsoil and/or resistive laterites. In between these layers, one can expect
to find an extensive (5-20m) low resistivity layer. This usually represents sedimentary
overburden materials.

Past experience shows that VES are not particularly useful in identifying water strikes,
although the interface between an impermeable and water bearing unit may be identified if the
resistivities of the two materials are quite different. Boulders, which can cause significant
problems during hand augering, are rarely identified through VES investigations.

3.4 Selection of Site and Technology

Hand dug wells and hand augering technology are suitable for cases where water level is
shallow (ie. < 10mbgl) and formations are relatively soft (eg. clay, silt, sand, weathered
laterite, no boulders).

In the case where water levels are deeper than 10mbgl, the overburden is thick (ie. > 15m) or
there is relatively hard formation (eg. laterite, boulders, weathered rock) motor drilled wells
will be required. Where there is hard rock, percussion rigs or down-the-hole hammer (DTH)
capability will be required.
Should none of the sites selected by the community seem hydrogeologically favourable,
considerable discussions between the District local Government technical staff (or private
consultant), sub-county extension staff and the community will be required.

4 Well Design
Figures 1 and 2 set out the overall well designs for consolidated and unconsolidated formation
as required by MWE/DWD. Detailed well designs are to be prepared by District local
Government/Consultant and included in contract documents for drilling.

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Figure 1 Drilled well design for unconsolidated formation

10
Figure 2 Drilled well design for consolidated formation/hard rock

For all shallow wells, the following specifications apply:

• Well depth should be greater than or equal to 11 m.
• Well depth should be greater than or equal to 7 m below the water table.
• Top of screen should be 3 m below water table.
• Casings/screens to be placed in 3 m intervals. Do not cut casings or screens
(top/bottom excluded)
• Gravel pack should extend 3 m above top of screen. Avoid bringing gravel pack too
close to the surface unless the upper aquifer is the major contributing zone. The yield
of lower aquifers can be tested when temporary casings seal off upper aquifer.
• Clay seal(s) should be 1 m thick and placed immediately within the backfill material
and level with impermeable horizons.
• Cement sanitary seal should be 3 m, and placed over the backfill material.

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5 Drilling3
5.1 Drilling
If temporary casing is to be used it is essential to start with a large enough hole to allow for
the temporary casing (ie. 12” hole for 10” casing, 10” hole for 8” casing). Ensure hole is
drilled straight, especially the first 3 metres. Request for verticality tests during the drilling.
Ensure that samples are collected every metre. Samples should not to be washed. Log
separately from the driller, while samples are produced – not at the end of the day! The
contractor should place samples into suitable bags, labelled with date, location, well number,
and depth intervals.

Daily Record Forms should be used to record drilling progress, most notably daily drilled
depth, first and main water strikes, diameter changes, yield measurements, electrical
conductivity and reasons for delays. The table below lists the information to be included in
the daily record.

Daily Record Information

- Site name
- Reference number of shallow well
- Co-ordinates of shallow well (latitude / longitude)
- Date of reporting
- Names of foreman and drillers
- Method of shallow wells construction
- Diameter of hole, and depth of changes in diameter
- Depth of hole at start and end of shift or working day
- Depth and size of casing at start and end of shift or working day
- Description of strata penetrated with depth of transitions encountered
- Depth at which water is struck
- Yield of air lifted water, when constructing or developing with air.
- Time log showing rate of penetration in minutes per metre, type of bit, standby time due
to breakdown.
- Depth intervals at which formation samples are taken
- Records of components and quantities used or added to the drilling fluid or air.
- Water level at the start of each working day
- Electrical conductivity measurements during test pumping
- Problems encountered during construction
- Details of installations in the shallow well (if any)
- Depth and description of well casing
- Depth and description of well screens
- Details of work to be invoiced at hourly rates (e.g. test pumping)

5.2 Installation of Casings / Screens

Ensure all cuttings are bailed out before installing casings and screens. Temporary casings
should be pushed to the bottom of the hole prior to installing casings/screens, even if the hole
has remained open. Should the contractor refuse, ensure that he accepts responsibility should
the final yield be affected as a result. Put this in writing and have the Contractor sign before
installation.
• A suitable plug (eg. wood, cement seal) should be placed at base.
• The bottom 1.5 m should be plain casing.
• 0.5 m of casing should be left above ground surface.

3
Note that this chapter focuses on the drilling of wells, and not hand digging.

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 • The gravel pack should extend 3m above the screen.
• Centralisers should be fastened onto the casing/screen string to ensure an even
annular space all around. Three centralisers arranged as not to obstruct installation of
gravel pack.
5.3 Installation of Gravel Pack
The gravel pack should fulfil the Technical Specifications given in the contract document.
The gravel should be sieved if necessary. The gravel pack should be placed immediately after
casing / screen installation. Do not wait overnight.

Pouring of the gravel, and the removal of temporary casing to be done in a step by step
manner. The gravel must not be poured all at once! Small amounts of gravel are to be placed
at once to prevent bridging. Use a bucket.

Temporary casing should be removed in a clockwise fashion whilst shaking or vibrating.

Ensure that the temporary casing is never pulled above top of gravel. Measure gravel pack
depth before pulling casing and after adding gravel. Always be aware of level of temporary
casings.

Yield tests on lower aquifers can be carried out while upper aquifers are still sealed off by
temporary casings. Pull the temporary casings above the top of lower aquifer while packing.
Ensure that gravel pack extends over the entire lower aquifer and up to 2 metres above the
bottom of the temporary casings. Perform test.

Record gravel pack interval and amount used on Daily Record form.

5.4 Yield Tests for Hand Pump Source

Yield tests are usually performed after gravel packing is completed, however can be requested
any time during drilling.

Calculate 1 well volume prior to pumping, ie:

Well Volume (Vw) = Volume of the pvc casing (Vpvc) + Volume of the gravel pack (Vgp)
Where Vpvc = πr2h
Vgp = 50%(V10” – Vpvc)
h = column of water in metres
In the case of 5” casing and a 10” diameter well Vw = 30.7h litres

Perform pumping test for 1 hour using jolly jump pump or any other suitable pump. Do not
discontinue test if well becomes dry. Note volume removed before pumped dry (= to 1 well
volume?). Keep clock running and allow water level to recover, then resume pumping.
Repeat the procedure if necessary. Calculate the actual amount of water removed in 1 hour,
and the number of well volumes removed. Never perform a short-term yield test then
extrapolate to 1 hour – this may significantly overestimate the yield of the well!

5.5 Well Development

Well development is essential, and should not just be left to the water users, but is part of the
construction contract. Well development can be undertaken using a handpump, dewatering
pump, or a compressor. It is essential that the top of the hole is adequately sealed off from
spilled water.

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The well is to be to be developed until water is as free from fine particles as possible. When
clear, change level of pump intake and continue pumping until clear again. Repeat procedure
along entire length of screen.

Periodically stop to see if water level recovers. If not, screen may be clogged and surginfg
will be required. Ensue that the plunger is placed about 2 m underwater, well above the top of
the screen. Surging should be carried out for 10 minutes at a time, then sand should be
removed from the bottom of the well using membrane pump or a bailor.

During well development, measure the level of the gravel pack and top up if necessary.

5.6 Installation of Clay Seal

Gravel pack should be topped up to 3 m above top of screen. Clay seal(s) should be 1 m thick,
at top of gravel pack and at impermeable horizons.

Small pieces of clay to be used pre-soaked in water one day in advance. Clay to be placed in
small layers using a suitable ramming pipe. Avoid using branches for placing clay.

5.7 Installation of Backfill

Inert drill cuttings are to be used for backfill. Be sure to compact the backfill thoroughly.

5.8 Grouting
Calculate the volume of cement grout required. Ensure cement for mixing is clean and free of
lumps. Lumps must be sieved out.

Cement must be mixed in a clean container and uniform slurry obtained. The slurry is to be
injected into the annular space between casing and well wall either manually or using a
tremmie pipe.

Record the grouted interval and amount of cement used on Daily Record form.

5.9 After Construction

Cap the well with a suitable plug. This is usually wood. Use nails to secure the plug.

Clear the site

Complete Driller’s Logs, Daily Records and Daily Instructions and place in the Village File.

6 Test Pumping
6.1 Introduction
All shallow wells that have been successfully hand dug/drilled must be test pumped and
tested for water quality. MWE/DWD has set a minimum water quantity and water quality
limits. If these specifications are not met, there should be no installation of the handpump.
The test pump will provide important data on both well and aquifer performance, most
importantly the quantity of water that can be drawn out in a given time (ie. yield). The test
data is also used to determine the optimum pump intake depth for the installed pump. Water
samples collected are to be submitted for laboratory analysis.

Successful well development will be determined by the results of the driller’s yield test. A
shallow well is considered to have been successfully developed and ready for test pumping if
the driller’s yield is greater than 300 litres per hour.

14
The contractor who drilled and constructed the shallow well, or is another contractor may
carry out test pumping. To reduce costs, test pumping and water quality testing is usually
carried out when a significant portion of the wells have been completed. As a result testing of
a source can occur some time after its completion.

6.2 Types of Pumping Test

In cases where the driller’s yield of less than 1500 litres/hr, a constant rate test (CRT)
should be carried out. The constant rate test should be carried out at 800 litres/hr for a 3-
hour period. However in some cases this rate will be too high. Nonetheless, the test should
commence at this rate. If the dynamic water level (DWL) reaches too close to the pump
intake, the pumping rate can be decreased accordingly.

In cases where the driller’s yield above 1500 litres/hr, a step test (ST) is to be carried out.
This should consist of 3 to 4 steps, each 90 minutes in duration, starting at 800 litres/hr. The
resultant drawdown during the first step will be used to determine to optimum hand pump
depth. The water sample is to be collected at the end of the first step. Subsequent steps will
provide data used to calculate the aquifer’s yield capabilities and the efficiency of the well.

If unsure whether a CRT or ST should be carried out, start out with a CRT at 800 litres/hr. If
after 90 minutes the drawdown is small in comparison with the available drawdown (initial
column of water above pump intake), then increase the rate to 1200-1500 litres/hr and
continue with a step test.

6.3 Equipment Check

The Contractor should have all the necessary equipment for test pumping. Prior to test
pumping, the supervisor should ensure that the following equipment is available and in good
working order:
• Submersible pump. For shallow wells the capacity of the pump should be 3.0 m3/h. The
pump should be equipped with a non-return valve.
• Gate valve system. For adjusting the discharge rate, usually fitted on the discharge pipe at
the well-head. Should be capable of adjusting discharge down to 300 litres/hr.
• Riser Pipes. Usually galvanised steel pipes. Preferable to have in 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 m
lengths so pump intake can be set at the desired level.
• Discharge pipe. Should be at least 100m to prevent recharge of the aquifer near the well.
This is especially important for shallow wells where water is close to the surface.
• Calibrated containers. Should have 10 and 20 litre buckets, as well as a 100 or 200 litre
drum.
• Generator or power source. Ensure enough fuel.
• Water level indicator. Should have a light and/or buzzer.
• Stopwatch. Preferably two (one for back-up)
• Electrical conductivity and pH meters
• Plastic sample bottles
• Spanners and other related pump test accessories
6.4 Start of Pump Test
On arrival at site, the location details of the site should be entered on a formatted Pumping
Test Form. After removing the borehole cap, the static water level (SWL) should be
measured and recorded. The entire riser pipe and pump assembly should be examined to
ensure all are in place and then installed to a depth specified by the supervisor. Measure static
water level again.

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If possible, ensure that the pump intake is placed above the screens to avoid turbidity.
However note that for shallow wells this is likely to severely limit the available drawdown,
so the pump intake will most probably need to be placed adjacent to the screen. In this case
place the pump as deep as possible to maximise the available drawdown.

Soon after switching on the pump, the gate valve should be adjusted to about 800 litres/hr. If
drawdown is too excessive early on, then decrease the discharge rate accordingly. Water
should be discharged at least 100m from the well. Local conditions may allow for a shorter
distance. This is to be assessed and decided by the Supervisor.

6.5 During the Pumping Test

Readings of the DWL should be taken in accordance with the time intervals specified on a
Pumping Test Form. Each step during a ST should be recorded on a separate sheet.
Electrical conductivity and pH measurements should be taken periodically at the Supervisors
request. Discharge should be continuously monitored and recorded. The discharge rate
should be kept as constant as possible by adjusting the gate valve whenever necessary. Note
any changes in water colour, turbidity, discharge rates and technical difficulties.

Should the DWL have stabilised by 90 minutes during a CRT, increase the discharge rate and
switch to a ST. The DWL should be 2m above the top of the pump by the end of the last step
– set the number of steps and discharge rates accordingly. Take a water sample at the end of
the CRT or at the end of the first step for a ST. At the end of the pumping test, switch off the
pump and monitor the water level recovery immediately. Monitoring should continue up until
95% recovery.

6.6 After the Pumping Test

After recovery monitoring the equipment should be taken out of the well with care to avoid
the pump or pipes falling back into the well. Sometimes the water will not have cleared by
the end of the pumping test, even if the water had cleared during previous development.
Reasons for this include idle standing of the well between development and test pumping, and
disturbance caused by the submersible pump when placed adjacent to the screen. In this case
the contractor is responsible for re-developing the well until the water is clear. This may be
done with the submersible pump or any other suitable means accepted by the supervisor. The
water sample is to be taken after re-development.

The well should be securely capped. Site should be cleared accordingly. Data to be placed in
the Village File. Water sample to be submitted to the laboratory for analysis.

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