DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL
Faculty Details

Name of the Faculty : V.BALU

Designation : Assistant Professor
Department : CSE

Course Details
Name of the Course : BE
Branch : ECE / EEE / EIE / MECT
Year : I
Subject Code : CESCS18T40
Title of the Subject : PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
Batch : 2020-2021

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 Course Code:
L T P Credit CIA Marks 40
CESCS18T40 PROGRAMMING FOR
PROBLEM SOLVING
Course Category:
2 1 0 3 SEE Marks 60
ESC

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

 Be exposed to the syntax of C.

 Be familiar with programming in C.
 Learn to use arrays, strings, functions, pointers, structures and unions in C.

COURSE OUTCOMES:

 Design C Programs for problems.

 Write and execute C programs for simple applications
 Design problem solutions using Object Oriented techniques

After the successful completion of the course students will be able to

COS NO. Course Outcomes Bloom’s level

Develop algorithms for solving simple mathematical and
engineering problems and examine the suitability of
CO1 Apply
appropriate repetition and/or selection structures for given
problems
Solve matrix problems, merging, searching, sorting and string
CO2 manipulation problems using iteration, modularization or Apply
recursion as applicable.
Organize files to perform text operations like editing, pattern
CO3 Apply
searching using structures
Implement the algorithms for matrix problems, merging,
searching, sorting, and string manipulation and file problems
CO4 Apply
and debug and test using any procedural programming
language

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Mapping of Course Outcome to Program Outcomes:

Program Outcomes
Course
Outcomes PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 S S S S S M L L M M - M

CO2 S S S S S M L L M M - M

CO3 S S M M S M L L M M - M

CO4 S S S S S M L L S S - S

SYLLABUS:

MODULE I

Introduction to components of computer system-Generation of programming languages-Types

of Computers-Organization of Computers-Types of memory, Number systems-Idea of
Algorithm-Pseudo code- Flow Chart with examples.

MODULE II

Introduction to C-Character set, Constants, Variables, Data Types-Operators – Arithmetic

expressions and precedence-Decision Making statement - Looping statements.
MODULE III

Arrays and its types-Functions –Parameter passing in functions-call by value- call by reference –
Passing array to functions-Recursive function.
MODULE IV

Structures and array of structures –Union, Basic searching –Linear and Binary, Basic sorting,
String operations.

MODULE V

Introduction to Pointer, Pointer arithmetic-notion of linked list (no implementation) - File handling.

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LEARNING RESOURCES:

Text Books:
th
1. Byron Gottfried, Schaum‟s Outline of Programming with C, McGraw-Hill.4 Edition july 2018.
2. Balagurusamy. E, “Programming in ANSI C”, Tata McGraw Hill, Third edition, 2008
3. Fundamentals of Computing and Programming- V.Ramesh Babu, R.Samyuktha, M.Muniratham by VRB
Publishers Sep 2018 edition.

References:

th
1. Let Us 'C' - Yashawant Kanetkar, (Unit 2 to 5), BPB publications, 16 Edition, 2017.
2. Ashok N Kamthane, “Computer Programming”, Pearson education, Second Impression, 2011.
3. Venugopal. K and Kavichithra.C, “Computer Programming”, New Age International Publishers,
nd
2 Edition,Jan 2008.
4. Kernighan B.W and Ritchie,D.M , The C programming language: second edition, Pearson
education, 2015.

Online resources:

1. www.nptl.co.in
2. www.electrical4u.com

ASSESSMENT PATTERN:

Continuous Assessment
Bloom’s Tests Assignment Terminal Examination
Category (10) (60)
(15) (15)
Remember 7 0 20
Understand 8 - 15
Apply 0 8 10
10
Analysis 0 4 10
Evaluate 0 3 5
Create 0 0 0
Total 15 15 60
A B C D
A+B+C+D = 100

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 COURSE PLAN

Select a course (a theory subject): Programming for Problem Solving

Select a unit: Unit I

Select a Topic: Introduction to components of computer system, Number System,

Algorithm and Flow Chart.

1. Objectives
To Study the Basics of Computers, its organization and its Generations
2. Outcomes
Students will acquire knowledge on Basics of computers, Evolution of Computers, Organization of
computers, Generation of Computers
3. Pre-requisites
Nil
4. Terminology used other than normal known scientific / engg terms and their
fundamental explanations / relations

Plan for the lecture delivery

1. How to plan for delivery – black board / ppt / animated ppt / (decide which is good
for this topic)
Power Point Presentation
2. How to explain the definition and terms with in it
Describe the functions of computers and history of Computers.
3. How to start the need for any derivation / procedure / experiment / case study
Not Applicable
4. Physical meaning of math equations / calculations
Not Applicable
5. Units and their physical meaning to make them understand practical reality and
comparison between different units
Understand the concept of various parts of the computer is useful for when writing
program.

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6. What is the final conclusion?
Understand how computer works and how number system used in computer
7. How to put it in a nut shell
Types of computers, Generations of Computers, Numbers System, Algorithm, Flow
chart
8. Important points for understanding / memorizing / make it long lasting
Computer is a Calculating Device, First Generation, second Generation, third Generation,
fourth Generation and Fifth Generation, Number System Decimal , Binary, Octal,
Hexadecimal. Algorithm is Step by Step solution to the Problem, Flow Chart is a
Pictorial representation of algorithm.
9. Questions and cross questions in that topic to make them think beyond the topic.

A 1. Discuss in detail about

a) Characteristics of computer b) Evolution of computers

B 1.Define Parts of computer?

2.what is storage unit?

C 1. Explain in detail about Organization of Computer with Neat diagram.

2.Explain various generations of computers.

D 1. Classify and Explain the types of Computers based on configuration.

E 1. What are the types of computers?

F 1.Explain the types of Computers based on mode of use.

10. Final conclusions

Students will acquire knowledge on Basics of computers, Evolution of Computers,
Organization of computers, Generation of Computers .

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Introduction to digital Computers:

1Parts of Computer
Performance
Features that affect the performance of the computer include:
Microprocessor Operating System
RAM
Diskdrives
display input/output ports

Fig: Schematic diagram showing the various parts of a computer.

The microprocessor:

 Has a set of internal instructions stored in memory, and can access memory for its own
use while working.
 Can receive instructions or data from you through a keyboard in combination with
another device
 (Mouse, touchpad, trackball, and joystick).

 Can receive and store data through several data storage devices (hard drive, floppy
drive, Zip drive, CD/DVD drive).
 Can display data to you on computer monitors (cathode ray monitors, LCD displays).
 Can send data to printers, modems, networks and wireless networks through various
input/output ports. Is powered by AC power and/or batteries.

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Characteristics of Computers

The various characteristics of computers are as follows

1. Speed: Speed is the most important characteristics of computer .Computer having

more speed to perform jobs instantaneously.

2. Accuracy: The computers are perfect, accurate and precise. Accuracy signifies the
reliability of the hardware components of computers.

3. Automatic: A computer works automatically, once programs are stored and data are
given to it, constant supervision is not required.

4. Endurance: A computer works continuously and will not get tired and will not suffer
from lack of concentration.

5. Versatility: A computer can be put to work in various fields.

6. Reduction of cost: Though initial investment may be high, computer substantially reduces
the cost of transaction.

Evolution of Computers

The Early development:

ABACUS:

ABACUS uses movable beads stung on wires above and below a cross bar and its operation
are based on the idea of the place value notation. The beads of the counter represent digits.
The value of the digit in each position is determined by adding the values of the beads
pressed against the cross piece.

Pascal calculating machine:

It was the first real desktop calculating device that could add and subtract. It consists of a set
of toothed wheels or gears with each wheel or gear having digits 0 to 9 engraved on it.
Arithmetic operation could be performed by tunings these wheels.

Punched card Machine:

The presence and absence of the holes in the card represent the digits.

Charles Babbage’s Engine:

The machine took input from the punched card. The Analytical engine had a memory which
will perform arithmetic operations.

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Computer Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being

used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system.

There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period, characteristics. We've used approximate dates
against each generations which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers

S.N. Generation & Description

1 First Generation
The period of first generation : 1946-1959. Vaccum tube based.

2 Second Generation
The period of second generation : 1959-1965. Transistor based.

3 Third Generation
The period of third generation : 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

4 Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation : 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

5 Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation : 1980-onwards.ULSI microprocessor based

First Generation

i. The period of first generation was 1946-1959.

ii. First generation of computer started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for
memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs
produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were
very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations.

iii. In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation
Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used.

iv. There were Machine code and electric wired board languages used.

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 Fig: First Generation

The main features of First Generation are:

Vacuum tube technology

Unreliable

Supported Machine language only

Very costly

Generate lot of heat

Slow Input/Output device

Huge size

Need of A.C.

Non portable

Consumed lot of electricity

Some computer of this generation were:

ENIAC

EDVAC

UNIVAC

IBM-701

IBM-650

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Second Generation

i. The period of second generation was 1959-1965.

ii. This generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size,
more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vaccum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were
iii. used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

iv. In this generation assembly language and high level programming language like FORTRAN,
COBOL were used.

v. There were Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used.

Fig: Second Generation

The main features of Second Generation are:

Use of transistors

Reliable as compared to First generation computers

Smaller size as compared to First generation computers

Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers

Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers

Faster than first generation computers

Still very costly

A.C. needed

Support machine and assembly languages

Some computer of this generation were:

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 IBM 1620

IBM 7094

CDC 1604

CDC 3600

UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation

i. The period of third generation was 1965-1971.

ii. The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of
transistors. A
iii. Single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The
I.C was invented by Jack Kilby . This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and
efficient.

iv. In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming

Operating System were used.High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

Fig: Third Generation

The main features of Third Generation are:

IC used

More reliable

Smaller size

Generate less heat

Faster

Lesser maintenance

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 Still costly

A.C needed

Consumed lesser electricity

Support high level language

Some computer of this generation were:

IBM-360 series

Honeywell-6000 series

PDP(Personal Data Processor)

IBM-370/168

TDC-316

Fourth Generation

i. The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980.

ii. The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth
generation. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.

iii. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used.

iv. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

Fig: Fourth Generation

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

 VLSI technology used

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  Very cheap

 Portable and reliable

 Use of PC's

 Very small size

 Pipeline processing

 No A.C. needed

 Concept of internet was introduced

 Great developments in the fields of networks

 Computers became easily available

Some computer of this generation were:

 DEC 10

 STAR 1000

 CRAY-1(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation

i. The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date.

ii. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
components.

iii. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.

iv. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making
computers think like human beings.

v. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in

this generation.

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 AI includes:

 Robotics

 Neural networks

 Game Playing

Fig: Fifth Generation

The main features of Fifth Generation are:

ULSI technology

Development of true artificial intelligence

Development of Natural language processing

Advancement in Parallel Processing

Advancement in Superconductor technology

More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features

Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates Some computer types of

this generation are:

Desktop

Laptop

NoteBook

UltraBook

ChromeBook

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1.5 Basic Computer Organization:

Introduction to digital computers

The architecture of the computers has not changed but the technology used to accomplish those
operations may vary from one computer to another computer. The basic computer organization remains
the same for all computer systems. In 1950’s, it took a room full of vacuum tubes and equipment to
perform the tasks that are now replaced with a single chip, not bigger than a child’s thumb nail.
Advances in semiconductor technology have reduced the Size of the chip.

Control Unit

Memory Unit
Output unit
Input Unit

Arithmetic & Logical Unit

Secondary Storage

Fig: Architecture of computer

The block diagram of the digital computer system has the following three units.

1. Input unit
2. Central processing unit
3. Output unit

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 1. Input unit
Computers need data and instructions in order to solve any problem. We need to put the
data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more input devices.
There are number of devices that perform the function of input devices. The keyboard of the
computer is one of the most commonly used and standardized input device. Regardless of the
type of input device used in a computer system, all input devices perform the following
functions:

1. Accept data and instruction from the outside world.

2. Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
3. Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

The input unit is used to send information or instructions or commands to the computer. The input
received from the input unit is immediately stored in main memory and the processed. Input may be
processed. Input may be pressing a key in a keyboard or moving of mouse or movement of a joystick.

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer Systems

Keyboard

Mouse

Joy Stick

Light pen

Track Ball

Scanner

Graphic Tablet

Microphone

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

Bar Code Reader

Optical Mark Reader

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Keyboard

Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there
are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is
also available for Windows and Internet.

Fig: Keyboard

The keys are following

Sr. Keys Description

No.

1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and dig its keys (0-9) which
are generally give same layout as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it

consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machine and calculators.

3 Function Keys The twelve functions keys are present on the keyboard. These are
arranged in a row along the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

4 Control keys These keys provides cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow key. Control keys also include Home, End,Insert,
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose
5 Keys Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

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Mouse

Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally it has two buttons called left and right
button and scroll bar is present at the mid. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on
screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Fig: Mouse

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The Joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Fig: Joystick

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Fig: Light Pen

Track Ball

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 Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Fig: Track Ball

Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that
can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Fig: Scanner

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and
images manipulation applications.

Fig: Digitizer

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Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in dig ital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.

Fig: MicroPhone

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a
special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition(MICR). The main
advantages of MICR are that it is fast and less error prone.

Fig: Magnetic Ink Card Reader

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Fig: Optical Character Reader

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Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand
held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is
then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Fig: Bar Code Reader

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used
for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Fig: Optical Mark Reader

2. Central processing unit

It is the heart of the computer system. All operations are carried out in this unit only. In most
modern computers, a single IC does the following job
i) It performs all calculations
ii) It makes all decisions
iii) It controls all units of the computer

The CPU is sub-divided into the following sub-system:

 Control unit
 Arithmetic and logical unit (ALU)
 Memory unit
 Secondary storage devices.

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(i) Control unit

The control unit instructs the computer how to carry out program instructions. It directs the
flow of data between memory and arithmetic logical unit. It controls and coordinates the entire
computer system.

The control unit controls all other parts of the computer. The input unit does not know when to
receive data and where to put the data in the storage unit after receiving it. The control unit gives the
necessary instructions to the input unit, the control unit instructs the input unit where to store the data
after receiving it from user. In the same way, it controls the flow of data and instructions from the
storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of the results from the ALU to the storage unit. The control
unit also controls what should be sent to the output unit.

(ii) Arithmetic and logical unit

Arithmetic and logical unit performs all the arithmetic and logical operations, arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and logical operations such as comparisons.

All calculations are performed in the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) of the computer. ALU also
does comparisons and takes decision. Whenever any calculation has to be done, the control unit
transfers the required data from the storage unit to the ALU.

(iii) Memory unit

Memory unit is the part of computer which holds data for processing and other information. It
also called as main memory. It is a temporary storage (volatile). The values stored in the processor with
the help of the many register like accumulator, base register. This registers store the value at the time of
calculation.

(iv) Secondary storage devices

The secondary storage is used like an archive. It may store several programs, documents, database,
etc. The program that you want to run on the computer is first transferred to the primary memory
before it can run. The secondary memory is slower than the primary memory. Some of the commonly
used secondary memory devices are hard disk, compact disk (CD), digital video disk (DVD). It is the
permanent storage; the data stored in this storage will not be erased when the power is lost. It is a non-
volatile memory.

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3. Output unit

These devices used to get the response or result from the processor. Output unit is the
communication between the user and the computer. The output unit of a computer provides the
information and results of a computation to the outside world. Commonly used output devices are
printer, plotter, and monitor.

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in Computer Systems

Monitors
Graphic Plotter
Printer

Monitors

Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short. The smaller the
pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form
whole character, such as the letter e in the word help.

A finite number of character can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be
divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character
can be placed.

The most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically. There are some disadvantage of CRT

 Large in Size
 High Power consumption

Fig: CRT Monitor

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Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer,
graphics display.

The flat-panel display are divided into two categories

Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device)

Fig: Flat –Panel Display Monitor

Printers

Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers

Impact Printers

Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are
called impact printers.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are following

Very low consumable costs

Impact printers are very noisy
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

25
 Character printers
Line printers

Character Printers:

Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time.

These are of further two types

Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of their ease of
printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of Dot's and head
consists of a Matrix of Pins of size(5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a character that is
why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive

 Widely Used

 Other language characters can be printed

Fig: Dot Matrix Printer

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Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that
is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices
which require a few letters to be send here and there with very nice quality representation.

Advantages

More reliable than DMP's

Better quality

The fonts of character can be easily changed.

Disadvantages

Slower than DMP's

Noisy

Fig: Daisy Wheel Printer

Line Printers

Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.

These are of further two types

Drum Printer

Chain Printer

Fig: Line Printer

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Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e for a paper width of 132 characters, Drum
will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different characters sets are available in
market 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum Printers
are fast in speed and speed in between 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

Very high speed

Disadvantages

Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers. A standard character set may
have 48, 64, 96 characters.

Advantages

Character fonts can easily be changed.

Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

Noisy

Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

Non-impact Printers

The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper are
called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as Page
Printers.

These printers are of two types

Laser Printers

Inkjet Printers

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Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

Faster than impact printers.

They are not noisy.

High quality.

Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

Very high speed.

Very high quality output.

Give good graphics quality.

Support many fonts and different character size.

Disadvantage

Expensive.

Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing .

Fig: Laser Printer

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Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

Advantages

High quality printing

More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as cost per page is high

 Slow as compare to laser printer

Fig: Inkjet Printer

30
2 Types of computers

The computers come in many sizes and capabilities. It can be classified into the following based on
hardware, utility, size and capacity.

1.Based on hardware design 1. Analog

2. Digital
3. Hybrid
2. Based on utility 1. General purpose computer
2. Special purpose computer
3.Based on size and capacity 1. Micro computer
2. Mini computer
3. Mainframe computer
4. Super computer
4.based on mode of use 1. palmtop pc’s
2. laptop pc’s
3. personal computer
4. work station
5. mainframe system
6. client and server
2.1 Based on hardware design

Based on hardware design, computers are classified as

1. Analog computer
2. Digital computer
3. Hybrid computer

Analog Computer

Fig: analog computer

Analog is Greek word which means similar. So in analog computes, any two quantities
are measured by electrical voltage or current. The analog computer operates by measuring
instead of counting. The analog computer works on the supply of continuous electrical signals.
The display is also continuous and its output is in the form of graphs. Today analog computers
are obsolete.

31
 Digital computer

Fig: digital computer

As the name implies, the digital computer handles quantities represented as digits. In
digital computer, both numerical and non-numeric information’s are represented as string of
digits.

In digital computer, the input data is discrete in nature. It is represented by binary

notation in the form of 0’s and 1’s. Digital computer are much faster than analog computers and
far more accurate. Digital computer is largely used for business and scientific applications.

Hybrid computer

Fig: Hybrid computer

In hybrid computer, an attempt is made to combine the qualities of both analog and
digital computer. In a hybrid computer, the measuring functions are performed by the analog
way while control and logic functions are digital in nature. Weather-monitoring system and
devices used in intensive care units of the hospitals are examples of hybrid computer.

2.2 Based on utility

Based on utility, the computers can be classified into

1. General purpose computers
2. Special purpose computers

General purpose computers

32
 These are designed and constructed to cater to almost all the needs of the society. They can
perform various operations. They are able to perform according to the programs created to
meet different needs.
These can be used for a variety of tasks form financial accounting to mathematical calculations,
form designing textile prints to controlling machinery. They are also flexible and can be used to
work on business and scientific problems.

Special purpose computers

Special purpose computers can be designed to perform specific functions. In such devices, the
instructions are permanently pre programmed. The instructions needed to perform the
particular task are incorporated into the internal memory of the computer. Some of the special
purpose computer are aircraft control system, electronic voting machines etc.

2.3 Based on size and capacity

Based on size and capacity, computers are classified into the following:

1. Micro computer
2. Mini computer
3. Mainframe computer
4. Super computer

Micro computers

In view of its small size and the use of Microprocessor, this computer is called Micro computer.
A microprocessor is a processor whose components namely Input, Output and CPU are on a single
integrated-circuit chip. It is a low-cost and the word length of a microcomputer lies in the range of 8 to
32 bits.

Fig:Micro computer

They are normally single-microprocessor, single-user systems designed for performing basic
operations like general purpose calculations, industrial control, instrumentation, educational, training,
33
small business applications, home applications, commercial equipment control, watches, fuel injection
of a car, office automation, playing games etc.

Mini computer

Minicomputer is larger than the micro computers and is more powerful in terms of processing power.
Minicomputer is mainly multiprocessor systems where many users simultaneously work on the systems.
Minicomputer possesses greater storage capacity and larger memories as compared to microcomputer.
Their word length is 32 bits.

Fig:Mini computer

Mainframe computers
Mainframe computer are larger, faster and more expensive than other general purpose
computers. These are used to handle huge volumes of data. Their word length may be 48 to 64
bit memory capacity. These computers even possess and work with more than one processor at
the same time.

Fig:Mainframe computer

Super computers
Super computers are the most powerful of all computers. They have a high processing speed.
Their processing speed lies in the range of 400 to 10,000 MIPS. Word length 64 to 96 bit. It is
specially designed to maximize the number of FLOPS. Their FLOPS rating is usually more than 1
gigaflop per second.

34
 Fig:Super computer

2.4 Based on mode of use

However with the rapidly developing technology, such classifications are no more relevant.
After a few months of introduction of a new computer in the marker, the new models of computers are
rapidly introduced with less cost and higher performance than the earliest. Thus, today’s computers are
classified based on their mode of use.

Palmtop pc’s
The palmtop computers accept handwritten inputs using an electronic pen, which can
be used to write on a palmtop’s screen. These have small disk storage and can be connected to
a wireless network. One has to train the system on the user’s handwriting before it can be used.
A palmtop computer has also facilities to be used as a mobile phone, fax and E-mail machine.

Fig:World first palmtop pc’s

Laptop pc’s
Laptop pc’s are portable computers with less weight and small enough to be kept on a
lap. They use a keyboard, Flat screen liquid crystal display, and a Pentium or power pc
processor. Color displays are also available. It is a battery powered personal computer generally
smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary
space. Laptops come with hard disk, CD ROM and floppy disk drives.

Fig:Laptop pc’s

Personal computers (PC’s)

35
 The name itself implies, the personal computers were mainly designed to meet the
personal computing requirements of users at working place or in home. It is a non-portable and
general purpose computer which can easily fit on a normal size office table.

Fig:Personal computer

Work stations
It is a powerful desktop computer designed to meet the computing needs of users or
clients, with better processing, high storage capacity and with efficient and effective graphics
display facility. The workstation looks similar to a personal computer and can be used by only
one person at a time through the local area network.

Fig:Work station

Clients and servers

With the increased gain of computer networks, it is possible to interconnect several
computer for communication over the networks to share the several resources or services
among the multiple users.

36
 Fig:Client server

Computers come in many different forms. They range from massive, multipurpose mainframes
and supercomputers to desktop-size personal computers. Between these extremes is a vast middle
ground of minicomputers and workstations. Large minicomputers approach mainframes in computing
power, whereas workstations are powerful personal computers.

Mainframes and large minicomputers are used by many businesses, universities, hospitals and
government agencies to carry out sophisticated scientific and business calculations. These computers
are expensive and many require a sizeable staff of supporting personnel and a special, carefully
controlled environment.

Personal computers, on the other hand, are small and inexpensive. In fact, portable, battery-
powered “laptop” computers weighing less cost. Personal computers are used extensively in most
schools and businesses and they are rapidly becoming common household items. Many students use
personal computers when learning program with C.

The small size and low cost, modern personal computers approach minicomputers in computing
power. They are now used for many applications that formerly required larger, more expensive
computers. Their performance continues to improve dramatically as their cost continues to drop. The
design of a personal computer permits a high level of interaction between the user and the computer.
Most applications are specifically designed to take advantage of this feature thus providing the skilled
user with a wide variety of creative tools to write, draw or carry out numerical computations.

37
3. Number systems

Introduction

A number is required for counting or to express the amount of some quantity. It consists of
group of symbols called digits, which are arranged in a definite manner. There can be many groups of
symbols called digits, which are arranged in a definite manner. There can be many ways in which the
digits can be arranged to form a number. This gives rise to what we call a number system. Each such
system deals with a different set of digits to form a number belonging to that system.

The most widely adopted system is the decimal number system which has ten digits (0,1,2,3
…9), the octal system has eight digits (0,1,2,3…, 7), the hexadecimal system has sixteen digits (0,1,2,3…
,9,A,B,C,D,E,F), the binary number system has only two (0,1), symbols.

The number of digits in a system is called ‘radix’ or ‘base’. So that decimal system may be called as radix-
10 system, the binary system as radix-2 system.

NUMBER SYSTEMS
Binary Decimal Octal Hexadecimal
0000 00 0 0
0001 01 1 1
0010 02 2 2
0011 03 3 3
0100 04 4 4
0101 05 5 5
0110 06 6 6
0111 07 7 7
1000 08 10 8
1001 09 11 9
1010 10 12 A
1011 11 13 B
1100 12 14 C
1101 13 15 D
1110 14 16 E
1111 15 17 F

38
3.1 Conversion of number system

Usually the numbers are expressed in decimal systems, because we are using decimal number
system in our daily life since decades. Thus any number from one number system can be represented to
any other number system. Since the input and the output values are to be decimal, and the computer
uses other number systems the computer professionals are required to convert decimal number system
to other number and in other number system to decimal.

Different number system conversions are followed.

1. Decimal to binary

2. Binary to decimal

3. Decimal to octal

4. Decimal to Hexadecimal

5. Octal to decimal

6. Octal to binary

7. Binary to octal

8. Hexadecimal to binary

9. Binary to hexadecimal

10. Hexadecimal to decimal

11. Octal to hexadecimal

12. Hexadecimal to Octal

1. Conversions of Decimal to Binary- The method that is used for converting of decimals into
binary is known as the remainder method. We use the following steps in getting the binary
number-
(a) Divide the decimal number by 2.
(b) Write the remainder (which is either 0 or 1) at the right most position.
(c) Repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is 0 and keep writing the
remainder after each step of division.
(d) Write the remainders in reverse order.

39
 Example- Convert (45)10 into binary number system.

2 45 Remainder
2 22 1
2 11 0
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1

Thus (45)10 = (101101)2

Note- In every number system-

(a) The first bit from the right is referred as LSB (Least Significant Bit)
(b) The first bit from the left is referred as MSB (Most Significant Bit)

Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Binary Fractions- For converting decimal fractions into binary
fractions, we use multiplication. Instead of looking for a remainder we look for an integer. The following
steps are used in getting the binary fractions-
(a) Multiply the decimal fraction by 2.
(b) If a non-zero integer is generated, record the non-zero integer otherwise record 0.
(c) Remove the non-zero integer and repeat the above steps till the fraction value
becomes 0.
(d) Write down the number according to the occurrence.
Example- Find the binary equivalent of (0.75)10.

Number (to be recorded)

0.75 × 2 = 1.50 1
0.50 × 2 = 1.00 1

Thus (0.75)10= (0.11)2.

Moreover, we can write (45.75)10= (101101.11)2.

Remark- If the conversion is not ended and still continuing; we write the
approximation in 16 bits.

Example- Find the binary equivalent of (0.9)10.

Number (to be recorded)
0.9 × 2 = 1.8 1
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0

40
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
Thus (0.9)10 = (0.111001100110011001)2.

2. Conversions of Binary to Decimal – In converting binary to decimal, we use the following

steps-
(a) Write the weight of each bit.
(b) Get the weighted value by multiplying the weighted position with the respective
bit.
(c) Add all the weighted value to get the decimal number.

Example- Convert (101101)2 into decimal number system.

Binary 1 0 1 1 0 1
Number
5 4 3 2 1 0
Wt. of each 2 2 2 2 2 2
Bit
5 4 3 2 0
Weighted 1×2 0×2 1×2 1×2 0×2 1×2
Value
Solved 32 0 8 4 0 1
Multiplication
5 4 3 2 0
Thus (101101)2= 1 × 2 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 2 + 1 × 2 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 2 .
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 45

Conversions of Binary Fractions to Decimal Fractions – The conversions of binary fractions to the
decimal fractions is similar to conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers. Here, instead of a
decimal point we have a binary point. The exponential expressions (or weight of the bits) of each
-1 -2
fractional placeholder is 2 , 2 ………

41
Example- Convert (101101.11)2 into decimal number system.

Binary 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Number
5 4 3 2 1 0
Wt. of each 2 2 2 2 2 2 2-1 2-2
Bit
5 4 3 2 0 -1 -2
Weighted 1×2 0×2 1×2 1×2 0×2 1×2 1×2 1×2
Value
Solved 32 0 8 4 0 1 0.5 0.25
Multiplication

Thus (101101.11)2= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 = 45.75

3. Conversion of Decimal to Octal- In converting decimal to octal, we follow the same process of
converting decimal to binary. Instead of dividing the number by 2, we divide the number by 8.

Example- Convert (45)10 into octal number system.

8 45 Remainder

8 5 5

8 0 5

Thus (45)10= (55)8.

Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Octal Fractions – We follow the same steps of conversions of
decimal fractions to binary fractions. Here we multiply the fraction by 8 instead of 2.

Example- Find the octal equivalent of (0.75)10.

Number (to be recorded)

0.75 × 8 = 6.00 6

Thus (0.75)10= (0.6)8.

And (45.75)10= (55.6)8.

4. Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal – We divide by 16 instead of 2 or 8. If the remainder is in

between 10 to 16, then the number is represented by A to F respectively.

42
 Example- Convert (45)10 into hexadecimal.

16 45 Remainder

16 2 D

16 0 2

Thus (45)10= (2D)16.

Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions – Here we multiply the fraction by 16

instead of 2 or 8. If the non-zero integer is in between 10 to 16, then the number is represented by
A to F respectively.

Example- Find the hexadecimal equivalent of (0.75)10.

Number (to be recorded)

0.75 × 16 = 12.00 C (12 = C) Thus (0.75)10=

(0.C)16.

And (45.75)10= (2D.C)16.

5. Conversions of Octal to Decimal- We follow the same steps of conversion of binary to decimal.
th n-1 n-1
The only difference is that here weight of n bit is 8 instead of 2 .
Example- Convert (55)8 into decimal number system.

Octal 5 5
Number
1 0
Wt. of each 8 8
Bit
0
Weighted 5× 8 5×8
Value
Solved 40 5
Multiplication

Thus (55)8 = 40 + 5.
= 45
Conversions of Octal Fractions to Decimal Fractions- The weight of the bit of the fraction
-1 -2
placeholder is 8 , 8 ………. We follow the same steps of conversion of binary fractions to decimal
fractions.

43
Example- Convert (55.6)8 into decimal number system.
Octal 5 5 6
Number
1 0
Wt. of each 8 8 8-1
Bit
0 -1
Weighted 5×8 5×8 6×8
Value
Solved 40 5 0.75
Multiplication
Thus (55.6)8= 40 + 5 + 0.75 = 45.75

6. Conversions of Octal to Binary- We use the following steps in converting octal to binary-
(a) Convert each octal digit into 3-bit binary equivalent.
(b) Combine the 3-bit section by removing the spaces to get the binary number.

Example- Convert (55)8 into binary.

Octal 5 5
Number
Binary 101 101
Number

Thus (55)8 = (101101)2.

Example- Convert (456)8 into binary.

Octal 4 5 6
Number
Binary 100 101 110
Number

Thus (456)8 = (100101110)2.

Conversions of Octal Fractions to Binary Fractions- We follow the same steps of conversion of
octal to binary.

Example- Convert (55.6)8 into binary.

Octal 5 5 6
Number
Binary 101 101 110
Number

Thus (55.6)8 = (101101.11)2.

44
7.Conversions of Binary to Octal- We use the following steps in converting binary to octal-
(a) Break the number into 3-bit sections starting from LSB to MSB.
(b) If we do not have sufficient bits in grouping of 3-bits, we add zeros to the left of MSB so
that all the groups have proper 3-bit number.
(c) Write the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.

Example- Convert (101101)2 into octal.

Binary 101 101

Number
Octal 5 5
Number

Thus (101101)2 = (55)8.

Example- Convert (1101101)2 into octal.

Binary 001 101 101

Number
Octal 1 5 5
Number

Thus (1101101)2= (155)8.

Conversions of Binary Fractions to Octal Fractions- We use the following steps in converting binary
fractions to octal fractions-
(d) Break the fraction into 3-bit sections starting from MSB to LSB.
(e) In order to get a complete grouping of 3 bits, we add trailing zeros in LSB.
(f) Write the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.

Example- Convert (101101.11)2 into octal.

Binary 101 101 110

Number
Octal 5 5 6
Number

Thus (101101)2 = (55.6)8.

8. Conversions of Hexadecimal to Binary-We use the following steps-
(a) Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
(b) Combine all the binary numbers.

45
Example- Convert (2D)16 into binary.

Hexadecimal 2 D(=13)
Number
Binary 0010 1101
Number

Thus (2D)16 = (00101101)2= (101101)2.

Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Binary Fractions -We use the same steps of hexadecimal
to binary conversion.
Example- Convert (2D.C)16 into binary.

Hexadecimal 2 D(=13) C(=12)

Number
Binary 0010 1101 1100
Number

Thus (2D)16 = (00101101.1100)2= (101101.11)2.

9. Conversions of Binary to Hexadecimal- We convert binary to hexadecimal in the similar manner

as we have converted binary to octal. The only difference is that here, we form the group of 4 –
bits.

Example- Convert (101101)2 into hexadecimal.

Binary 0010 1101

Number
Decimal 2 13
Number
Hexadecimal 2 D
Number

Thus (101101)2 = (2D)16.

Conversions of Binary Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions - We convert binary fractions to

hexadecimal fractions in the similar manner as we have converted binary fractions to octal
fractions. The only difference is that here we form the group of 4 – bits.

46
Example- Convert (101101.11)2 into hexadecimal.

Binary 0010 1101 1100

Number
Decimal 2 13 12
Number
Hexadecimal 2 D C
Number

Thus (101101.11)2 = (2D.C)16.

10. Conversions of Hexadecimal to Decimal- We do the conversion of hexadecimal to decimal

th n-1
as we have done the conversion of binary to decimal. Here weight of n bit is 16 instead of
n-1
2 .

Example- Convert (2D)16 into decimal.

Hexadecimal 2 D(=13)
Number
1 0
Wt. of each 16 16
Bit
0
Weighted 2 × 16 13 × 16
Value
Solved 32 13
Multiplication

Thus (2D)16= 32 + 13 = 45.

Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Decimal Fractions- We do the conversion of hexadecimal
fractions to decimal fractions in the similar manner as we have done the conversion of binary fractions
-1 -2
to decimal fractions. Here weight of bit is 16 , 16 …….
Example- Convert (2D.C)16 into decimal.

Hexadecimal 2 D(=13) C(=12)

Number
1 0
Wt. of each 16 16 16-1
Bit
0 -1
Weighted 2 × 16 13 × 16 13 × 16
Value
Solved 32 13 0.75
Multiplication

Thus (2D.C)16= 32 + 13 + 0.75 = 45.75.

47
11.Conversions of Octal to Hexadecimal- The conversion involves the following steps-
(a) Convert each octal digit to 3 –bit binary form.
(b) Combine all the 3-bit binary numbers.
(c) Group them in 4-bit binary form by starting from MSB to LSB.
(d) Convert these 4-bit blocks into their hexadecimal symbols.

Example- Convert (55)8 into hexadecimal.

Octal 5 5
Number
Binary 101 101
Number

Combining the 3-bit binary block, we have 101101.

Grouping them in 4 bit binary form-
Binary 0010 1101
Number
Hexadecimal 2 D
Symbol

Thus (55)8 = (2D)16.

Conversions of Octal Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions- The method of conversion is based
on the same procedure that we have discussed in conversions of octal to hexadecimal.
Example- Convert (55.6)8 into hexadecimal.

Octal 5 5 6
Number
Binary 101 101 110
Number

Combining the 3-bit binary block, we have 101101.110.

Grouping them in 4 bit binary form-

Binary 0010 1101 1100

Number
Hexadecimal 2 D C
Symbol

Thus (55)8 = (2D.C)16.

48
12.Conversions of Hexadecimal to Octal- We convert each hexadecimal digit in binary. Combine
all the binary numbers. Again group them into 3-bit form. Convert the 3-bit block in octal.

Example- Convert (2D)16 into octal.

Hexadecimal 2 D(=13)
Number
Binary 0010 1101
Number

Combining the binary number, we get 00101101=101101

Grouping the binary number in 3-bit

Binary 101 101

Number
Octal 5 5
Number

Thus (2D)16 = (55)8.

Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Octal Fractions – We follow the same steps of
hexadecimal to octal conversion.

Example- Convert (2D.C)16 into octal.

Hexadecimal 2 D(=13) C(=12)

Number
Binary 0010 1101 1100
Number
Combining the binary number, we get
00101101.1100=101101.11
Grouping the binary number in 3-bit

Binary 101 101 110

Number
Octal 5 5 6
Number

Thus (2D.C)16 = (55.6)8.

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge on Number Systems because number systems are the base of
computers. All the Arithmetic calculations are the base of Number systems only. They will get
knowledge to convert decimal to binary, octal and hexa decimal and viceversa.

49
Exercises

Questions:

A 1.what are the types of Number System?

2. What is base?
B 1. What is Hexadecimal Number System?
2. What is Binary number System?

C 1. Discuss in detail about the classification of Number System.

2.Explain about the Number System Conversion types with Suitable Example.

50
5 Computer Languages

Language is the communication medium, the computer languages are used to communicate
with the computer. These are the communication media between the user and the computer. The
computer languages are formed with the group of instruction often called as programs. The computer
languages are divided as follows.

Language

Machine Assembly High Level

Classification of languages

5.1 Machine languages

The machine language is formed with the help of binary digits. This is also called as the low level
language. This language is the collection of instruction using binary digits 0’s and 1’s. There are as
named as the machine can directly understand the programs.

Advantages of machine language:

1. The computer can understand instruction immediately.

2. No translation is needed

Disadvantages of machine language:

1. Machine dependent
2. Writing a Programming is very difficult
3. Very difficult to find an error.

Example: add 4 and 9

0100
1001
_____________
1101
______________

51
5.2 Assembly Language

It was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine language.

This is another low level but a very important language in which operation codes and operands
are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0’s and l’s. These alphanumeric
symbols will be known as mnemonic codes and can have maximum up to 5 letter combination
e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START, LABEL etc. Because of this feature it is also
known as ‘Symbolic Programming Language’.

This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it because very
small. English support is given to this language. The language mainly helps in compiler
orientations. The instructions of the Assembly language will also be converted to machine
codes by language translator to be executed by the computer.

Advantages of Assembly Language

i) It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.

ii) It is easy to locate and correct errors.

iii) It is modified easily.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

i) Like machine language it is also machine dependent.

ii) Since it is machine dependent therefore programmer should have the knowledge of the
hardware also.

Example: addition of 4 and 9

Say A=4 B=9

MVI A move A value to Accumulator

ADD B add B with Accumulator

STA C Store Accumulator contents to C

HLT Halt the program.

5.3 . High Level Languages

52
 High level computer languages give formats close to English language and the purpose
of developing high level languages is to enable people to write programs easily and in their own
native language environment (English). High-level languages are basically symbolic languages
that use English words and/or mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each
instruction in the high level language is translated into many machine language instructions
thus showing one-to-many translation.

Types of High Level Languages

Many languages have been developed for achieving different variety of tasks, some are fairly
specialized others are quite general purpose.

These are categorized according to their use as

 Algebraic Formula-Type Processing.

 Business Data Processing.
 String and List Processing.
 Object Oriented Programming Language.
 Visual programming language.

1. Algebraic Formula-Type Processing:

These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for solving
mathematical and statistical problem

Examples are

 BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).

 FORTRAN (Formula Translation).

 PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1).

 ALGOL (Algorithmic Language).

 APL (A Programming Language).

2. Business Data Processing:

53
 These languages emphasize their capabilities for maintaining data processing procedures
and files handling problems. Examples are:

 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language).

 RPG (Report Program Generator

3. String and List Processing: These are used for string manipulation including search for
patterns, inserting and deleting characters. Examples are:

 LISP (List Processing).

 Prolog (Program in Logic).

4. Object Oriented Programming Language:

In OOP, the computer program is divided into objects. Examples are:

 C++

 Java

5. Visual programming language:

These are designed for building Windows-based applications Examples are:

 Visual Basic

 Visual Java

 Visual C

Advantages of High Level Language

Following are the advantages of a high level language:

i) It is easier to learn.
ii) They require less time to write.
iii)They are easier to maintain.
iv) Problem oriented rather than 'machine' based.
v) Program written in a high-level language can be translated into many machine
language and therefore can run on any computer for which there exists an
appropriate translator.
vi) It is independent of the machine on which it is used i.e., Programs developed in high
level language can be run on any Computer.

54
 vii) User-friendly.
viii) Similar to English with vocabulary of words and symbols.

Disadvantages of High Level Language

i) A high-level language has to be translated into the machine language by a translator

and thus a price in computer time is paid.

ii) The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient Compared to an

equivalent assembly language program.

Further Reading: List the chapters in Reference books/ web resources

http://www.ustudy.in
Summary:
The Types of Computer Languages elaborated about its importance and its advantages and
disadvantages.

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge about the Types of computer languages.

Exercises
Questions:

A 1.Machine Language converts each bit into

b) byte b)int c) 0 and 1 d) all the three
……………………………
2. What the expansion of FORTRAN……………………………

3. What the expansion of LISP ……………………………

B 1. What are the types of Computer Languages?

2. How High level languages are classified?
3.What is Assembly Level Language?
4. What are advantages and disadvantages of Low level languages?
5. What are advantages and disadvantages of Assembly level languages?

C 1.Explain about the computer languages and its advantages and disadvantages in detail.

55
6.1 Algorithm

It is defined as a sequence of instructions designed in such a way that if the instructions are
executed in the specified sequence, the desired results will be obtained. The algorithm should precise
and unambiguous in practice and the results should obtain after a finite number of steps. An algorithm is
defined if any problem whose solution can be expressed in a list of executable instruction.

Characteristics of algorithms

In order to qualify algorithms is a sequence of instructions, they must possess the following
characteristics:

i) In the algorithms, each and every instruction should be precise.

ii) Each and every instruction should be unambiguous
iii) Ensure that the algorithm will ultimately terminate.
iv) The algorithm should be written in sequence.
v) It looks like normal English
vi) The desired result should be obtained only after the algorithm terminates.

Qualities of a good algorithm

There are so many methods or logics available to solve the problem individually. All of those
methods logics may not be good, for given problem; there may be so many algorithms not of all
equality. The following are the primary factors that are often used to judge the quality of the algorithm.

s.no Factors Quality of good algorithm

1 Time To execute a program, the computer system takes some amount of time. The
lesser is the time required, the better is the algorithm.

2 Memory Execute the program with in limited memory

3 Accuracy Multiple algorithms may provide suitable or correct solutions to a given

problem, some of these may provide more accurate results than others, such
algorithms may be suitable.

4 Sequence The procedure of an algorithm must form in a sequence and some of the
instructions of an algorithm may be repeated in number of times or until a
particular condition is met.

5 Generalized The designed algorithm must solve a single isolated problem and more often
algorithms are desired to handle a range of input data to meet this criteria,
so the algorithms must be generalized.

56
Representation of algorithms

The algorithms can be represented in several ways. Generally the programmers follows one of the
following ways to represent an algorithms:

i) Normal English
ii) Flowchart
iii) Pseudo code
iv) Decision table
v) Program

1 Normal English The algorithm can be easily represented in step by step sequential order in
normal English, such algorithms are easy to understand, write and read.

2 Flow chart The flowchart is a pictorial representation of algorithms, the sequential steps
in an algorithm can be represented as a flowchart using the standard
symbols.

3 Pseudo code The flowcharts are only one of the possible format decision tools. Whereas
pseudo code is also a formal design tools and is very well with the rules of
structured design and programming.

4 Decision table A decision table helps a lot in designing a specific segment of design. It
provides another way to look at a complex, nested selection to help clarify
the conditions to be tested and how those conditions should be nested to
arrive at the proper actions.

5 Program The algorithms can be implemented as a program using any high level
language that becomes a program.

A sample algorithm

Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total number of students selected in various group, using
the following criteria. In a school there are 100 student appeared for examination. Based upon the
student marks who secure greater than 70% as first class, greater than 60% as second class, and greater
than 50% as third class and remaining are fail.

57
Algorithm

Step 1: start the program

Step 2: read number of students, name of the student, marks.

Step 3: calculate the total marks obtained by each student.

Step 4: check student mark is greater than 70 or not. If greater than 70 then “first class”.

Step 5: check student mark is greater than 60 and less than 70or not. If so then, “second class”.

Step 6: check student mark is greater than 50 and less than 60 or not. If so then, “third class”.

Step 7: print the result of the student with their names and marks.

Step 8: stop the program.

6.2 Flowchart

A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process, showing the
steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This diagrammatic
representation illustrates a solution to a given problem.

Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in

various fields.

Basic Flowchart Symbols

A flowchart is the visualization of a system or process consisting of five basic objects:

58
More Flowchart Symbols

Flowcharts use special shapes to represent different types of actions or steps in a process. Lines and
arrows show the sequence of the steps, and the relationships among them.

Symbol Name Function

Document Symbol A printed document or report.

Multiple Documents Symbol Represents multiple documents in the

process.

Manual Input Symbol Represents a step where a user is

prompted to enter information manually.

Preparation Symbol Represents a set-up to another step in

the process.

Connector Symbol Indicates that the flow continues where a

matching symbol (containing the same
letter) has been placed.

Or Symbol Indicates that the process flow continues

in more than two branches.

Summoning Junction Symbol Indicates a point in the flowchart where

multiple branches converge back into a
single process.

Merge Symbol Indicates a step where two or more sub-

lists or sub-processes become one.

59
Symbol Name Function

Collate Symbol Indicates a step that orders

information into a standard
format.

Sort Symbol Indicates a step that organizes a

list of items into a sequence or
sets based on some pre-
determined criteria.

Subroutine Symbol Indicates a sequence of actions

that perform a specific task
embedded within a larger
process. This sequence of actions
could be described in more
detail on a separate flowchart.

Manual Loop Symbol Indicates a sequence of

commands that will continue to
repeat until stopped manually.

Loop Limit Symbol Indicates the point at which a

loop should stop.

Delay Symbol Indicates a delay in the process.

Data Storage or Stored Data Indicates a step where data gets

Symbol stored.

60
Symbol Name Function

Database Symbol Indicates a list of information

with a standard structure that
allows for searching and sorting.

Internal Storage Symbol Indicates that information was

stored in memory during a
program, used in software
design flowcharts.

Display Symbol Indicates a step that displays

information.

Off Page Indicates that the process

continues off page.

FLOWCHART FOR DECISION MAKING STATEMENTS:

1. A simple flow chart showing the symbols for decision making statements(Simple IF):

61
2. A simple flow chart showing the symbols for decision making statements(Nested IF):

3. A simple flow chart showing the symbols for decision making statements(SWITCH):

62
4. A simple flow chart showing the symbols for Looping statements(Do-While):

5. A simple flow chart showing the symbols for Looping statements(While):

63
EXAMPLES:

1. ALGORITHM & FLOWCHART TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIRCLE:

Algorithm:

Step 1: Include header files.

Step 2: Read the value of radius.

Step 3: Calculate the area and circumference of a circle using the formula.

A=3.14*r*r;

C=2*3.14*r;

Step 4: Print the values.

Step 5: Exit.

Flowchart:

64
2. ALGORITHM & FLOWCHART TO FIND THE GIVEN NUMBER IS EVEN OR ODD.

Algorithm:

Step 1: Include Header files.

Step 2: Read the value of a number.

Step 3: Check the given number by using if (n%2==0)

Step 4: if its remainder is zero, Print it is even number.

Step 5: If its remainder is one, Print it is odd number.

Step 6: Exit

Flowchart:

65
3. ALGORITHM AND FLOWCHART TO PRINT THE NUMBERS FROM 1 to 10.

Algorithm:

Step 1:Include Header files.

Step 2:Read the value of n.

Step 3:Initialize the value of counter by 1 using counter variable.

Step 4: Print the values upto the value of n by checking with if statement if(n<10).

Step 5:Exit.

Flowchart:

66
Further Reading: List the chapters in Reference books/ web resources

http://www.ustudy.in

Summary:

This content describes the importance of algorithm and flowchart elaborately.

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge about how to write algorithm for a program and they can draw
flowchart for each programs.

Exercises
Questions:

A 1.A Step by Step procedure to describe a program is

a) Algorithm b) flowchart c) program d) all the three

2. What is the symbol for database ……………………………

3. What is the symbol for connector……………………………

B 1. What is algorithm?
2. Define flowchart.
3. What is the importance of Algorithm?
4. Write an algorithm to find the area of a triangle?
5.Draw a flowchart for printing the biggest among two numbers?

C 1. Explain about importance of algorithm and flowchart. Briefly describe all the symbols
to denote in flowchart..

67
 COURSE PLAN

Select a course (a theory subject): Programming for Problem Solving

Select a unit: Module II

Select a Topic: Introduction to C Programming

1. Objectives
To study about the Basic of C-Program language
2. Outcomes
3. Pre-requisites
4. Terminology used other than normal known scientific / engg terms and their
fundamental explanations / relations

Plan for the lecture delivery

1. How to plan for delivery – black board / ppt / animated ppt / (decide which is good
for this topic)
Power Point Presentation with Online Compiler
2. How to explain the definition and terms with in it
Define the variable, constant, keywords and rules for coming variable, constant keywords
and explain the structure of C Program.
3. How to start the need for any derivation / procedure / experiment / case study
Not Applicable
4. Physical meaning of math equations / calculations
Not Applicable
5. Units and their physical meaning to make them understand practical reality and
comparison between different units
This unit is the basic for writing a C Programming. Understand this unit will be to write a
simple program.
6. What is the final conclusion?
Students will acquire knowledge basic structure of C Language

68
7. How to put it in a nut shell
Variables, Constant, Keywords, Input / output Statement.
8. Important points for understanding / memorizing / make it long lasting
 Variable is nothing but name to the memory location and the value may be
changed during the program execution.
 Constant is nothing but the value of the variable can’t changed during the
program execution.
 Keyword is a reserved word. Can’t used this words as variable name.
 Printf / Scanf are input / output statement in C language.
 Operator is nothing but it is a symbol to perform various arithmetic Operations.
o Arithmetic Operator
o Assignment Operator.
o Logical Operator
o Ternary / Conditional Operator
o Relational operator
o Special Operator
o Increment / Decrement Operator
9. Questions and cross questions in that topic to make them think beyond the topic.

1. Explain the Basic Structure of the C Program.

2. Explain the various Operators available in C Language

3. Explain the conditional Control Statements in C Language

10. Final conclusions

Students will acquire knowledge basic structure of C Language and Writing C Program

69
 7. Introduction to C

7.1 C – Language History

 C language is a structure oriented programming language, was developed at Bell Laboratories in

1972 by Dennis Ritchie
 C language features were derived from earlier language called “B” (Basic Combined
Programming Language – BCPL)
 C language was invented for implementing UNIX operating system
 In 1978, Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan published the first edition “The C Programming
Language” and commonly known as K&R C
 In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to provide a
modern, comprehensive definition of C. The resulting definition, the ANSI standard, or “ANSI C”,
was completed late 1988.

7.2 C standards

 C89/C90 standard – First standardized specification for C language was developed by American
National Standards Institute in 1989. C89 and C90 standards refer to the same programming
language.
 C99 standard – Next revision was published in 1999 that introduced new futures like advanced
data types and other changes.

C11 and Embedded C

 C11 standard adds new features to C and library like type generic macros, anonymous
structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked
functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves
compatibility with C++.

70
  Embedded C includes features not available in normal C like fixed-point arithmetic, named
address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing
 Operating systems, C compiler and all UNIX application programs are written in C language

 It is also called as procedure oriented programming language

 C language is reliable, simple and easy to use.
 C has been coded in assembly language

7.3 Features of C language:

 Reliability
 Portability
 Flexibility
 Interactivity
 Modularity
 Efficiency and Effectiveness

7.4 Uses of C language:

C language is used for developing system applications that forms major portion of operating systems
such as Windows, UNIX and Linux. Below are some examples of C being used.

 Database systems
 Graphics packages
 Word processors
 Spread sheets
 Operating system development
 Compilers and Assemblers
 Network drivers
 Interpreters

Which level the C language is belonging to?

S.no High Level Middle Level Low Level
High level languages provides Middle level languages don’t provide Low level languages
almost everything that the all the built-in functions found in high provides nothing other
1 programmer might need to do level languages, but provides all than access to the
as already built into the building blocks that we need to machines basic
language produce the result we want instruction set
Examples:
2 C, C++ Assembler
Java, Python
C language is a structured language
S.no Structure oriented Object oriented Non structure
1 In this type of language, large In this type of language, programs There is no specific

71
 programs are divided into small are divided into objects structure for programming
programs called functions this language
Prime focus is on the data that is
Prime focus is on functions and
2 being operated and not on the N/A
procedures that operate on data
functions or procedures
Data moves freely around the
Data is hidden and cannot be
3 systems from one function to N/A
accessed by external functions
another
Program structure follows “Top Program structure follows
4 N/A
Down Approach” “Bottom UP Approach”
Examples:
5 C++, JAVA and C# (C sharp) BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN
C, Pascal, ALGOL and Modula-2

7.5 Key points to remember:

1. C language is structured, middle level programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie

2. Operating system programs such as Windows, Unix, Linux are wriiten by C language
3. C89/C90 and C99 are two standardized editions of C language
4. C has been written in assembly language

Further Reading:
http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com
Summary:

 C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.

 C is a successor of B language which was introduced around 1970
 The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National Standard Institue (ANSI).
 By 1973 UNIX OS almost totally written in C.
 Today C is the most widely used System Programming Language.
 Most of the state of the art software have been implemented using C

72
Exercises

A.Objective Type Questions:

1. Which of the following language is predecessor to C Programming Language?

A B BCPL C++

2. C programming language was developed by

Dennis Ritchie Ken Thompson Bill Gates Peter Norton

3. C was developed in the year ___

1970 1972 1976 1980

4. C is a ___ language

High Level Low Level Middle Level Machine Level

73
8 Basic Program

We are going to learn a simple “Hello World” C program in this section. Also, all the below topics are
explained in this section which are the basics of a C program.

1. C basic program with output and explanation

2. Steps to write C programs and get the output
3. Creation, Compilation and Execution of a C program
 How to install C compiler and IDE
4. Basic structure of a C program

C Basic Program:
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
/* Our first simple C basic program */
printf("Hello World! ");
getch();
return 0;
}

Output:

Hello World!

Explanation for above C basic Program:

Let’s see all the sections of the above simple C program line by line.

S.no Command Explanation

This is a preprocessor command that includes standard input output
1 #include <stdio.h>
header file(stdio.h) from the C library before compiling a C program
2 int main() This is the main function from where execution of any C program begins.
3 { This indicates the beginning of the main function.
whatever is given inside the command “/* */” in any C program, won’t
4 /*_some_comments_*/
be considered for compilation and execution.
5 printf(“Hello_World! “); printf command prints the output onto the screen.
6 getch(); This command waits for any character input from keyboard.
7 return 0; This command terminates C program (main function) and returns 0.
8 } This indicates the end of the main function.

74
8.1 Steps to write C programs and get the output:

Below are the steps to be followed for any C program to create and get the output. This is common
to all C program and there is no exception whether its a very small C program or very large C program.

1. Creation, Compilation and Execution of a C program:

Prerequisite:

o If you want to create, compile and execute C programs by your own, you have to install
C compiler in your machine. Then, you can start to execute your own C programs in your
machine.
o You can refer below link for how to install C compiler and compile and execute C
programs in your machine.
o Once C compiler is installed in your machine, you can create, compile and execute C
programs as shown in below link.

C – Environment Setup Using IDE tool

C – Environment Setup Using GCC compiler

8.2. Basic structure of C program:

Structure of C program is defined by set of rules called protocol, to be followed by programmer while
writing C program. All C programs are having sections/parts which are mentioned below.

1. Documentation section
2. Link Section
3. Definition Section
4. Global declaration section
5. Function prototype declaration section
6. Main function
7. User defined function definition section

75
Example C program to compare all the sections:

You can compare all the sections of a C program with the below C program.

1 /* C basic structure program Documentation section

2 Author: fresh2refresh.com
3 Date : 01/01/2012
4 */
5 #include <stdio.h> /* Link section */
6 int total = 0; /* Global declaration and definition section */
7 int sum (int, int); /* Function declaration section */
8 int main () /* Main function */
9 {
10 printf ("This is a C basic program \n");
11 total = sum (1, 1);
12 printf ("Sum of two numbers : %d \n", total);
13 return 0;
14 }
15 int sum (int a, int b) /* User defined function */
16 { /* definition section */
17 return a + b;
18 }

Output:

This is a C basic program

Sum of two numbers : 2

8.3 Description for each section of a C program:

o Let us see about each section of a C basic program in detail below.

o Please note that a C program mayn’t have all below mentioned sections except main
function and link sections.
o Also, a C program structure mayn’t be in below mentioned order.

S.No Sections Description

We can give comments about the program, creation or modified date,
author name etc in this section. The characters or words or anything which
Documentation
1 are given between “/*” and “*/”, won’t be considered by C compiler for
section
compilation process.These will be ignored by C compiler during compilation.
Example : /* comment line1 comment line2 comment 3 */
Header files that are required to execute a C program are included in this
2 Link Section
section
3 Definition Section In this section, variables are defined and values are set to these variables.
4 Global declaration Global variables are defined in this section. When a variable is to be used

76
 section throughout the program, can be defined in this section.
Function prototype Function prototype gives many information about a function like return
5
declaration section type, parameter names used inside the function.
Every C program is started from main function and this function contains
6 Main function
two major sections called declaration section and executable section.
User defined User can define their own functions in this section which perform particular
7
function section task as per the user requirement.

C – printf and scanf

 printf() and scanf() functions are inbuilt library functions in C which are available in C library by
default. These functions are declared and related macros are defined in “stdio.h” which is a
header file.
 We have to include “stdio.h” file as shown in below C program to make use of these printf() and
scanf() library functions.

C printf() function:

o printf() function is used to print the “character, string, float, integer, octal and
hexadecimal values” onto the output screen.
o We use printf() function with %d format specifier to display the value of an integer
variable.
o Similarly %c is used to display character, %f for float variable, %s for string
variable, %lf for double and %x for hexadecimal variable.
o To generate a newline,we use “\n” in C printf() statement.

Note:

o C language is case sensitive. For example, printf() and scanf() are different from Printf()
and Scanf(). All characters in printf() and scanf() functions must be in lower case.

Example program for C printf() function:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 char ch = 'A';
6 char str[20] = "fresh2refresh.com";
7 float flt = 10.234;
8 int no = 150;
9
10 double dbl = 20.123456;
11 printf("Character is %c \n", ch);

77
 12 printf("String is %s \n" , str);
13 printf("Float value is %f \n", flt);
14 printf("Integer value is %d\n" , no);
15
16 printf("Double value is %lf \n", dbl);
17 printf("Octal value is %o \n", no);
18 printf("Hexadecimal value is %x \n", no);
19
20 return 0;
21
22 }
Output:

Character is A
String is
fresh2refresh.com
Float value is 10.234000
Integer value is 150
Double value is 20.123456
Octal value is 226
Hexadecimal value is 96

You can see the output with the same data which are placed within the double quotes of printf
statement in the program except

o %d got replaced by value of an integer variable (no),

o %c got replaced by value of a character variable (ch),
o %f got replaced by value of a float variable (flt),
o %lf got replaced by value of a double variable (dbl),
o %s got replaced by value of a string variable (str),
o %o got replaced by a octal value corresponding to integer variable (no),
o %x got replaced by a hexadecimal value corresponding to integer variable
o \n got replaced by a newline.

2. C scanf() function:

o scanf() function is used to read character, string, numeric data from keyboard
o Consider below example program where user enters a character. This value is assigned
to the variable “ch” and then displayed.
o Then, user enters a string and this value is assigned to the variable ”str” and then
displayed.

78
Example program for printf() and scanf() functions in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 char ch;
6 char str[100];
7
8 printf("Enter any character \n");
9 scanf("%c", &ch);
10 printf("Entered character is %c \n", ch);
11
12 printf("Enter any string ( upto 100 character ) \n");
13 scanf("%s", &str);
14 printf("Entered string is %s \n", str);
15 }

Output:

Enter any character

a
Entered character is a
Enter any string ( upto 100 character )
hai
Entered string is hai

o The format specifier %d is used in scanf() statement. So that, the value entered is
received as an integer and %s for string.
o Ampersand is used before variable name “ch” in scanf() statement as &ch.
o It is just like in a pointer which is used to point to the variable. For more information
about how pointer works

Further Reading:

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com

79
Summary:

 C is a case sensitive programming language. It means in C printf and Printf will have different
meanings.
 C has a free-form line structure. End of each C statement must be marked with a semicolon.
 Multiple statements can be one the same line.
 White Spaces (ie tab space and space bar ) are ignored.
 Statements can continue over multiple lines.

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge basic structure of C Language.

Exercises
A. Objective Type Questions:
1. C language is available for which of the following Operating Systems?

DOS Windows Unix All of these

2. Which of the following symbol is used to denote a pre-processor statement?

! # ~ ;
B.Questions

1.Explain the Basic Structure of the C Program.

80
9.1 C– Tokens and keywords

C tokens, Identifiers and Keywords are the basics in a C program. All are explained in this page with
definition and simple example programs.

9.2 C tokens:

o C tokens are the basic buildings blocks in C language which are constructed together to
write a C program.
o Each and every smallest individual units in a C program are known as C tokens.

o C tokens are of six types. They are,

1. Keywords (eg: int, while),

2. Identifiers (eg: main, total),
3. Constants (eg: 10, 20),
4. Strings (eg: “total”, “hello”),
5. Special symbols (eg: (), {}),
6. Operators (eg: +, /,-,*)

C tokens example program:

1 int main()
2{
3 int x, y, total;
4 x = 10, y = 20;
5 total = x + y;
6 Printf (“Total = %d \n”, total);
7}

where,

o main – identifier
o {,}, (,) – delimiter
o int – keyword
o x, y, total – identifier
o main, {, }, (, ), int, x, y, total – tokens

Do you know how to use C token in real time application programs? We have given simple real time
application programs where C token is used. You can refer the below C programs to know how to use C
token in real time program.

81
Real time application C programs for your reference:

1. C program example – Real time Calculator program

2. C program example – Real time Bank Application program

9. 3. Identifiers in C language:

o Each program elements in a C program are given a name called identifiers.

o Names given to identify Variables, functions and arrays are examples for identifiers. eg.
x is a name given to integer variable in above program.

Rules for constructing identifier name in C:

1. First character should be an alphabet or underscore.

2. Succeeding characters might be digits or letter.
3. Punctuation and special characters aren’t allowed except underscore.
4. Identifiers should not be keywords.

9.4 Keywords in C language:

o Keywords are pre-defined words in a C compiler.

o Each keyword is meant to perform a specific function in a C program.
o Since keywords are referred names for compiler, they can’t be used as variable name.

C language supports 32 keywords which are given below

auto double int struct

break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while

82
9.5 C – Constant

 C Constants are also like normal variables. But, only difference is, their values can not be
modified by the program once they are defined.
 Constants refer to fixed values. They are also called as literals
 Constants may be belonging to any of the data type.

 Syntax:

const data_type variable_name; (or) const data_type *variable_name;

Types of C constant:

1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Octal & Hexadecimal constants
4. Character constants
5. String constants
6. Backslash character constants

S.no Constant type data type Example

int 53, 762, -478 etc
unsigned int 5000u, 1000U etc
1 Integer constants
long int 483,647
long long int 2,147,483,680
float 10.456789
2 Real or Floating point constants
doule 600.123456789
3 Octal constant Int 013 /* starts with 0 */
4 Hexadecimal constant Int 0×90 /* starts with 0x */
5 character constants Char ‘A’ , ‘B’, ‘C’
6 string constants Char “ABCD” , “Hai”

Rules for constructing C constant:

1. Integer Constants in C:

o An integer constant must have at least one digit.

o It must not have a decimal point.
o It can either be positive or negative.
o No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
o If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
o The allowable range for integer constants is -32768 to 32767.

83
2. Real constants in C:

o A real constant must have at least one digit

o It must have a decimal point
o It could be either positive or negative
o If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive.
o No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.

3. Character and string constants in C:

o A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol

enclosed within single quotes.
o The maximum length of a character constant is 1 character.
o String constants are enclosed within double quotes.

4. Backslash Character Constants in C:

o There are some characters which have special meaning in C language.

o They should be preceded by backslash symbol to make use of special function of them.
o Given below is the list of special characters and their purpose.

Backslash_character Meaning
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\n New line
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\” Double quote
\’ Single quote
\\ Backslash
\v Vertical tab
\a Alert or bell
\? Question mark
\N Octal constant (N is an octal constant)
\XN Hexadecimal constant (N – hex.dcml cnst)

How to use constants in a C program?

o We can define constants in a C program in the following ways.

1. By “const” keyword
2. By “#define” preprocessor directive

84
 o Please note that when you try to change constant values after defining in C program, it
will through error.

1. Example program using const keyword in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 void main()
4 {
5 const int height = 100; /*int constant*/
6 const float number = 3.14; /*Real constant*/
7 const char letter = 'A'; /*char constant*/
8 const char letter_sequence[10] = "ABC"; /*string constant*/
9 const char backslash_char = '\?'; /*special char cnst*/
10
11 printf("value of height : %d \n", height );
12 printf("value of number : %f \n", number );
13 printf("value of letter : %c \n", letter );
14 printf("value of letter_sequence : %s \n", letter_sequence);
15 printf("value of backslash_char : %c \n", backslash_char);
16 }

Output:

value of height : 100

value of number : 3.140000
value of letter : A
value of letter_sequence : ABC
value of backslash_char : ?

2. Example program using #define preprocessor directive in C:

C1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 #define height 100
4 #define number 3.14
5 #define letter 'A'
6 #define letter_sequence "ABC"
7 #define backslash_char '\?'
8
9 void main()
10 {
11
12 printf("value of height : %d \n", height );
13 printf("value of number : %f \n", number );
14 printf("value of letter : %c \n", letter );
15 printf("value of letter_sequence : %s \n", letter_sequence);

85
16 printf("value of backslash_char : %c \n", backslash_char);
17
18 }

Output:

value of height : 100

value of number : 3.140000
value of letter : A
value of letter_sequence : ABC
value of backslash_char : ?

Further Reading:

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com

Summary:

In a passage of text, individual words and punctuation marks are called tokens or lexical units. Similarly,
the smallest individual unit in a c program is known as a token or a lexical unit. C tokens can be classified
as follows:

1. Keywords
2. Identifiers
3. Constants
4. Strings
5. Special Symbols
6. Operators

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge on C-tokens.

Exercises
A.Objective Type Questions:
1. Which of the following are tokens in C?

Keywords Variables Constants All of the above

2. Which of the following are tokens in C?

Keywords Variables Constants All of the above

B. Questions:
1. Explain about C-tokens.
2. List out keywords in C Language.

86
10 C – Variable

 C variable is a named location in a memory where a program can manipulate the data. This
location is used to hold the value of the variable.
 The value of the C variable may get change in the program.
 C variable might be belonging to any of the data type like int, float, char etc.

10.1 Rules for naming C variable:

1. Variable name must begin with letter or underscore.

2. Variables are case sensitive
3. They can be constructed with digits, letters.
4. No special symbols are allowed other than underscore.
5. sum, height, _value are some examples for variable name

10.2 Declaring & initializing C variable:

 Variables should be declared in the C program before to use.

 Memory space is not allocated for a variable while declaration. It happens only on
variable definition.
 Variable initialization means assigning a value to the variable.

S.No Type Syntax Example

1 Variable declaration data_type variable_name; int x, y, z; char flat, ch;
2 Variable data_type variable_name = int x = 50, y = 30; char flag = ‘x’,
initialization value; ch=’l’;

There are three types of variables in C program They are,

1. Local variable
2. Global variable
3. Environment variable

10.3 Example program for local variable in C:

 The scope of local variables will be within the function only.

 These variables are declared within the function and can’t be accessed outside the function.
 In the below example, m and n ivariables are having scope within the main function only. These
are not visible to test function.
 Like wise, a and b variables are having scope within the test function only. These are not visible
to main function.

87
1 #include<stdio.h>
2
3 void test();
4
5 int main()
6 {
7 int m = 22, n = 44;
8 // m, n are local variables of main function
9
10 /*m and n variables are having scope
11 within this main function only.
12 These are not visible to test funtion.*/
13 /* If you try to access a and b in this function,
14 you will get 'a' undeclared and 'b' undeclared
15 error */
16
17 printf("\nvalues : m = %d and n = %d", m, n);
18
19 test();
20
21 }
22
23 void test()
24 {
25 int a = 50, b = 80;
26 // a, b are local variables of test function
27
28 /*a and b variables are having scope
29 within this test function only.
30 These are not visible to main function.*/
31 /* If you try to access m and n in this function,
32 you will get 'm' undeclared and 'n' undeclared
33 error */
34
35 printf("\nvalues : a = %d and b = %d", a, b);
36 }

Output:

values : m = 22 and n = 44
values : a = 50 and b = 80

88
10.4. Example program for global variable in C:

o The scope of global variables will be throughout the program. These variables can be
accessed from anywhere in the program.
o This variable is defined outside the main function. So that, this variable is visible to main
function and all other sub functions.

1 #include<stdio.h>
2
3 void test();
4
5 int m = 22, n = 44;
6 int a = 50, b = 80;
7
8 int main()
9 {
10
11 printf("All variables are accessed from main function");
12
13 printf("\nvalues : m= %d : n= %d : a= %d : b= %d",m,n,a,b);
14
15 test();
16
17 }
18
19 void test()
20 {
21
22 printf("\n\nAll variables are accessed from" \
23 " test function");
24
25 printf("\nvalues : m= %d : n= %d : a= %d : b= %d",m,n,a,b);
26 }

Output:

All variables are accessed from main function

values : m = 22 : n = 44 : a = 50 : b = 80

All variables are accessed from test function

values : m = 22 : n = 44 : a = 50 : b = 80

89
Difference between variable declaration & definition in C:

S.no Variable declaration Variable definition

1 Declaration tells the compiler about data type and Definition allocates memory for the
size of the variable. variable.
2 Variable can be declared many times in a program. It can happen only one time for a variable
in a program.
3 The assignment of properties and identification to a Assignments of storage space to a
variable. variable.

Further Reading:

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com

Summary:

A variable is just a named area of storage that can hold a single value (numeric or character). The C
language demands that you declare the name of each variable that you are going to use and its type, or
class, before you actually try to do anything with it.

The Programming language C has two main variable types

 Local Variables
 Global Variables

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge of C-Variables.

Exercises
A.Objective Type Questions:
1. Which of the following are tokens in C?

Keywords Variables Constants All of the above

2. Which of the following are tokens in C?

Keywords Variables Constants All of the above

B. Questions:
1. Discuss the following
a. Local Variable
b. Global Variable

90
11 C – Data Types

 C data types are defined as the data storage format that a variable can store a data to perform a
specific operation.
 Data types are used to define a variable before to use in a program.
 Size of variable, constant and array are determined by data types.

11.1 C – data types:

There are four data types in C language. They are,

S.no Types Data Types

1 Basic data types int, char, float, double
2 Enumeration data type Enum
3 Derived data type pointer, array, structure, union
4 Void data type Void

11.2 Basic data types in C:

Integer data type:

 Integer data type allows a variable to store numeric values.

 “int” keyword is used to refer integer data type.
 The storage size of int data type is 2 or 4 or 8 byte.
 It varies depend upon the processor in the CPU that we use. If we are using 16 bit processor, 2
byte (16 bit) of memory will be allocated for int data type.
 Like wise, 4 byte (32 bit) of memory for 32 bit processor and 8 byte (64 bit) of memory for 64 bit
processor is allocated for int datatype.
 int (2 byte) can store values from -32,768 to +32,767
 int (4 byte) can store values from -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647.
 If you want to use the integer value that crosses the above limit, you can go for “long int” and
“long long int” for which the limits are very high.

Note:

 We can’t store decimal values using int data type.

 If we use int data type to store decimal values, decimal values will be truncated and we will get
only whole number.
 In this case, float data type can be used to store decimal values in a variable.

91
11.3 Character data type:

 Character data type allows a variable to store only one character.

 Storage size of character data type is 1. We can store only one character using character data
type.
 “char” keyword is used to refer character data type.
 For example, ‘A’ can be stored using char datatype. You can’t store more than one character
using char data type.
 Please refer C – Strings topic to know how to store more than one characters in a variable.

11.4 Floating point data type:

Floating point data type consists of 2 types. They are,

1. float
2. double

1. float:

 Float data type allows a variable to store decimal values.

 Storage size of float data type is 4. This also varies depend upon the processor in the CPU as
“int” data type.
 We can use up-to 6 digits after decimal using float data type.
 For example, 10.456789 can be stored in a variable using float data type.

2. double:

 Double data type is also same as float data type which allows up-to 10 digits after decimal.
 The range for double datatype is from 1E–37 to 1E+37.

sizeof() function in C:

sizeof() function is used to find the memory space allocated for each C data types.

92
1 #include <stdio.h>
2 #include <limits.h>
3
4 int main()
5 {
6
7 int a;
8 char b;
9 float c;
10 double d;
11 printf("Storage size for int data type:%d \n",sizeof(a));
12 printf("Storage size for char data type:%d \n",sizeof(b));
13 printf("Storage size for float data type:%d \n",sizeof(c));
14 printf("Storage size for double data type:%d\n",sizeof(d));
15 return 0;
16 }

Output:

Storage size for int data type:4

Storage size for char data type:1
Storage size for float data type:4
Storage size for double data type:8

11.5 Modifiers in C:

 The amount of memory space to be allocated for a variable is derived by modifiers.

 Modifiers are prefixed with basic data types to modify (either increase or decrease) the amount
of storage space allocated to a variable.
 For example, storage space for int data type is 4 byte for 32 bit processor. We can increase the
range by using long int which is 8 byte. We can decrease the range by using short int which is 2
byte.

 There are 5 modifiers available in C language. They are,

1. short
2. long
3. signed
4. unsigned
5. long long

93
  Below table gives the detail about the storage size of each C basic data type in 16 bit processor.
Please keep in mind that storage size and range for int and float datatype will vary depend on
the CPU processor (8,16, 32 and 64 bit)

S.No C Data types storage Range

Size
1 Char 1 –127 to 127
2 Int 2 –32,767 to 32,767
3 Float 4 1E–37 to 1E+37 with six digits of
precision
4 Double 8 1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits of
precision
5 long double 10 1E–37 to 1E+37 with ten digits of
precision
6 long int 4 –2,147,483,647 to 2,147,483,647
7 short int 2 –32,767 to 32,767
8 unsigned short int 2 0 to 65,535
9 signed short int 2 –32,767 to 32,767
10 long long int 8 –(2power(63) –1) to 2(power)63 –1
11 signed long int 4 –2,147,483,647 to 2,147,483,647
12 unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295
13 unsigned long long 8 2(power)64 –1
int

11.6 Enumeration data type in C:

 Enumeration data type consists of named integer constants as a list.

 It start with 0 (zero) by default and value is incremented by 1 for the sequential identifiers in the
list.

Enum syntax in C:

enum identifier [optional{ enumerator-list }];

 Enum example in C:

enum month { Jan, Feb, Mar }; or

/* Jan, Feb and Mar variables will be assigned to 0, 1 and 2 respectively by default */
enum month { Jan = 1, Feb, Mar };
/* Feb and Mar variables will be assigned to 2 and 3 respectively by default */
enum month { Jan = 20, Feb, Mar };
/* Jan is assigned to 20. Feb and Mar variables will be assigned to 21 and 22 respectively by default */

 The above enum functionality can also be implemented by “#define” preprocessor directive as
given below. Above enum example is same as given below.

94
#define Jan 20;
#define Feb 21;
#define Mar 22;

11.7 C – enum example program:

1
#include <stdio.h>
2
3
int main()
4
{
5
enum MONTH { Jan = 0, Feb, Mar };
6
7
enum MONTH month = Mar;
8
9
if(month == 0)
10
printf("Value of Jan");
11
else if(month == 1)
12
printf("Month is Feb");
13
if(month == 2)
14
printf("Month is Mar");}
15

Output:

Month is March

11.8 Derived data type in C:

 Array, pointer, structure and union are called derived data type in C language.

11.9 Void data type in C:

 Void is an empty data type that has no value.

 This can be used in functions and pointers.

Further Reading:

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com

Summary:

C has a concept of 'data types' which are used to define a variable before its use. The definition of a
variable will assign storage for the variable and define the type of data that will be held in the location.

95
The value of a variable can be changed any time. C has the following basic built-in datatypes.

 int
 float
 double
 char
 void

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge of C-datatypes.

Exercises
A.Objective Type Questions:
1. What will be the maximum size of a float variable?

1 byte 2 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes

2. What will be the maximum size of a double variable?

1 byte 4 bytes 8 bytes 16 bytes

B. Questions:
1. Explain in detail about C-Datatypes.
2. Discuss the following
a. Derived Datatype
b. User defined Datatype

96
12 C – Operators and Expressions

 The symbols which are used to perform logical and mathematical operations in a C program are
called C operators.
 These C operators join individual constants and variables to form expressions.
 Operators, functions, constants and variables are combined together to form expressions.
 Consider the expression A + B * 5. where, +, * are operators, A, B are variables, 5 is constant
and A + B * 5 is an expression.

12.1 Types of C operators:

C language offers many types of operators. They are,

1. Arithmetic operators
2. Assignment operators
3. Relational operators
4. Logical operators
5. Bit wise operators
6. Conditional operators (ternary operators)
7. Increment/decrement operators
8. Special operators

S.no Types of Operators Description

1 Arithmetic_operators These are used to perform mathematical calculations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus
2 Assignment_operators These are used to assign the values for the variables in C programs.
3 Relational operators These operators are used to compare the value of two variables.
4 Logical operators These operators are used to perform logical operations on the
given two variables.
5 Bit wise operators These operators are used to perform bit operations on given two
variables.
6 Conditional (ternary) Conditional operators return one value if condition is true and
operators returns another value is condition is false.
7 Increment/decrement These operators are used to either increase or decrease the value
operators of the variable by one.
8 Special operators &, *, sizeof( ) and ternary operators.

97
12.2 C- Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic Operators in C:

o C Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical calculations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus in C programs.

S.no Arithmetic Operators Operation Example

1 + Addition A+B
2 - Subtraction A-B
3 * multiplication A*B
4 / Division A/B
5 % Modulus A%B

Example program for C arithmetic operators:

o In this example program, two values “40″ and “20″ are used to perform arithmetic
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus and output is
displayed for each operation.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int a=40,b=20, add,sub,mul,div,mod;
5
6 add = a+b;
7 sub = a-b;
8 mul = a*b;
9 div = a/b;
10 mod = a%b;
11
12 printf("Addition of a, b is : %d\n", add);
13 printf("Subtraction of a, b is : %d\n", sub);
14 printf("Multiplication of a, b is : %d\n", mul);
15 printf("Division of a, b is : %d\n", div);
16 printf("Modulus of a, b is : %d\n", mod);
17 }

Output:

Addition of a, b is : 60
Subtraction of a, b is : 20
Multiplication of a, b is : 800
Division of a, b is : 2
Modulus of a, b is : 0

98
12.3 C – Assignment Operators

Assignment operators in C:

o In C programs, values for the variables are assigned using assignment operators.
o For example, if the value “10″ is to be assigned for the variable “sum”, it can be assigned
as “sum = 10;”
o Other assignment operators in C language are given below.

Operators Example Explanation

Simple assignment operator = sum=10 10 is assigned to variable sum
Compound assignment operators += sum+=10 This_is_same_as_sum=sum+10…………
-= sum-=10 This is same as sum = sum-10
*= sum*=10 This is same as sum = sum*10
/+ sum/=10 This is same as sum = sum/10
%= sum%=10 This is same as sum = sum%10
&= sum&=10 This is same as sum = sum&10
^= sum^=10 This is same as sum = sum^10

Example program for C assignment operators:

o In this program, values from 0 – 9 are summed up and total “45″ is displayed as output.
o Assignment operators such as “=” and “+=” are used in this program to assign the values
and to sum up the values.

1 # include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int Total=0,i;
5 for(i=0;i<10;i++)
6 {
7 Total+=i; // This is same as Total = Toatal+i
8 }
9 printf("Total = %d", Total);
10 }
Output:
Total = 45

99
12.4 C – Relational Operators

Relational operators in C:

o Relational operators are used to find the relation between two variables. i.e. to compare
the values of two variables in a C program.

S.no Operators Example Description

1 > x>y x is greater than y
2 < x<y x is less than y
3 >= x >= y x is greater than or equal to y
4 <= x <= y x is less than or equal to y
5 == x == y x is equal to y
6 != x != y x is not equal to y

Example program for relational operators in C:

o In this program, relational operator (==) is used to compare 2 values whether they are
equal are not.
o If both values are equal, output is displayed as ” values are equal”. Else, output is
displayed as “values are not equal”.
o Note : double equal sign (==) should be used to compare 2 values. We should not single
equal sign (=).

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int m=40,n=20;
5 if (m == n)
6 {
7 printf("m and n are equal");
8 }
9 else
10 {
11 printf("m and n are not equal");
12 }
13 }

Output:

m and n are not equal

100
12.5 C – Logical Operators

Logical operators in C:

o These operators are used to perform logical operations on the given expressions.
o There are 3 logical operators in C language. They are, logical AND (&&), logical OR (||)
and logical NOT (!).

S.no Operators Name Example Description

logical
1 && (x>5)&&(y<5) It returns true when both conditions are true
AND
2 || logical OR (x>=10)||(y>=10) It returns true when at-least one of the condition is true
It reverses the state of the operand “((x>5) && (y<5))”
logical
3 ! !((x>5)&&(y<5)) If “((x>5) && (y<5))” is true, logical NOT operator makes it
NOT
false

Example program for logical operators in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int m=40,n=20;
5 int o=20,p=30;
6
7 if (m>n && m !=0)
8 {
9 printf("&& Operator : Both conditions are true\n");
10 }
11 if (o>p || p!=20)
12 {
13 printf("|| Operator : Only one condition is true\n");
14 }
15 if (!(m>n && m !=0))
16 {
17 printf("! Operator : Both conditions are true\n");
18 }
19 else
20 {
21 printf("! Operator : Both conditions are true. " \
22 "But, status is inverted as false\n");
23 }
24 }

101
Output:

&& Operator : Both conditions are true

|| Operator : Only one condition is true
! Operator : Both conditions are true. But, status is inverted as false

o In this program, operators (&&, || and !) are used to perform logical operations on the
given expressions.
o && operator – “if clause” becomes true only when both conditions (m>n and m! =0) is
true. Else, it becomes false.
o || Operator – “if clause” becomes true when any one of the condition (o>p || p!=20) is
true. It becomes false when none of the condition is true.
o ! Operator – It is used to reverses the state of the operand.
o If the conditions (m>n && m!=0) is true, true (1) is returned. This value is inverted by “!”
operator.
o So, “! (m>n and m! =0)” returns false (0).

102
12.6 C – Bit wise Operators

Bit wise operators in C:

o These operators are used to perform bit operations. Decimal values are converted into
binary values which are the sequence of bits and bit wise operators work on these bits.
o Bit wise operators in C language are & (bitwise AND), | (bitwise OR), ~ (bitwise OR), ^
(XOR), << (left shift) and >> (right shift).

Truth table for bit wise operation Bit wise operators

X y x|y x&y x^y Operator_symbol Operator_name

0 0 0 0 0 & Bitwise_AND
0 1 1 0 1 | Bitwise OR
1 0 1 0 1 ~ Bitwise_NOT
1 1 1 1 0 ^ XOR
<< Left Shift
>> Right Shift

 Consider x=40 and y=80. Binary form of these values are given below.

x = 00101000
y= 01010000

 All bit wise operations for x and y are given below.

x&y = 00000000 (binary ) = 0 (decimal)

x|y = 01111000 (binary) = 120 (decimal)
~x =1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111010111
.. ..= -41 (decimal)
x^y = 01111000 (binary) = 120 (decimal)
x << 1 = 01010000 (binary) = 80 (decimal)
x >> 1 = 00010100 (binary) = 20 (decimal)

Note:

 Bit wise NOT : Value of 40 in binary is

0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000101000. So, all 0′s are
converted into 1′s in bit wise NOT operation.
 Bit wise left shift and right shift : In left shift operation “x << 1 “, 1 means that the bits will be
left shifted by one place. If we use it as “x << 2 “, then, it means that the bits will be left shifted
by 2 places.

103
Example program for bit wise operators in C:

o In this example program, bit wise operations are performed as shown above and output
is displayed in decimal format.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int m=40,n=80,AND_opr,OR_opr,XOR_opr,NOT_opr ;
5
6 AND_opr = (m&n);
7 OR_opr = (m|n);
8 NOT_opr = (~m);
9 XOR_opr = (m^n);
10
11 printf("AND_opr value = %d\n",AND_opr );
12 printf("OR_opr value = %d\n",OR_opr );
13 printf("NOT_opr value = %d\n",NOT_opr );
14 printf("XOR_opr value = %d\n",XOR_opr );
15 printf("left_shift value = %d\n", m << 1);
16 printf("right_shift value = %d\n", m >> 1);
17 }

Output:

AND_opr value = 0
OR_opr value = 120
NOT_opr value = -41
XOR_opr value = 120
left_shift value = 80
right_shift value = 20

12.7 C – Conditional Operators

Conditional or ternary operators in C:

o Conditional operators return one value if condition is true and returns another value is
condition is false.
o This operator is also called as ternary operator.

Syntax : (Condition? true_value: false_value);

Example : (A > 100 ? 0 : 1);
.

o In above example, if A is greater than 100, 0 is returned else 1 is returned. This is equal
to if else conditional statements.

104
Example program for conditional/ternary operators in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3{
4 int x=1, y ;
5 y = ( x ==1 ? 2 : 0 ) ;
6 printf("x value is %d\n", x);
7 printf("y value is %d", y);
8}

Output:

x value is 1
y value is 2

12.8 C – Increment/decrement Operators

 Increment operators are used to increase the value of the variable by one and decrement
operators are used to decrease the value of the variable by one in C programs.

 Syntax:

Increment operator :
++var_name;(or) var_name++;
Decrement operator :
– - var_name; (or) var_name – -;
…

 Example:

Increment operator :
++i;i++;
Decrement operator: –-i; i–-;
…

Example program for increment operators in C:

o In this program, value of “i” is incremented one by one from 1 up to 9 using “i++”
operator and output is displayed as “1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9”.

105
1 //Example for increment operators
2
3 #include <stdio.h>
4 int main()
5 {
6 int i=1;
7 while(i<10)
8 {
9 printf("%d ",i);
10 i++;
11 }
12 }

Output:

123456789

Example program for decrement operators in C:

o In this program, value of “I” is decremented one by one from 20 up to 11 using “i–”
operator and output is displayed as “20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11”.

1 //Example for decrement operators

2
3 #include <stdio.h>
4 int main()
5 {
6 int i=20;
7 while(i>10)
8 {
9 printf("%d ",i);
10 i--;
11 }
12 }

Output:

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11

106
Difference between pre/post increment & decrement operators in C:

o Below table will explain the difference between pre/post increment and decrement
operators in C.

S.no Operator type Operator Description

++i
1 Pre increment Value of i is incremented before assigning it to variable i.
i++
2 Post-increment Value of i is incremented after assigning it to variable i.
– –i
3 Pre decrement Value of i is decremented before assigning it to variable i.
i– –
4 Post_decrement Value of i is decremented after assigning it to variable i.

Example program for pre – increment operators in C:

1 //Example for increment operators

2
3 #include <stdio.h>
4 int main()
5 {
6 int i=0;
7 while(++i < 5 )
8 {
9 printf("%d ",i);
10 }
11 return 0;
12 }
Output:
1234

o Step 1 : In above program, value of “i” is incremented from 0 to 1 using pre-increment

operator.
o Step 2 : This incremented value “1″ is compared with 5 in while expr ession.
o Step 3 : Then, this incremented value “1″ is assigned to the variable “i”.
o Above 3 steps are continued until while expression becomes false and output is
displayed as “1 2 3 4″.

107
Example program for post – increment operators in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int i=0;
5 while(i++ < 5 )
6 {
7 printf("%d ",i);
8 }
9 return 0;
10 }
Output:

12345
o Step 1 : In this program, value of i ”0″ is compared with 5 in while expression.
o Step 2 : Then, value of “i” is incremented from 0 to 1 using post-increment operator.
o Step 3 : Then, this incremented value “1″ is assigned to the variable “i”.
o Above 3 steps are continued until while expression becomes false and output is
displayed as “1 2 3 4 5″.

Example program for pre - decrement operators in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int i=10;
5 while(--i > 5 )
6 {
7 printf("%d ",i);
8 }
9 return 0;
10 }
Output:
9876

o Step 1 : In above program, value of “i” is decremented from 10 to 9 using pre-

decrement operator.
o Step 2 : This decremented value “9″ is compared with 5 in while expression.
o Step 3 : Then, this decremented value “9″ is assigned to the variable “i”.
o Above 3 steps are continued until while expression becomes false and output is
displayed as “9 8 7 6″.

108
Example program for post - decrement operators in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int i=10;
5 while(i-- > 5 )
6 {
7 printf("%d ",i);
8 }
9 return 0;
10 }

Output:

98765

o Step 1 : In this program, value of i ”10″ is compared with 5 in while expression.

o Step 2 : Then, value of “i” is decremented from 10 to 9 using post-decrement operator.
o Step 3 : Then, this decremented value “9″ is assigned to the variable “i”.
o Above 3 steps are continued until while expression becomes false and output is
displayed as “9 8 7 6 5″.

12.9 C – Special Operators

Special Operators in C:

o Below are some of special operators that C language offers.

S.no Operators Description

This is used to get the address of the variable.
1 &
Example : &a will give address of a.
This is used as pointer to a variable.
2 *
Example : * a where, * is pointer to the variable a.
This gives the size of the variable.
3 Sizeof ()
Example : size of (char) will give us 1.

Example program for & and * operators in C:

o In this program, “&” symbol is used to get the address of the variable and “*” symbol is
used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to. Please refer C –
pointer topic to know more about pointers.

109
1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int *ptr, q;
6 q = 50;
7 /* address of q is assigned to ptr */
8 ptr = &q;
9 /* display q's value using ptr variable */
10 printf("%d", *ptr);
11 return 0;
12 }

Output:

50

Example program for sizeof() operator in C:

o sizeof() operator is used to find the memory space allocated for each C data types.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 #include <limits.h>
3
4 int main()
5 {
6
7 int a;
8 char b;
9 float c;
10 double d;
11 printf("Storage size for int data type:%d \n",sizeof(a));
12 printf("Storage size for char data type:%d \n",sizeof(b));
13 printf("Storage size for float data type:%d \n",sizeof(c));
14 printf("Storage size for double data type:%d\n",sizeof(d));
15 return 0;
16 }
Output:
Storage size for int data type:4
Storage size for char data type:1
Storage size for float data type:4
Storage size for double data type:8

110
Further Reading:

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com

Summary:

C language supports following type of operators.

 Arithmetic Operators
 Logical (or Relational) Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Misc Operators

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge on C Operators and Expressions.

Exercises
A.Objective Type Questions:
1. Which of the following is an example of compounded assignment statement?

a=5 a += 5 a=b=c a=b

2. The operator && is an example for ___ operator.

Assignment Increment Logical Rational

3. The operator & is used for

Bitwise AND Bitwise OR Logical AND Logical OR

4. The operator / can be applied to

integer values float values double values All of these

5. The equality operator is represented by

:= .EQ. = ==

B. Questions:
1. Explain in detail about C-Operators with examples.
2. Discuss the following
a. Conditional Operators
b. Increment and Decrement Operators

111
13 C – Decision Control statement

 In decision control statements (C if else and nested if), group of statements are executed when
condition is true. If condition is false, then else part statements are executed.
 There are 3 types of decision making control statements in C language. They are,

1. if statements
2. if else statements
3. nested if statements

13 .1 If”, “else” and “nested if” decision control statements in C:

o Syntax for each C decision control statements are given in below table with description.

Decision control
Syntax Description
statements
if (condition) In these type of statements, if condition is true, then
if
{ Statements; } respective block of code is executed.
if (condition)
In these type of statements, group of statements are
{ Statement1; Statement2;}
if…else executed when condition is true. If condition is false,
else
then else part statements are executed.
{ Statement3; Statement4; }
if
(condition1){ Statement1; } If condition 1 is false, then condition 2 is checked and
nested if else_if (condition2) statements are executed if it is true. If condition 2 also
{ Statement2; } gets failure, then else part is executed.
else Statement 3;

Example program for if statement in C:

In “if” control statement, respective block of code is executed when condition is true.

1 int main()
2{
3 int m=40,n=40;
4 if (m == n)
5 {
6 printf("m and n are equal");
7 }
8}

Output:

m and n are equal

112
Example program for if else statement in C:

In C if else control statement, group of statements are executed when condition is true. If condition
is false, then else part statements are executed.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int m=40,n=20;
5 if (m == n) {
6 printf("m and n are equal");
7 }
8 else {
9 printf("m and n are not equal");
10 }
11
12 }
Output:
m and n are not equal

Example program for nested if statement in C:

o In “nested if” control statement, if condition 1 is false, then condition 2 is checked and
statements are executed if it is true.
o If condition 2 also gets failure, then else part is executed.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2 int main()
3 {
4 int m=40,n=20;
5 if (m>n) {
6 printf("m is greater than n");
7 }
8 else if(m<n) {
9 printf("m is less than n");
10 }
11 else {
12 printf("m is equal to n");
13 }
14 }

Output:
m is greater than n

113
13.2 C – Loop control statements

Loop control statements in C are used to perform looping operations until the given condition is true.
Control comes out of the loop statements once condition becomes false.

Types of loop control statements in C:

There are 3 types of loop control statements in C language. They are,

1. for
2. while
3. do-while

o Syntax for each C loop control statements are given in below table with description.

S.no Loop Name Syntax Description

Where,
exp1 – variable initialization
( Example: i=0, j=2, k=3 )
for (exp1; exp2; expr3)
1 for exp2 – condition checking
{ statements; }
( Example: i>5, j<3, k=3 )
exp3 – increment/decrement
( Example: ++i, j–, ++k )
while (condition) where,
2 while
{ statements; } condition might be a>5, i<10
do { statements; } where,
3 do while
while (condition); condition might be a>5, i<10

Example program (for loop) in C:

In for loop control statement, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int i;

for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf("%d ",i); } }
Output:
0123456789

114
Example program (while loop) in C:

In while loop control statement, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int i=3;
6
7 while(i<10)
8 {
9 printf("%d\n",i);
10 i++;
11 }
12
13 }
Output:
3456789

Example program (do while loop) in C:

In do..while loop control statement, while loop is executed irrespective of the condition for first time.
Then 2nd time onwards, loop is executed until condition becomes false.

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int i=1;
6
7 do
8 {
9 printf("Value of i is %d\n",i);
10 i++;
11 }while(i<=4 && i>=2);
12
13 }
Output:
Value of i is 1
Value of i is 2
Value of i is 3
Value of i is 4

115
Difference between while & do while loops in C:

S.no while do while

Loop is executed only when Loop is executed for first time irrespective of the condition. After
1
condition is true. executing while loop for first time, then condition is checked.

13.3 C – Case control statements

The statements which are used to execute only specific block of statements in a series of blocks are
called case control statements.

There are 4 types of case control statements in C language. They are,

1. switch
2. break
3. continue
4. goto

switch case statement in C:

o Switch case statements are used to execute only specific case statements based on the
switch expression.
o Below is the syntax for switch case statement.

switch (expression)
{
case label1: statements;
break;
case label2: statements;
break;
default: statements;
break;
}

116
Example program for switch..case statement in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main ()
4 {
5 int value = 3;
6
7 switch(value)
8 {
9 case 1:
10 printf("Value is 1 \n" );
11 break;
12 case 2:
13 printf("Value is 2 \n" );
14 break;
15 case 3:
16 printf("Value is 3 \n" );
17 break;
18 case 4:
19 printf("Value is 4 \n" );
20 break;
21 default :
22 printf("Value is other than 1,2,3,4 \n" );
23 }
24
25 return 0;
26 }

Output:

Value is 3

break statement in C:

o Break statement is used to terminate the while loops, switch case loops and for loops
from the subsequent execution.
o Syntax: break;

117
Example program for break statement in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int i;
6
7 for(i=0;i<10;i++)
8 {
9 if(i==5)
10 {
11 printf("\nComing out of for loop when i = 5");
12 break;
13 }
14 printf("%d ",i);
15 }
16
17 }

Output:

01234
Coming out of for loop when i = 5

Continue statement in C:

o Continue statement is used to continue the next iteration of for loop, while loop and do-
while loops. So, the remaining statements are skipped within the loop for that
particular iteration.
o Syntax : continue;

Example program for continue statement in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int i;
6
7 for(i=0;i<10;i++)
8 {

118
9 if(i==5 || i==6)
10 {
11 printf("\nSkipping %d from display using " \
12 "continue statement \n",i);
13 continue;
14 }
15 printf("%d ",i);
16 }
17
18 }

Output:

01234
Skipping 5 from display using continue statement
Skipping 6 from display using continue statement
789

goto statement in C:

o goto statements is used to transfer the normal flow of a program to the specified label
in the program.
o Below is the syntax for goto statement in C.

{
…….
go to label;
…….
…….
LABEL:
statements;
}

Example program for goto statement in C:

1 #include <stdio.h>
2
3 int main()
4 {
5 int i;
6
7 for(i=0;i<10;i++)
8 {
9 if(i==5)
10 {

119
11 printf("\nWe are using goto statement when i = 5");
12 goto HAI;
13 }
14 printf("%d ",i);
15 }
16
17 HAI : printf("\nNow, we are inside label name \"hai\" \n");
18
19 }

Output:

01234
We are using goto statement when i = 5
Now, we are inside label name “hai”

Further Reading: List the chapters in Reference books/ web resources

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/cprogramming/
http://www.cprogramming.com

Summary:

C provides two styles of flow control:

 Branching
 Looping

Branching is deciding what actions to take and looping is deciding how many times to take a certain
action.

Expected Learning Outcome:

Students will acquire knowledge on Decision control statements and loop control statements.

120
Exercises

A.Objective Type Questions:

1.What is the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char c= 'a';
switch(c)
{
case 65 : printf("inside case A,");
break;
case 97 : printf("inside case a,");
break;
default: printf("inside default case");
break;
}}

A. inside default case

B. inside case a,
C. Compilation Error
D. inside case A,

2.What is the output of the following program?

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=10;
switch(i)
{
case 1: printf(" i=1");
break;
case 10: printf(" i=10");
case 11: printf(" i=11");
break;
case 12: printf(" i=12");
}
}
A. i=10 i=11 i=12
B. i=1 i=10 i=11 i=12
C. i=10 i=11
D. None of the Above

121
 COURSE PLAN

Select a course (a theory subject): Programming for Problem Solving

Select a unit: Module III

Select a Topic: Arrays and Functions

1. Objectives
To study about the concepts of Arrays, types of arrays

2. Outcomes
Students will acquire knowledge on array declaration and (runtime & Compilation) initialization.

3. Pre-requisites
Know the concept of basic data types in C Language
4. Terminology used other than normal known scientific / engg terms and their
fundamental explanations / relations

Plan for the lecture delivery

1. How to plan for delivery – black board / ppt / animated ppt / (decide which is good
for this topic)
Power Point Presentation
2. How to explain the definition and terms with in it
Explain the memory allocation using Arrays, types of arrays and its initialization concepts
3. How to start the need for any derivation / procedure / experiment / case study
Not Applicable
4. Physical meaning of math equations / calculations
Not Applicable
5. Units and their physical meaning to make them understand practical reality and
comparison between different units
Understand the array concept easily apply the array concept in Array of structure in the
next unit.

122
6. What is the final conclusion?

Students will acquire knowledge on array declaration and (runtime & Compilation) initialization.
7. How to put it in a nut shell
One Dimension Array, Two Dimension Array, Multi Dimension Array, User define
function, Standard Library Function.
8. Important points for understanding / memorizing / make it long lasting
 Array is a Group of Similar Data Items. Each Items accessed using the Array
index number
 Three Types of Array one, Two, Multi Dimension Array
 Function is a group of statement to solve a specific task
 Two Types of function 1. User Define function 2. Standard Library Function.
 Function call the same function itself is called recursive function.

9. Questions and cross questions in that topic to make them think beyond the topic.

A 1. Array is a container of similar ……………………………

a) symbols b) data elements c) variables d) constants

B 1. Define an array
2. What are all the types of array available?
3. Give the syntax of array declaration.

C 1. Explain briefly about arrays.

D
1. Define a function?
2. Define formal parameter
3. Define Actual Parameter

1. Explain briefly about functions in C programming

2. Compare function call by reference with call by value.

10. Final conclusions

Students will acquire knowledge on array declaration and (runtime & Compilation) initialization.

123
14.1 Introduction.
The C Programming language generally uses the variables which are nothing but a name given to
a storage area that our programs can manipulate. Each variable in C has a specific type, which
determines the size and layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within
that memory and the limitations are it can’t store more than one value at a time. The limitation of
variables could be avoided by using the arrays.
Arrays.
C programming language provides a data structure called the array, which can store a fixed-size
sequential collection of elements of the same type. An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is
often more useful to think of an array as a collection of variables of the same type.
Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number0, number1, ..., and number99, you declare one
array variable such as numbers and use numbers[0], numbers[1], and ..., numbers[99] to represent
individual variables. A specific element in an array is accessed by an index.
All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address corresponds to the first element
and the highest address to the last element.

First Element Last Element

A[0] A[1] A[2] ....

Fig 3.1 Arrays

14.2. Array Declaration.

To declare an array in C, a programmer specifies the type of the elements and the number of
elements required by an array as follows,
Syntax
<type> <array Name> [ array Size ];

This is called a single-dimensional array. The arraySize must be an integer constant greater than
zero and type can be any valid C data type. For example, to declare a 10-element array called balance of
type double, use this statement:

double balance[10];
124
14.3. Initializing Arrays
You can initialize array in C either one by one or using a single statement as follows:

double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};

The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of elements that we declare
for the array between square brackets [ ].
Following is the pictorial representation of the same array we discussed above:

Fig 3.2 Array with elements

14.4. Accessing Array Elements

An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by placing the index of the
element within square brackets after the name of the array. For example:

double salary = balance[9];

The above statement will take 10th element from the array and assign the value to salary variable.
Following is an example which will use all the above mentioned three concepts viz. declaration,
assignment and accessing arrays:
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int n[ 10 ]; /* n is an array of 10 integers */
int i,j;
/* initialize elements of array n to 0 */
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )
{
n[ i ] = i + 100; /* set element at location i to i + 100 */
}
/* output each array element's value */
for (j = 0; j < 10; j++ )
{
printf("Element[%d] = %d\n", j, n[j] );
}
return 0;
} 125
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Element[0] = 100
Element[1] = 101
Element[2] = 102
Element[3] = 103
Element[4] = 104
Element[5] = 105
Element[6] = 106
Element[7] = 107
Element[8] = 108
Element[9] = 109

14.5 Types of Arrays.

Arrays are classified with their allocation and usage, namely

 Two dimensional Array

 Multi- dimensional Array

14.5.1 Multi-dimensional Arrays

C programming language allows multidimensional arrays. Here is the general form of a
multidimensional array declaration:

type name[size1][size2]. . .[sizeN];

For example, the following declaration creates a three dimensional 5 . 10 . 4 integer array:

int threedim[5][10][4];

14.5.2 Two-Dimensional Arrays

The simplest form of the multidimensional array is the two-dimensional array. A two-
dimensional array is, in essence, a list of one-dimensional arrays. To declare a two-dimensional integer
array of size x, y you would write something as follows:

126
 type arrayName [ x ][ y ];

Where type can be any valid C data type and arrayName will be a valid C identifier. A two-dimensional
array can be think as a table which will have x number of rows and y number of columns. A 2-
dimentional array a, which contains three rows and four columns can be shown as below:

Thus, every element in array a is identified by an element name of the form a[ i ][ j ], where a is the
name of the array, and i and j are the subscripts that uniquely identify each element in ‘a’.

Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays

Multidimensional arrays may be initialized by specifying bracketed values for each row.
Following is an array with 3 rows and each row has 4 columns.

int a[3][4] = {
{0, 1, 2, 3} , /* initializers for row indexed by 0 */
{4, 5, 6, 7} , /* initializers for row indexed by 1 */
{8, 9, 10, 11} /* initializers for row indexed by 2 */
};

The nested braces, which indicate the intended row, are optional. The following initialization is
equivalent to previous example:

int a[3][4] = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11};

Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements
An element in 2-dimensional array is accessed by using the subscripts, i.e., row index and
column index of the array. For example:
int val = a[2][3];
The above statement will take 4th element from the 3rd row of the array. You can verify it in the above
diagram. Let us check below program where we have used nested loop to handle a two dimensional
array:

127
 #include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* an array with 5 rows and 2 columns*/
int a[5][2] = { {0,0}, {1,2}, {2,4}, {3,6},{4,8}};
int i, j;
/* output each array element's value */
for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++ )
{
for ( j = 0; j < 2; j++ )
{
printf("a[%d][%d] = %d\n", i,j, a[i][j] );
}
}
return
When 0;
the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
}
a[0][0]: 0
a[0][1]: 0
a[1][0]: 1
a[1][1]: 2
a[2][0]: 2
a[2][1]: 4
a[3][0]: 3
a[3][1]: 6
a[4][0]: 4
a[4][1]: 8

As explained above, you can have arrays with any number of dimensions, although it is likely that most
of the arrays you create will be of one or two dimensions.
14.6.Passing Arrays as Function Arguments

If you want to pass a single-dimension array as an argument in a function, you would have to declare
function formal parameter in one of following three ways and all three declaration methods produce
similar results because each tells the compiler that an integer pointer is going to be received. Similar
way you can pass multi-dimensional array as formal parameters.

128
 Way-1

Formal parameters as a pointer as follows. You will study what is pointer in next chapter.
void myFunction(int *param)
{
.
.
.
}

Way-2

Formal parameters as a sized array as follows:

void myFunction(int param[10])
{
.
.
.
}

Way-3
Formal parameters as an unsized array as follows:
void myFunction(int param[])
{
.
.
.
}

Example
Now, consider the following function, which will take an array as an argument along with another
argument and based on the passed arguments, it will return average of the numbers passed through the
array as follows:

129
 double getAverage(int arr[], int size)
{
int i;
double avg;
double sum;
for (i = 0; i < size; ++i)
{
sum += arr[i];
}
avg = sum / size;
return avg;
}

Now, let us call the above function as follows:

#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
double getAverage(int arr[], int size);
int main ()
{
/* an int array with 5 elements */
int balance[5] = {1000, 2, 3, 17, 50};
double avg;
/* pass pointer to the array as an argument */
avg = getAverage( balance, 5 ) ;
/* output the returned value */
printf( "Average value is: %f ", avg );
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled together and executed, it produces the following result:
Average value is: 214.400000
As you can see, the length of the array doesn't matter as far as the function is concerned because C
performs no bounds checking for the formal parameters.
Return array from function
C programming language does not allow to return an entire array as an argument to a function.
However, you can return a pointer to an array by specifying the array's name without an index. You will

130
study pointer in next chapter so you can skip this chapter until you understand the concept of Pointers
in C.
If you want to return a single-dimension array from a function, you would have to declare a function
returning a pointer as in the following example:
int * myFunction()
{
}
Second point to remember is that C does not advocate to return the address of a local variable to
outside of the function so you would have to define the local variable as static variable.
Now, consider the following function which will generate 10 random numbers and return them using an
array and call this function as follows:

#include <stdio.h>
/* function to generate and return random numbers */
int * getRandom( )
{
static int r[10];
int i;
/* set the seed */
srand( (unsigned)time( NULL ) );
for ( i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
{
r[i] = rand();
printf( "r[%d] = %d\n", i, r[i]);
}
return r;
}
/* main function to call above defined function */
int main ()
{
/* a pointer to an int */
int *p;
int i;
p = getRandom();
for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++ )
{
printf( "*(p + %d) : %d\n", i, *(p + i));
}
return 0;
}

131
15. Functions in C.

15.1. Introduction
Function is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C program has at least one
function, which is main(), and all the most trivial programs can define additional functions.
You can divide up your code into separate functions. How you divide up your code among different
functions is up to you, but logically the division usually is so each function performs a specific task.
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return type, and parameters. A
function definition provides the actual body of the function.

Functions

The C standard library provides numerous built-in functions that your program can call. For
example, function strcat() to concatenate two strings, function memcpy() to copy one memory location
to another location and many more functions.

A function is known with various names like a method or a sub-routine or a procedure, etc.

15.2. Defining a Function.

A function definition in C programming language consists of a function header and a function
body. General form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows:
return_type function_name( parameter list )
{
body of the function
}

Return Type: A function may return a value. The return_type is the data type of the value the
function returns. Some functions perform the desired operations without returning a value. In
this case, the return_type is the keyword void.

Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function name and the parameter
list together constitute the function signature.

132
 Parameters: A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked, you pass a value to
the parameter. This value is referred to as actual parameter or argument. The
parameter list refers to the type, order, and number of the parameters of a function.
Parameters are optional; that is, a function may contain no parameters.

Function Body: The function body contains a collection of statements that define what the
function does.
Example
Following is the source code for a function called max(). This function takes two parameters num1 and
num2 and returns the maximum between the two:

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2)
{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
result = num2;
return result;
}

15.3. Function Declarations

A function declaration tells the compiler about a function name and how to call the function.
The actual body of the function can be defined separately.

A function declaration has the following parts:

return_type function_name( parameter list );

For the above defined function max(), following is the function declaration:
int max(int num1, int num2);
Parameter names are not important in function declaration only their type is required, so following is
also valid declaration:
int max(int, int);

133
Function declaration is required when you define a function in one source file and you call that function
in another file. In such case you should declare the function at the top of the file calling the function.

15.4. Calling a Function

While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To use a
function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined task.
When a program calls a function, program control is transferred to the called function. A called function
performs defined task, and when its return statement is executed or when its function-ending closing
brace is reached, it returns program control back to the main program.

To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with function name, and if
function returns a value, then you can store returned value. For example:

#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
int max(int num1, int num2);
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;
/* calling a function to get max value */
ret = max(a, b);
printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret );
return 0;
}
/* function returning the max between two numbers */
int max(int num1, int num2)
{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
result = num2;
return result;
}
While running final executable, it would produce the following result:
Max value is : 200

134
Function Arguments
If a function is to use arguments, it must declare variables that accept the values of the
arguments. These variables are called the formal parameters of the function.
The formal parameters behave like other local variables inside the function and are created upon entry
into the function and destroyed upon exit.
While calling a function, there are two ways that arguments can be passed to a function:
15.5 Function call by value
The call by value method of passing arguments to a function copies the actual value of an
argument into the formal parameter of the function. In this case, changes made to the parameter inside
the function have no effect on the argument.
By default, C programming language uses call by value method to pass arguments. In general, this
means that code within a function cannot alter the arguments used to call the function. Consider the
function swap() definition as follows.

/* function definition to swap the values */

void swap(int x, int y)
{
int temp;
temp = x; /* save the value of x */
x = y; /* put y into x */
y = temp; /* put x into y */
return;
}
Now, let us call the function swap() by passing actual values as in the following example:

#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
void swap(int x, int y);
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
printf("Before swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("Before swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
/* calling a function to swap the values */
swap(a, b);
printf("After swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("After swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
return 0; 135
}
Let us put above code in a single C file, compile and execute it, it will produce the following result:
Before swap, value of a :100
Before swap, value of b :200

Which shows that there is no change in the values though they had been changed inside the function.
15.6 Function call by reference

The call by reference method of passing arguments to a function copies the address of an
argument into the formal parameter. Inside the function, the address is used to access the actual
argument used in the call. This means that changes made to the parameter affect the passed argument.

To pass the value by reference, argument pointers are passed to the functions just like any other value.
So accordingly you need to declare the function parameters as pointer types as in the following function
swap(), which exchanges the values of the two integer variables pointed to by its arguments.

/* function definition to swap the values */

void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int temp;
temp = *x; /* save the value at address x */
*x = *y; /* put y into x */
*y = temp; /* put x into y */
return;
}

136
Let us call the function swap() by passing values by reference as in the following example:

#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
void swap(int *x, int *y);
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
printf("Before swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("Before swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
/* calling a function to swap the values.
* &a indicates pointer to a ie. address of variable a and
* &b indicates pointer to b ie. address of variable b.
*/
swap(&a, &b);
printf("After swap, value of a : %d\n", a );
printf("After swap, value of b : %d\n", b );
return 0;
}
Let us put above code in a single C file, compile and execute it, it will produce the following result:
Before swap, value of a :100
Before swap, value of b :200
After swap, value of a :200
After swap, value of b :100

Which shows that there is no change in the values though they had been changed inside the function.

Summary:

The function is a program that calls another program for execution.

Passing parameters to the functions could be understood using the program.

137
6.2. Recursive function
Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. Same applies in programming
languages as well where if a programming allows you to call a function inside the same function that is
called recursive call of the function as follows.

void recursion()
{
recursion(); /* function calls itself */
}
int main()
{
recursion();
}

The C programming language supports recursion, i.e., a function to call itself. But while using recursion,
programmers need to be careful to define an exit condition from the function, otherwise it will go in
infinite loop.

Recursive function are very useful to solve many mathematical problems like to calculate factorial of a
number, generating Fibonacci series, etc.

Number Factorial
Following is an example, which calculates factorial for a given number using a recursive function:

#include <stdio.h>
int factorial(unsigned int i)
{
if(i <= 1)
{
return 1;
}
return i * factorial(i - 1);
}
int main()

{
int i = 15;
printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", i, factorial(i));
return 0;
}

138
 When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Factorial of 15 is 2004310016
Fibonacci Series
Following is another example, which generates Fibonacci series for a given number using a
recursive function:
#include <stdio.h>
int fibonaci(int i)
{
if(i == 0)
{
return 0;
}
if(i == 1)
{
return 1;
}
return fibonaci(i-1) + fibonaci(i-2);
}
int main()
{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
printf("%d\t%n", fibonaci(i));
}
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

139
 COURSE PLAN

Select a course (a theory subject): Programming for Problem Solving

Select a unit: Module IV

Select a Topic: Structure & Union, Strings

1. Objectives
To study about how to create & use a Structures for heterogeneous data items
2. Outcomes
Students will acquire knowledge on structure and array of structure in C Language
3. Pre-requisites
Knowledge of Data types, Array and Function.
4. Terminology used other than normal known scientific / engg terms and their
fundamental explanations / relations
Not Applicable

Plan for the lecture delivery

1. How to plan for delivery – black board / ppt / animated ppt / (decide which is good
for this topic)
Power Point Presentation
2. How to explain the definition and terms with in it
Explain the concept of Array and compare with Structure variables.
3. How to start the need for any derivation / procedure / experiment / case study
Not Applicable
4. Physical meaning of math equations / calculations
Not Applicable
5. Units and their physical meaning to make them understand practical reality and
comparison between different units
Not Applicable
6. What is the final conclusion?
Students will acquire knowledge on structure and array of structure in C Language and Know
the various string Operations in C Language.
140
7. How to put it in a nut shell
8. Important points for understanding / memorizing / make it long lasting
Structure is a group of Dissimilar items.
String is a Group of Character
Various String functions are a) strlen() b) strcmp() c)strcat d)strlwr e)strupr() f) strrev()
9. Questions and cross questions in that topic to make them think beyond the topic.

A 1. Example of heterogeneous data type in C language?

a) Unsigned int b) structure c) array d) int
……………………………
2. Syntax of structure declaration ……………………………
3. Which operator to use …………………to access Structure individual Elements

B 1. What is structure?
2. What is different between structure & array?
3. Uses of structure
4. Write the program for Book information storing structure declaration

C 1. Write the program for 100 Books information insertion & displaying using structure
2. Write the program for student information details using structure

D 1. Union is a ______________item:

2. Different between union & structure is _______________mechanism

3. State True or False:

a) Union allocate more memory
4. Union can access only ___________ at a time
a) One member b)All members c) array of member

E 1. Different between Structure & Union

2. Define union
3. Explain Memory mechanism in Union

10. Final conclusions

To study about how to create & use a Structures for heterogeneous data items add to the
clarity of the program

141
Array(Unit III) handle only all ints, or all floats or all chars at a time. In fact when we handle real
world data, we don’t usually deal with little atoms of information by themselves—things like
integers, characters and such. Instead we deal with entities that are collections of things, each thing
having its own attributes, just as the entity we call a ‘book’ is a collection of things such as title,
author, call number, publisher, number of pages, date of publication, etc. As you can see all this
data is dissimilar, for example author is a string, whereas number of pages is an integer. For dealing
with such collections, C provides a data type called ‘structure’. A structure gathers together,
different atoms of information that comprise a given entity.

17. Structures

Introduction

Data type is the type of the data, that are going to access within the program. ‘C’ Supports different data
types, each data type may have predefined memory requirement and storage representation.

17.1 Why Use Structures

information and how arrays can hold a number of pieces of information of the same data type.
These two data types can handle a great variety of situations. But quite often we deal with entities that
are collection of dissimilar data types.

Example Suppose you want to store data about a book.

Table 4.1.1
INFORMATIONS DATA TYPE
NAME Character Array
BOOK (char [100])
PRICE float
NUMBER OF PAGE int

Then we can follow two approaches:

 Construct individual arrays, one for storing names, another for storing prices and still another
for storing number of pages.

 Use a structure variable.

Table 4.1.2
142
 First Approach Second Approach

This approach no doubt allows you to store A structure contains a number of data types
names, prices and number of pages. But as you grouped together. These data types may or may
must have realized, it is an unwieldy approach
not be of the same type
that obscures the fact that you are dealing with
a group of characteristics related to a single
entity
main( ) main( )
{ {
char name[3] ; struct book
float price[3] ; {
int pages[3], i ; char name ;
printf ( "\nEnter names, prices and no. of pages float price ;
of 3 books\n" ) ; int pages ;
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 2 ; i++ ) };
scanf ( "%c %f %d", &name[i], &price[i], struct book b1, b2, b3 ;
&pages[i] ); printf ( "\nEnter names, prices & no. of pages of 3
printf ( "\nAnd this is what you entered\n" ) ; books\n" ) ;
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 2 ; i++ ) scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b1.name, &b1.price,
printf ( "%c %f %d\n", name[i], price[i], pages[i] &b1.pages ) ;
); scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b2.name, &b2.price,
} &b2.pages ) ;
scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b3.name, &b3.price,
&b3.pages ) ;
printf ( "\nAnd this is what you entered" ) ;
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b1.name, b1.price, b1.pages
);
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b2.name, b2.price, b2.pages
);
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b3.name, b3.price, b3.pages
);
}

And here is the sample run...

Enter names, prices and no. of pages of 3 books

A 100.00 354

C 256.50 682

F 233.70 512

And this is what you entered

143
 A 100.000000 354

C 256.500000 682

F 233.700000 512

Declaring a Structure

The general form of a structure declaration statement is given below:

struct <structure name>

structure element 1 ;

structure element 2 ;

structure element 3 ;

......

......
};

For example program Table 4.1.2

struct book

char name ;

float price ;

int pages ;

};

This statement defines a new data type called struct book. Each variable of this data type
will consist of a character variable called name, a float variable called price and an integer variable called
pages

144
Need to sets aside space in memory in a structure by using creating

struct book b1, b2, b3

It makes available space to hold all the elements in the structure for Table 4.1.2
name is 1 byte, price is 4 bytes, pages is 2 bytes, So total 7 bytes to allocate for b1, similarly s2, s3 also.
Table 4.1.2 structure variable contains 7 bytes each.

Various formats to declaring Structure variables

Table 5.1.3

struct book struct book Struct

{ { {

char name ; char name ; char name ;

float price ; float price ; float price ;

int pages ; int pages ; int pages ;

}; } b1, b2, b3 ; } b1, b2, b3 ;

struct book b1, b2, b3 ;

Table 4.1.3 are similar to same in declaring Structure variables

Initialize values Statically in Structure variable similar to an array

Example:
struct book b1 = { "Basic", 130.00, 550 } ;
struct book b2 = { "Physics", 150.80, 800 } ;

Note the following points while declaring a structure type:

 The closing brace in the structure type declaration must be followed by a semicolon.

 It is important to understand that a structure type declaration does not tell the compiler to reserve
any space in memory. All a structure declaration does is, it defines the ‘form’ of the structure.

 Usually structure type declaration appears at the top of the source code file, before any variables or
functions are defined

Accessing Structure Elements

Access individual elements of use a dot (.) operator. So to refer to Table 4.1.2 of the structure defined
in our sample program we have to use,
b1.pages

145
Similarly, to refer to price we would use,
b1.price
Note that before the dot there must always be a structure variable and after the dot there must always
be a structure element.

How Structure Elements are Stored

Whatever be the elements of a structure, they are always stored in contiguous memory locations. The
following program would illustrate this:
Table 4.1.4
/* Memory map of structure elements */
main( )
{
struct book
{
char name ;
float price ;
int pages ;
};
struct book b1 = { 'B', 130.00, 550 } ;
printf ( "\nAddress of name = %u", &b1.name ) ;
printf ( "\nAddress of price = %u", &b1.price ) ;

printf ( "\nAddress of pages = %u", &b1.pages ) ;

Here is the output of the program...

Address of name = 65518

Address of price = 65519

Address of pages = 65523

Actually the structure elements are stored in memory

146
17.2 Array of Structures

In our sample program, to store data of 100 books we would be required to use 100
different structure variables from b1 to b100, which is definitely not very convenient. A better approach
would be to use an array of structures. Following program shows how to use an array of structures.

main( )
{
struct book
{
char name ;
float price ;
int pages ;
};
struct book b[100] ;
int i ;
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 99 ; i++ )
{
printf ( "\nEnter name, price and pages " ) ;
scanf ( "%c %f %d", &b[i].name, &b[i].price, &b[i].pages ) ;
}
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 99 ; i++ )
printf ( "\n%c %f %d", b[i].name, b[i].price, b[i].pages ) ;
}
linkfloat( )
{
float a = 0, *b ;
b = &a ; /* cause emulator to be linked */
a = *b ; /* suppress the warning - variable not used */
}

Now a few comments about the program:

(a) Notice how the array of structures is declared...
struct book b[100] ;
This provides space in memory for 100 structures of the type struct book.
(b) The syntax we use to reference each element of the array b is similar to the syntax used for arrays of
ints and chars. For example, we refer to zeroth book’s price as b[0].price. Similarly, we refer first book’s
pages as b[1].pages.
(c) It should be appreciated what careful thought Dennis Ritchie has put into C language. He first defined
array as a collection of similar elements; then realized that dissimilar data types that are often found in

147
real life cannot be handled using arrays, therefore created a new data type called structure. But even
using structures programming convenience could not be achieved, because a lot of variables (b1 to b100
for storing data about hundred books) needed to be handled. Therefore he allowed us to create an array
of structures; an array of similar data types which themselves are a collection of dissimilar data types.
Hats off to the genius!
(d) In an array of structures all elements of the array are stored in adjacent memory locations. Since
each element of this array is a structure, and since all structure elements are always stored in adjacent
locations you can very well visualise the arrangement of array of structures in memory. In our example,
b[0]’s name, price and pages in memory would be immediately followed by b[1]’s name, price and
pages, and so on.
(e) What is the function linkfloat( ) doing here? If you don’t define it you are bound to get the error
"Floating Point Formats Not Linked" with majority of C Compilers. What causes this error to occur?
When parsing our source file, if the compiler encounters a reference to the address of a float, it sets a
flag to have the linker link in the floating-point emulator. A floating point emulator is used to manipulate
floating point numbers in runtime library functions like
reference to the float is a bit obscure and the compiler does not detect the need for the
emulator. The most common is using scanf( ) to read a float in an array of structures as shown in our
program. How can we force the formats to be linked? That’s where the linkfloat( ) function comes in. It
forces linking of the floating-point emulator into an application. There is no need to call this function,
just define it anywhere in your program.

17.3 Uses of Structures

The immediate application that comes to the mind is Database Management. That is, to maintain data
about employees in an organization, books in a library, items in a store, financial accounting transactions
in a company etc. But mind you, use of structures stretches much beyond database management. They
can be used for a variety of purposes like:

Changing the size of the cursor

Clearing the contents of the screen
Placing the cursor at an appropriate position on screen
Drawing any graphics shape on the screen
Receiving a key from the keyboard
148
Checking the memory size of the computer
Finding out the list of equipment attached to the computer
Formatting a floppy
Hiding a file from the directory
Displaying the directory of a disk
Sending the output to printer
Interacting with the mouse
18 INTRODUCTION TO UNION

INTRODUCTION

To define a union, you must use the union statement in very similar was as you did while defining
structure. The union statement defines a new data type, with more than one member for your program.
Data type is the type of the data, that are going to access within the program. ‘C’ Supports different data
types, each data type may have predefined memory requirement and storage representation.

Defining a Union

Synatx Example

union [union tag] union Data

{ {
member definition; int i;
member definition; float f;
... char str[20];
member definition; } d1;
} [one or more union variables];

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
union student
{
char name[20];
char subject[20];
float percentage;
};
int main()

149
{
union student record1;
union student record2;
strcpy(record1.name, "Raju");
strcpy(record1.subject, "Maths");
record1.percentage = 86.50;
printf("Union record1 values example\n");
printf(" Name : %s \n", record1.name);
printf(" Subject : %s \n", record1.subject);
printf(" Percentage : %f \n\n", record1.percentage);

// assigning values to record2 union variable

printf("Union record2 values example\n");
strcpy(record2.name, "Mani");
printf(" Name : %s \n", record2.name);
strcpy(record2.subject, "Physics");
printf(" Subject : %s \n", record2.subject);
record2.percentage = 99.50;
printf(" Percentage : %f \n", record2.percentage);
return 0;
}
Output:
Union record1 values example
Name :
Subject :
Percentage : 86.500000
Union record2 values example
Name : Mani
Subject : Physics
Percentage : 99.500000

18.1 WHY USE UNION

C Union is also like structure, i.e. collection of different data types which are grouped together. Each
element in a union is called member.
Union and structure in C are same in concepts, except allocating memory for their members.
Structure allocates storage space for all its members separately.
Whereas, Union allocates one common storage space for all its members

150
We can access only one member of union at a time. We can’t access all member values at the same time
in union. But, structure can access all member values at the same time. This is because, Union allocates
one common storage space for all its members. Where as Structure allocates storage space for all its
members separately.
Many union variables can be created in a program and memory will be allocated for each union variable
separately.

18.2 DIFFERENT BETWEEN STRUCTURE & UNION

S.no C Structure C Union

1 Structure allocates storage Union allocates one common storage space for all its
space for all its members members.
separately. Union finds that which of its member needs high storage space
over other members and allocates that much space
2 Structure occupies higher Union occupies lower memory space over structure.
memory space.
3 We can access all members of We can access only one member of union at a time.
structure at a time.
4 Structure example: Union example:
struct student union student
{ {
int mark; int mark;
char name[6]; char name[6];
double average; double average;
}; };
5 For above structure, memory For above union, only 8 bytes of memory will be allocated
allocation will be like below. since double data type will occupy maximum space of memory
int mark – 2B over other data types.
char name[6] – 6B Total memory allocation = 8 Bytes
double average – 8B
Total memory allocation =
2+6+8 = 16 Bytes

151
20 STRINGS

INTRODUCTION

The way a group of integers can be stored in an integer array, similarly a group of characters can
be stored in a character array. Character arrays are many a time also called strings.Character arrays or
strings are used by programming languages to manipulate text such as words and sentences.

20.1 What are Strings

A string constant is a one-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null ( ‘\0’ )

For example, char name[ ] = { 'H', 'A', 'E', 'S', 'L', 'E', 'R', '\0' } ;
Each character in the array occupies one byte of memory and the last character is always ‘\0’.
ASCII value of ‘\0’ is 0, show the way a character array is stored in memory.
Note that the elements of the character array are stored in contiguous memory locations.
The terminating null (‘\0’) is important, because it is the only way the functions that work with a string
can know where the string ends
65525 \0
65524 r
65523 e
65522 l
65521 s
65519 e
65520 h
65518 a
C concedes the fact that you would use strings very often and hence provides a shortcut for
initializing strings. For example, the string used above can also be initialized as,
char name[ ] = "HAESLER" ;

Note that, in this declaration ‘\0’ is not necessary. C inserts the null character automatically.
/* Program to demonstrate printing of a string */ /* Program to demonstrate printing of a string */
main( ) main( )
{ {
char name[ ] = "Klinsman" ; char name[ ] = "Klinsman" ;
int i = 0 ; char *ptr ;
while ( i <= 7 ) ptr = name ; /* store base address of string */
{ while ( *ptr != `\0' )
printf ( "%c", name[i] ) ; {
i++ ; printf ( "%c", *ptr ) ;
}} ptr++ ;
}}
And here is the output...
Klinsman

152
As with the integer array, by mentioning the name of the array we get the base address (address of the
zeroth element) of the array. This base address is stored in the variable ptr using,
ptr = name ;
Once the base address is obtained in ptr, *ptr would yield the value at this address, which gets printed
promptly through,
printf ( "%c", *ptr ) ;
Then, ptr is incremented to point to the next character in the string. This derives from two facts: array
elements are stored in contiguous memory locations and on incrementing a pointer it points to the
immediately next location of its type. This process is carried out till ptr doesn’t point to the last
character in the string, that is, ‘\0’.
In fact, the character array elements can be accessed exactly in the same way as the elements of an
integer array. Thus, all the following notations refer to the same element:
name[i]
*( name + i )
*( i + name )
i[name]

The %s used in printf( ) is a format specification for printing out a string.

main( )
{
char name[25] ;
printf ( "Enter your name " ) ;
scanf ( "%s", name ) ;
printf ( "Hello %s!", name ) ;
}

And here is a sample run of the program...

Enter your name Debashish
Hello Debashish!

Note that the declaration char name[25] sets aside 25 bytes under the array name[ ], whereas the
scanf( ) function fills in the characters typed at keyboard into this array until the enter key is hit.
Once enter is hit, scanf( ) places a ‘\0’ in the array. Naturally, we should pass the base address of the
array to the scanf( ) function.

While entering the string using scanf( ) we must be cautious about two things:
The length of the string should not exceed the dimension of the character array
This is because the C compiler doesn’t perform bounds checking on character arrays. Hence, if you
carelessly exceed the bounds there is always a danger of overwriting something important, and in that
event, you would have nobody to blame but yourselves.
scanf( ) is not capable of receiving multi-word strings.

Therefore names such as ‘Debashish Roy’ would be unacceptable. The way to get around this
limitation is by using the function gets( ). The usage of functions gets( ) and its counterpart puts( ) is
shown below.

153
main( )
{
char name[25] ;
printf ( "Enter your full name " ) ;
gets ( name ) ;
puts ( "Hello!" ) ;
puts ( name ) ;
}

And here is the output...

Enter your name Debashish Roy
Hello!
Debashish Roy

On displaying a string, unlike printf( ), puts( ) places the cursor on the next line. Though gets( ) is capable
of receiving only one string at a time, the plus point with gets( ) is that it can receive a multi-word
string.

20.2 Pointers and Strings

Suppose we wish to store “Hello”. We may either store it in a string or we may ask the C compiler to
store it at some location in memory and assign the address of the string in a char pointer. This is shown
below:
char str[ ] = "Hello" ;
char *p = "Hello" ;
There is a subtle difference in usage of these two forms. For example, we cannot assign a string to
another, whereas, we can assign a char pointer to another char pointer. This is shown in the following
program.

main( )
{
char str1[ ] = "Hello" ;
char str2[10] ;
char *s = "Good Morning" ;
char *q ;
str2 = str1 ; /* error */
q = s ; /* works */
}

Also, once a string has been defined it cannot be initialized to another set of characters. Unlike strings,
such an operation is perfectly valid with char pointers.

154
main( )
{
char str1[ ] = "Hello" ;
char *p = "Hello" ;
str1 = "Bye" ; /* error */
p = "Bye" ; /* works */
}

20.3 Standard Library String Functions

With every C compiler a large set of useful string handling library functions are provided.
Function Use
strlen Finds length of a string
strlwr Converts a string to lowercase
strupr Converts a string to uppercase
strcat Appends one string at the end of another
strncat Appends first n characters of a string at the end of another
strcpy Copies a string into another
strncpy Copies first n characters of one string into another
strcmp Compares two strings
strncmp Compares first n characters of two strings
Compares two strings without regard to case ("i" denotes that this function ignores
strcmpi case)
stricmp Compares two strings without regard to case (identical to strcmpi)
strnicmp Compares first n characters of two strings without regard to case
strdup Duplicates a string
strchr Finds first occurrence of a given character in a string
strrchr Finds last occurrence of a given character in a string
strstr Finds first occurrence of a given string in another string
strset Sets all characters of string to a given character
strnset Sets first n characters of a string to a given character
strrev Reverses string

155
strlen( )
This function counts the number of characters present in a string. Its usage is illustrated in the following
program.

main( ) Description
{
char arr[ ] = "Bamboozled" ; Note that in the first call to the function strlen( ),
int len1, len2 ; we are passing the base address of the string, and
len1 = strlen ( arr ) ; the function in turn returns the length of the
len2 = strlen ( "Humpty Dumpty" ) ; string. While calculating the length it doesn’t count
printf ( "\nstring = %s length = %d", arr, len1 ) ; ‘\0’.
printf ( "\nstring = %s length = %d", "Humpty
Dumpty", len2 ) ; Even in the second call,
} len2 = strlen ( "Humpty Dumpty" ) ;
what gets passed to strlen( ) is the address of the
string and not the string itself
The output would be...
string = Bamboozled length = 10
string = Humpty Dumpty length = 13

strcpy( )
This function copies the contents of one string into another. The base addresses of the source and target
strings should be supplied to this function.
main( ) Description
{ On supplying the base addresses, strcpy( ) goes on
char source[ ] = "Sayonara" ; copying the characters in source string into the
char target[20] ; target string till it doesn't encounter the end of
strcpy ( target, source ) ; source string (‘\0’). It is our responsibility to see to
printf ( "\nsource string = %s", source ) ; it that the target string’s dimension is big enough
printf ( "\ntarget string = %s", target ) ; to hold the string being copied into it. Thus, a
} string gets copied into another, piece-meal,
character by character
And here is the output...
source string = Sayonara
target string = Sayonara

156
strcat( )
This function concatenates the source string at the end of the target string. For example, “Bombay” and
“Nagpur” on concatenation would result into a string “BombayNagpur”.

main( ) Note that the target string has been made big
{ enough to hold the final string
char source[ ] = "Folks!" ;
char target[30] = "Hello" ;
strcat ( target, source ) ;
printf ( "\nsource string = %s", source ) ;
printf ( "\ntarget string = %s", target ) ;
}
And here is the output...
source string = Folks!
target string = HelloFolks!

strcmp( )
This is a function which compares two strings to find out whether they are same or different. The two
strings are compared character by character until there is a mismatch or end of one of the strings is
reached, whichever occurs first. If the two strings are identical, strcmp( ) returns a value zero. If they’re
not, it returns the numeric difference between the ASCII values of the first non-matching pairs of
characters. Here is a program which puts strcmp( ) in action.

main( ) In the first call to strcmp( ), the two strings are identical—
{ “Jerry” and “Jerry”—and the value returned by strcmp( ) is
char string1[ ] = "Jerry" ; zero. In the second call, the first character of “Jerry” doesn't
char string2[ ] = "Ferry" ; match with the first character of “Ferry” and the result is 4,
int i, j, k ; which is the numeric
i = strcmp ( string1, "Jerry" ) ; difference between ASCII value of ‘J’ and ASCII value of ‘F’. In
j = strcmp ( string1, string2 ) ; the third call to strcmp( ) “Jerry” doesn’t match with “Jerry
k = strcmp ( string1, "Jerry boy" ) ; boy”, because the null character at the end of “Jerry”
printf ( "\n%d %d %d", i, j, k ) ; doesn’t match the blank in “Jerry boy”. The value returned is
} -32, which is the value of null character minus the ASCII
value of space, i.e., ‘\0’ minus ‘ ’, which is equal to -32.
The exact value of mismatch will rarely concern us. All we
usually want to know is whether or not the first string is
alphabetically before the second string. If it is, a negative
value is returned; if it isn’t, a positive value is returned. Any
non-zero value means there is a mismatch
And here is the output...
0 4 -32

157
Summary:

 A string is nothing but an array of characters terminated by ‘\0’.

 Being an array, all the characters of a string are stored in contiguous memory locations.
 Though scanf( ) can be used to receive multi-word strings, gets( ) can do the same job in a
cleaner way. Both printf( ) and puts( ) can handle multi-word strings.
 Strings can be operated upon using several standard library functions like strlen( ), strcpy( ),
strcat( ) and strcmp( ) which can manipulate strings.
 More importantly we imitated some of these functions to learn how these standard library
functions are written.
 Though in principle a 2-D array can be used to handle several strings, in practice an array of
pointers to strings is preferred since it takes less space and is efficient in processing strings.
 malloc( ) function can be used to allocate space in memory on the fly during execution of the
program.

Questions:

A 1. State True or False

a) String is a an Array
2. "A" is a ___________ while ’A’ is a ____________.
3. A string is terminated by a ______ character, which is written as ______.
4. The array char name[10] can consist of a maximum of ______ characters.
5. The array elements are always stored in _________ memory locations.

B 1. Write a program that converts all lowercase characters in a given string to its
equivalent uppercase character
2. Write any 5 string library function
3. What is String? Explain

C 1. Write a program to sort a set of names stored in an array in alphabetical order.

2. Write a program any eight string library function in brief example.

158
 COURSE PLAN

Select a course (a theory subject): Programming for Problem Solving

Select a unit: Module V

Select a Topic: Pointers & Files

1. Objectives
To study about File handing Pointer in C language
2. Outcomes
Students will acquire knowledge on Pointers and Files in C language

3. Pre-requisites
Basic C Programming
4. Terminology used other than normal known scientific / engg terms and their
fundamental explanations / relations
Not Applicable

Plan for the lecture delivery

1. How to plan for delivery – black board / ppt / animated ppt / (decide which is good
for this topic)
Power Point Presentation
2. How to explain the definition and terms with in it
Defining the Pointer variable , Defining the files and various file operations and modes.
3. How to start the need for any derivation / procedure / experiment / case study
Not Applicable
4. Physical meaning of math equations / calculations
Not Applicable
5. Units and their physical meaning to make them understand practical reality and
comparison between different units
Not Applicable

159
6. What is the final conclusion?
Understand the concept of Pointers and Various File Operations in C Language
7. How to put it in a nut shell
Pointer , File, EOF, BOF, Read Mode, Write Mode )
8. Important points for understanding / memorizing / make it long lasting
Pointer
 Pointers are variables which hold addresses of other variables.
 Pointers can be used to make a function return more than one value simultaneously.
 The array variable acts as a pointer to the zeroth element of the array. In a 1-D array, zeroth
element is a single value, whereas, in a 2-D array this element is a 1-D array.
 On incrementing a pointer it points to the next location of its type.
 Array elements are stored in contiguous memory locations and so they can be accessed
using pointers.
 Only limited arithmetic can be done on pointers
Files
1. File I/O can be performed on a character by character basis, a line by line basis, a record by
record basis or a chunk by chunk basis.
2. Different operations that can be performed on a file are creation of a new file, opening an
existing file, reading from a file, writing to a file, moving to a specific location in a file
(seeking and closing file.
3. File I/O is done using a buffer to improve the efficiency.
4. A file can be a text file or a binary file depending upon its contents.
5. Library function convert \n to \r\n or vice versa while writing/reading to/from a file.
6. Many library functions convert a number to a numeric string before writing it to a file,
thereby using more space on disk. This can be avoided using functions fread() and fwrite().
In low level file I/O we can do the buffer management ourselves.

9. Questions and cross questions in that topic to make them think beyond the topic.

A 1. Which of these are reasons for using pointers?

a. To manipulate parts of an array
b. To refer to keywords such as for and if
c. To return more than one value from a function
d. To refer to particular programs more conveniently

B 1. What is pointer?
2. Explains the pointer notation
3. Restriction using pointer arithmetic

160
 4. write program for given elements to an Pointer array.(int i=5, j=6,k=7,z=20)

C 1. Find the smallest number in an array using pointers.

2. Explain pointer arithmetic With suitable example?

D 1. What is File
2. What are the various mode to open the file
3. Write a Program to read the content of a File.

E 1. How to handle error during I/O operations in file handling?

2. What are the type of files?

F 1. Develop a C program to read a data file and display its contents in a neat format?
2. Explain about the file read, write and append operations in C with suitable example?

10. Final conclusions

Understand the concept of Pointers and Various File Operations in C Language

161
19 Pointer

19.1 An Introduction to Pointers & Pointer Notation

 C Pointer is a variable that stores/points the address of another variable.

 C Pointer is used to allocate memory dynamically i.e. at run time.
 The variable might be any of the data type such as int, float, char, double, short etc.

Syntax : data_type *var_name;

Example : int *p; char *p;

 Where, * is used to denote that “p” is pointer variable and not a normal variable.

Pointer Notation
Consider the declaration,
int i = 3 ;
This declaration tells the C compiler to:
(a) Reserve space in memory to hold the integer value.
(b) Associate the name i with this memory location.
(c) Store the value 3 at this location.

We may represent i’s location in memory by the following memory map

Key points to remember about pointers in C:

 Normal variable stores the value whereas pointer variable stores the address of the variable.
 The content of the C pointer always be a whole number i.e. address.
 Always C pointer is initialized to null, i.e. int *p = null.
 The value of null pointer is 0.
 & symbol is used to get the address of the variable.
 * symbol is used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.
 If pointer is assigned to NULL, it means it is pointing to nothing.
 Two pointers can be subtracted to know how many elements are available between these two
pointers.
 But, Pointer addition, multiplication, division are not allowed.
 The size of any pointer is 2 byte (for 16 bit compiler).

162
 main( )
{
int i = 3 ;
printf ( "\nAddress of i = %u", &i ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", i ) ;
}

The output of the above program would be:

Address of i = 65524
Value of i = 3
Look at the first printf( ) statement carefully. ‘&’ used in this statement is C’s ‘address of’ operator. The
expression &i returns the address of the variable i, which in this case happens to be 65524. Since 65524
represents an address, there is no question of a sign being associated with it. Hence it is printed out
using %u, which is a format specifier for printing an unsigned integer. We have been using the ‘&’
operator all the time in the scanf( ) statement.
The other pointer operator available in C is ‘*’, called ‘value at address’ operator. It gives the value
stored at a particular address. The ‘value at address’ operator is also called ‘indirection’ operator.
main( )
{
int i = 3 ;
printf ( "\nAddress of i = %u", &i ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", i ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", *( &i ) ) ;
}
The output of the above program would be:
Address of i = 65524
Value of i = 3
Value of i = 3

Note that printing the value of *( &i ) is same as printing the value of i.
The expression &i gives the address of the variable i. This address can be collected in a variable, by
saying,
j = &i ;

163
main( )
{
int i = 3 ;
int *j ;
j = &i ;
printf ( "\nAddress of i = %u", &i ) ;
printf ( "\nAddress of i = %u", j ) ;
printf ( "\nAddress of j = %u", &j ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of j = %u", j ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", i ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", *( &i ) ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", *j ) ;
}
The output of the above program would be:
Address of i = 65524
Address of i = 65524
Address of j = 65522
Value of j = 65524
Value of i = 3
Value of i = 3
Value of i = 3
Work through the above program carefully, taking help of the memory locations of i and j shown earlier.
This program summarizes everything that we have discussed so far. If you don’t understand the
program’s output, or the meanings of &i, &j, *j and *( &i ), re-read the last few pages. Everything we say
about C pointers from here onwards will depend on your understanding these expressions thoroughly.

164
19.2 Pointer arithmetic.
main( )
{
int i = 3, *x ;
float j = 1.5, *y ;
char k = 'c', *z ;
printf ( "\nValue of i = %d", i ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of j = %f", j ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of k = %c", k ) ;
x = &i ;
y = &j ;
z = &k ;
printf ( "\nOriginal address in x = %u", x ) ;
printf ( "\nOriginal address in y = %u", y ) ;
printf ( "\nOriginal address in z = %u", z ) ;
x++ ;
y++ ;
z++ ;
printf ( "\nNew address in x = %u", x ) ;
printf ( "\nNew address in y = %u", y ) ;
printf ( "\nNew address in z = %u", z ) ;
}
Here is the output of the program.
Value of i = 3
Value of j = 1.500000
Value of k = c
Original address in x = 65524
Original address in y = 65520
Original address in z = 65519
New address in x = 65526
New address in y = 65524
New address in z = 65520

i j k x y z
3 1.500000 ‘c’ 65524 65520 65519
65524 65520 65519

165
Observe the last three lines of the output. 65526 is original value in x plus 2, 65524 is original value
in y plus 4, and 65520 is original value in z plus 1.
This so happens because every time a pointer is incremented it points to the immediately next
location of its type.
That is why, when the integer pointer x is incremented, it points to an address two locations after the
current location, since an int is always 2 bytes long (under Windows/Linux since int is 4 bytes long, new
value of x would be 65528).
Similarly, y points to an address 4 locations after the current location and z points 1 location after the
current location.
This is a very important result and can be effectively used while passing the entire array to a function.
The way a pointer can be incremented, it can be decremented as well, to point to earlier locations. Thus,
the following operations can be performed on a pointer:

(a) For example,

Addition of a number to a pointer. Subtraction of a number from a pointer
int i = 4, *j, *k ; int i = 4, *j, *k ;
j = &i ; j = &i ;
j=j-2;
j=j+1;
j=j-5;
j=j+9; k=j-6;
k=j+3;

pointers... they would never work out.

(a) Addition of two pointers
(b) Multiplication of a pointer with a constant
(c) Division of a pointer with a constant

19.3 Pointer to an Array

Now we will try to correlate the following two facts, which we have learnt above:
(a) Array elements are always stored in contiguous memory locations.
(b) A pointer when incremented always points to an immediately next location of its type.

166
main( ) main( )
{ {
int arr[ ] = { 10, 20, 36, 72, 45, 36 } ; int num[ ] = { 24, 34, 12, 44, 56, 17 } ;
int i ;
int *j, *k ;
for ( i = 0 ; i <= 5 ; i++ )
j = &arr [ 4 ] ;
{
k = ( arr + 4 ) ;
printf ( "\nelement no. %d ", i ) ;
if ( j == k )
printf ( "address = %u", &num[i] ) ;
printf ( "The two pointers point to the same
}
location" ) ;
}
else
printf ( "The two pointers do not point to
the same location" ) ;
}
The output of this program would look like this:
element no. 0 address = 65512
element no. 1 address = 65514
element no. 2 address = 65516
element no. 3 address = 65518
element no. 4 address = 65520
element no. 5 address = 65522

167
19.4 Array of Pointer
The way there can be an array of ints or an array of floats, similarly there can be an array of pointers.
Since a pointer variable always contains an address, an array of pointers would be nothing but a
collection of addresses. The addresses present in the array of pointers can be addresses of isolated
variables or addresses of array elements or any other addresses.
main( )
{
int *arr[4] ; /* array of integer pointers */
int i = 31, j = 5, k = 19, l = 71, m ;
arr[0] = &i ;
arr[1] = &j ;
arr[2] = &k ;
arr[3] = &l ;
for ( m = 0 ; m <= 3 ; m++ )

printf ( "%d ", * ( arr[m] ) ) ;

168
23 FILES

23.1 What is a File?

Abstractly, a file is a collection of bytes stored on a secondary storage device, which is generally a disk of
some kind. The collection of bytes may be interpreted, for example, as characters, words, lines,
paragraphs and pages from a textual document; fields and records belonging to a database; or pixels
from a graphical image. The meaning attached to a particular file is determined entirely by the data
structures and operations used by a program to process the file. It is conceivable (and it sometimes
happens) that a graphics file will be read and displayed by a program designed to process textual data.
The result is that no meaningful output occurs (probably) and this is to be expected. A file is simply a
machine decipherable storage media where programs and data are stored for machine usage.

Essentially there are two kinds of files that programmers deal with text files and binary files. These two
classes of files will be discussed in the following sections.

ASCII Text files

A text file can be a stream of characters that a computer can process sequentially. It is not only
processed sequentially but only in forward direction. For this reason a text file is usually opened for only
one kind of operation (reading, writing, or appending) at any given time.

Similarly, since text files only process characters, they can only read or write data one character at a
time. (In C Programming Language, Functions are provided that deal with lines of text, but these still
essentially process data one character at a time.) A text stream in C is a special kind of file. Depending
on the requirements of the operating system, newline characters may be converted to or from carriage-
return/linefeed combinations depending on whether data is being written to, or read from, the file.
Other character conversions may also occur to satisfy the storage requirements of the operating system.
These translations occur transparently and they occur because the programmer has signalled the
intention to process a text file.

169
Binary files
A binary file is no different to a text file. It is a collection of bytes. In C Programming Language a byte and
a character are equivalent. Hence a binary file is also referred to as a character stream, but there are
two essential differences.

1. No special processing of the data occurs and each byte of data is transferred to or from the disk
unprocessed.
2. C Programming Language places no constructs on the file, and it may be read from, or written
to, in any manner chosen by the programmer.

Binary files can be either processed sequentially or, depending on the needs of the application, they can
be processed using random access techniques. In C Programming Language, processing a file using
random access techniques involves moving the current file position to an appropriate place in the file
before reading or writing data. This indicates a second characteristic of binary files.
They a generally processed using read and write operations simultaneously.

For example, a database file will be created and processed as a binary file. A record update operation
will involve locating the appropriate record, reading the record into memory, modifying it in some way,
and finally writing the record back to disk at its appropriate location in the file. These kinds of operations
are common to many binary files, but are rarely found in applications that process text files.

Why files are needed?

When the program is terminated, the entire data is lost in C programming. If you want to keep large
volume of data, it is time consuming to enter the entire data. But, if file is created, these information
can be accessed using few commands. There are large numbers of functions to handle file I/O in C
language.

170
23.2 File operations

There are different operations that can be carried out on a file. These are:

a) Creation of new file

b) Opening an existing file
c) Reading from a file
d) Writing to a file
e) Moving to a specific location in a file (seeking)
f) Close a file.

23.3 File opening modes

When you open a file, you must specify how it is to be opened. This means whether to create it from
new, overwrite it and whether it's text or binary, read or write and if you want to append to it. This is
done using one or more file mode specifiers which are single letters "r", "b", "w", "a" and + (in
combination with the other letters). "r" - Opens the file for reading. This fails if the file does not exist or
cannot be found. "w" - Opens the file as an empty file for writing. If the file exists, its contents are
destroyed. "a" - Opens the file for writing at the end of the file (appending) without removing the EOF
marker before writing new data to the file; this creates the file first if it doesn't exist. Adding + to the file
mode creates three new modes:

"r+" Opens the file for both reading and writing. (The file must exist.) "w+" Opens the file as an empty
file for both reading and writing. If the file exists, its contents are destroyed.
"a+" Opens the file for reading and appending; the appending operation includes the removal of the EOF
marker before new data is written to the file and the EOF marker is restored after writing is complete;
creates the file first if it doesn't exist.

171
 Opening Modes in Standard I/O
File Mode Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file
r Open for reading. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.
If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If
w Open for writing.
the file does not exist, it will be created.
Open for append. i.e, Data is
a If the file does not exists, it will be created.
added to end of file.
Open for both reading and
r+ If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.
writing.
Open for both reading and If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If
w+
writing. the file does not exist, it will be created.
Open for both reading and
a+ If the file does not exists, it will be created.
appending.

File operations

Opening a File

Before we can read(or write) information from (to) a file on a disk we must open the file. To
open the file we have called the function fopen(). It would open a file a file “PRC1.C” in ‘read
mode, which tells the C compiler that we would be reading the contents of the file. Not that “r”
is a string not a character; hence the double quotes and not single quotes. In fact fopen()
performs three important tasks when you open the file in “r’ mode:

a) Firstly it searches on the disk the file to be opened.

b) Then it loads the file from the disk into a place in memory called buffer.
c) It sets up a character pointer that points to the first character of the buffer.

Why do we need a buffer at all? Imagine how inefficient it would be to actually access the disk
every time we want to read a character from it. Every time we read some think from disk, it
takes some time for the disk drive to position the read/write head correctly. On a floppy disk
system, the drive motor has to actually start rotating the disk from a standstill position every
time the disk is accessed. If this were to be done for every character we read from the disk, it
would take a long time to complete the reading operation. This is where a buffer comes in. it
would be more sensible to read the contents of the file into the buffer while opening. This is
where a buffer comes in. it would be more sensible to read the contents of the file into the

172
 buffer while opening the file and then read the file character by character from the buffer rather
than from the disk. This is shown in the below figure.

PR1.C

Memory DISK

40

fp

40

some argument also applies to writing information in a file. Instead of writing characters in the file on
the disk one character at time it would be more efficient to write charters in a buffer and then finally
transfer the content from the buffer to the disk.

To be able to successfully read from a file information like mode of opening, size of file, place in the file
from where the next read operation would be performed, etc. has to be maintained. Since all this
information is inter-related, all of it is gathered together by fopen() in a structure called FILE. fopen()
return the address of this structure, which we have collected in the stracture pointer called fp. We have
declared fp as

FILE * fp;

The FILE structure has been defined in the header file “stdio.h” (standing for standard input/ouput
header file). therefore, it is necessary to #include this file.

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23.4 Reading file content.

C program to read a file: This program reads a file entered by the user and displays its contents
on the screen, fopen function is used to open a file it returns a pointer to structure FILE. FILE is a
predefined structure in stdio.h . If the file is successfully opened then fopen returns a pointer to file and
if it is unable to open a file then it returns NULL. fgetc function returns a character which is read from
the file and fclose function closes the file. Opening a file means we bring file from disk to ram to perform
operations on it. The file must be present in the directory in which the executable file of this code sis
present.

/ * C programming code to open a file and to print it contents on screen. * /

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
char ch, file_name[25];
FILE *fp;
printf("Enter the name of file you wish to see\n");
gets(file_name);
fp = fopen(file_name,"r"); /* read mode */
if( fp == NULL )
{
printf("Error while opening the file.\n");
exit(0);
}
printf("The contents of %s file are :\n", file_name);
while( ( ch = fgetc(fp) ) != EOF )
printf("%c",ch);
fclose(fp);
return 0;
}

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23.5 Error handling While opening a File

There is a possibility that when we try to open a file using the function fopen(), the file may not
be opened. While opening the file in “r” mode, this may happen because the file being opened may not
be present on the disk at all. And you obviously cannot read a file that doesn’t exist. Similarly, while
opening the file for writing, fopen() may fail due to a number of reasons, like, disk space may be
insufficient to create a new file, of the disk may be write protected or the disk is damaged and so on.

/* C program to handle Error while opening a file */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
FILE *fp;
Fp = fopen (“PRGRAM1.C”, “r”);
if (fp == NULL)
{
puts(“cannot open file”);
Exit(1);
}
return 0;
}

23.6 Closing the file

To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The prototype of this function is:

int fclose( FILE *fp );

The fclose( ) function returns zero on success, or EOF if there is an error in closing the file. This function
actually, flushes any data still pending in the buffer to the file, closes the file, and releases any memory
used for the file. The EOF is a constant defined in the header file stdio.h.

There are various functions provide by C standard library to read and write a file character by character
or in the form of a fixed length string.

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23.7 Writing to a File

To write a file, use the the fputs() function.

The fputc() function is similar to the putch() function, in the senses that both output characters.
However, putch() function always writes to the VDU, whereas, fputc() write to the file. Which file? The
file signified by ft. The writing process continues till all characters from the source file have been written
to the target file, following which the while loop terminates.

/* C programming code to writes strings to a file using the function fputs() */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
FILE *fp;
char s[80],.
fp=fopen(“Cprogram.txt”, “w”);
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("Cannot open file\n");
exit(1);
}
printf("\nenter a few lines of text:”);

while(strlen(gets(s)>0)
{
fputs(s, fp);
fputs(“\n”, fp);
}
fclose(fp);
return 0;
}

23.8 A File-Copy Program

We have already used the function fgetc() which reads characters from a file. Its counterpart is a
function called fputc() which writes characters to a file. As a practical use of these character I/O
functions, we can copy the contents of one file into another, as demonstrated in the following program.
This program takes the contents of a file and copies them into another file, character by character.

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 /* File Copy Program */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>

int main()
{
FILE *fs, *ft;
char ch;
fs = fopen(“prg1.c”,”r”)
if( fs == NULL)
{
puts(“Cannot open Source file”);
exit(1)
}
ft = fopen(“prg2.c”,”w”);
if ( ft ==NULL)
{
puts(“Cannot open target file”);
fclose(fs);
exit(2);
}
while(1)
{
ch = fgetc(fs);
if(ch==EOF)
break;
else
fputc(ch,ft);
}
fclose(fs);
fclose(ft)
return 0;}
Writing to a File

The fputc() function is similar to the putch() function, in the senses that both output characters.
However, putch() function always writes to the VDU (Visual Display Unit). Whereas, fputc() writes a to
the file. Which file? The file signified by ft. The writing process continues till all characters from the
source file have been written to the target file, following which the while loop terminates. In the above
file copy program is capable of copying only text files. To copy file with extension .EXE or JPG, we need
to open the file in binary mode.

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