ELECTRICAL CURRENT(CURRENT ELECTRICITY):

Introduction:

Conductor (wires) have free and mobile electrons.

Connecting two oppositely charged plates by wire forms a complete (closed) path
called a circuit.

As a result, charges (electrons) flow continuously between the two conductors,

creating an electric current. Current in metals is therefore due to the flow of
electrons.

This flow of charge is called an electric current or just electricity. The greater the
flow of charge, the greater the electric current.

Definition of electric current:

It.is the rate of flow of charge through a conductor OR is the charge passing a point in a
circuit component every second.

Relating charge, current and time:

1
where I = current (measured in amperes, A)
Q = charge (measured in coulombs, C)
t = time (measured in seconds, s)

Why the bulb lights when current

passes through it:

 As current flows through the

circuit, the filament gets hot and
the bulb or lamp produces light.

1 1
1A = 1 C/s, 1mA = A and 1 μA= A
1000 1000 000

Example:

When will 8 mA of current pass through an electrical circuit?

A.     When 1 J of energy is used by 1 C of charge

B.     When a charge of 4 C passes in 500 s
C.     When a charge of 8 C passes in 100 s
D.     When a charge of 1 C passes in 8 s

Solution:

Example:

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The diagram below shows a cell connected to a lamp. A charge of 4.0 C flows through the
lamp in 2.0s. Calculate the current in the lamp.

Solution:

What a circuit is! (Y11S stat here)

An electric circuit is a set of conductors (components) connected to an energy source in

such a way that current can flow in a complete loop (s). Below is an example of a circuit.

o Conductors or components include connecting wires, resistors, lights, etc.

o Sources of energy include a cell, a battery, a generator etc.

Measuring current using both analogue and digital ammeters :

3
Current is measured using a device called an ammeter, which can be analogue or
digital.

An analogue ammetergives a reading with the help of a pointer moving over its scale
while a digitalammeter has a numerical reading displayed on its screen.

An ammeter is connected in series (in line) with the component (part of the circuit)
through which current is to be measured.

 This ammeter measures

current through the bulb; and
also through the battery.
 The ends of a dry cell are
called terminals. The terminal
with a small cap is the positive
terminal. The opposite
terminal (case) is the negative
terminal.

The circuit must be temporarily brokento insert the ammeter. This is shown below.

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Practical activity:

Students will connect the battery, bulb and ammeter in series. They will measure and
record the current through the bulb or battery.

How to take a reading from analogue scale:

 Find the reading corresponding to the smallest division.

 Required reading = number of divisions between 0 and pointer positions × smallest

reading

Example:

5
  10 divisions = 1A
1 division = 1/10 = 0.1A

 Reading = 31.5 × 0.1

= 3.15A

Ammeters with more than one scale:

The correct scale is the one whose maximum reading matches the current labelled on the
positive terminalconnected in the circuit.

 This ammeter has three

scales with maximum
currents 50 mA, 500 mA
and 5 A.
 There are four terminals;
the black one is the
negative terminal and the
red ones are all positive
terminals.
 When black and 50 red
terminals are connected,
the middle scale is used.
 When black and 500 red
terminals are connected,
the top scale is used.
 When black and 5 red
terminals are connected,
the lower scale is used.

Example:

(a) Determine whether the given ammeter is digital or analogue.

6
(b) State the size of the current flowing through the component connected in series
with the given ammeter.

1.

2.

Solution:

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Parallax and zero errors: (Y11S star here)

o Parallax error is the error in a reading caused by not taking the measurement at the
eye level.

o Zero error is the false reading provided by the device when not in use or when the
true value of a measured quantity is zero.

The effect of a cell or battery in the circuit:

 A cell is like a water pump. Cells connected in series so that the (+) terminal one is
joined to the (–) terminal of the next will form a battery. A battery “pumps” more
current than a single cell. A bulb will be brighter when using a battery than when using
a single cell; but may blow out.

 When a single cell is used to light two or three bulbs in series, the bulbs will be dim or
less bright than a single bulb connected to the same cell. This is due to increased
resistance in the circuit.

 To light two bulbs with normal brightness, a battery of two cells is needed. For three
bulbs, a battery of three cells is needed; and so on.

 When two cells are connected (+) terminal to (+) terminal and (–) terminal to (–)
terminal, they cancel out (like in destructive interference) and no current flows.

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Electrical conduction in metals in terms of the movement of
free electrons:

Conductors (metals) have delocalised (free) electrons which carry negative charge.
When a conductor is connected to a battery, electrons flow from negative to positive
terminal.

In metals, current is caused by the flow of free (delocalised) electrons.

Electrons and Convectional Current flow:

Conventional current flows (goes) from positive to negativeterminal. Electrons flow in

the opposite direction.

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Direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.) :

Direct current is the current that flows in only one direction. It is produced by dry
cells, solar cells, batteries and d.c. generators.
    
o Electrons flow in only one direction from the negative to the positive terminal of
the source

Alternating current is the current that continuously reverses direction many times in
one second. It is produced by a.c. generators and used as mains electricity in sockets.

o The direction of electron flow changes regularly at a typical frequency of 50 Hz.

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Challenge 4:

1. It takes 5 seconds for 600C of charge to flow past a given point in the circuit.
Find the current flowing through the circuit.

2. A current 0.25A is required to transfer 1.25 × 10 4 C of charge from one point to

another in a circuit. Find the time taken.

3. A current of 4mA flows through a circuit for 6 minutes. Find the charge that flows
through the circuit.
4. The diagram below shows an electric circuit containing three meters, all connected
correctly. In the boxes provided, identify the ammeter(s).

5. The diagram below shows a cell connected to a lamp. What is the direction of the
electron flow in the circuit? What is the convectional flow of current in the
circuit?

6. Which of the graphs shown below represents the change in voltage over time for a
simple AC generator?

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Electromotive force(emf):

Basic information about emf:

o A source of electrical energy (cell or battery) must supply energy to drive current
(charge) round a circuit. This current must also pass through the source itself
otherwise the circuit will be incomplete.

o The total energy converted from chemical form to drive one coulomb of charge
through the cell is generally called electromotive force (e.m.f).

Defining emf:

It is the amount of work done by a source in moving a unit charge round a complete
circuit.

OR

It is the amount of energy supplied by a power source to drive 1 coulomb of charge

round a complete circuit.

Note:

12
(a) We think of the EMF as being the energy per coulomb.

(a) Electromotive force is denoted as EMF. Emf of a power supply is measured in volts,
V.

(b) Emf is not a forcebut rather work done or energy supplied per coulomb.

(c) When a current is being supplied in the circuit, the emf gets lowerbecause of the
energy wastage inside the cell (power supply).

(d) Emf can be regarded as the maximum voltageproduced by a cell (battery or power
supply) when not connected in a circuit and not supplying current.

Example:

 EMF = 9V

Relating emf, energy and charge:

Potential difference(p.d):

13
o As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to the charge by the source,
and also from the charge to different circuit components.

o The potential difference (p.d) or voltage between two points in a circuit is related to
the amount of energy transferred between those points in the circuit.

o Potential different is measured in volts (V). 1V = 1 joule per coulomb (1

J/C).

Defining voltage or potential difference (p.d):

It is the work done by a unit charge passing through a component

OR

It is the amount of energy transferred by a unit charge passing between the two
points in a circuit.
Example:

 The potential difference

is the voltage across
each component
 5 V is the p.d across the
bulb
 7 V is the p.d across the
resistor
 12V is the emf of the
source
 1V = 1 J/C

Example:

If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, what does this mean?

Solution:

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It means that every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose 3 J of energy
to the bulb, given out in form of heat and light.

Relating potential difference (p.d), energy and charge:

Example:

From the list below, select the appropriate unit of each of the following.

ampere joule volt watt

(i) Potential difference ___________________________________________

(ii) Electromotive force ___________________________________________

Analogy of a water pump and a cell (battery) or water and

current flow: (Y11 S start here)

When two water tanks with different water levels are connected using a pipe, water
naturally flows from a high water level tank to a lower water level tank. This is
because the water ______ at the higher water level is greater than that at the lower
water level.

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Pressure difference causes the water flow in the above setup of water tanks.

If the water level in both tanks was the same, there would be no resultant water flow
because there would no _____________________ since the water pressure in each
tank is the same.

To cause the water flow in this case, a water pump is used to push water from one
tank to another. A water pump creates a pressure difference between the tanks thus
leading water flow from a high pressure level to a lower pressure level.

The arrangement of water tanks without water flow is like a circuit withouta cell
(battery). The entire circuit will be at the same electric pressureso electrons
(current) cannot flow. Thus a cell (battery) is needed in the circuit to create electric
potential difference so that current or charge can flow. This electric potential
difference is what is generally called voltage.

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 The cell (battery) itself has a potential difference since the negative terminal is at a
lower voltage the positive terminal.
o Pressure difference leads to water
flow.
o Potential difference leads to current
flow.
o A cell in an electric circuit acts as a
water pump in a water circuit.

Measuring voltage using both analogue and digital voltmeters :

A voltmeter is used to measure the electric potential difference (voltage) between

two points in an electric circuit.

An analogue voltmeter gives a reading with the help of a pointer moving across a scale
while a digitalvoltmeter has a numerical reading displayed on the screen.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with (across) the part of the circuit across which
voltage is to be measured.

17
 o This voltmeter measures
the pd across the bulb; and
also across the battery.
1
1 mV = V
o 1 kV = 1000 V , 1000 ,
1
1 μV = V
1000000
o There is nothing to
measure between A and B,
so voltage across AB is
practically 0

o The p.d between A and B (any other two points on the connecting wire) is not
measurable (practically nothing) because the copper connecting wire is a very good
conductor and very little pressure difference is needed to drive current through it. In
other words, it is due to no (very low) resistance between A and B.

o The p.d across the bulb is equal to the p.d a cross the battery terminals; and this is
called the terminal p.d.

o The diagram below shows how a digital voltmetermeasures the voltage across the
resistor, which is also the voltage across the terminals of the cell.

Practical activity:

18
Students will connect the battery, bulb and voltmeter in parallel. They will measure and
record the voltage across the bulb or battery. Always build the whole circuit first and
check that it works, and then connect the voltmeter last.

How to take a reading from analogue scale:

 Find the reading corresponding to the smallest division.

 Required reading = number of divisions between 0 and pointer positions ×
smallest reading
 Always check for the zero error before using the voltmeter or ammeter.

 10 divisions = 1V
1 division = 1/10 = 0.1V

 Reading = 35.5 × 0.1

= 3.55V

Voltmeters with more than one scale:

The correct scale is the one whose maximum reading matches the voltage labelled on the
positive terminal connected in the circuit.

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  This voltmeter has three
scales with maximum
currents 50 mV, 500 mV
and 5 V.
 There are four terminals;
the black one is the
negative terminal and the
red ones are all positive
terminals.
 When black and 50 red
terminals are connected,
the middle scale is used.
 When black and 500 red
terminals are connected,
the top scale is used.
 When black and 5 red
terminals are connected,
the lower scale is used.

Example:

(a) Determine whether the given voltmeter is digital or analogue.

(b) State the size of the voltage across the component connected in parallel with the
given voltmeter.

1.

2.

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Solution:

Electrical resistance: (Y11N start here)

This is the ratioof the potential difference across a conductor to the current flowing
through a conductor.

o Electrical resistancecan be regarded as the opposition to the flow of current in a

conductor (circuit).
o For a given potential difference, the higher the resistance, the lower the
current.
o Resistors are used in circuits to control the current or p.d across components. 

Relating potential difference (V), current (I) and resistance (R) :

The above equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula triangle

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  The unit of resistance is
the ohm (Ω). 1Ω = 1VA–1

 Other units include

milliohm (mΩ), kilohm (k
Ω), megohm (MΩ) etc.

 1 kΩ = 1000 Ω

 1 mΩ = 1/1000 Ω

 1MΩ = 1 × 106 Ω

An experiment to determine resistance of unknown resistor

(conductor) using a voltmeter and an ammeter:

22
Procedure:

The pd across the given component (unknown resistor) is set to different values by
varying the resistance of a variable resistor.
For each voltage reading, V, across the component, the corresponding current through
the component, I, is noted on the ammeter.
A set of at least 5 different data points is tabulated in a suitable table and a graph of
I against V is plotted.
The gradient of the graph is obtained. Resistance of component = 1/ gradient

A sketch graph from the above experiment:

- For a constant resistance

(like that of a wire)Current
and voltage are directly
proportional.

-Gradient is constant so is
resistance of the component
(wire).

Resistance of a wire: (Y11S start here)

 As electrons pass through a wire, they collide with the metal ions in the wire.

23
 The ions get in the way of the electrons, resisting their flow.

 If the wire is longer, each electron will collide with more ions and so there will be
more resistance. Hence the longer a wire is, the greater its resistance.

 If the wire is thicker (greater diameter), there is more space for the electrons and
so more electrons can flow. Hence the thicker a wire is, the smaller its resistance.

Key factors affecting the resistance of a wire:

o Length of a wire: The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length. This means
that if the length of a wire is doubled, its resistance will also double.

R ∝l

o Cross-sectional area of a wire: The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to

its cross-sectional area. This means that if the cross-sectional area of a wire is
doubled, its resistance will halve.

1
R∝
A

o Nature of the material: Better conductors have low resistance. Poor conductors have
high resistance.

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o Temperature: For metal conductors, higher temperature means more resistance and
for semi-metal conductors higher temperature means less resistance.

Note:
The first three above factors can be related by

Relating Resistance, cross–sectional area and diameter of a wire:

 Cross-sectional area, A = πr2 = π(d2/4), since d = 2r

 Resistance is inversely proportional to A so resistance is inversely proportional to d 2

(diameter2)

Ohm’s Law:

The current through a wire is directly proportional to the voltage across its ends
provided temperature remains constant.

Consequences of Ohm’s law:

o The current in an electrical conductor decreases as its resistance increases (for a

constant p.d.)

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o The p.d. across an electrical conductor increases as its resistance increases (for a
constant current)

Challenge 5:

1. Which of the following is the appropriate unit of electromotive force?

A. Ampere B. Joule C. Volt D. Watt

2. Which of the following is the appropriate unit of measure of potential difference?

A. Ampere B. Ohm C. Volt D. Watt

3. The normal operating voltage (potential difference) for a lamp is 6 V.

Calculate how much energy is transferred in the lamp when 4200 C of charge flows
through it.

4. Calculate the potential difference through a resistor of resistance 10 Ω if there is

a current of 0.3 A through it.

5. The diagram below shows an electric circuit with an ammeter and a 20 Ω resistor
connected in series with a battery. The reading on the ammeter is 1.2 A. you ignore
the internal resistance of the ammeter and the battery. Calculate the
electromotive force of the battery. Your answer should an appropriate unit.

6. The diagram below shows an electric circuit. Which of the parameters listed below
should be increased in order to increase the current in the circuit? Explain your
answer.

26
7. A circuit contains a length of wire. The diameter and length of the wire can be
changed in order to increase the resistance of the wire. What changes should be
made to the diameter and length of the wire? Complete the table below.

Ohmic and non–Ohmic conductors:

Ohmic conductors are those that obey Ohm’s. They include all metals such as copper,
silver etc.

Non–Ohmic conductors are those which do not obey Ohm’s law. They include bulb
(filament lamp), thermistor, semiconductor diode, electrolytes etc.

I–V characteristics (graphs) of Ohmic conductors and non–

Ohmic conductors: (Y11N start here)

These are graphs of current against voltage. The I–V graphs of a wire (resistor), filament
lamp and diode are sketched below.

(a) The resistor(wire):

 The current isdirectly

proportional to the
potential difference i.e.
the graph is a straight
line through the origin.
 This is because the
wire has a constant
resistance.

27
(b) The filament lamp(bulb): • Current and pd are not directly
proportional because resistance
increases as the temperature of the
filament increases.
 The current increases at a
proportionally slower rate than
the potential difference i.e.
gradient is decreasing and
resistance is increasing.
 This is explained as follows:
-Increase in current causes the
filament in the lamp to heat up

-As the filament gets hot, its

atoms vibrate more, causing its
resistance to increase.

-This opposes the current,

causing it to increase at a slower
rate.

o Where the graph is a straight line, the resistance is constant.

o The resistance increases as the graph curves.
o Reversing the potential difference reverses the current and makes no difference to
the shape of the curve.
(c) The diode

o Diodesare circuit components thatallow

current to flow in only one direction.

o On the RHS of the graph, the diode is in

forward bias, leading to a sharp increase
in p.d and current.

o On the LHS of the graph, the diode is in

reverse bias, sono p.d or current is
produced.

28
o If the anode is connected to the positive terminalof the battery (cell), the diode will
have very low resistance, and current will flow from the anode to the cathode. This is
called forward bias. (Y11S start here)

o If the diode is reversed, so that the cathode is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery (cell), the diode will have very high resistance, and no current flows. This
is called reverse bias.

Challenge 6:

1. The diagram below shows a cell connected to a filament lamp. Increasing the values
of potential difference V are added to the circuit. After each increase, the
current I is measured and the results are plotted. Indicate which graph represents
these results?

A B

C
D

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2. An electric current in a copper wire is due to the flow of charge. Which particles
are moving along the wire?

A. alpha particles B. copper nuclei

C. electrons D. protons

3. Which of the following rows is correct?

4. Which graph shows the current–voltage characteristic for a filament lamp?

5. The graph shows the current–voltage characteristic for a conductor.

30
 Where on the graph can Ohm’s law be applied to the conductor?

A. at Q only B. between P and Q

C. between P and R D. between Q and R

6. A lamp is connected to a cell. Which circuit diagram shows the direction of

conventional current Iand also the direction of flow of electrons e?

7. In which circuit is the ammeter measuring the flow of charge through the lamp?

31
Electrical energy:

As current passes through a circuit, energy is transferred from the power source to
the various circuit components (which may then transfer energy to the surroundings).

 Charge passing through the power supply is given energy by the battery.

 When this charge passes through a circuit component, it loses (transfers) some of
this energy to the component.

 When charge flows around a circuit for a given time, the energy supplied by the
battery is equal to the energy transferred to all the components in the circuit

 The energy given to a

component by a moving
charge is called electrical
energy.
 Electrical energy depends on
three factors:

o The current flowing

through the component
o The potential difference
across the component
o The amount of time the
component (device) is
working.

In real life, everyday appliances transfer electrical energy from the mains to other
forms of energy in the appliance. For example

 As charge flows through a heater (resistor), electrical energy is transferred into

a thermal energy store. This makes the resistor hot. Heating devices are used in

o Kettles to boil hot water

o Radiators to heat up a room using hot water pumped from the boiler

o Toasters to toast bread

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 A motor transfers electrical energy from the AC mains to kinetic energy. Thus
motors are used in

o Vacuum cleaners to create the suction to suck in dust and dirt off carpets

o Refrigerators to compress the refrigerant chemical into a liquid to reduce

the temperature

o Washing machines to rotate the drum to wash (or dry) clothes

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Calculating electrical energy:

E=VIt=pt

Where:

o E = energy (joules, J)

o V = voltage (volts, V)

o I = current (amps, A)

o t = time (seconds, s)

o P = power of the appliance (watts, W)

kilo (k) means 1000, so 1 kW = 1000 W

Example:

A 1 kW iron uses the same amount of energy in 1 hour as a 2 kW iron would use in 30

minutes. This energy is calculated as follows:

E = Pt OR E = Pt
= 1000 × (60 × 60) = 2000 × (30 × 60)
= 3 600 000 J = 3 600 000 J
Example:

A 100 W heater uses the same amount of energy in 30 hours as a 3000 W heater does in

1 hour
. This energy is calculate as follows:

E = Pt OR E = Pt
= 100 × (30 × 60 × 60) = 3000 × (60 × 60)
= 10 800 000 J = 10 800 000 J

Electrical power:

Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy transferred per second)
or rate of change of work done.

34
The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the following equation:

elecrical energy
Power, P =
time
VIt
=
t
= VI

In terms energy or work done, the power dissipated by an electrical component is

given by

In terms voltage and current, the power of an electrical component (or appliance) is
given by the following equation

Combining the equations P = IV together with Ohm’s law V = IR, power can be written
in terms of resistance, R:

35
  The unit of power is the
watt (W), which is the
same as a joule per second
(J/s).
 1W = 1 J/s

 1W = 1Js–1,

1kW = 1000 W,

1MW = 1000,000W

Connection between energy and voltage:

The voltage of a cell tells us how much energy is being given to each Coulomb of charge.

Examples:

1. A voltage of 1V means that energy given to 1C of charge is 1J.

2. A voltage of 2V means that energy given to 1C of charge is 2J.
3. A voltage of 3V means that energy given to 1C of charge is 3J.

4. The voltage of a cell is 1.5V. Find the energy received by

(a) 2C (b) 3C (c) 5C (d) 60C

Solution:

(a) E = V×Q
1 C receives 1 .5 J
= 1.5 × 2
∴2 C receive 2×1.5 J = 3J
= 3J

(b) E = V×Q
1C receives 1 .5 J
= 1.5 × 3 ∴3 C receive 3×1.5 J = 4.5 J
= 4.5J
Complete the remaining questions.

36
5. Two lamps are connected in series to a 150 V power supply.

Which statement most accurately describes what happens?

A. Both lamps light normally

B.      The 15 V lamp blows
C.      Only the 41 W lamp lights
D.    Both lamps light at less than their normal brightness

Solution:

The right option is A

37
Use of the electrical power equations:

o Always summarise the information given in the statement of the question.

o Use the equation relating what is given and what is required.

o When power of the appliance is not given, use current and voltage provided.

Measuring Energy Usage and the kilowatt Hour (kWh) :

The cost of energy usage in homes and businesses is calculated and compared using
the unit called kilowatt hour (kWh). This is the unit of electricity used by electrical
companies.

The kilowatt hour is the unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power
expended for one hour

Appliances are given power ratings, which tell consumers:

The amount of energy transferred (by electrical work) to the device every second

Example:

The power rating of the kettle below lies between 2500 and 3000 W of electrical energy

38
Calculating the cost of usage of electricity : (Y11S start here)

Determine the total power expended by an appliance, in kW

Determine the total time for which the appliance is left on, in hours (h)

Determine the number of units used using the following expression

Number of units = total power (kW) × total time (h)

Determine total cost using the following expression

Total cost = number of units × unit cost

Example:

Find the number of joules in 1 kWh.

39
Solution:

1 kWh = 1 kW × 1h
= 1000 W × 3600 s
= 36 00 000 J

Example:

A cooker transfers 1.2 × 109 J of electrical energy to heat. How much will this cost (in
dollars) if 1 kWh costs 14.2p?

Solution:

Step 1: Convert joules to kWh

1.2 ×109
1.2 × 109 J =
3600000
= 333.3333 kWh

14.2
Step 2: Total cost = 333.3333 ×
100
= $ 47.33

Example:

The power of an electrical heater is 3.0 kW. The heater is switched on for a time of 2
hours and 30 minutes. The cost of using the heater for this time is 120 c. What is the
cost of 1.0 kW h of electrical energy? A

A 16 c B 17 c C 40 c D 48 c

Solution:

Challenge 7:

1. An electric iron has a power of 2400 W. The potential difference (p.d.) of the
mains supply is 220 V.

40
(a) Calculate the electric current in the iron.
(b) Calculate the electric charge which flows through the iron in 15 minutes.

2. The diagram below shows a circuit. The reading on the ammeter is 2.4 A, and the
reading on the voltmeter is 14 V. calculate how much energy is transferred by the
resistor in 15s.

3. Which of the following is the appropriate unit of measure of electrical power?

A. Ampere B. Joule C. Volt D. Watt

4. Calculate the energy transferred in 1 minute when a current of 0.7 A passes

through a potential difference of 4 V.

5. Calculate the energy transferred if an iron of power 2000 W is used for 5 minutes.

6. Calculate the potential difference through a 48 W electric motor with a current of

4 A.

7. Calculate the power through a 20 Ω resistor with a current of 6 A through it.

Circuit diagrams and circuit components :

Standard circuit symbols:

41
42
Power supplies such as cells, batteries, power supplies and generators all supply
current to the circuit (Y11N start here)

Potential dividers, fixed and variable resistors, thermistors and light-dependent

resistors (LDRs) are all used to control current in a circuit.

Ammeters and voltmeters are respectively used to measure the current and potential
difference

Electromagnetic Components such as magnetising coils, relays and transformers use

electromagnetic effects as follows
o Relays use a small current in one circuit to switch on a much larger current in
another

o Transformers “step up” and “step down” current and potential difference

Fuses protect expensive components from current surges and act as a safety measure
against fires

43
Drawing and interpreting simple circuit diagrams containing
different circuit components:

1. A circuit containing a diode:

Diodes are used in electric circuits to protect electrical equipment. In electrical

equipment such as radios or computers, damage can be caused if the battery is
connected the wrong way round. A diode in the circuit only allows the current to pass
through when the battery is connected correctly. If the battery is connected the
wrong way round no current passes through the diode and the electrical circuit for
the equipment is protected from damage.

It can be used as a rectifier to turn AC current into DC current; in a process called

rectification. Alternating current reverses direction after every half–cycle. The diode
lets the forward part of the AC through, but blocks the backward part.

This type of rectification using only one diode is called half-wave rectification

2. A circuit containing a relay switch:

o A relay consists of two parts:

 a coil (an electromagnet)
 a magnetic switch

44
o When a (small) current flows through the coil in the first circuit (circuit A), the coil
becomes magnetised, attracts and closes the switch thus completing high current
circuit B.

o Such arrangements are used to provide safety by avoiding direct contact with large
and dangerous currents such as those required by heavy machinery, and for
switching on the starter motorin a car, because it draws a very big current.

Note:
•Closing the switch in the low
A relay switch could also appear as follows: current circuit turns the
electromagnet onwhich attracts
the iron armature.

•The armature pivots,closesthe

switch contactsand turns on the
high current circuit.

•When the low current switch is

opened, the electromagnet

45
3. A circuit containing LDR to operate a security light:

•In the dark,

-resistance and voltage of LDR increase
-current bypasses LDR and flows
through the coil
-coil magnetises, attracts and closes
switch
-bulb lights

•When light intensity increases (during

day), -resistance and voltage of LDR get
very low
-current bypasses coil and flows
through LDR
-coil demagnetizes and switch opens
-bulb switches off

In the above circuit, an LDR is part of the potential divider and is used along with a relay
to control a bulb.

o When it gets darker (when there is no light), the resistance of the LDR and the
voltage across it both increase resulting into increased current in the coil (part of
the relay).

o When the voltage across LDR gets high enough, the coil magnetises and attracts
the switch, closing it and allowing a current to pass through the bulb (lamp) which
then lights.

o When it gets brighter (when the intensity of light increases), the resistance of the
LDR and the voltage across it both decrease resulting into reduced current in the
coil (part of the relay).

o At some point, no current will flow though the coil. The coil will then demagnetize,
open the switch and turn off the bulb.

46
4. A circuit containing a thermistor to operate a bell:

•When temperature rises,

-resistance and voltage of thermistor decrease
-voltage across R and current in coil increase
-coil magnetises, attracts and closes switch
-bell rings

•When temperature decreases,

- resistance and voltage of thermistor increase
- voltage across R and current in coil decrease
-when current is zero, coil demagnetises
-switch opens and bell turns off

In the above circuit, a thermistor is part of the potential divider and is used along with a
relay to control a bell (buzzer).

o When the temperature rises (when heated), the resistance of the thermistor and
the voltage across it both decrease. Voltage across resistance R increases
resulting into increased current in the coil (part of the relay).

o When the voltage across R gets high enough, the coil magnetises and attracts the
switch, closing it and allowing a current to pass through the bell which then rings.

o When the temperature decreases (when cooled), the resistance of the thermistor
and the voltage across it both increase. Voltage across resistance R decreases
resulting into reduced current in the coil (part of the relay).

o At some point, no current will flow though the coil. The coil will then demagnetize,
open the switch and turn off the bell.

o If a variable resistor is used in the circuit, the temperature at which the bell
sounds can be varied.

The physics behind thermistors and LDRs:

A thermistor is an electrical component whose resistance decreases as the

temperature increases and vice–versa.

47
 o As the temperature of a thermistor increases (thermistor is heated), its
resistance decreases and more current flows through it.
o Reducing the temperature of the thermistor (cooling the thermistor), increases
its resistance and little current can flow through it.
o This property of the thermistor allows it to be used as a temperature sensor.

Some uses of a thermistor:

It is used as an electronic thermometer in which the current flowing through it at

different temperatures can be calibrated in degrees Celsius to give a temperature
reading.

It is also used in fire alarms and ovens. A thermistor is placed into a fire alarm circuit
such that above a set temperature, the current through the thermistor is at the right
amount required to trigger a relay circuit which rings an alarm.

An LDR is a type of resistor whose resistance decreases as the light intensity

(brightness of light) falling on it increases and vice–versa.

48
 o In bright light or when more light is falling on an LDR, its resistance decreases
and more current flows through it.

o In darkness or when an LDR is covered up or when the intensity of light

reaching the LDR is reduced, its resistance increases and little current flows
through it.

o This property of the LDR allows it to be used as a light sensor.

Some uses of an LDR:

It is usedin digital camera to control the shutter speed. When the light intensity is
low, changes in the resistance of the LDR can be measured causing the shutter to stay
open for longer.

An LDR can also be used in a burglar alarm circuit for e.g. inside a safe. When the safe
is closed, it is dark and so the resistance of the LDR is high. If it is opened and the
LDR exposed to light, the resistance drops allowing current to flow which can then
trigger a relay circuit which rings an alarm.

LDRs can be used as light sensors, so, they are useful in circuits which automatically
switch on lights when it gets dark, for example, street lighting and garden lights

49
Challenge 8:

1. From the list below, identify the two electrical components shown in the table.

2. Draw the circuit symbols for the following circuit components.

Single connecting wire, connecting wires joined, connecting wires crossing but not
joined, press switch, change over switch and potentiometer

3. Explain what will happen when the negative terminal of the diode is connected to
the positive terminal of the cell, with the switch closed.

4. Draw and interpret circuit diagram containing

(a) a source of energy (cell or battery), switch, fixed resistor, ammeter and voltmeter

50
(b) aciruit symbol for source of energy (cell or battery), switch, variable resistor,
ammeter and voltmeter
(c) a source of energy, transformer and resistor
(d) a cell, LDR and ammeter
(e) simple traffic lights network
(f) a relay and any other components
(g) a fuse and any other components
(h) an electric motor and other components

5. By using all of the components provided below, draw a circuit that will provide the
lamp with a rectified current.

6. The circuit below is a model of a light sensitive circuit designed to operate a school
bell. Describe how it operates the bell.

7. Sketched a well-labelled graph showing how the resistance of LDR varies with light
intensity.

51
8. A technician investigates a light-dependent resistor (LDR) connected in series with
a 120 Ω resistor and a voltage source. The technician measures the voltage across
the LDR and also the current in the LDR.
  Which one of these circuits should the technician use?

9. The current flowing through an LDR in different light conditions is measured. This
table gives two of  the readings:

Light condition Current in LDR

Bright sunlight 0.039 A

Cloudy skies 0.028 A

Explain why the two current readings are different.

10. A student uses this circuit to investigate how the current in a filament lamp varies
with the potential difference (voltage) across the lamp:

52
 The student takes a range of measurements for the filament lamp. He plots this
graph from his measurements:

Explain how changes in the filament of the lamp account for this graph.

11. Explain why the temperature of a resistor increases when a current passes
through it.

12. When an LDR is in bright sunlight, its resistance is 185 Ω. The voltage across the
LDR is then 7.2 V.
  Show that the current in the LDR is about 0.039 A.

53
13. A student investigates how the resistance of a thermistor varies with
temperature.
The student sets up the circuit shown in the figure below to measure current and
voltage.
  He finds that it does not work:

Give three modifications the student should make to the circuit so that the circuit
works correctly.

14. A traffic sign uses many small lights, all powered by a rechargeable battery.
These lights need to be very bright during the day so that they can be seen
clearly.
  They do not need to be as bright at night.
 Explain how using a light-dependent resistor can make the energy stored in the
battery last longer.

The series and parallel types of circuits:

The series circuit (closed loop):

This is a circuit in which two or more components are connected in the same line
(string), end to end.

54
 The bulbs, the battery
and switch are all
connected in the same
line.

In a series circuit, the current is the same at all points.

o This is because the number of electrons per second that passes through one part
of the circuit is the same number that passes through any other part.

• Current is the
same everywhere
in the circuit.
• I1 = I2
• In the RH circuit,
each ammeter
reads the same
current of 0.3A.

In a series circuit,

o the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total EMF
of the power supply (cell or battery).

o meaning that the EMF of the power supply is shared among the components

55
 V = V1 + V 2 + V 3

When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to
the sum of their individual EMFs. This is illustrated below.

Properties of series circuit summarised:

 There are no branches or junctions. Only one path of current exists.

 The same current flows through all components (parts of the circuit)

 The circuit can be turned on and off by a single switch

 The sum of the voltages across the components in a series circuit is equal to the total

EMF of the power supply (cell or battery).

56
 Two disadvantages of series circuits are:

o If one of the components breaks, all of the others will stop working.
o The components cannot be controlled (switched on and off) separately.

Factors affecting current flow in a series circuit :

o The EMF (voltage) of the power source

o The number (and type) of components in the circuit

Increasing the voltage of the power source drives more current around the circuit

Increasing the number of components in the circuit increases the total resistance,and

reduces the current flowing through the circuit.

The parallel circuit:

57
This is a circuit in which two or more components are connected in separate branches
of the circuit.

The bulbs are

connected in
different branches
(lines) so they are in
parallel.

In a parallel circuit, the current splits up at a junction:

o some of it going one way and the rest going the other

o meaning that the current in each branch is smaller than the current from the
power supply

o and the sum of the currents in all the branches is equal to the current from the
power supply

o but there could be more current in some branches than in others

o and branches only carry equal currents if they have identical components or if
components have equal resistances.

58
 I = I1 + I 2

P and S are
junctions

PS and PQRS are

branches

The sum of currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
junction. This is due to charge conservation.

Total current
flowing into a
junction =

total current
flowing out of
the junction

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each component is the same.

59
 The voltage
across the
battery is equal
to the voltage
across each
bulb.

Properties of parallel circuit summarised:

 There are junctions and branches, so there is more than one path for current to follow.

 Different branches may have different currents. Branches with same components or

component’s with same resistance carry equal currents.

 Switches can be connected into the circuit to turn on and off all or just part of the

circuit.

 The sum of currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the

junction.

 The voltage across components in parallel is the same.

 The current from the source is

o larger than the current in each branch
o the sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit.

 The advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit:

o If one lamp is faulty (stops working), the others will continue to function normally.
o Each lamp works at full supply voltage and therefore gives full brightness.
o The lamps can be individually controlled, using their own switches to avoid power
wastage.

Explaining conservation of charge at a junction :

60
 o Electrons are physical matter, so they cannot be created or destroyed

o This means the total number of electrons (and hence current) going around a
circuit must remain the same

o When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will go one way and
the rest will go the other, hence dividing of current at a junction.

Example:

In the circuit below, ammeter A0 shows a reading of 10 A, and ammeter A1 shows a

reading of 6 A.

What is the reading on ammeter A2?

Solution:

At junction, T, charge is conserved. Thus total current into T = total current out
of T

Current reading on ammeter A2 = 10 – 6

= 4A

61
Challenge 9:

1.

(a) When switch K1 is closed leaving both K2 and K3 open, then only bulb L1 will light.
(b) When switch K2 is closed leaving both K1 and K3 open, then only bulb L2 will light.
(c) When switch K3 is closed leaving both K1 and K2 open, then only bulb L3 will light.
(d) When switches K1 and K2 are closed leaving K3 open, then bulbs L1 and L2 will light
but L3 will not.
(e) When all the switches are closed, all the bulbs will light.
(f) When all the switches are opened, all the bulbs will not light.

2. A 30Ω resistor is connected with another resistor, and a 6.0 V battery. The
current in the circuit is 0.12 A. Calculate the reading on the voltmeter that is
connected across the other resistor.

3. The diagram below shows part of an electrical circuit. The current in the 4.0 Ω
resistor is 3.0 A. calculate the current in the ammeter.

62
Arrangement of Resistors in Series and Parallel:

1. Arrangement of resistors in series: (Y11N start here)

The current through each resistor is the same while the supply p.d is sum of the p.ds
across the resistors.

•Total resistance in series

circuit is bigger than any
individual resistance.

•Total resistance in series

is the sum (addition) of
the individual resistances.

•The formula below

applies to any number of
resistors.

•Resistance is increased
by adding more resistors
(components) in the
circuit in series.

•R = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . .

Let R be the effective (total) resistance of R 1, R2 and R3. V = IR (Ohm’s law)

V = V1 + V2 + V3

= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

63
 = I(R1 + R2 + R3)

V
I
= R1 + R2 + R3

V
But
I
= R

Hence R = R1 + R2 + R3

When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal
to the sum of their individual resistances.

Increasing the number of resistors increases the overall resistance, as the charge
now has more resistors to pass through.

Example:

The circuit diagram below shows a 4.0 Ω and an 8.0 Ω resistor connected to a 6.0 V
battery. Calculate the

(a) total resistance in the circuit

(b) current flowing through the battery.

Solution:

(a) total resistance, R = R1 + R2

= 4 + 8

64
 = 12 Ω

V
(b) Current, I =
R

6
=
12

= 0.5 A

Challenge 10:
Find the effective resistance in each case.

12Ω 10Ω 6Ω 4Ω
1. 2.

10Ω
2Ω 5Ω 8Ω
3. 4.
12Ω

5. 1Ω 2Ω 7Ω 4.6Ω 8.2Ω

6. The combined resistance R in the following series circuit is 60 Ω.

What is the resistance value of R2?

A. 100 Ω B. 30 Ω C. 20 Ω D. 40 Ω

65
7. Dennis sets up a series circuit as shown below.

The cell supplies a current of 2 A to the circuit, and the fixed resistor has a
resistance of 4 Ω.

(a) How much current flows through the fixed resistor?

(b) What is the reading on the voltmeter?

2. Arrangement of resistors in parallel:

The p.d across each resistor is the same as the supply p.d while the supply current is
the sum of the currents through the resistors.
•Total resistance in
parallel circuit is
smaller than any
individual resistance.

•Thereciprocal of
thetotal resistance in
parallel is the sum
(addition) of the
reciprocals of the
individual resistances.

•The formula below

applies to any number
of resistors.

1 1 1 1
= + + +…
R R1 R2 R3
66
 Let R be the effective (total) resistance of R 1, R2 and R3.
Total current , I = I 1 + I 2 + I 3
V V V
= + +
R1 R2 R3

=V
( 1
R1
+
1
R2
+
!
R3 )
I 1 1 1
∴ = + +
V R 1 R2 R3

V 1
But =
I R
1 1 1 1
Hence = + +
R R1 R 2 R 3

For only two resistors in parallel, the following result very important.
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
R1 + R2
=
R1R2

R1 R2 product
Hence R = =
R 1 + R2 sum

When two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the total (or net/combined)
resistance decreases.

This resistance reduces because each resistor creates an extra path along which the
charge can flow

o This allows more charge to flow overall

o This leads to a smaller overall resistance

The advantages of this kind of circuit are:

o The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches

o If one component stops working, the others will continue to function

67
Example:

Determine the combined resistance in each case.

(a)

Solution:
R1× R2
R =
R1 + R 2

4×4
=
4+ 4

16
=
8

= 2Ω

(b) The diagram below shows part of a circuit. A 3.0 Ω resistor and a 6.0 Ω resistor
are connected.

(i) State whether the resistors are connected in series or parallel.

(ii) Determine the combined resistance of the resistors.

Solution:

68
(i) The circuit has branches, so the resistor are connected in parallel.

R1× R2
(ii) R =
R1 + R 2

3× 6
=
3+6

18
=
9

= 2Ω

Challenge 11:

Find the effective resistance in each case.

6Ω
1. 3Ω 2.
4Ω
2Ω 12Ω
3. 4. 4.8Ω 6.3Ω
6Ω
8Ω
0.8Ω
4Ω

2.4Ω
4Ω
5. 6.
0.3Ω 15Ω
2Ω

0.8Ω
1Ω

Application of Ohm’s law in solving numerical problems:

(i) The current through resistors in series is the same as the current through the
effective (total) resistance.

(ii) The p.d across each resistor in parallel is the same as the p.d across the effective
(total) resistance.

(iii) V = IR is applied to each resistor (component) independently.

69
Challenge 12:

1. In the circuit diagram below, determine the 6V

(a) resistance in the circuit I
(b) current I through the circuit
(c) current I1 through the 3Ω resistor I1
3Ω
(d) current I2 through the 2Ω resistor
I2
2Ω

2. In the circuit diagram below, determine the

(a) resistance in the circuit 12V
I
(b) current I through the circuit
(c) current I1 through the 6Ω resistor
(d) current I2 through the 4Ω resistor I1
6Ω

I2
4Ω
3. In the circuit diagram below, determine the
24V
(a) resistance in the circuit I
(b) current I through the circuit
(c) current I1 through the 6Ω resistor I1
(d) current I2 through the 4Ω resistor 6Ω
(e) p.d across the 6Ω resistor 0.8Ω
I2
(f) p.d across the 0.8Ω resistor 4Ω

4. In the circuit diagram below, determine the

(a) resistance in the circuit 9V
I
(b) current I through the circuit
(c) current I1 through the 2.4Ω resistor I1
2.4Ω
(d) current I2 through the 0.3Ω resistor
(e) p.d across the 0.8Ω resistor I2
0.3Ω 15Ω
(f) p.d across the 15Ω resistor
I3
0.8Ω

Action and use of circuit components

The potential divider:

70
o APotential dividersplitsthe supply voltage so each component in the circuit only
receives the required voltage.
o Potential dividers are therefore circuits which produce an output voltage as a
fraction of its input or supply voltage.

o In its simplest form, a potential divider consists of two resistors connected in series
across a power supply.

Action:

o The p.d across each resistor is given by Ohm’s law,

Vout = IR

Where I is total current supplied by the battery and R is one of the resistors in
series.

o Increasing the resistance of a given resistor, increases the p.d across that resistor,
that is, the resistor gets a bigger share of the supply or input voltage. This is due to
more energy being required to push the current through increased resistance.

The mathematics related to a potential divider:

o The following calculations are important:

71
 • Total resistance, R = R 1 + R2

• Current, I, is obtained from V = IR

• Voltage across R1 is given by V1 = IR1

• Voltage across R2 is given by V2 = IR2

V 1 R1
• The ratio of the last two equations leads to =
V 2 R2

o In general, more than two resistors can be connected in a potential divider so that
several loads (appliances) can work from the same supply at the same time.

Important Applications of potential dividers:

o To provide a variable potential difference

o To enable a specific potential difference to be chosen

o To split the potential difference of a power source between two or more components

o They are used widely in audio volume controls and sensory circuits using LDRs and
thermistors, to control the temperature in a freezer or monitor changes in light in a
room.

Example:

The diagram below shows a 10Ω resistor and a 2Ω resistor connected in a potential
divider circuit.

72
Determine the
(i) total resistance in the circuit.
(ii) current, I, through the circuit.
(iii) reading on the voltmeter.

Solution:

(i) Total resistance, R = R1 + R2

= 10 + 20
= 30 Ω
V
(ii) Total current, I =
R

12
=
30

= 0.4 A

(iii) Voltmeter reading, V = IR

= 0.4 × 20
= 8V

Example:

The circuit below is designed to light up a lamp when the input voltage exceed a preset
value. It does this by comparing Vout with a fixed reference voltage of 5.3 V.

73
If Vout is equal to 5.3, calculate the input voltage Vin.

Solution:

Total resistance, R = 20 + 12 = 32 kΩ

V¿
Total current, I =
32

V ¿ ×20
Output voltage, Vout = IR and 5.3 =
32

Hence Vin = 8.48 V

The potentiometer:

o The arrangement is similar to that of the potential divider. Instead of individual fixed
resistors, a coil of wire of uniform resistance and a sliding contact are used.

74
o The sliding contact separates the potentiometer into two parts with different
resistances.

o If the slider in the diagram below is moved upwards, the resistance of the lower part
increases and so is the potential difference across it.

Action:

75
o By tapping the slider at different points along the resistance wire AC, variable p.d can
be obtained from a fixed supply V. To operate two loads from a fixed supply V,
another connection is made at C.

o When the sliding contact is at point A, resistance from A is zero so V 1 = 0. When the
contact is half–way between A and C, resistance from point A will be half of the total
resistance from A to C and therefore V1 will be half of V. With the contact at C, V1 =
V.

Important applications of Applications:

A potentiometer is also used to divide up the supply voltage into appropriate proportions
according to the need. It can also be used as a rheostat or variable resistor by making
connections to A and B or to Band C.

Challenge 13:

1. The potential divider below is used to operate a torch and a radio at the same time.
Determine the
(i) total resistance in the circuit.
(ii) current through the circuit.
(iii) voltage needed by the torch.
(iv) voltage needed by the radio

2. In the potential divider below, without calculations, state the voltage across the
upper resistor. Provide your reasoning.

76
3. In the circuit above, S is the sliding contact, XY is a uniform resistance wire and
A, B are output terminals.

(a) What name is given to a resistor connected in this way?

(b) What is the voltage between A and B when the slider S is positioned at end X of
the   resistor?
(c) What happens to the voltage in (b) as S is moved along the resistor from X to Y?
(d) Where would you position S in order to obtain an output voltage of 6V?

4. A potentiometer circuit above could be used as a radio volume control. Explain this
observation, based, on the information given on the circuit.

77
 LEDs (light emitting diodes) glow when small currents are passed them. With their
high efficiency, wide range of colour and long lifespan, LEDs are used

 as indicator (on/off) lights on computers, TV sets, Radios etc.

 in some alphanumeric (letter and number) displays like those on digital clocks.
 in automobiles as rear-window and brake lights.
 for lighting billboards and full–colour posters.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY:

The mains electricity and related circuit connections:

78
Mains electricity is the electricity generated at the power station and transported
around the country through the National Grid. It is an alternating current (a.c.)
supply.

In many countries, mains electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hzbut slightly

varying potential differences. In UK, the p.d is about 230 V. For Uganda, it is 240 V
and in the US, it is about 110 V.

o A frequency of 50 Hz means the direction of the current changes back and

forth 50 times every second

Mains electricity, being an alternating current, does not have positive and negative
sides (terminals) to the power source. Instead, the live wire forms the positive end of
the electrical circuit while the neutral wire forms the negative end.

o Everyone connects to the mains electricity supply when plugging in an appliance

such as a phone charger, iron box or kettle into a socket.

o Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using a three-core cable
consisting of

 A live wire (brown insulation)

 A neutral wire (blue insulation)
 An Earth wire (green insulation)

The Live wire carries the alternating voltage (current) from the supply to a circuit,
and is the most dangerous. Electrocution can occur if the appliance, without earth
wire, touches the live wire.

79
 The Neutral Wireforms the negative end of the circuit to complete the circuit, and
has very low voltage, making less dangerous.

The earth wire acts as asafety wireto stop the appliance from becoming live.

Electrical hazards or dangers and the related hazard

symbol:

Mains electricity is potentially deadly. Potential differences, as small as 50 volts, can

pose a serious hazard to human life. The following conditions can worsen the potential
hazards of electricity.

80
 Damaged insulation: The plastic insulation around a wire (cable) can wear away leaving
a bare exposed wire. Touching the bare exposed wire can lead to an electric shock
(electrocution).

Overheating of cables: If too much current flows through cables (e.g. due to a short
circuit, through too small a wire or through a long length of wire that is tightly coiled)
the cables can get too hot and this may lead to a fire or melt the insulations, exposing
live wires.

Dump conditions: If moisture (water) comes into contact with live wires, the moisture
could conduct electricity either causing a short circuit within a device (which could
cause a fire) or posing an electrocution risk if touched.

Excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads, single and multiple
sockets when using a mains supply: If plugs or sockets become overloaded due to
plugging in too many components, the heat created can cause fires.

Example:

An electric motor is connected to the mains supply with insulated wires. The circuit is
protected by s fuse. During normal operation, the wire becomes hot. Which of the
following measures should be taken to prevent the wires from becoming so hot?

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Possible ways to reduce electrical hazards or dangers:
o By use of fuses and trip switches in electrical devices and house wiring.

o By use circuit breakers in house wiring.

o By earthing electrical equipment and electrical devices or use of double insulation.

o Switching off the mains electricity supply to the whole house, or section of a house
when electricians are working with electrical appliances. This is because even if a
device is switched off but the mains supply is on, the live wire can still cause an
electric shock.

The fuse and trip switch as safety devices:

A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance
if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge).

In other words, a fuse is a deliberate weak point in a circuit designed to protect the
circuit or appliance. Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin
metal wire.

If the current in the wire gets too high,

o the wire heats up, melts and breaks,
o thus breaking the circuit and stopping the current flow.

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 A fuse is fixed in the live wire before the switch. This prevents overheating and
catching of fire. When damaged, a fuse cannot be repaired but replaced by a new
one. A fuse circuit symbol or diagram is shown below.

Rating of a fuse (choosing which fuse to use):

o This is the maximum current that can flow through the fuse without melting the fuse
wire.
o Therefore a fuse will be labelled with a specific current value (e.g. 3A, 5A, 13A). So
when choosing a suitable fuse, we must use the one above the minimum value but less
than maximum value – always choose the next size up.

o Knowing the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the current can be
calculated using the equation:

The trip switch as a safety device:

A trip switch, found in the Consumer Box (where the electricity enters the building),
does the same job as a fuse

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 o When the current is too high the switch “trips” (automatically flicks to the
off position)
o This stops current flowing in that circuit, thus preventing the possible
damage.

After tripping, a trip switch be reset by pressing the trip button or flicking it into the
“on position”. The following steps are essential for resetting.

o First unplug all appliances

o Open the cover on the consumer unit to expose the trip switches
o Reset the trip switch
o Replace the trip cover

The circuit symbol for the trip switch appears as follows:

Example:

Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 A.

o A 3 A fuse would be too small–the fuse would blow as soon as the appliance is
switched on.
o A 13 A fuse would be too large–it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass through
the appliance before it finally blew. This will damage the appliance.
o A 5 A fuse is the appropriate choice, since it is the next size up.

Example:

In the circuit shown below, the current from the battery divides equally between the two
lamps. Each ammeter reads 6.0 A. What is the suitable rating for the fuse in the circuit?

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Solution:

Hence a 13 A fuse is the appropriate choice, since it is the next size up

The benefits of earthing metal cases of appliances:

 Many electrical appliances have metal cases. This poses a potential safety hazard as
indicated below.

•If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case,
the case would become electrified and when touched, there is
potential risk of electrocution.

 The earth wire is an additional safety wire that reduces this risk of electrocution, as
explained below:

o The earth wire provides alow resistance pathto the earth.

o This causes a (huge) surge of current in both the earth and live wires.
o The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break.
o Thiscuts off the supplyof electricity to the appliance, making it safe.

Insulation and Double Insulation as a safety measure

The conducting part of a wire is usually made of copper or some other metal

o If this comes into contact with a person, this poses a risk of electrocution

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 For this reason, wires are covered with an insulating material, such as rubber as shown
below.

Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk of them becoming
electrified

Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have two layers of insulation:

o Insulation around the wires themselves

o A non-metallic case that acts as a second layer of insulation

Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire or have been designed so that
the earth wire cannot touch the metal casing

The cause of electrocution:

 The live wire carries the highest voltage of 240 V (230 V) to the circuit. The neutral
wire has a voltage close to 0 V. The earth wire, which only carries a current to the
ground if there is a fault in the appliance, also has a voltage of 0 V.

 Suppose a person, standing on the ground, touches the live wire. The huge potential
difference between the live wire (240 V) and the person (0 V) would cause a current
to pass through the person’s body to reach the earth, hence the electric shock.

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 Even when the live and earth wires touch each other, the huge current created,
causes intense sparks that lead to a fire.

Why electricity should be switched off during repairs or house

connections!

o To avoid getting into contact with live wires when working, in order to prevent any
possible electrocution.

o Even if a device is switched off but the mains supply is on, the live wire can still cause
an electric shock.

Example:

The manufacturer’s label on the back of an electric heater is shown below. Which part of
the heater must be earthed? If the heater is not properly earthed, what is the potential
hazard?

Solution:

(a) The casing of the heater should be earthed (connected to earth).

(b) For improper earthing, the casing gets into contact with the live wire and conducts
electricity, leading to a possible risk of electrocution.

Challenge 14:

1. Calculate the correct fuse needed for a cooker rated at 240V, 3kW.

2. Match the electrical hazard to the correct means of protection.

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3. The plug for an electric lamp contains a 3 A fuse. The fuse’s job is to protect the
lamp if too much current flows. Where is the fuse positioned, and what happens
when the fuse does its job?

4. Which of the following diagrams shows a fuse which has been correctly connected
to a circuit?

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5. The diagram below shows two bulbs, which have been connected in parallel. A fuse
has been included in the circuit. Each of the ammeters reads 1.2 A.

What fuse should be put in this circuit?

A. 1.0 A B. 3.0 A C. 5.0 A D. 13. 0 A

6. The fuse blows in a kettle, and the owner of the kettle, Brooke Bond, decides to
replace the fuse. The fuse he takes out has 13 A written on it.

Brooke does not have any fuses in the cupboard with 13 A written on them, so he
replaces it with a fuse that has 3 A written on it.

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 He then switches the kettle on to make a nice cup of tea. What happens?

A. The kettle explodes in a shower of sparks and molten plastic.

B. The fuse does not blow, and the kettle operates normally.

C. The fuse blows and the kettle remains undamaged.

D. The fuse does not blow, but the kettle does not work.

7. The diagram bel ow shows a toaster that has been wired up. The three fuses have
been connected to the toaster, but only one or two have been connected correctly.

Which of the fuses has been positioned correctly?

A. Fuse X and fuse Y

B. Fuse X only

C. Fuse Z only

D. Fuse X and fuse Z

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