Navigation

FIS BOOK 4
INDEX
NAVIGATION
1. Terms and Definitions 93

2. The Earth, Distance and Direction 99
3. Position Reference on the Earth 107
4. Scale 123
5. Charts 127
6. Map Reading 151
7. The Triangle of Velocities 167
8. Use of Navigation Equipment 175
9. Mental DR Navigation 189
10. Plotting Position Lines 199
11. Radius of Action 209
12. Critical Point and Point of Safe Return 213
13. Low Level Navigation 227
14. Timing Action 235
15. Area Navigation (RNAV) 251
16. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 255
17. Direct Indicating Compasses and Direction Indicators 259
18. Magnetism : General and Terrestrial 265
19. Aircraft Magnetism and Compass Swing 271
20. Time 279
93
CHAPTER 1
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Navigation Terminology
1. It is essential to understand / revise the following terms before proceeding in the subject of air
navigation.
2. Shape. The earth is a spheroid whose polar diameter is 23 NM less than the equatorial
diameter of 6884 NM. For the purpose of air navigation however, earth is considered as a perfect
sphere.
3. Great Circle. It is a circle on the surface of the earth whose plane cuts the earth into two
equal halves. Thus the plane of a great circle passes through the centre of the sphere and the
shortest distance between two points on the surface of the earth will be along the great circle. Only
one great circle can be drawn through two points, not diametrically opposite to each other. The centre
and radius of great circle are same as that of earth itself.
4. Small Circle. It is a circle on the surface of the earth which cuts the earth into two unequal
halves. Thus the plane of a small circle does not pass through the centre of the earth.
5. Rhumb Line. It is a regularly curved line

on the surface of the earth cutting all the meridians
at the same angle. Since the meridians represent
the North-South direction at any place and as all
true directions on the surface of the earth are
measured with reference to the North-South
represented by the meridians, the rhumb line
through two places maintains a constant true
direction between the two places. The equator and
meridians are particular cases of thumb lines
which are also great circles. Fig 1-1: Rhumb Line
6. Equator. It is a great circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the earth;
every point on the equator is, therefore, equidistant from both poles (Fig 1-2). The equator lies in an
east west direction and divides the earth into northern and southern hemispheres.
7. Meridian. Meridians are semi-great circles joining the poles; every great circle joining the
poles forms a meridian and its ante-meridian. All meridians indicate north south direction.
FIS Book 4: Navigation 94
8. Parallels of Latitude. These are the small

circles on the surface of the earth, the planes of which
are parallel to that of the equator. The parallels of
latitude therefore cut the meridians at right angles.
Hence the parallel of latitude through any place
represents the East West directions at that place.
Measurement of Direction
9. In order to fly in a given direction, a navigator

must be able to refer to datum line or fixed direction
whose where abouts are known or can be determined. Fig 1-2: Equator, Meridians and
Parallels
All directions are measured clockwise through 000° to
360°.
10. True North. The direction indicated by the position of North Geographical pole is the true
north. The meridians on the surface of the earth represent the true North/South direction.
11. Magnetic North. The direction in which the north end of a freely suspended magnetic
needle points is called the magnetic north. The magnetic needle in this case is under the sole
influence of earth's magnetic field.
12. Compass North. The magnetic needle of an aircraft compass is influenced by the
magnetised components of the aircraft and magnetic fields created by electrical circuits in addition to
the earth's magnetism. Hence the north seeking end points in a different direction which is called
compass north.
13. Variation. It is the angular difference between the

direction of the true north and the magnetic north at any
place. Variation is measured in degrees and is named east
(+) or west (-) according to whether magnetic north lies to
east or west of the true north.
14. Isogonals. These are lines joining the places of

equal variation. The particular variation for each isogonal is
indicated alongside. Fig 1-3: Variation and Deviation
15. Deviation. It is the angular difference between the magnetic north and compress north.
Deviation is measured in degrees and is named East of West according to whether the compass north
lies to the east or west of magnetic north.
95 Terms and Definitions
_
16. The directions indicated by a magnetic compass in the aircraft is the compass direction.
Knowing the values of deviation and variation to find out the true direction from compass direction and
vice-versa is as follows:
Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True

(a) 040 2E (+) 042 4E (+) 046
(b) 040 2W (-) 038 4W (-) 034
17. Compass Error. Compass error is the algebraic sum of variation and deviation.
Measurement of Distance
18. Distance. It is the linear displacement of two points or places expressed in linear units.
19. Statute Mile. A length of 5280 feet is accepted by laws as one status mile (British).
20. Nautical Mile. Nautical mile is defined as the length of arc of a great circle which subtends
an angle of one minute at the centre of the earth.
21. As the earth is a spheroid the length of the arc of great circle which subtends an angle of one
minute at the centre of the earth varies. Thus 6080 feet is accepted as the average length of the
nautical mile. It is very easy convert spherical distance into linear distances by just converting the
number of degrees of arc into number of minutes. The number of minutes directly indicates the
distance in nautical miles, e.g., 6°52’ of arc is 412 Nautical miles or 412 minutes of arc.
22. Kilometre. It is the length of 1/10000 part of the average distance between the equator and
either pole. It is equivalent to 3280 feet or 1,000 metres.
23. Relationship of Units.
66 nm = 76 st. m.
41nm = 76 km
41 st m. = 56 km
24. Heading. Heading is the direction in which

fore and aft axis of the aircraft is pointing measured
clockwise with reference to north. The heading is said to
be true, magnetic or compass depending on the
direction from which the measurement made is true,
magnetic or compass north respectively.
Fig 1-4: Track, Heading and Drift
25. Track. Track is the direction of the path of the aircraft with reference to the ground. The
heading and the track of an aircraft need not be the same and more often are not, due to the effect of
the wind as shown in Fig 1-4.
26. Track Required. It is the track that the aircraft is supposed to follow on the ground in flying
from one point to other. Track Made Good (T M G) is the actual track that the aircraft is following on
the ground in flight. Track may be of two kinds viz. rhumb line track and great circle track.
27. Drift. Drift is the angular difference between the heading of an aircraft flown and the track
made good, expressed in degrees to port or starboard of aircraft's heading.
Thus in Fig 1-4 Heading = 080° (T)

Track Made Good = 090° (T)
Drift = 10° (S)
Conversely knowing the heading (T) and the drift. The track of an aircraft can be deduced.
28. Bearing. The direction of one point from another with reference to north is called its
bearing. It may be expressed as true magnetic or compass although for convenience they are
normally expressed as true. If the direction of the
great circle joining the two points is measured the
bearing so found is said to be great circle bearing.
A rhumb line bearing is found by measuring the
direction of rhumb line joining two points.
29. Back Bearing. The direction with

Fig 1-5: Back Bearing
reference to north observed from an aircraft of a
place over which it has passed without an
intervening alteration of heading or true airspeed
is called a back bearing. Normally are expressed
in true directions.
30. Relative Bearing. Bearing measured

clockwise through 360° from the fore-and-aft axis
of the aircraft is called relative bearing.
Fig 1-6: Determining Relative Bearing
31. Wind Velocity. Velocity implies both speed and direction. Wind velocity, therefore is made
up of two distinct components.
(a) The direction from which the wind is blowing.
(b) The speed of the wind in knots.
97 Terms and Definitions
_
Thus a wind blowing from the west at a speed of 25 knots is expressed as 270/25.
32. Speed. Speed is the rate of change of position. It is expressed in linear units per hour. As
there are three main linear units, speed can be expressed as:
(a) Knots or nautical miles per hour K or kts

(b) Miles per hour or statute miles per hour MPH
(c) Kilometers per hour Km Km PH
33. Air Speed. It is the speed of an aircraft at which it flies through the air. It is independent of
wind and is the same regardless of whether the aircraft is flying up wind or down wind.
34. IAS. Indicated Air Speed is the speed of an aircraft indicated by an air speed indicator
corrected for calibration error only.
35. RAS. Rectified Air Speed of an aircraft is the indicated air speed corrected for instrument
error and position error.
36. TAS. True Air Speed is the speed obtained by applying density correction and
compressibility to the Rectified air speed and this is the relative speed of the aircraft to undisturbed
air.
37. Ground Speed. Ground speed is the speed of the aircraft measured in relation to ground.
38. Ground Position. Ground position of an aircraft is the position of the ground beneath the
aircraft at any time.
39. Pin Point. Pin point is the ground position of an aircraft determined by direct observation of
the ground at any time.
40. Air Position. Air position is the position of the aircraft at any time assuming nil wind. This is
purely an imaginary position but is very useful to air navigator in deducing the wind effect by
comparison of the air position and the ground position.
41. DR Position. D R Position is the position of an aircraft at any time deduced from the
knowledge or previous information available regarding the position of the aircraft.
42. Fix. A Fix is ground position of an aircraft determined by methods other then direct visual
observation of the ground beneath the aircraft at any time.
43. Symbols and Conventional Signs:
(a) Heading Hdg (T)

Hdg (M)
Hdg (C)
(b) Track TR
(c) Bearing
(d) Wind Velocity
(e) Pin Point
(f) DR Position
(g) Fix Simultaneous
(h) Fix Running
(j) Air Position

99
CHAPTER 2
THE EARTH, DISTANCE AND DIRECTION
The Earth
1. For most navigational purposes the Earth is assumed to be a perfect sphere, although in
reality it is not. For many centuries man has been concerned about the shape of the Earth. The early
Greeks in their speculation and theorizing ranged from the flat disc to the sphere and even cylindrical
and rectangular Earths have been propounded.
2. The basic shape of the Earth is almost spherical, being slight flattened at the poles. This
shape is more properly termed an oblate spheroid, which is the figure generated by the revolution of
an ellipse about its minor axis. Because of this flattening, the Earth's polar diameter is approximately
27 statute miles shorter than its average equatorial diameter.
3. The ratio between this difference and the equatorial diameter is termed the compression of
the Earth, and indicates the amount of flattening. This ratio is approximately 1/300 but geodetic
information obtained from satellite measurements indicates
that the Earth is very slightly "pear-shaped", the greater
mass being in the southern hemisphere.
4. The Poles. The extremities of the diameter about

which the Earth rotates are called poles. In Fig 2-1a these
are represented by P and P1.
5. East and West. East is defined as the direction in

which the Earth is rotating. This direction, anti-clockwise to
an observer looking down on the pole P, is shown by the
arrows in Fig 2-1a and 2-1b. West is the direction opposite
to East.
6. North and South. The two poles are distinguished

arbitrarily; the North pole (P in Fig 2-1a) is said to be the pole
which lies to the left of an observer facing East. North is
therefore that direction in which an observer would have to
move in order to reach the North Pole; it is at right angles to
the East-West direction. The other pole (P1 in Fig 2-1a) is
known as the South pole. The directions, East, West, North
and South are known as the cardinal directions. Fig 2-1: Earth References
Lines Drawn on the Earth
7. The shortest distance between two points is the length of the straight line joining them. It is,
however, impossible to draw a straight line on a spherical surface and so all lines drawn on the Earth
are curved, some regularly and others irregularly. The
regularly curved imaginary lines on the Earth which are of
interest to the navigator are described below.
8. Great Circle. A great circle is a circle on the

surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are those of
the sphere itself. Because its plane passes through the
centre of the sphere, the resulting section is the largest that
can be obtained, hence the name great circle. Only one
great circle may be drawn through two places on the
surface of a sphere which are not diametrically opposed.
The shortest distance between any two points on the
surface of a sphere is the smaller arc of the great circle
Fig 2-2: Great Circle
joining them (Fig 2-2).
9. Small Circle. A small circle is a circle on the

surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are not those
of the sphere. All circles other than great circles on the
surface of a sphere are small circles (Fig 2-3).
10. The Equator. The Equator is the great circle

whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
Earth. Every point on the equator is therefore equidistant
from both poles. The equator lies in an East-West direction
Fig 2-3: Small Circle
and divides the Earth into northern and southern
hemispheres.
11. Meridians. Meridians are semi-great circles

joining the poles; every great circle joining the poles forms
a meridian and its anti-meridian. All meridians indicate
North-South direction.
12. Parallels of Latitude. Parallels of latitude are

small circles on the surface of the Earth whose planes are
parallel to the plane of the equator. They therefore lie in an
Fig 2-4: Equator, Meridians and
East-West direction (Fig 2-4). Parallels
101 The Earth, Distance and Direction
13. Rhumb Line. A rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth cutting all
meridians at the same angle. Only one such line may be drawn through any two points. Parallels of
latitude are rhumb lines as are the meridians and the equator, though the latter two are special cases
as they are the only examples of rhumb lines which are also great circles. Thus, when two places are
situated elsewhere than on the equator or on the same meridian, the distance measured along the
rhumb line joining them is not the shortest distance between them. However, the advantage of the
rhumb line is that its direction is constant. Therefore the rhumb line between two points may be
followed more conveniently than the great circle joining them since the direction of the latter changes
continuously with reference to the meridians. The saving in distance effected by flying a great circle
rather than a rhumb line increases with latitude
but it is appreciable only over great distances,
consequently flights of less than 1,000 miles
are usually made along the rhumb line.
Rhumb lines are convex towards the equator
(excepting parallels of latitude, the equator and
meridians) and lie nearer the equator than the
corresponding great circles (Fig 2-5).
Earth Convergence
14. From Fig 2-5 it can be seen that the Fig 2-5: Rhumb Line
meridians are only parallel to one another where they cross the equator, elsewhere the angle of
inclination between selected meridians increases towards the poles. This angle of inclination between
selected meridians at particular latitude is known variously as Earth convergence, true convergence,
meridian convergence and convergency.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Angular Measurement
15. The sexagesimal system of measuring angles is universally employed in navigation. In this
system the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal to the 360th part of the
circumference is called a degree; each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes (') and each minute into
60 seconds ("). Thus the size of any angle may be expressed in terms of degrees, minutes and
seconds.
16. In spherical calculations it is frequently convenient to express spherical distances (i.e., great
circle distances) in terms of angular measurement rather than in linear units. This is possible because
of a simple relationship between the radius, arc and angle at the centre of a circle. Thus the length of
the arc of a great circle on the Earth might be expressed as 10° 38', this would convey little unless
there were some ready means of converting angular units to linear units. This difficulty of converting
from angular to linear units has been overcome by the definition of the standard unit of linear
measurement on the Earth, the nautical mile.
Measurement of Distance
17. Assuming the Earth to be a true sphere, a nautical mile is defined as the length of the arc of a
great circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the centre of the Earth (Also refer para 19).
Thus the number of nautical miles in the arc of any great circle equals the number of minutes
subtended by that arc at the centre of the Earth. The conversion of an angular measurement of
spherical distance to linear units requires only the reduction of the angle to minutes of arc, the number
of minutes is equal to the spherical distance in nautical miles.
18. In Fig 2-6a, if AB, the arc of a great circle,

subtends an angle at the Earth's centre of 40°20', AB is
said to be 40° 20' in length. 40 degrees 20 minutes is
equivalent to 2,420 minutes of arc which is equal to a
length of 2,420 nautical miles.
19. Because of the Earth's uneven shape the actual

length of the nautical mile is not constant, but varies with
latitude from 6,046 feet at the equator to approximately
6,108 feet at the poles. A more accurate definition of the
nautical mile than that given in para 17 is that it is the
length of the arc on the Earth's surface that subtends an
angle of one minute at its own centre of curvature. In Fig Fig 2-6a: Angular Distance
2-6b the arc of BC is on a comparatively "flat" part of the
spheroid and the distance to the centre of curvature is
relatively long (AB or AC), therefore an angle φ is
subtended by a comparatively long arc BC. The arc YZ
is at a comparatively curved part of the spheroid, the
distance to the centre of curvature (XY or XZ) is shorter
and the angle φ is subtended by a shorter arc length.
However, for the purpose of navigation a fixed unit of
measurement is helpful. Until 1 March 1971 this was the
UK Standard Nautical mile of 6,080 feet. Since that time
the International Nautical Mile of 1,852 meters (6,076.1
Fig 2-6b: Nautical Mile
feet) has been adopted as the standard for air navigation.
20. The other mile unit in common use is the statue mile (so called because its length is
determined by law. This is 5,280 feet in length. It is a purely arbitrary unit of measurement and, unlike
the nautical mile, is not readily converted into angular measurement terms.
21. Metric Units. The kilometre is the SI unit of distance. This unit is the length of 1/10,000th
part of the average distance between the equator and either pole. It is equivalent to 3,280 feet.
Speed
22. Speed is the rate of change of position. It is usually expressed in linear units per hour. As
there are three main linear units, there are three expressions of speed:
(a) Knots, or nautical miles per hour (kt)

(b) Miles per hour i.e. statute miles per hour (mph).
(c) Kilometres per hour (km/hr).
DIRECTION
Direction on the Earth
23. In order to fly in a given direction it is necessary to be able to refer to a datum line or fixed
direction whose orientation is known or can be determined. The most convenient datum is the
meridian through the current position, since it is the North-South line. By convention direction is
measured clockwise from North, to the nearest degree, i.e. from 000° to 360°. It is always expressed
as a three-figure group; thus East, which is 90° from North, is written 090°, and West 270°.
24. True Direction. Direction measured with reference to True North, the direction of the North
geographic pole, is said to be the True direction. True direction has the advantages of being a
constant directional reference (ie True direction about a point does not change with time), of being the
basis of nearly all maps and charts, and of being directly and continuously output by inertial systems.
However, magnetic direction continues to be used as an aircraft heading reference and as the basic
direction reference in non-inertial systems.
25. Magnetic Direction. The Earth acts as if it is a huge magnet whose field is strong enough
to influence the alignment of a freely suspended magnetic needle anywhere in the world. The poles
of this hypothetical magnet are known as North and South magnetic poles and, like those of any
magnet, they can be considered to be connected by lines of magnetic force. Although the magnetic
and geographic poles are by no means coincident (the respective North poles are separated by
approximately 900 n miles), the lines of force throughout the equatorial and temperate regions are
roughly parallel to the Earth's meridians. A freely suspended magnetic needle will take up the
direction indicated by the Earth's lines of force and thus assume a general North-South direction; The
actual direction in which it points, assuming no other influences are acting upon it, is said to be
Magnetic North. With such a datum available it is possible to measure magnetic direction. Thus
knowing the angle by which the direction of Magnetic North differs from True North at any given point
(an angle which is accurately measured on the ground and displayed on plotting charts), it is possible
to convert Magnetic direction, which can be measured, into True direction which is required.
Variation
26. The angular difference

between the direction of True
North and Magnetic North at any
given point, and therefore
between all True directions and
their corresponding Magnetic
directions at that point, is called
Variation. Variation is measured
in degrees and is named East (+)
or West (-) according to whether Fig 2-7: Variation
the North-seeking end of a freely-suspended magnetic needle, influenced only by the Earth's field, lies
to the East of West of True North at any given point. The algebraic sign given to Variation indicates
how it is to be applied to magnetic direction to convert it to True direction. At any point, therefore, the
True direction can be determined by measuring Magnetic direction and then applying the local
Variation. A useful mnemonic is:
"Variation East, Magnetic Least, Variation West, Magnetic Best."
Direction Magnetic 100° (M)

Variation 10°E (+)
Direction True 110° (T) (Fig 2-7)
Direction Magnetic 100° (M)

Variation 10°W (-)
Direction True 090° (T) (Fig 2-7)
Isogonals
27. Variation is not constant over the Earth's surface but varies from place to place. The change
is gradual and follows a more or less regular pattern. By means of a magnetic survey the variation at
numerous points is accurately measured and tabulated. From such a survey it is possible to discover
a number of points where variation has the same value. Lines joining these points of equal variation
are known as isogonals and these lines are printed on maps and charts.
28. The variation at any given point is not a fixed quantity but is subject to gradual change with
the passage of time because the magnetic axis of the Earth is constantly changing. This change,
which is indicated in the margin of the chart, is not large but in certain places may amount to as much
as one degree in five years. It is important, therefore, that charts indicate the date to which variation
values apply, and also the annual change, so that the isogonal values may be updated.
Deviation
29. When a freely-suspended magnetic needle is influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field,
the direction it assumes is known as Magnetic North. If such a needle is placed in an aircraft, it is
subject to a number of additional magnetic fields created by various electrical circuits and magnetized
pieces of metal within the aircraft; consequently its North-seeking end deviates from the direction of
magnetic North and indicates a direction known as compass North.
30. The angular difference between the direction of Magnetic North and that of Compass North,
and therefore all Magnetic directions and their corresponding Compass directions, is called Deviation.
Deviation is measured in degrees and is named East (+) or West (-) according to whether the North-
seeking end of a compass needle, under various disturbing influences, lies to the East or West of
Magnetic North. The algebraic sign given to deviation indicates how it is to be applied to compass
direction to convert it to Magnetic direction.
31. Deviation is not, as might be imagined, a constant value for a given compass; instead it varied
with the heading of the aircraft. Nor is the deviation experienced by two different compasses likely to
be the same under identical conditions. Thus in order to convert the directions registered by a
particular compass to Magnetic directions, a tabulation of the deviations of that compass, found on
various headings, is required. Such a tabulation of the deviation, usually in the form of a card, must
be provided and placed near the compass to which it applies.
32. The deviation of a compass will change as its position in the aircraft is changed. Deviation
will also change, over a period of time, due to changing magnetic fields within the aircraft. Moreover,
as the aircraft flies great distances over the Earth, changes occur in deviation because of the Earth's
changing magnetic field. It is not sufficient, therefore, to prepare a deviation card and expect it to last
indefinitely; the card must be renewed at frequent intervals in order that it may always record the
deviation as accurately as possible. A useful mnemonic for the application of deviation is:
"Deviation East, Compass Least, Deviation West, Compass Best."

Direction Compass 100° (C)

Deviation 4°E (+)
Direction Magnetic 104° (M) (Fig 2-8)
Direction Compass 100° (C)

Deviation 4°W (-)
Direction Magnetic 096° (M) (Fig 2-8)
Fig 2-8: Deviation
Derivation of True Direction
33. It is possible therefore to express a direction given

with regard to a particular compass needle as True
direction, provided that deviation and variation are known.
To avoid the complications arising from the changing
values of variation and deviation during flight, plotting is
usually carried out using true directions. In Fig 2-9:
Compass direction 225° (C)

Deviation 2°W (-)
Magnetic direction 223° (M)
Variation 12°W (-)
True direction 211° (T)
Fig 2-9: True Direction from
Compass Direction
107
CHAPTER 3
POSITION REFERENCE ON THE EARTH
Introduction
1. Since air navigation is the process of directing an aircraft from one point to another, it is
essential to be able to define these points as positions on the Earth's surface and refer to them as
required in flight.
2. Mathematically, a
point can be defined by
reference to two mutually
perpendicular axes. Thus the
point P (Fig 3-1a) is defined in
general terms, by the
Cartesian coordinates +x and
+y, which have linear values.
Similarly point R is positioned
by the coordinates x', y'.
(a) (b)
3. When the point P lies Fig 3-1: Coordinate Systems for Position Reference
on a sphere (Fig 3-1b), a similar system may be employed but the coordinates may have either linear
(x, y) or angular units of measurement (α°, β°).
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
4. On the Earth, position is normally defined by a reference system known as latitude and
longitude. The chosen axes are the equator (X) and the meridian of Greenwich (Y) - the prime
meridian.
Latitude
5. Latitude is defined as the angular distance from the

equator to a point, measured northward or southward along
the meridian through that point (Fig 3-2). This quantity is
expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds and is annotated
N or S according to whether the point lies North or South of the
equator.
Fig 3-2: Latitude
FIS Book4: Navigation 108
Longitude
6. The longitude of any

point is the shorter angular
distance along the equator
between the prime meridian and
the meridian through the point
(Fig 3-3). It is expressed in
degrees minutes and seconds,
Fig 3-3: Longitude Fig 3-4: Extremes of
and is annotated E or W Longitude
according to whether the point
lies to the East or West of the prime meridian. As the plane of the Greenwich Meridian bisects the
Earth, longitude cannot be greater than 180° East or West (Fig 3-4).
Recording Position
7. In air navigation it is usually sufficient to express latitude and longitude in degrees and
minutes only. By convention, the group of figures representing latitude is always written first and is
followed by the figures expressing longitude. To avoid ambiguity there are always two figures used to
denote degrees of latitude, those below ten being preceded by the digit 0. Similarly, three figures are
used to denote degrees of longitude, employing leading zeros as necessary. The letters N, S E, and
W are used to indicate the sense of the latitude and longitude coordinates. Thus the position of a
point situated in latitude 53 degrees 21 minutes North and in longitude 0 degrees 5 minutes East, is
written as - 53 21 N 000 05 E, the spaces being optional.
Change of Latitude
8. The change of latitude (ch lat) between two points is the arc of a meridian intercepted
between their parallels of latitude. It is annotated N or S according to the direction of the change from
the first point to the second.
9. If the two points are

on the same side of the
equator, as in Fig 3-5a, the
ch lat is found by
subtracting the lesser
latitude, that of A, from the
greater, that of B. If A and B
are on opposite sides of the
(a) (b)
equator, as in Fig 3-5, the
Fig 3-5: Change of Latitude
109 Position Reference on the Earth
ch lat is equal to the sum of the latitudes of A and B. In Fig 3-5a the ch lat of point B from an observer
at point A is annotated N, in Fig 3-5b the ch lat of point B from point A is annotated S.
Change of Longitude
10. The change of longitude (ch long) between two points is the smaller arc of the equator
intercepted by the meridians through the two points. It is annotated E or W according to the direction
of the change from the first point to the second.
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 3-6: Change of Longitude
11. In Fig 3-6a since the longitudes of B and A are of the same sign, the change of longitude is
the difference between them, and the change of longitude of A from B is easterly. In Fig 3-6b the
change of longitude of A from B is again easterly and, as the longitudes are of opposite sign, the
change of longitude is the sum of the longitudes of B and A. In Fig 3-6c the change of longitude of A
from B is westerly and its amount is 360° minus the sum of the longitudes of B and A. This is the
smaller arc of the equator intercepted by the meridians of B and A.
Departure
12. The distance between two given meridians,

measured along a stated parallel and expressed in
nautical miles, is called departure. In general terms it
is defined as the East-West component of the rhumb
line distance between two points. The value of
departure between two meridians varies with latitude,
decreasing with increasing latitude (Fig 3-7). The
change of longitude between these meridians of
course remains the same, irrespective of the latitude.
Fig 3-7: Departure
13. The departure between any two points is thus a function of their latitudes and the change of
longitude, and the relationship is given by:
Departure (nms) = ch long (minutes of arc) x cos mean lat
where mean lat = ½ (Lat A + Lat B)
Disadvantages of the Latitude and Longitude Reference System
14. The latitude and longitude method of reporting position suffers from certain disadvantages:
(a) The possibility of confusion in areas close to the equator and the prime meridian.
(b) The necessity of giving an 11-figure group to obtain positional accuracy of 1 min e.g.
5136 N 00125 W or 5136 N 10125 W.
(c) One minute of latitude and one minute of longitude represent different distances on
the earth, except at the equator, and the distance represented by one minute of longitude
decreases with increasing latitude.
15. To overcome these disadvantages military forces have, since the First World War, used
reporting systems based on networks of lines (grids), which are a fixed distance apart and cut each
other at right angles. Two examples of these systems discussed in this chapter are:
(a) The Universal Transverse Mercator Grid (UTM).

(b) Geographical Reference System (GEOREF).
THE UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR GRID
16. Any rectangular grid system must be based on a flat projection of the Earth's surface; but
because the Earth's surface is curved, any flat projection will become increasingly distorted as the
area of projection is extended. Therefore, the area covered by one particular grid must not be
extended beyond the limits at which its distortion becomes excessive for military purposes.
17. In the past, nations have adopted their own grid systems, based upon a variety of projections,
designed to fit their own territories. The result has been a complicated and unsystematic patchwork of
grids, mutually unadjustable and varying in their degree of distortion
.
18. The Universal Transverse Mercator, or UTM, grid (Fig 3-8), substitutes for this patchwork a
uniform system of mutually adjusted grids all (except those for the polar regions) using the same
projection, free from excessive distortion, and with comparatively few grid junctions. In Polar Regions,
because the Polar Stereographic Projection is used, the grid system is known as the Universal Polar
Stereographic Grid.
Fig 3-8: Lattice of the UTM Grid

Description of the Grid
19. The UTM grid is basically a metric grid built on to a lattice of latitude and longitude and is
used in conjunction with the Transverse Mercator projection. The system of referencing is essentially
the same as that used in the National Grid, being based on a rectangular system of 100 km squares,
which are identified by letters. Within each square, points are located by their eastings and northings
in metres from the southwest corner of the square.
20. The layout of the UTM grid is shown at Fig 3-8 from which it can be seen that the world,
between the latitudes of 84° North and 80° South, is divided into 60 zones each covering 6° of
longitude, and 20 bands each covering 8° of latitude except the most northerly band which covers 12°
of latitude. The 6° longitude zones are numbered eastwards from 1 to 60 (inclusive) commencing at
the 180° meridian whilst the 8° latitude bands are identified by letters, commencing at C (omitting I
and O) northwards from the 80° S line. Each 6° zone has its own grid, the projection being the
Transverse Mercator based on the central meridian of that zone. Two special grids on the Polar
Stereographic projection, utilizing the identifying letters A, B, Y and Z, cover polar areas.
21. Each band of a zone is thus identified by the number of the zone (e.g. 3 and the letter of the
band - P). The two identifications are then combined to give the area a Grid Zone Designation, e.g.
3P.
Fig 3-9: Identification of 100 km Squares on the UTM Grid
The UTM Grid between 80° S and 84° N
22. Between 80° S and 84° N, each area is now divided into 100 km squares. Each column and
each row of squares is given an identifying letter. Thus, following the Grid Zone Designation, each
100 km square is identified by two letters corresponding to its column and row respectively. The 100
km squares are fitted into each 6° zone so that they are uniformly spaced about the central meridian
of the zone and along the equator. Thus in Fig 3-9 it can be seen that the zone number 1 is given
three 100 km squares, plus a fraction of another square, each side of the central meridian of the zone.
23. Starting at the 180° meridian and moving eastwards for 18° along the equator, the columns of
100 km squares, including partial columns along grid junctions, are lettered alphabetically from A to Z
(with I and O omitted). This alphabet is repeated at the beginning of each 18° block, i.e. after every
third 6° longitude zone.
24. The rows of 100 km squares are lettered northwards alphabetically from A to V (with I and O
omitted), the partial alphabet being repeated every 2,000 km or 20 rows. Normally every odd-
numbered UTM zone has the lettering of the 100 km row commencing with A at the equator whilst the
even numbered UTM zones commence with F at the equator. Thus the distance between 100 km
squares of the same identification is lengthened. Below the equator, the 100 km rows are lettered
northwards in such a way that they fit into the sequence of letters above in the same zone.
25. In different parts of the world because different ellipsoids have been used as the basis for the
map projection, it has not been possible to allocate 100 km square identification letters to an
absolutely uniform system. The letters allotted in Europe are arranged so that they are not repeated
within 18° of latitude and longitude (9° near ellipsoid junctions) in any direction. In some instances,
however, the band alphabet is shifted ten letters to prevent ambiguity along ellipsoid junctions. In
such cases, there is a resultant decrease in the maximum distance within which 100 km square
identifications are not repeated.
The Universal Polar Stereographic Grid (UPS)
26. The North polar area is divided into two parts by the 180° meridian (Fig 3-10). The half
containing the West longitudes is given the grid zone designation Y whilst that containing the East
longitude is given the grid designation Z. Similarly, the South polar area is divided into two parts, one
of which containing the West longitudes is lettered A, whilst the other containing the East longitudes is
lettered B. No figures are used in conjunction with these letters.
27. Both Polar Regions are divided into 100 km squares in a similar manner to the UTM system.
Rows are defined to be parallel to the 90°W / 90°E meridian and columns parallel to the 180° /0°
meridian. In the eastern hemisphere columns are lettered consecutively eastwards, starting at the
180°/0° meridian with A and omitting the letters D, E, I, M, N and O. In the western hemisphere the
columns start at the 180°/0° meridian with Z and the lettering proceeds backwards through the
alphabet omitting W, V, O, N and M. The omission of the letters shown ensures that there is no
duplication with UTM references within 18°.
28. In the North polar region rows start with A at 84° N 0° E the letters increasing northwards to
the Pole then southwards finishing with P at 84° N 180° E and omitting I and O. In the South polar
region rows start with A at 80° S 180° E, the letters increasing southwards to the Pole then
northwards, omitting I and O and finishing with Z at 80°S 0° E
Recording a UTM Grid Reference
29. The normal method of quoting a

reference on the UTM grid is to give letters
identifying the 100 km square in which the
point falls, followed by a group of
coordinates representing the metric
distances of eastings and northings from
the South-West corner of the square. The
figure coordinates will consist of two, four,
or six-figure groups depending upon the
scale of the map and the precision
required. In certain circumstances it may
be necessary to resolve possible
ambiguities by pre-fixing the reference by
the Grid Zone Designation Group. In
giving a reference, not only must the
eastings be given always before the
northings, but also the eastings must
contain the same number of figures as the
northings, even if some of the figures
should be zero.
Fig 3-10: The UPS Grid - North Polar Area
30. Each standard map bears a grid box to explain the system as applied to that particular map.
The Grid Zone Designation Group and the letters identifying the 100 km square are also quoted.
31. From Fig 3-11 it will be noted that

a full grid number appears in the margin
against certain grid lines, e.g. against the
vertical grid line labeled 6 we have
460,000M E. This is the eastings, in
metres, of that line, measured from the
origin of the grid in the 6° by 8° area. (In
para 22 it was pointed out that the 100 km
squares are spaced about the central
meridian of the 6° by 8° area; this
meridian is always marked 500000 M. Due
to map convergence it is rarely possible to
fit five 100 km squares either side of the
central meridian, hence the SW corner of Fig 3-11: Example of the UTM Grid
the 6° by 8° area is rarely the origin of the grid.)
32. To define the grid line lying 460,000 M East of the origin it is not necessary to write the
complete grid number: the zone letter indicates that the eastings of the line are between 400,000 M
and 500,000 M. The figure ‘6’ is the shorthand method of writing the remainder, 60,000 M. The figure
‘65’ would mean 65,000 M; ‘653’ would represent 65,300 M and so on. For this reason, the notes in
the grid box on a chart point out that it is only necessary to quote the figures in large type when giving
a grid reference.
33. The UTM Grid reference of the point marked EXTER in Fig 3-11 is obtained in the following
manner:
Grid Zone Designation 30U. (This would be given in the grid box on map)
100 km square letters- MC Metric coordinates easting- 85 Metric coordinates northing- 77
Full grid reference EXTER- 3 U MC 8577
Advantages and Disadvantages of the UTM System
34. Advantages
(a) The system is available for universal application and is not limited to Great Britain, as
is the National Grid.
(b) In times of emergency the reference can easily be coded.
(c) Eastings and northings are given in the same units of measurement.
(d) The full grid reference is unambiguous.
(e) It is a uniform system of mutually adjusted grids, ideal for military use.
(f) Distortion of the grid is kept to a minimum.
35. Disadvantages
(a) Contrary to common navigational practice the eastings are given before the
northings.
(b) The 100 km squares do not fit exactly into the latitude and longitude graticule.
36. The UTM grid advantages greatly outweigh the disadvantages from the military point of view -
particularly for engineer and artillery purposes - and, as such, UTM has been accepted by the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization as the military grid for ultimate adoption throughout all operational areas
(excluding the United Kingdom).
GEOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE SYSTEM (GEOREF)
Introduction
37. The use of latitude and longitude as a method for reporting position suffers from the
disadvantages stated in para 14. These disadvantages can be overcome by the use of a reporting
system based on a lettered rectangular grid. However, rectangular grids, which ignore the curvature
of the earth, are satisfactory only over a limited area. They become excessively distorted with any
extension of the area of use. To avoid this distortion, any reference system, which is to have
universal coverage, must be based on the graticule of meridians and parallels.
38. The World Geographic Reference System, or GEOREF, was introduced with the object of
providing a simple, speedy, unambiguous method of defining position, which is capable of universal
application. It incorporates the best of both systems by utilizing the orthodox graticule of meridians
and parallels and by expressing the position of any point, in relation to it, by a system of lettered
coordinates. In this way the disadvantages of latitude and longitude stated in para 14 (a) and (b) are
overcome.
39. It must be noted that the GEOREF system replaces neither the latitude and longitude nor the
rectangular grid methods of reporting positions, but provides a convenient means of reporting position
within the framework of the former system.
Description of the System
40. The GEOREF system divides the surface of the Earth into quadrangles, the sides of which
are specific arc lengths of longitude and latitude. Each quadrangle is then identified by a simple,
systematic, lettered code.
41. The first division of the Earth's surface is into 24 longitudinal zones, each 15° wide (Fig 3-12),
which are lettered A to Z inclusive (omitting I and O), commencing eastwards from the 180° meridian.
A corresponding division is made of the Earth's surface into 12 latitudinal bands, each 15° wide, which
are lettered A to M inclusive (omitting I). In this case, the lettering commences northwards from the
South Pole. The earth is therefore divided into 288 quadrangles, of 15° sides, each of which is
identified by a unique combination of two letters.
42. The first letter is always that of the longitude zone or easting and the second that of the
latitude band or northing. In this respect the system differs from that of latitude and longitude in which
the latitude is always given first. Thus Wiltshire is in the 15° quadrangle MK.
Fig 3-12: Basic GEOREF Graticule
43. Each 15° quadrangle is now sub-divided into 15 one-degree longitudinal zones and latitudinal
bands lettered A to Q inclusive (omitting I and O), commencing eastwards and northwards
respectively from the Southwest corner of the 15° quadrangle. Thus the 15° quadrangles are sub-
divided into 225 one-degree quadrangles each being identified by means of four letters. The first two
letters identify the 15° quadrangle. The third letter identifies the one-degree zone of longitude and the
fourth letter the one-degree band of latitude.
44. Salisbury in the County of Wiltshire therefore lies in the one-degree quadrangle MK PG (Fig
3-13).
45. The one-degree quadrangles are now further sub-divided into 60 longitudinal zones (each 1'
of arc) and 60 bands of latitude (each 1' of arc). The one-minute zones of longitude are numbered
(from 00 to 60 inclusive) eastwards from the Southwest corner of the one-degree quadrangle whilst
the one-minute bands of latitude are numbered similarly northwards.
46. The reference number of any point can now be given, to an accuracy of one minute of arc, by
quoting four letters and four numerals. The four letters denote the one-degree quadrangle, the first
two numerals the easting and the remaining two numerals the northing of the position within the one-
degree quadrangle. If the number of minutes of easting or northing is less than ten, the first numeral
is always 0. Thus the reference of Salisbury
Cathedral (51° 04' N 1° 48' W) is MKPG 1204.
47. Occasions may arise when it is necessary to

define a position to an accuracy greater than one
minute. The GEOREF system can be expanded to
allow for this. A reference to one tenth of a minute
of longitude and latitude is obtained by a further sub-
division of the one-minute quadrangle into tenths of
a minute of longitude eastwards and into tenths of a
minute of latitude northwards from the bottom left-
hand corner of the minute quadrangle. The
accuracy is now approximately 608 ft, and the
reference is given by quoting six numerals instead of
four. A further refinement to an accuracy of
approximately 61 ft is obtained when the eastings
and northings are given additional figures. In this Fig 3-13: One-Degree Quadrangles
case, the first four numerals represent the eastings
in minutes and hundredths of a minute of longitude and the remaining four numerals represent the
northings to a similar accuracy. Thus the GEOREF of Salisbury Cathedral, to an accuracy of one-
tenth of a minute, is MKPG 122039 and to a hundredth of a minute, MKPG 12250386. In a similar
manner the GEOREF of Hyderabad
(1727 N 07828 E) would be THDC 28
27.
48. Messages giving land positions

to accuracy greater than one nautical
mile will use the local rectangular grid.
This includes the reporting of crashed
aircraft, and positions referred to in air
operations in support of land or
amphibious forces. Positions at sea, for
which an accuracy of greater than one
nautical mile is required, will be
designated by GEOREF using six or
eight figures. For local operations where
the risk of ambiguity with a neighbouring
15° quadrangle is unlikely, the first two
letters of the reference may be dropped. Fig 3-14: One-Degree Quadrangle in Detail
The reference given in para 60 would then become PG 1204.

.
49. When a position lies on a dividing meridian of two longitudinal zones or a dividing parallel of
two bands of latitude, the reference letters quoted are for the most easterly zone or the most northerly
band; e.g. the GEOREF of 50° N 00° W is NKAF 0000.
Use of GEOREF
50. The GEOREF system is used specifically in
(a) The control and direction of forces engaged in the air defence of the United Kingdom
and the countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
(b) The coastal defence of the United Kingdom.
51. Although the system has now a restricted use it is available for universal application should
the occasion arise. Whenever security demands, it is a simple operation to change the code letters
from time to time.
Conversion of Latitude and Longitude to GEOREF Coordinates
52. The basis of the GEOREF system is the division and sub-division of the Earth's surface into
15° and 1° quadrangles. Remembering this (and that the origin for GEOREF is 90° S, 180° E/W) a
simple method can be derived for converting a latitude and longitude position into GEOREF
coordinates.
53. Using the conventional signs for N (+), S (-), E (+) and W (-), add 90 to the latitude and 180 to
the longitude. Position 5505 N 1025 W thus gets converted to:
90˚ + 55˚05’ = 145˚05’ (3.1)
180˚ - 10˚25’ = 169˚35’
The degree portions are divided by 15.
145˚05’ / 15 = 9, remainder 10
169˚35’ / 15 = 11, remainder 4
Add 1 to the quotients; making them 10 and 12 in the above example. The letters corresponding to
these numbers are written down omitting I and O in the count. Writing longitude first, MK is obtained;
this is the identity of the 15° quadrangle. To obtain the identity of the 1° quadrangle, 1 is added to
each remainder, and the corresponding letters (again discarding I and O) are noted down; in the
above example this gives EL. The final (minutes) portion of the GEOREF is given directly from (1),
i.e. 3505. Thus 5505 N 1025 W corresponds to MKEL 3505 in GEOREF.
54. If, having added 90 or 180, the degree portion is not divisible by 15; i.e. the quotient is 0, then
the position is in the first or A sector. To establish a direct alphabetical numerical relationship we
simply add 1 to the quotient, as was done in the above example.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the GEOREF System
55. Advantages of GEOREF are:
(a) It provides an easy and quick method of position reference.

(b) There is no risk of ambiguity.
(c) It is eminently suitable for use over R/T or telephone.
(d) It is capable of universal application.
(e) For purposes of security, it is comparatively simple to change the code letters from
time to time.
(f) To quote a reference to an accuracy of l' of longitude and latitude the group is smaller
than the corresponding reference by latitude and longitude.
56. Disadvantages of GEOREF are:
(a) Like the latitude and longitude system it compares unfavourably with a rectangular
grid since a different scale has to be used for the measurement of eastings and northings.
(b) The system can be confusing because, contrary to latitude and longitude procedures,
the eastings are given before the northings. Similarly in the southern and western
hemispheres, the coordinates are still given as eastings and northings and not as southings
and westings.
LOCAL DATUM FOR MAP REFERENCES
Introduction
57. A datum can be considered as a set of mathematical constants that define the size and shape
of the Ellipsoid and how that ellipsoid is fixed to the geoid. It is used in conjunction with the
production of a particular map. Despite the introduction of worldwide standards such as WGS 84
many nations still produce maps and charts using local datum references. Provided that all
references to position are based upon the same datum, little confusion will occur. However,
coordinates for a point on the Earth's surface using one datum will, in most cases, not match the
coordinates for the same point using another datum.
Error Potential
58. Fig 3-15 shows two maps of the same area but bearing differing grids overlays. Fig 3-15a is
based upon WGS 84 and Fig 3-15b on the European Datum (ED) 50. The position of the centre of
the runway at BROCZYNO can be identified by the coordinates 851308 under WGS 84 and as
852310 under ED 50. If this airfield were to be a target, provided that both the target planner and the
tasked aircrew were using maps with the same datum there would be no problem. If not, the position
tasked would not be the position attacked.
(a) (b)
Fig 3-15: Position Comparison between WGS – 84 & ED Datum
OTHER METHODS OF EXPRESSING POSITION
59. The methods so far discussed have defined position relative to a set of axes. However, there
are occasions when simpler methods will suffice.
Pinpoints
60. The simplest method of reporting an aircraft's position is to name the point directly beneath
the aircraft at that time. This may be a town, airfield, radio beacon etc. However it is not a precise
method, because:
(a) Easily recognized features are rarely point features.

(b) It is difficult to determine, and view, the position vertically beneath the aircraft.
(c) It relies on the receiving agency's knowledge of the area, thus the method is open to
confusion.
Range and Bearing
61. An alternative method is to express the aircraft's position as a range (distance) and bearing
(angular relationship) from an easily identified datum or feature. This method is sometimes referred to
as a rho-theta (ρ, θ) system.
62. The bearing may take the form of:
(a) The relative direction (measured from the fore and aft axis of the aircraft) of the line
joining the aircraft and the feature. The receiving agency must know the aircraft's heading to
interpret this message.
(b) The true direction of the line joining the feature and the aircraft, measured at the
feature.
(c) The magnetic direction of the line joining the feature and the aircraft, measured at the
feature.
(d) Bearings from TACAN and VOR beacons. These bearings are referred to as radials,
e.g. "I am on the 180 radial from Wallasey VOR", indicates that the aircraft is on a line drawn
at 180° (M) from Wallasey VOR.
63. The range is fully expressed in nautical miles.
Fig 3-16: Expression of Position as ‘Range and Bearing’

123
CHAPTER 4
SCALE
1. Scale is the relationship between the length of a line drawn between two positions on a chart
and the distance on the earth between the same points. Three methods of expressing scale are
common:
(a) Statement in Words. This is self explanatory. The statement "One inch to ten
nautical miles" means that a line one inch long on the chart represents a line ten nautical
miles long on the earth. Jeppesen charts often use this method; for instance, the Jeppesen
E(HI) 1 / 2 uses a scale of 1 inch to 20 nm.
Fig 4-1: Graduated Scale Line
(b) Graduated Scale Line. Graduated scale lines are normally depicted at the bottom
of the chart as in Fig 4-1 and may be in nautical miles, statute miles or kilometres. Since one
degree of latitude is equal to 60 nautical miles, a
latitude scale on the chart in effect provides a
graduated scale line as is shown in Fig 4-2.
(c) Representative Fraction. This is a

statement in words put into mathematical form and
is calculated from the equation:
Scale = Chart Length

Earth Distance
By convention, the chart length is always 1 and the

dimensions above and below the line are the same Fig 4-2: Latitude Scale
and thus cancel each other to make the fraction
dimensionless, i.e. representative. Thus on the ICAO 1 :500,000 topo, 1 cm on the chart
represents 500,000 cms on the earth and 1 inch on the chart represents 500,000 inches on
the earth.
Converting from a Statement in Words to a Representative Fraction
2. When converting from a statement in words to a Representative Fraction, you must ensure
that you use the same units for both the numerator and the denominator. For instance, if converting
'One inch to ten nautical miles' into a representative fraction, substitution into the above equation
gives:
Representative Fraction = 1 inch

10 nautical miles
Multiply by 6080 to get the denominator into feet:

10x 6080 feet
And then by 12 to get it into inches:

10 x 6080 x 12 inches
Now both numerator and denominator are in the correct units, i.e.:
Representative Fraction = 1 _
729600
and so the RF becomes dimensionless, i.e. it will work with centimeters or any other units as
long as the ratios remain the same.
Reminder About Conversion Factors
3. The following conversion factors will be useful in dealing with typical scale problems:
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet or 1852 metres

1 metre = 3.28 feet
1 inch = 2.54 cm
5.4 nm = 10 kilometres
Example 1 On a particular chart, 5 cm represents 7 nautical miles. What is the scale?
Answer: Representative Fraction = Chart length_

Earth Distance
= 5cm
7 (nautical miles) x 1852 x 100
(We multiply 7 by 1852 to convert to metres, then by 100 to convert to centimetres)

5
1,296,400
However, we always express Representative Fractions with' 1' as the numerator. We need to
divide both numerator and denominator by 5.
Representative Fraction = 1
259,280
125 Scale
Easy Calculator Operation
4. The easiest way to enter all this on to your calculator in one stage is to evaluate the
denominator first then divide by the numerator, ie, in the above example, as follows:
7 x 1852 x 100 / 5 = 259280
The answer comes out as the denominator. You then have to write it down as 1
259280
If you enter numerator first, you get the RF expressed as a decimal, like this:
5 / (7 x 1852 x 100) = 0.000003856
If you then want to use your x -1 key, fine. But it's quicker to do it the first way.
Types of Scale Question
5. There are 2 basic sub-divisions of scale problems: Simple Scale and Mercator Scale.
Mercator Scale problems are dealt with in a later chapter. All simple scale problems are dealt with by
substituting into the one basic equation:
RF = CL
ED
Sometimes you are given the Chart Length and the Earth Distance and asked to find the RF, as in the
previous example. Sometimes you are given the scale (the RF) and the ED and asked to find the CL.
Sometimes you are given the RF and the CL and asked to find the ED. Just substitute what you know
into the above equation, apply any conversion factors necessary to get both CL and ED in the same
units, rearrange if necessary to make the unknown the subject of the equation, and solve using your
calculator.
Example 2
On a chart of scale 1/5,000,000, how many nautical miles on the Earth are represented by 1.7 cm?
RF = CL = 1 = 1.7 cm
ED 5,000,000 ED
Re-arranging: ED = 1.7 x 5.000.000 = 45.89 nm

1852 x 100
Rounding Errors
6. The conversion factors we have quoted are, in many cases, only approximate. There is often
more than one way to carry out the conversions, and sometimes a scale numerical problem may be
solved by converting both numerator and denominator into metric units or alternatively, both to
Imperial units. This may give small differences in the answers. Look at the 4 options given in the
question and choose the nearest.
Large and Small Scale
7. Confusion often exists as to whether a chart is 'large scale' or 'small scale'. If on a chart two
centimeters represents one kilometer on the Earth, the chart does not cover much area, but there is
lots of detail. This is a LARGE scale chart. On the other hand it the chart covers a lot of area, but
there is not much detail, it is a small scale chart. To summarise:
Large Scale = Lots of Detail

Small Scale = Lots of Area
However, the Representative Fraction is in the right sense. A small scale gives a smaller RF. A large
scale gives a larger RF. Consider 2 charts, one a 1/50,000 and the other a 1/5,000,000 small-scale
chart.
Scale Representative Fraction Expressed as a Decimal
Large 1/50,000 0.00002
Small 1/5,000,000 0.0000002
You can see that 0.00002 is a larger number than 0.0000002. The Representative Fractions are in the
right sense. The confusion occurs because the denominators are easier to handle and so that is how
we usually refer to charts. We call the first chart a "fifty thousand" in conversation. We call the second
one a "five million". We do not refer to them as a" 0.00002" or a "0.0000002". But the logic of 'large' or
'small' is correct.
So, Large Scale = Smaller Denominator

Small Scale = Larger Denominator
127
CHAPTER 5
CHARTS
Chart Projections - General
1. The transfer of information from a globe on to a flat paper chart is achieved by 'projection',
because, originally, the technique involved using a light source within the globe to project the latitude /
longitude graticule on to a flat sheet of paper. Today, the projection is achieved mostly by using
computer models. However, an understanding of the original projection techniques using light is more
than adequate for understanding the properties of charts, whatever actual method of production is
used.
2. Perspective and Non-Perspective Charts. Charts produced directly from a projection are
called perspective or geometric projections. Charts produced by mathematical methods are called
non-perspective charts. Most of the charts we use are in this latter non-perspective category but they
can be thought of as perspective projections which have been modified mathematically.
3. The Reduced Earth. The term "reduced earth" (RE), means the scale model of the earth
on which the projection of the chart is based. To make a 1:1,000,000 chart, a one millionth scale
model of the earth will be used.
Types of Projection
4. There are 3 general types of projection surfaces:
(a) Azimuthal / Plane

(b) Cylindrical
(c) Conical
Fig 5-1: Azimuthal Projection Fig 5-2: Azimuthal Graticule

5. Azimuthal / Plane Projections. An azimuthal (or 'plane') projection is produced by placing

a flat sheet of paper against a point on the earth. A common use is to provide charts of the North /
South Polar Regions. The principle of the projection is illustrated in Fig .5-1 and is used in Polar
Stereographic charts. The graticule of the projection would appear as in Fig 5-2. Although this
projection has produced a chart of the entire southern hemisphere, the chart would only be used in
the central area, in this case for flights over Antartica.
6. Cylindrical Projections. The earliest chart projections were produced in the 16th century
by a Flemish navigator called Gerhard Kremer who used the Latin alias 'Mercator'. His projections
used cylinders of paper wrapped around the "reduced earth" and touching the RE at the Equator. The
projection technique is illustrated in Fig 5-3. When the graticule has been projected onto the cylinder,
the cylinder is opened to produce at flat sheet of paper. Cartographers then can add the geographic
detail. Note that the shapes look a little strange. This is explained later in the section on mercator
charts. Again, notice that most of the world (except the Poles) has been projected and the user would
only use a section of the chart (in this case, normally near the Equator). Other charts that use
cylindrical projections are the Transverse Mercator and the Oblique Mercator which are not include in
the scope of this book.
Fig 5-3: Simple Cylindrical Projection and Graticule
7. Conical Projections. Conical projections involve placing a cone of paper over the Reduced
Earth and projecting the graticule onto the cone. Subsequently the cone is slit along one side and the
cone can then be opened to produce a flat sheet of paper. The technique is illustrated in Fig.5-4. In
Fig 5-4(a), the cone is placed over the earth. The graticule is projected onto the cone. The cone is
then slit in Fig 5-4(b) (along the Greenwich meridian in this case). The cone is then 'developed'
(opened) to give the flat sheet of paper and graticule illustrated in Fig 5-4(c). In this case, the chart will
129 Charts
show the whole Northern Hemisphere. The user will need only a small section of the chart, e.g. the
rectangle suggested. In this section of the chart, the graticule will look more familiar (similar to the
ICAO 1 :500,000 topographical chart) and this is illustrated in Fig 5-5.
Figure 5-4 (a) & (b): Conical Projections
8. The conical graticule in Figure 5-5 is typical of the Lamberts Conical Chart which is discussed
later. All the projections discussed so far are 'conical' in a mathematical sense. An azimuthal
projection uses a cone whose apex angle is 1800.. A cylinder is a cone whose apex angle is 00.
Subsequently you may notice similarities in the properties of azimuthal and cylindrical charts with
those of conical charts.
Fig 5-4 (c) Conical Projection Fig 5-5: Typical Conical Graticule
Properties of an Ideal Chart
9. Having developed methods of projecting the spherical Earth onto a flat sheet of paper, we
should now consider what properties we require of the chart. The following is a list of properties we
might like on an 'ideal' (perfect) chart. (The list is not comprehensive).
10. Representation of the Earth's Surface.
(a) Angles on the Earth's surface should be represented by the same angles on the
chart.
(b) Scale should be constant and correct.
(c) Areas should be represented with their true shape on the chart.
(d) Equal areas on the Earth's surface should be shown as equal areas on the chart.
11. Navigation Requirements.
(a) Rhumb Lines should be straight lines.

(b) Great Circles should be straight lines.
(c) Latitudes / Longitudes should be easy to plot.
(d) Adjacent sheets should fit correctly.
(e) Coverage should be worldwide.
12. Two of these properties can never be obtained, except on the globe. These are:
(a) Scale can never be constant and correct. We can modify charts mathematically to
give nearly constant scale in small areas, but not over large areas.
(b) The shapes of large areas cannot be represented perfectly. However, it is possible to
represent the shapes of small areas reasonably accurately.
13. All the other ideal properties can be obtained on charts, but unfortunately not together on the
same chart. However, not all of them are essential for navigation. For instance, it really doesn't
matter to a pilot whether areas are correctly represented or not. You don't make comparisons of area
when flying. Even a reasonable amount of distortion of shape is acceptable, provided it is not too
great and landmarks can be recognized.
Orthomorphism / Conformality
14. Of all the ideal properties listed in para 10 and 11 the only essential one is that navigation
bearings must be "correct" and the critical property is that angles on the Earth must be represented
correctly on the chart. This property is critical to aviation or indeed for navigation generally. If you
draw a line joining two points on the chart and measure the angle but then find that this does not
correspond to the true direction on the Earth, the chart is useless for navigation. You might previously
have thought that if you measure a track off any map, it will correspond to Earth direction but this is
not true for most charts. Those charts that do have this property are in the minority and are known as
orthomorphic or conformal charts. The ICAO I :500,000 Topographical chart is called a "Lamberts
Conformal Conic" as it is mentioned just above the graduated scale.
131 Charts
15. There are two fundamental conditions which must be met to achieve orthomorphism /
conformality. The first condition is that the meridians and parallels on the chart must intersect at right
angles (as they do on the Earth). This is illustrated in Fig 5-6. Consider a rectangle on the Earth's
surface as depicted in Fig
5-6(a). Also, consider the
bearing of position X from
position 0, which is 056°.
In Fig 5-6(b), the chart
graticule has been
distorted and the meridian
/ parallel intersection is not
90°. Not only is the shape
incorrect but the bearing
from 0 to X is now 028°
rather than 056°. The Fig 5-6: Orthomorphism
chart is not conformal.
16. Look at the

graticules so far discussed.
They all meet the 90°
intersect rule. Fig 5-7
illustrates the general form
of an Oblique Mercator
graticule. Note the
relationship between
parallels and meridians.
The chart is conformal. Fig 5-7: Graticule of Oblique Mercator
17. The second

condition relates to the
scale at a point on the chart
and is illustrated in Fig 5-8.
A square on the earth has
been illustrated in Fig 5-8(a)
along with the line OY which
has a bearing of 045o(T). In
Fig 5-8(b) representing the
chart, the N-S scale has
changed but the E- W scale
has remained the same.
Fig 5-8 - Scale at a Point
The overall effect is that the shape has changed to a rectangle and the bearing 0Y is now 035°(T)
rather than the correct 045°(T) on the Earth. The chart is not orthomorphic / conformal. On an
orthomorphic chart, scale at a point should be the same in all directions. The above diagram implies
that a chart should be constant scale which we know is only true on a globe. On a chart, scale will
change. The condition (b) is modified to “At any point on a chart, scale should be the same in all
directions, or should change at the same rate in all directions”. Refer back to Fig 5-3. The shapes on
the simple cylindrical projection have been distorted, in this case stretched in a N -S direction because
the N-S scale is changing at a greater rate that the E-W scale. Mercator, the Flemish navigator,
recognised this problem and mathematically adjusted the N-S scale change to produce the conformal
Mercator chart which is explained below.
MERCARTOR CHARTS
Introduction
18. The earliest method of transferring the graticule of meridians and parallels from a globe to a
flat sheet of paper was achieved using cylindrical projections. This has been described earlier in para
6. The projected graticule had one significant advantage for early navigators - the meridians were
equally spaced parallel lines. Thus a straight line drawn on the chart would have a constant direction -
the straight line on the chart would be a rhumb line. With their basic compass systems, early
navigators preferred to sail constant directions and had to accept the fact that they would be sailing a
rhumb line. Modern navigators use more advanced guidance systems and normally aim to fly the
Great Circle track.
Mercator's Projection - General
19. In the 16th century, 'Mercator', recognised the limitations of the simple cylindrical projection.
The projected graticule met one of the requirements for an orthomorphic/conformal chart - the
meridians and parallels crossed at right angles. Therefore, a straight line was a line of constant
direction - a Rhumb line. Unfortunately, it was not the correct direction. The shapes were clearly not
correct and therefore angles on the chart were not correct.
20. Note the shapes in Fig 5-3. They are stretched in a N-S direction. Mercator realised that this
was caused by failure to meet the second requirement of orthomorphism / conformality, namely that -
at any point on a chart, scale should be the same in all directions, or should change at the same rate
in all directions. On the simple cylindrical projection, the N-S scale was changing at a different rate
from the E-W scale. Mercator determined that the E-W scale was changing such that, at any latitude,
the scale was proportional to the secant of the latitude (secant = 1/cosine). However, the N-S scale
was changing such that, at any latitude, the scale was proportional to the tangent of the latitude,
resulting in the N-S stretching of shapes. This can be seen in Fig 5-9 where the latitude spacing is a
133 Charts
function of tan (Iat)
21. Mercator solved the

problem by adjusting the
positions of the parallels of
latitude. The parallels had been
projected as parallel lines with
separation between the parallels
increasing in proportion to the
tangent of the latitude. Mercator
adjusted the parallels of latitude
so that their separation
increased only at a rate
proportional to the secant of
latitude, matching the E-W scale
change. Briefly, Mercator Fig 5-9: Simple Cylindrical Perspective Projection
mathematically adjusted the
positions of the parallels of latitude to make the chart orthomorphic / conformal.
22. Because the chart has been mathematically produced, it is a non-perspective chart. Mercator
solved the problem in 1569. Because his solution was so simple, elegant, and correct, we still use his
projection today, over 400 years later. A modern Mercator chart looks very different from the original
because we have subsequently discovered and explored so many more countries. However, the
basic principles of the graticule have not changed.
23. This Mercator projection is often called a normal or direct Mercator. The projection surface
touches the Reduced Earth at the Equator. The geographic poles cannot be projected (they are on
the axis of the cylinder). There are other types of cylindrical projections which can project the poles,
the Transverse and Oblique Mercators.
Mercator Charts - Basic Properties
24. Scale. Mercator scale expands as the secant of the latitude. This arises out of the
departure formula. You will remember that:
Departure = change of longitude (min) x cos latitude (5.1)
25. Mercator realised that, by the use of a cylindrical projection, the meridians were produced as
parallel lines. This meant that a change of longitude on the chart was always represented by the same
distance on the chart (so many centimetres), whatever the latitude. Therefore, we are holding the
change of longitude (the Chart Length) constant and we need to see how the departure (the Earth
Distance) changes with latitude. This tells us how the scale changes with latitude. We therefore re-
arrange the formula (5.1) as follows:
Change of longitude = Departure

cos latitude
However, since secant ө = 1

cosine ө
Therefore we can re-write the above equation as:
Change of longitude = Departure x secant latitude
As the E-W scale has to change as a function of the secant of the latitude (because the meridians are
parallel at all latitudes), then, as Mercator realised, the N/S scale has to change by the same amount.
We therefore come up with the following equation:
Scale at any latitude (λ) = scale at Equator x sec (λ)) (5.2)
Let's see how this works with a practical example. Take a case where the scale at the Equator is
1/1,000,000. Now let's calculate what the scale on a Mercator chart will be at 8° N (or S) latitude.
Scale at 8° N = scale at Equator x sec 8°N
= 1 x 1
1,000,000 cos 8°
There is no point in evaluating secant as a numerator. In multiplying out Representative Fractions, we

want '1' on the top line. We are better off writing secant as 1/cos, because then we shall be multiplying
denominators. So:
Scale at 8°N = 1 x 1 = 1
1,000,000 0.990268 990,268
This shows that the scale at 8°N (or S) latitude is 99% of the scale at the Equator, or within 1 % of
correct scale. This 1% figure is of importance in navigation. Up to a scale error of 1%, we can regard
a chart as being of "constant scale", which means that you can measure distances using a ruler. Once
the scale error increases to more than 1% , we must find distances either by calculation or by using
the local latitude scale and measuring small distances at a time with a pair of dividers. The most
important figures to remember are that Mercator scale is: “Within 1 % up to 80 from the Equator and
within ½ % up to 60 from the Equator”. In examination questions, 8° is often approximated to 500
nautical miles. 6° can be approximated to 350 nautical miles. If you see those numbers in questions, it
is often a clue that the examiner is using them to mean 8° or 6°, and is referring to the 1% or ½%
scale error bands.
To summarise: Mercator scale is correct (i.e. same as the Reduced Earth) at the Equator.
Mercator scale expands as the secant of the latitude.
Mercator scale is within 1% up to 8° from the Equator.
Mercator scale is within ½% up to 6° from the Equator.
135 Charts
26. Orthomorphism. All charts used for navigation must be orthormorphic. This chart is
orthomorphic / conformal by mathematical construction (Mercator's adjustment of the parallels of
latitude). The projection is non-perspective.
27. Graticule. The graticule is rectangular. Meridians are equally spaced parallel lines.
Parallels of latitude are parallel lines with the space between them increasing as the secant of the
latitude.
28. Shapes. Mercator produced an orthomorphic projection. However, looking again at Fig 5-10
the student should notice that the areas are not correctly represented. Correct representation of area
is not required on
an orthomorphic
chart. Thus,
Greenland appears
as large as Africa
on the chart,
despite the fact that
the land area of
Africa is
approximately 18
times that of
Greenland. In
reality, the land
area of Greenland
Fig 5-10: Examples of Mercator Scale Expansion
is only the same as
the small NE corner of Africa, as illustrated in Fig 5-10. Similarly, the land area of Scandinavia
illustrated is only one third of the land area of India, but on the chart they appear to have similar
areas. Note also the chart length equivalent to 3000 nm at 60N, which is twice the chart length for the
same distance at the Equator. This distortion of area and change of scale also leads to change of
shape. Land masses at high latitudes appear too wide for their height compared with the same land
masses on a globe or on a chart with convergent meridians. For instance, the shape of the North
American continent on a Mercator appears too wide when compared with the shape on a globe. The
E-W distance from Labrador to Western Alaska seems too great compared with the distance from
Northern Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico.
29. These distortions of shape are insignificant over small distances and therefore have no effect
on a pilot's ability to map-read. They have no implications for Rhumb Line navigation at all, but they
can give a false impression of the most direct routing, especially at high latitudes.
30. Chart Convergence. Convergence, or Convergency is the angle of inclination of the

meridians on the Earth, (or the change in direction of a Great Circle), between two longitudes.
However, for each type of projection, we also have the concept of Chart Convergence. This is the
angle of inclination between meridians on the chart, (or the change in direction of a straight line),
between two longitudes. For a Mercator chart, as all meridians are parallel, their mutual inclination is
zero. The change in direction of a straight line drawn on the map is also zero. It will always cut all
meridians at the same angle. That is why Mercator produced the projection in the first place - so that a
straight line on the chart gives a single track angle. Earth convergency is also zero at the Equator,
but nowhere else. Therefore Mercator convergence is correct at the Equator (only) but constant
everywhere (always zero).
31. Rhumb Lines. Because the meridians are parallel

lines, a straight line track drawn on the chart will cut all meridians
at the same angle. A straight line track on a Mercator chart is a
rhumb line. A great circle radio bearing should be converted to
the equivalent rhumb line bearing by applying conversion angle to
the measured bearing. Always apply it to bring the bearing nearer
to the equator.
32. Great Circles. The Rhumb line between two points will
always be nearer to the Equator than the corresponding Great
Circle. Conversely, the Great Circle between two points will Fig 5-11 Mercator Chart
Rhumb Lines and Great Circles
always lie nearer the Pole than the Rhumb line. This was
covered earlier and
the statement can
be simplified visually
in Fig 5-11. Apply
these rules to the
Mercator chart at Fig
5-12. Consider a
round-the-world trip
from London to Los
Angeles, USA to
Auckland, New
Zealand to
Singapore and
returning to London.
The route is drawn
on a Mercator chart
in Fig 5-12(a).
Fig 5-12(a): London - LA - Auckland - Singapore - London
Rhumb Lines
137 Charts
33. All the

tracks drawn are
rhumb line tracks.
From London to LA,
the rhumb line track
is approximately
257°(T). From LA
to Auckland, the
rhumb line track is
approximately
221°(T). . From
Auckland to
London, the rhumb
line track is
approximately
Fig 5-12(b): London - LA - Auckland - London - Great Circles
301°(T). Note that
the Auckland / London rhumb line track passes through Singapore. Now draw in the Great Circle
tracks for the same route (Fig 5-12b). Note the shapes of the Great Circles. The Equator and the
meridians (which are great circles) project as straight lines. All other great circles project as curved
lines concave to the Equator (convex to the nearer Pole).
34. Mathematical Calculations. In the above discussion, the rules about the shapes of great
circles have been stated. Given the rhumb line direction, the student also should be able to calculate
the direction of the great circle. The angle between the great circle and the rhumb line is conversion
angle (CA) where:
Conversion Angle (CA) = ½ Earth Convergency (EC)

or, Conversion Angle (CA) = ½ x ch long x sin (Mean Lat) (5.3)
Now review Fig 5-12(b) and consider the route from London to Los Angeles. As stated previously, the
rhumb line direction (a straight line on a Mercator chart) is approximately 257°(T). The angle between
the rhumb line and the great circle is conversion angle (CA). In this case:
Conversion angle = ½ x ch long x sin (mean lat)
Using approximate values
CA = ½ x 120 x sin 45° = 60 x 0.707 = approx 42°
Therefore the Great Circle track from London to LA, measured at London, is approximately 257° + 42°
= 299°(T). Now calculate (using equivalent values) the great circle track direction from LA to London,
measured at LA. The answer is approximately 035°(T). That is because R/L track is 077°(T) -
reciprocal of 257°(T). Conversion angle is approx. 42°. Therefore, great circle track is approx. 035°(T).
35. Similar exercises could be carried out for all the other sectors. However, a problem would
occur on the sectors crossing the Equator. For example, on the Los Angeles to Auckland sector, it
could be argued that the conversion angle is zero because the mean latitude is 0° (the Equator). In
these situations the sector would have to be divided into two - the first sector from LA to the Equator
(mean lat approx 18°) and the second sector from the Equator to Auckland (mean lat approx 18°).
There are two exceptions to this rule. The Equator and meridians are straight lines (because they are
also Rhumb Lines).
Summary of Mercator Properties
36. A summary of Mercator properties is set out in Table 5-1 below.
PROPERTIES OF A MERCATOR CHART
Correct on the Equator. Elsewhere increases as the secant of the latitude.

Scale Within 1 % up to 8° from the Equator.
Within ½% up to 6° from the Equator.
Orthomorphic Yes. All charts used for navigation must be.
Meridians are straight parallel lines, evenly spaced. Parallels are straight
Graticule parallel lines with the space between them increasing with the secant of
the latitude.
Reasonably correct over small areas.

Shapes
Distortion over large areas, especially at high latitudes.
Zero everywhere.
Chart Convergence Correct at the Equator.
Constant across the chart.
Rhumb lines Straight lines Always! Everywhere
Equator and meridians are straight lines (because they are also Rhumb
Great Circles Lines). All other Great Circles - curves, with a track nearer the Pole (or
concave to the Equator).
Table 5-1: Summary of Mercator Chart Properties
LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL CHARTS
37. We have seen that the Mercator chart has many powerful properties, but it does have two
limitations. These are:
(a) Great Circles are not projected as straight lines.

139 Charts
(b) The chart is not constant scale. Indeed, scale changes quite rapidly on a Mercator
chart.
38. Navigators wished to maintain Rhumb Line tracks for the first 400 years or so, of the life of the
Mercator chart, because they were steering by compass, and therefore needed to have a constant
track direction. However, that situation started to change from about 1960 onwards, when automatic
computing became available. It is possible to calculate a desired Great Circle track direction by
spherical trigonometry formulae, and the computers built into INS, IRS, FMS and GPS do this as a
matter of course. In this case, if the aircraft is going to be steered along a Great Circle, it would be
helpful to have a chart on which a Great Circle is a straight line. Otherwise the aircraft will appear to
go off track in the middle of the leg, then recover back to track again.
39. Also, if the scale remains constant on a chart, we can measure distances with a ruler instead
of having to use a pair of dividers and open the dividers to different distances at different latitudes. For
aviation, it is useful to be able to use a ruler because most aircraft do not have a large plotting table
like a ship.
Background to the Lambert Projection
40. The basis of the Lambert projection is the simple conical. However, the simple conical
projection has some limitations; not least that it is not orthomorphic. A German mathematician called
Johann Heinrich Lambert made some modifications to the basic conic in 1777. The result is the
orthomorphic, near constant scale Lambert's Conformal Conic Chart.
41. Firstly we will derive some of the properties of the simple conic projection. Some of these,
particularly the chart convergence, are also found in the Lambert projection. We will next examine
why Lambert made his changes and what effect they had. We will then finish up with the properties of
the Lambert projection.
The Simple Conic Projection - Convergence
42. It is possible to project the graticule of the

earth on to the inside surface of a cone. This
process gives the conical family of projections from
which Lambert's is derived.
43. A cone is placed over a reduced earth, in

such a way that the cone is tangential with the
reduced earth along a parallel of latitude. The apex
Fig 5-13: Principle of Simple Conical
of the cone will lie on the extended line of the Projection
earth's axis as shown in Fig 5-13.
44. A light source at the centre of the

reduced earth casts shadows of the graticule on
the inside surface of the cone. These shadows
could be marked in, the cone removed, cut
down its slant side and rolled out flat to give a
simple conical projection as illustrated in Fig 5-
14. On the simple conical projection, scale is
correct on the parallel of tangency, in this
example, 45°N. This parallel, on which scale is
correct, is called the 'Standard Parallel'. Scale
expands on either side of the Standard Parallel.
Fig 5-14: Simple Conical Projection - Graticule
45. Fig 5-14 illustrates that when the cone is flattened 3600 of longitude are represented in a
segment of a circle of 255 degrees, in this case. The size of the segment is controlled by the parallel
of latitude chosen to be the parallel of tangency - the higher the latitude chosen, the larger will be the
segment.
46. Look at Fig 5-15. The parallel of tangency is

45N. You can see that if you take this parallel as the
base of a triangle formed by the cross-section of the
cone, you get an isosceles triangle, with the angle at the
apex being 90°. On the other hand, if we had taken a
parallel of tangency of 60N, the angle at the apex would Fig 5-15: Apex Angle
have been 120°. The ultimate case is a parallel of tangency of 90N - the North pole. In this case we
would get a flat sheet of paper and the angle at the North pole would be 180°. The angle at the apex
of the triangle is always twice the parallel of tangency.
47. The apex angle is also known as the angle of the cone. It is the angle of the cone which
determines the arc of the segment formed by laying the cone flat. In the ultimate case, a 90° parallel
of tangency gives a 180° cone angle, which gives no missing gap at all. If the parallel of tangency is
at a high latitude, say, 60N, then the paper segment forms quite a large arc and the 'missing' segment
is small. At a parallel of tangency of 45N the segment is 255°, making the 'missing' segment 105°.
48. The relationship of the segment formed to the original 360° of longitude change is determined
by the sine of the parallel of origin.
Arc of segment = Change of longitude x sine of parallel of origin
= 360° x sine 45° = 255°
What we are saying here is that 360° (which is the change of longitude between the 1800 E and the
1800 W meridian in Fig 5-14 - going the long way round - not across the gap) is represented by 255°
141 Charts
of angle of inclination between the meridians as drawn on the simple conic chart.
Angle of inclination of meridians = ch long x sine of parallel of origin
The angle of inclination of the meridians is known as chart convergence. Therefore:
Chart convergence = Change of longitude x sine of parallel of origin (5.4)
This gives a general relationship, which is illustrated in Fig 5-16.
Fig 5-16: Chart Convergence over 100° Fig 5-17: Chart Convergence over 10°
49. In Fig 5-16, a change of longitude of 100° is represented on the chart by an angle of
inclination of the meridians of (100° x sin 45°), which is 70.71°. In Fig 5-17, a change of longitude of
10° is represented on the chart by an angle of inclination of the meridians of (10° x sin 45°), which is
7.071 °. The sine of the parallel of origin is called "the constant of the cone" and is represented by the
symbol "n".
The Simple Conic Projection - Scale
50. On the simple conic projection the scale is

correct at the parallel of tangency - the paper touches
the Reduced Earth at the point shown at Fig 5-18.
However, the scale expands away from the parallel of
tangency rather rapidly.
Lambert's Conical Orthomorphic Projection Fig 5-18: Correct Scale
51. Lambert modified the simple conic in order to

reduce this rapid rate of scale change. Instead of doing
what is shown at Fig 5-18, Lambert made the cone of his
projection go inside the Reduced Earth. The scale is
now correct at these two points (Fig 5-19). These are
now called the Standard Parallels. The scale expands
Fig 5-19: Lambert – Correct Scale
outside the standard parallels and it contracts between
them.
52. This has had the effect of evening out the scale error, making it more of a constant scale
chart. This new projection has two standard parallels on which the scale is correct. The old parallel of
tangency of the simple conic is renamed the parallel of origin of the new projection, and scale is least
on this parallel, just as it was on the
simple conic. Outside the standard
parallels scale is greater (more
expanded) than it is on the standard
parallels, whilst between them scale
is less (contracted), being least of all
on the parallel.
53. In Fig 5-20 the standard

parallels are 43°N and 47°N and the
parallel of origin (//0) is 45°N. The Fig 5-20: Part of a Lambert Conical
upper standard parallel appears one Orthomorphic Chart.
sixth of the way from the top of the chart and the lower standard parallel, one sixth of the way from the
bottom of the chart. This is the 'one sixth rule', and ensures minimum scale variation over the sheet.
Lambert Chart Convergence
54. In the simple conic the angle of the cone was twice the latitude of the parallel of tangency.
This fixed the chart convergence, making it the change of latitude times the sine of the parallel of
tangency. In making the cone go inside the Reduced Earth, Lambert did not change the cone angle.
You can either think of it as keeping the cone angle constant and reducing the size of the cone, or,
equally validly, just pushing the same cone downwards a bit.
55. If the cone angle has not changed, then neither has the 'n' factor, or constant of the cone. The
chart convergence remains the same. This was originally defined by the parallel of tangency, so in the
Lambert chart it is defined by the Parallel of Origin. Thus the scale is correct at the Standard
Parallels, but the convergence factor is defined by the Parallel of Origin.
Non-Perspective Chart
56. Having brought the cone inside the Reduced Earth, it was necessary to make some
mathematical adjustments in order to make the chart orthomorphic. The Lambert projection is a non-
perspective chart.
Lambert Chart Properties
57. Scale. As we have seen, the Lambert chart is not completely constant scale. Scale expands
143 Charts
outside the standard parallels and contracts inside them. However, the whole point of Lambert's
modification was to reduce the rate of scale change. For practical purposes, we regard a chart as
being 'constant scale' if the amount of scale distortion does not exceed 1 %. This means that you can
measure distances with a ruler and they will be 1 % or less in error. This is good enough for most
applications in aviation. Some published Lambert charts meet this specification and others do not.
You can measure distances with a ruler on the 1:500,000 topographical maps very accurately (there
is about 0.1 % maximum error), but there is about 3% scale error on the Jeppesen ED-6.
Change of Latitude
% Scale Error
between Standard Parallel
5%° 0.1
16° 1
23° 2
28° 3
32° 4
Fig 5-21: Ch lat of Standard Parallels Table 5-2: % Scale Error
58. The amount of scale error depends on the separation of the standard parallels. You are not
required to know the formula or the amount of scale error but, just to give you a feel for what are and
are not constant scale charts, the Table 5-2 lists the scale error for various latitude differences.
59. Orthomorphism. The chart is

orthomorphic by mathematical construction. The
meridians converge, but the parallel curve. When
put together, they cut at right angles.
60. Graticule. Meridians are straight lines

radiating from the pole. Parallels of latitude are arcs
of circles, all of which are centred at the pole. The
pole is usually off the map sheet which you are
using. The map sheet is shown as a red broken
Fig 5-22: Map Sheet
rectangle as shown at Fig 5-22.
61. Parallel of Origin. The parallel of origin is the mathematical basis of the projection. It
defines the chart convergence. It is half-way between the two Standard Parallels. The sine of the
parallel of origin is called 'the constant of the cone' and is denoted by the symbol 'n'.
62. Chart Convergence. Unlike on the Earth, the meridians of a Lambert projection are straight
lines. Therefore, also unlike the Earth, the convergence between two given meridians does not
change with latitude.
The formula for calculating chart convergence is:
Chart Convergence = change in longitude x sine parallel of origin. (5.4)
Since the meridians are straight lines, the chart

convergence between two selected meridians will not
change with latitude. In other words, chart convergence is
constant on a Lambert chart. This is shown in Fig 5-23
where the meridians through, A, C and E, have been
parallelled through B, D and F, respectively, forming
angles marked 'CC' which are all equal to each other.
63. Earth convergence (also known as convergency) Fig 5-23: Chart Convergence
is the difference in inclination between two meridians on
the Earth (Fig 5-24) or the change in direction of a Great Circle track between two meridians on the
Earth (Fig 5-25).
Fig 5-24: Earth Convergence Fig 5-25: Convergency as the Change in

Great Circle Direction
64. Chart convergence is the difference in inclination between two meridians on the chart (Fig 5-
23) or the change in direction of a straight line track between two meridians on the chart (Fig 5-26).
Fig 5-26: Chart Convergence Fig 5-27: Conversion Angle
65. The difference between a Rhumb Line and a Great Circle is known as Conversion Angle and
is half Earth Convergence (Fig 5-27). The formula is CA = ½ Ch long x sin mid lat. The difference
between a Rhumb Line and a straight line on the chart is half Chart Convergence (Fig 5-26). The
formula is:
145 Charts
Difference between Rhumb Line and straight line = ½ ch long x sin parallel of origin
66. Rhumb Lines. Except for meridians which appear as straight lines, rhumb lines are curves
concave to the pole of the projection (parallels of latitude).
67. Great Circles. Except for the meridians which

appear as straight lines, great circles appear as curves
concave to the parallel of origin. A straight line in an 'east-
west' direction most nearly represents a great circle when
drawn between two positions on the parallel of origin. The
following series of diagrams explain why? Imagine a
spherical Earth, (i.e. the real Earth or a Reduced Earth).
The meridians converge towards each other with
Fig 5-28: Great Circles on Real Earth
increasing latitude. Now imagine 3 Great Circle tracks at
different latitudes (Fig 5-28).
Fig 5-29: Earth Convergence compared Fig 5-30: Great Circles on a Lambert Chart
with Chart Convergence
68. What will happen when we project this real Earth situation onto a Lambert chart with a parallel
of origin of 45°N? The Earth meridians are straightened out into straight-line chart meridians. This
means that the formerly straight-line Great Circles are stretched outwards at latitudes higher or lower
than the parallel of origin (Fig 5-29).
69. As shown at Fig 5-30 Great Circles are straight lines at the parallel of origin and curves
concave to the parallel of origin at any other latitude. However, the amount of curvature from the
straight line is exaggerated in Fig 5-30 simply to make the explanation clearer. In fact there is very
little curvature compared with a straight line and, for all practical purposes, including plotting, Great
Circles on a Lambert chart may be treated as straight lines. The amount of curvature on a Rhumb
Line is far greater than a Great Circle.
70. Great Circle Curvature on a Lambert Chart. This difference between Chart Convergence
and Earth Convergence explains why

Great Circles are concave to the parallel of
origin on the Lambert projection. Imagine
a Lambert chart. Take two meridians, say,
20° apart. Now consider 3 different
latitudes, say, 47N, 45N (parallel of origin)
and 43N (Fig 5-31). Draw straight lines
joining the meridians at these latitudes.
Now consider the Rhumb Line in each
case. The difference between the Rhumb
Fig 5-31: Straight Lines
Line and the straight line will be ½ chart
convergence and is equal to ½ ch long x sin parallel of origin. That is ½ x 20° x 0.7071 = 7.071° in all
3 cases! (Fig 5-31). Now calculate the angle that the Great Circle makes with the Rhumb Line. This
is Conversion Angle, and is ½ ch long x sin mean latitude for each line.
71. Calculating this value gives us 3 different answers, one for each latitude.
CA 47N = ½ x 20° x sin 47 = 7.314°

CA 45N = ½ x 20° x sin 45 = 7.071°
CA 43N = ½ x 20° x sin 43 = 6.82°
72. Look at the conversion angles in

Fig 5-32. You can see that they are
different for each latitude. Plotting the
conversion angles in at the other end and
joining them up gives us the Great Circle
track paths. This shows why a Great
Circle appears as a straight line at the
parallel of origin but is concave to the
parallel of origin at any other latitude. The
straight lines always make the same Fig 5-32: Conversion Angle and Great Circles
angle to the Rhumb Line, whatever their
latitude, but the angle that the Great
Circle makes to the Rhumb Line
depends on its latitude.
73. If two positions are joined by a

straight line, a great circle, and rhumb
line on a Lambert chart, they are all
parallel to each other at the mid-meridian
(Fig 5-33).
Fig 5-33: Measuring at Mid-Meridian.
147 Charts
Summary of Lambert Properties
74. A summary of Lambert properties is set out in Table 5-3.
PROPERTIES OF A LAMBERT CHART

Correct on the standard parallels.
Contracted within the standard parallels.
Scale
(Least at parallel of origin).
Expanded outside standard parallels.
Orthomorphic Yes. All charts used for navigation must be.
Meridians are straight lines, originating from the pole.
Graticule Parallels are arcs of circles, centred at the pole.
(The pole is always off the map).
Mathematical basis of projection.
Parallel of Origin
Assumed to be halfway between the 2 standard parallels.
Constant across the chart.
Chart Convergence
Chart convergence = ch long x sin parallel of origin
Meridians are straight lines. All other Rhumb Lines are concave to the
Rhumb lines
pole (ie, parallels of latitude).
Meridians are straight lines.
Great Circles At the parallel of origin they are near-straight line.
At any other latitude, a curve concave to the parallel of origin.
Table 5-3: Summary of Lambert Chart Properties
The Advantages of a Lambert Chart
75. (a) Great Circles can be treated as straight lines for all practical purposes.
(b) Radio bearings are Great Circles, so can be plotted without application of conversion
angle. You still need apply convergence by parallelling the NDB' s meridian from the aircraft's
DR meridian position, but no calculation is involved - this is explained below.
(c) If scale error is small, a graduated ruler can be used to measure distances.
The Disadvantages of the Lambert Chart
76. (a) Flying by compass gives Rhumb Line tracks, so if great circle tracks are to be flown the
aircraft must have a system which provides automatic continuous computation of desired
track (ie, INS / IRS / FMS / GPS), or the aircraft must be steered by gyro (without transport
wander correction). If rhumb line tracks are to be flown, the 'mid-meridian' system must be
used, since rhumb lines are curves.
(b) The graticule is not rectangular and the plotting of positions is not as simple as on a
Mercator.
(c) NDB position lines have to be plotted using meridian transfer. This is explained below.
Plotting on a Lambert Chart
77. Plotting bearings on a Lambert chart is less complicated than on a Mercator because Great
Circles (i.e, radio waves) are straight or near-straight lines, and so there is no conversion angle to
apply. However, there may be a correction for chart convergence to apply. It depends on whether the
bearing is measured at the ground station or at the aircraft.
78. The bearing measurement process for VDF (ie, QDMs and QTEs) and for VOR takes place at
the ground station. It may appear with VOR that the bearing is displayed in the aircraft and has been
decoded in the aircraft, but it has not been measured in the aircraft. The different between the VOR
reference phase and the bearing phase is encoded at the moment of transmission on that particular
bearing at the ground station. All that the aircraft VOR receiver does is de-modulate the encoded
signal and display it. It does not actually measure a bearing, unlike ADF.
79. For bearings measured at the ground station (ie, VDF or VOR), the plotting process is simple.
You simply correct for variation at the point where it has been added (i.e, the ground station), and plot
the true bearing from the ground station. This will be the correct Great Circle track at the ground
station. The straight-line bearing will change direction with respect to north as it crosses meridians
and encounters convergence and therefore will not be the same Great Circle track direction at the
aircraft, but it is not being plotted from the aircraft, so this does not matter. It is the correct radio wave
path.
80. For bearings measured at the aircraft (ie, ADF / NDB and AWR (airborne weather radar)), the
situation is complicated because there is convergence between the meridian where the bearing is
measured (the aircraft) and from where it will be plotted (the NDB). Consider the situation at Fig 5-44.
An aircraft measures a bearing of an
NDB of 245°(R) while on a heading
of 025°(T). It is required to plot the
position line on a Lambert chart.
81. Adding together the relative

bearing of 245° and the true heading
of 025° gives the true great circle
bearing of the NDB from the aircraft,
270°. But if the reciprocal, 090°, is Fig 5-34: Plotting an ADF Bearing.
149 Charts
plotted from the meridian of the NDB the position line will not pass through the aircraft position, as the
meridian through the aircraft is not parallel to that through the NDB. See Fig 5-34(a).
82. If, however, the angle of 090° is measured from a line parallel to the aircraft's meridian drawn
through the NDB, the position line will pass through the aircraft as shown in Fig 5-34(b). Chart
convergence has been automatically allowed for by drawing a line parallel to the aircraft's meridian
through the NDB. This method is always used in plotting. If it is necessary to obtain the bearing to
plot from the meridian of the NDB, reference to Fig 5-34(b) will show that in this case it is equal to
090° minus chart convergence.
83. Example. An aircraft flying, in the northern hemisphere, on a heading of 3300(T) measures
a bearing of 0900(R) of an NDB. What is the bearing to plot on a Lambert chart?
(a) From a line parallel to the aircraft's meridian drawn through the NDB.
(b) From the meridian of the NDB. Chart convergence is 3°.
Solution
(a) 330° + 090(R) = 0600(T) (True great circle bearing of NDB from aircraft) Plot 240°
from a line parallel to the aircraft's meridian drawn through the NDB. See Fig 5-35(a).
(b) Bearing to plot from meridian of NDB = 240° + 3° = 243°
Fig 5-35: Plotting an ADF Bearing
84. Note that, in the case of bearings measured at the aircraft, it is the aircraft's compass which is
used to add to relative bearing in order to obtain true bearing. Therefore, if the heading is magnetic
and it is necessary to correct it to True, we always use variation at the aircraft.
Bearings measured at ground station (VOR, VDF) - variation at ground station

Bearings measured at aircraft (NDB/ADF, AWR) - variation at aircraft
85. Example. Two points A and B are plotted on a Lambert chart and joined by a straight
line, which from the Meridian of A, measures 2500(T). Given that the chart convergence of the
meridians through A and B is 6°, what is:
(a) The rhumb line track from A to B?
(b) The approximate great circle

bearing of A from B, as given by the
straight line, measured from the meridian
of B?
Solution (Assume Northern

Hemisphere).
The angle between the straight line and Fig 5-36: Plotting an ADF Bearing
the rhumb line is ½ chart convergence = 3°
(a) 250° - 3° = 247°(T).

\
(b) The rhumb line bearing of A from B is 247°(T) - 180° = 067°(T).

The 'straight line' bearing therefore is 067° - 3° = 064°(T).
151
CHAPTER 6
MAP READING
Topographical Detail on Maps
1. It is rare to find two map series in which a common method of representation of feature is
used, and it is essential to study the legend on a map regarding relief portrayal and symbols
employed before using it.
Relief
2. A full understanding of the way ground elevation is represented on maps is essential for flight
safety reasons, besides enabling hill features to be used for map reading. The following methods of
indicating elevation may be used on maps for air use, usually a combination of two or more methods
are being used on any given map series.
Contours and Form Lines
3. Contours are lines drawn on maps which join places of equal elevation (i.e. of equal vertical
distance above or below mean sea level). Where there has been no accurate survey and the
contours have therefore only approximate values they are called “Form Lines”, and are usually shown
as broken (dashed) lines.
4. The height interval between adjacent contours is governed to some extent by the scale of the
map, and may also depend on the range of elevations depicted on the individual map sheet. The
height intervals between adjacent contours may be standardized for a particular map series, but are
not necessarily constant. Small changes of ground elevations in low-lying country may produce a
significant hill feature, and supplementary contours at smaller intervals may therefore be introduced.
The legend in the margin of a map should always be studied to determine the height interval between
contours for that particular map series/sheet.
5. The height interval between successive contours is known as the ‘vertical interval’. The
horizontal distance on the earth’s surface between successive contours is known as the “horizontal
equivalent”. Fig 6-1 illustrates how a hill feature might appear on the map. The figure shows a cross
section through the hill along the line AB. It will be seen that, for a given vertical interval, the smaller
the horizontal equivalent (and therefore the closer the contours), the steeper is the average slope.
6. The elevation level of each contour is stated whenever practicable at some point along its
length. It is the user’s responsibility in every case to study the legend and ascertain whether feet or
meters are being used to indicate contours.
Fig 6-1: Generation of Contours
Spot Elevation
7. It will be seen in Fig 6-1 that the location of the highest point on the hill (3850 ft AMSL) is not
evident from the contours alone. The greater the vertical interval the more important it becomes to
show on a map the position and height of the highest point of a hill feature. If, for example, contours
were at 5,000 ft intervals, the highest point in the area enclosed by the 10,000 ft contour could be over
14,900 ft high. It is therefore usual to indicate the significant highest points by dots, with the elevation
AMSL printed alongside. Such a feature is known as a spot elevation. The map user should
ascertain from the map legend whether spot elevations are shown in feet or meters. They will
normally be in the same units as the contours.
Safety Altitude from Contours and Spot Elevations
8. Care is necessary when using contours and spot elevations to extract from a map the highest
elevation for safety altitude calculations. Where the highest contour is completely contained within the
sector of error for calculation of route safety altitude, the highest ground in the sector is:
(a) The highest spot elevation within that contour.
(b) If no spot elevation is shown, the highest contour height plus the vertical interval
between that and the next highest contour (specified) in the chart legend.
9. If the highest contour is completely within the sector of error, the contour height plus the
vertical interval between that and the next highest contour.
153 Map Reading
Hachuring
10. Hachures are short, tapered lines down on a map radiating from high ground, the lines
tapering away from the high ground. They may be used on maps to indicate hill features in areas not
fully surveyed, but are more commonly encountered on charts on which detailed relief information is
not required. Spot elevations are usually associated with hachuring.
Layer Tinting
11. To provide an immediate indication of the relief over the area covered by a map, without
having to closely examine the contours, the areas between selected contours are sometimes tinted.
This system is known as “layer tinting”. The gradations of colour used normally become deeper with
increase of elevation, but this is not always practicable, and the layer tinting legend on the map should
always be consulted before use. As mentioned earlier, small changes of ground elevation are usually
more significant at lower levels, and it is therefore usual to find that a tint covers a wider elevation
band at height than near sea level.
Hill Shading
12. Hill Shading is simulation of the shadows that would be produced if the high ground were
actually standing out in relief on the map, and a light were shining across the map surface. The effect
is to give an appearance of depth to the map usually more effective when the map is viewed from a
distance. It is most effective on maps covering relatively flat areas with occasional hills, when used in
extremely mountainous regions, in conjunction with contours (and perhaps, layer tinting). Some
degradation of clarity of other detail on the map is inevitable.
13. Hill shading alone (i.e. without associated contours) may be used to indicate high ground in
areas where incomplete surveys have been carried out, instead of hachuring.
Significant Elevation Data
14. In addition to the relief presentation described above, some maps add particular information
to simplify the extraction of the most significant data. This may take the form of one or more of the
following:
(a) Higher Elevation. The highest feature on the particular sheet may be shown in a
cleared bag at the position of the feature and also in the map margin with its latitude and
longitude.
(b) Maximum Elevation Data. The land area is divided in the margin of the map, and
the highest elevation within each quadrangle is indicated in large figures at the centre of the
quadrangle, the code used being shown in the margin.
(c) Spot Elevation. These are described in para 7. As will be seen from the specimen
legend at Fig 6-2, the most significant spot elevations are sometimes given added emphasis.
Fig 6-2 Typical Legend for Map Symbology
15. Other Topographical Details. The legend used for depiction of natural features such as
rivers, woods, lakes and man made features such as towns, dams, railway lines, roads, canals etc., is
depicted on one of the margins of each map sheet. It is important that the beginners familiarize
155 Map Reading
themselves thoroughly with all these symbols to effectively recognize features on the ground and
correlate them on a map. A specimen representation is placed in Fig 6-2, 6-3 and 6-4.
Fig 6-3: Legend for Aeronautical Information
Fig 6-4: GEOREF Legend
MAP READING
16. There are periods during most flights when map reading is practicable, and situations arise
where, in spite of modern navigation systems, map reading provides the only reliable source of
position information. Pilots and navigators should therefore be equipped to use map-reading
techniques when appropriate. Although natural aptitude is an asset, map reading is a skill, which can
be acquired by practice.
17. The art of map reading consists of being able to:
(a) Visualise without efforts the physical and cultural features represented on the map by
symbols.
(b) Correlate individual map symbols to form a composite mental picture of the ground
under surveillance. This requires the ability to estimate the directions and distances of
features relative to each other both on the map and on the ground.
(c) Carry out the mental processes in the preceding sub-paragraph in reverse, i.e., know
how a feature seen on the ground will be represented on the map, and recognize immediately
which portion of the map represents the collection of features visible on the ground.
18. When other considerations allow, map reading should be made as simple as possible by:
(a) Selecting a route that passes over easily identifiable features.
(b) Taking account of the visibility, to avoid flying into sun in hazy conditions, particularly
near industrial areas.
(c) Orientating the map in flight so that the intended track is aligned with the fore and aft
axis of the aircraft.
(d) Avoiding unnecessary use of maps of different scales. Sometimes difficulty is

experienced in adjusting to a different rate of movement over the map when a change from a
small scale to a larger scale map is made.
(e) Enlisting the full co-operation of other crew members in map reading, particularly
when the field of view is restricted.
19. Aeronautical maps are designed to facilitate maps reading. The best map for map reading is
one which shows the necessary amount of detail on paper, and which is up to date. Familiarity with
map symbols is a prerequisite to successful map reading. A careful study of the map legend and
symbology before use will save time in the air, and prevent dangerous misinterpretation of map
information. Attention is drawn to the following points:-
(a) Appreciation of whether elevations are given in feet or meters is vital to the safety of
the ac.
(b) Woods may be shown in outline only, or not at all above a certain elevation on some
maps.
157 Map Reading
(c) As a generalization, the larger the scale of a map the more the amount of
topographical detail shown.
Choice of Scale
20. Most map reading is based on maps of scale between 1:100,000 and 1:250,000. The main
factors governing the choice of map scale are:
(a) Distance. A very long range flight would necessitate carrying several maps if a
large scale were chosen, and it is usually expedient to accept the more limited information on
smaller scale maps.
(b) Height. At altitude, many small ground features are difficult to recognize. However,
as a large area can be seen, a fairly small-scale map usually shows sufficient detail for
position to be established. At low level a much smaller area of ground can be seen, and the
map used must show even small features, and portray the orientation of line features
accurately. Small rivers and small bends in large rivers, both of which appear very prominent
when flying low, may not be shown on small-scale maps.
(c) Speed. The speed of the aircraft seldom influences the choice of map scale at high
level. At low level it can be significant: a large scale is needed to show detail accurately, but if
too large a scale is chosen the rate of progression across the map can be uncomfortably fast
for the eye to assimilate and correlate detail.
(d) Terrain. For flights over difficult map reading country select the map which best
portrays the significant features, accepting some inconvenience in scale.
21. The above factors are closely inter-related and the final choice of map scale may be affected
by the nature of the operational task.
Use of Current Edition
22. The maps gathered together for a flight should be checked to ensure that they are of the
latest edition promulgated in the Survey of India Aeronautical Chart Catalogue.
Pre-Flight Map Preparation
23. Preparation of maps before flight can save a lot of valuable time in the air and make map
reading much easier. Experience, the nature of the operational task, and the time available for flight
planning will all have a bearing on the amount of map preparation carried out for flights, which are to
be conducted primarily by map reading. For a transit flight, or navigational cross-country exercise not
using other aids, the desirable minimum is:
(a) Plot and letter the turning points.
(b) Construct turning circles at each turning point, and draw in the required tracks. To do
this in such a way that after altering heading the aircraft will be on the new heading over the
turning point makes for good track keeping. But it is usually easier to commence turns at the
turning points, and accept the need to correct minor tracking (and wherever appropriate -
timing) errors resulting from inaccurate turns.
(c) From each turning point mark back along the previous required track a scale of
distance to go at suitable intervals.
(d) Insert time-gone marks at suitable intervals along each track, using DR ground
speed. These will facilitate identification of ground features, and remind the user when to
start looking for particular features shown on the map.
(e) If it is intended to use mental DR techniques, draw 5 deg lines either side of track,
forwards from each end-of-turn point, and back from each commence turn point. These will
facilitate the estimation of heading corrections.
(f) Study the route form a mental picture of the topography, and establish which features
are likely to be most value.
Map Reading Procedure
24. It is not intended to discuss in detail the technique used to determine the aircraft’s ground
position. It will vary with the type of aircraft and flight conditions, some of the more important factors
to consider being: -
(a) Downward Field of View. If the ground beneath the aircraft is not visible it may be
necessary to establish position by running fixes on distant features, or by sextant bearing and
depression angle.
(b) Visibility and Cloud Cover. In poor conditions two successive transits (e.g. river
and a railway) may give a fix by transferred position line when pinpointing is not possible.
(c) Height and Speed. The height and speed of the aircraft determine how long
objects will be in the field of view and thus influence the choice of the type of feature to be
used for pinpointing. Furthermore, at a high level it may be necessary to establish the vertical
by referring to some instrument – a drift recorder for example – if accurate pin-pointing is
required.
25. The approach to map reading must be methodical, particularly when the accuracy of the DR
position is in doubt, or when flying over terrain with few pinpointing features. Pilots and navigators will
159 Map Reading
develop their own techniques to suit particular conditions, but the following paragraphs recommended
procedures of general application:
(a) On routine flights, where map reading us used as an occasional aid.
(b) On flights planned as map reading sorties.
(c) In emergency, where although the ground is or becomes visible, continuous map
reading has not been carried out prior to the emergency, and it is necessary to quickly
establish position by map reading when no other aid is available.
Use of ADRIS Equipment
26. When some other primary navigation technique is being used it may still be necessary to use
map reading to confirm and update position on the navigation display. The read-out of position should
normally be reasonably accurate, and the procedure would be:
(a) Note on the map the present position as displayed.
(b) Select from the map a prominent feature ahead of that position, identify it on the
ground, and use it or a more accurate related feature for pinpointing.
27. If a long time has elapsed since the position of the aircraft was positively established, it is
usually better to proceed as follows:
(a) Note the DR position, on the map.
(b) Draw (or visualize) on the map the circle of uncertainly. Note any prominent features
within the circle.
(c) Examine the ground. Identify the select features or, if they are not visible note any
prominent features visible and the sequence in which they occur, and then by reference to the
circle of uncertainly determine the aircraft’s position in relation to those features.
(d) Select a suitable feature on track and use it for pinpointing.
Obtaining Pinpoints
28. Pre-planned map reading should present few problems if the map preparation has been
carried out. Annotation of the map with time of the initial set heading, and, as the flight progresses,
the actual time at each turning point, gives an immediate and reasonably accurate indication of the
DR position on the map by reference to the timing marks.
29. When a position is required, the simplest procedure, if map reading has not been continuous
is to:
(a) Refer to the map, to determine what feature should be visible immediately, and a
short distance ahead of the aircraft.
(b) Determine which of these feature is likely to be of most value for pin-pointing, and
mentally note the relative position of prominent check features.
(c) Look at the ground, and establish the position of the aircraft in relation to the selected
features.
(d) Decide whether to use the selected feature, or to use some other feature. If for
example the aircraft is off track it may not pass over the selected feature or if a river is in flood
its banks may not be clearly delineated, and a man-made feature may provide a more precise
position.
(e) Whether the original or an alternative feature is to be used, establish its identification
beyond doubt by crosschecking with other features.
(f) Note the time and exact position of crossing the feature.
30. Subsequent map reading may be a continuous process of checking ground position against
the map. However, because the pilot or navigator can rarely devote his full attention to map reading it
is usually more expedient to use the last position and the timing marks to select a reliable interval.
Map reading can then be relaxed until two or three minutes before ETA at the position.
Emergency Pin-Pointing
31. On rare occasions it may be necessary to resort to map reading to resolve a major
uncertainty of position, when for instance an electronic equipment or heading reference malfunction
has gone undetected for a long period. In these circumstances a procedure on the following lines is
recommended: -
(a) Examine the ground for any obviously identifiable features (mountains, lakes,
coastlines, cities, very large rivers etc) and attempt to locate them on the map. If located,
crosscheck with other features, and if no possible doubt remains select a suitable feature for
a pinpoint or running fix.
(b) If no identification is made, go back on the plotting chart to the last reliable position,
and using that as he starting point, plot the current DR position (or if preferred the DR position
for a few minutes ahead) by track or air plot, using the best available information. This
assumes that any doubt as to the heading flown has been resolved, and that the air or track
plot is constructed using corrected headings and the most reliable wind velocity or drift.
(c) Plot the DR position on the map.

161 Map Reading
Area Map Reading
32. Area map reading may be considered the last resort of map reading techniques, and should
seldom be necessary. It is mentioned briefly as it could be a useful method in extreme cases, if for
example a discrepancy between two separate heading reference systems has gone undetected for a
long time (which could not happen if heading checks had been carried out regularly) and the
discrepancy is unresolved. It could conceivably be useful if a wrong heading had been flown, or if a
required track had been measured wrongly and no fixes obtained on that leg of the flight.
33. Although, given time, a DR position based on the best available information could be
constructed, it might still be seriously in error if wrong assumptions were made as to the source of the
error and the time it took effect. Use of the area map reading technique might determine the aircraft’s
position more rapidly.
34. Area map reading is one of the occasions when map reading is done from the ground to the
map. It consists of scanning the whole of the ground visible, and forming a mental impression of how
it will appear on the map. Examination of the map for the right topography, together with general
knowledge of the location of unique features, may determine immediately the approximate potion of
the aircraft. Application of normal map reading technique should then establish a pinpoint.
35. The features to be noted when initially scanning the ground (assuming no obviously unique
features are visibility) are:
(a) Terrain. Is the area flat, hilly, between distant mountain ranges? If over valleys,
what is their general orientation?
(b) Water. Is the area dry? Any sign of marshes? Any artificial irrigation? If there are
small rivers, is there any general pattern of orientation?
(c) Vegetation. Is the area open grassland, wooded, is there any general demarcation
line, and if so, what is its orientation, and on which side are the woods? Is the area under
cultivation?
(d) Man Made Features. Are there any, and do they offer any useful pointers to the
activities of the region (e.g. slag heaps and coal mines, brick kilns, windmills)? Is there any
pattern to the communications system, perhaps radiating from a distant industrial complex?
36. A general review of the area of this nature, coupled with a mental note of the relative positions
of any fairly prominent features, may be sufficient to identify immediately the area of the map over
which the aircraft is flying. At the worst, it should eliminate large sections of the map and reduce the
possible area to acceptable dimensions for detailed map reading.
Relative Value of Features
37. The beginner is sometimes confused by the amount of detail confronting his untrained eye.
He must learn to distinguish the more significant features and to remain undistracted by the irrelevant
background. The value of some types of feature is commented on below:
(a) Coastlines. There is usually some feature such as an inlet, beach or cliffs along
even straight coastlines, which will enable position to be established with reasonable
accuracy. A careful estimate of its general direction will usually resolve any doubt as to which
stretch of coastline is being crossed, but whenever possible a check feature should be
identified to avoid any chance of error.
(b) Water Features. Large rivers, estuaries, canals and lakes show up well. The
season of the year should be taken into account; winter floods and summer droughts can
drastically change the appearance of rivers, and frozen lakes may blend with their snow-
covered surroundings in winter.
(c) Mountains and Hills. The shapes of prominent mountains and hills are usually
discernible. Their tops may protrude above low cloud or mist and provide landmarks when all
other features are obscured; it is equally true that tops may be hidden in cloud, a particular
danger to the over-confident. At low level the ground contours assume great importance, and
even small hills may be very helpful in fixing position.
(d) Inhabitations.
(i) Small villages are often identifiable only by their relationship to other features.
(ii) Towns can often be provisionally identified by their shape alone, and the
identification can usually be confirmed by close examination of the associated
communications system.
(iii) Large cities give useful indication of general position, but accurate pinpointing
must be done by reference to associated features.
(e) Railways. In well-developed countries the identification of a particular stretch of

railway may be difficult, particularly if the area of uncertainty is large. In countries with few
railways even a single track is usually a conspicuous feature of great value.
(f) Roads.
(i) Minor roads are more easily identified in relatively undeveloped areas; in
densely populated urban areas, they are often too numerous to be of value, except in
163 Map Reading
relation to other features. Terrain too plays a big part in their identification; it is easier
to identify (but not necessarily to pin-point position on) a road of which long stretches
can be seen in open flat country than one, which is glimpsed occasionally in a hilly,
wooded area.
(ii) Major roads are useful features except where they are swallowed up in an
industrial complex, and motorways in any country are distinctive features.
(g) Woods. Woods are sometimes invaluable, sometimes useless. Their shapes in
open country are usually distinctive, but caution should be exercised in fixing position by
pinpointing, as the woods may change shape over the years as a result of tree felling or
afforestation. In heavily wooded country the shapes of clearings may be the most
recognizable features.
Map Reading at Night
38. Map reading can be carried out quite successfully at night over most land areas; exceptions
are sparsely populated inland areas lacking water features. Success in map reading at night will
depend mainly on:-
(a) The amount of natural illumination.

(b) The availability of artificial illumination of the ground from the air. As this is a
specialized technique it is not discussed further in this chapter.
(c) The presence of artificial lighting on the ground.
(d) Presence of contrasting reflecting surfaces on the ground (water/land, snow-covered
fields/woods etc.)
(e) Visibility, height of the aircraft, field of view and the observer’s night vision.
39. Obviously the greater the surface illumination the easier the task. But, there are few occasions
when it is too dark to distinguish any ground detail. It is pertinent that subdued cockpit lighting is used,
the viewing panel is free of distracting reflection and glare and the eyes are allowed time to adjust to
the darkness. Flying beneath an overcast or in heavy precipitation are exceptions when it is usually
impossible to identify any but the most prominent features.
Significant Features
40. The following features usually offer the best opportunities for pinpointing at night:
(a) Large Towns. Their shape is often more distinctive at night than in daytime, and
the pattern of main roads and railways on the outskirts is usually easily related to the map. A
river can be identified fairly easily as a dark swath running through the illuminated area of the
town. Rail terminals, stations and marshalling yards are usually well lit.
(b) Motorways and Major Roads. The traffic density is often sufficient to make them
quite prominent features, even if the road surface itself does not stand out from its
surroundings.
(c) Airfields and Identification Beacons. Active airfields are very prominent at night,
but where they are numerous, care in identification is necessary.
(d) Water Features. If there is any illumination at all – even starlight - most major water
features will be identifiable. Practicable advantage should be taken of the better reflection in
the direction of the brightest sky illumination by selecting the most favourable approach to the
feature.
(e) Marine Lights. These are usually visible at considerable distances. Their
characteristics are most easily identifiable at a fair range, the flashing sequence tending to be
distorted at close range and high speed. They provide valuable advance information as to the
location of the coastline, even if they cannot be used as pinpoints.
(f) Railways. In open country railways are not usually prominent at night. However,
their general location can sometimes be determined by a line of small villages with sufficient
accuracy for the railway to be seen when overhead. Occasionally a moving passenger train
will be of assistance in locating the railway.
(g) Small Towns and Villages. n isolation they are usually of little value (except in
remote areas), but as a group of related features they can be considerable use. After
midnight there is usually a significant reduction in artificial lighting, which may make
identification more difficult.
Technique
41. At night there will be few opportunities for map reading from the ground to the map. The only
features that can normally be seen far ahead are coastlines and brightly lit features such as towns,
airfields and marine lights. It is therefore particularly important to approach the problem of pinpointing
methodically. A reliable technique, when a prominent feature cannot itself be used, is as follows:-
(a) Note the DR position on the map, decide what feature ahead should provide a useful
pinpoint, and establish the ETA at the feature. Note any prominent night check features.
(b) Settle at the map reading position in good time, with minimum internal lighting, to
accustom the eyes to darkness.
(c) Locate the check features, which will usually be visible before the pinpoint feature,
and from them assess the position of the pinpoint feature. When near ETA concentrate on
identifying the position of crossing the pinpoint feature. The height, visibility and assessed
165 Map Reading
accuracy of the ETA will determine whether this concentrated map reading will be needed for
a few minutes or a few seconds.
Map Reading Limitations
42. Accuracy. Map reading can be no more accurate than the accuracy of representation of
detail on the map in use. Inaccuracies on the map will result from lack of precision in: -
(a) Survey Information.

(b) Production (drawing, photography and printing).
43. The accuracy of survey information will vary from map to map; it will depend on how recently
the area was surveyed, how thorough the surveys were, and the correlation of surveys of adjoining
areas. It is not possible to give a dimension to survey errors; occasional errors of quite large
magnitude can occur.
44. Production errors are inevitable. The mere representation of a feature such as a road by an
easily visible line involves gross scale exaggeration in the symbol, and where there are two adjacent
features (e.g., a road and a railway) it is inevitable that one or both will be displaced on the map.
Statistical analysis has shown that the majority of detail will be shown with an accuracy of about 1100
yards on a 1:1,000,000 map, and proportionately more accurately on larger scale maps.
45. Inaccuracies introduced by the map-reader form a major component of the total inaccuracy.
At low level, turbulence may make accurate recording of position and times difficult, and introduce
minor errors.
Reliability
46. Unexpected changes in the weather can necessitate changes in the flight profile that preclude
map reading. The navigator or pilot should therefore never allow himself to be in a position where
navigation depends entirely on continuous map reading. He should anticipate weather deterioration,
and be ready at any time to revert to DR navigation and the full use of radio navigation aids.
167
CHAPTER 7
THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES
Speed and Velocity
1. It is important to realize the difference between the meanings of the words 'speed' and
'velocity'. Speed describes only the rate at which an object is moving. The statement that an aircraft
has a speed of 400 kts gives no indication of the direction in which the aircraft is traveling, and this
direction may be changed without any alteration of speed. Speed is thus a scalar quantity. It has
magnitude but no direction.
2. Velocity describes speed in a specified direction. It is said to be a vector quantity for it has
both magnitude and direction. Thus an aircraft flying at 400 kts on a heading of 045° (T) has a
different velocity from that of an aircraft flying at 400 kts on 090° (T), although their speeds are
identical.
Vectors
3. Since a velocity is a speed in a given direction, it may be represented graphically by a straight

line whose length is proportional to speed, and whose direction is measured from an arbitrary datum
line. Such a straight line is called a vector.
4. The scale used in drawing vectors may be any

that is convenient. The datum line for measurement of
direction is by convention true north, and usually points
to the top of the sheet. To indicate the direction and
scale of the vector, it is usual to insert the true north
symbol at some point in the diagram, and to indicate
scale by a graduated scale line. Fig 7-1 illustrates the
vector for an aircraft flying at 400 kts on a heading of
045° (T); the arrow head indicates the sense of the
vector, showing that the direction is 045° and not 225°. Fig 7-1: Representation of a Vector
5. The discussion so far has concerned an aircraft's velocity relative to the air through which it
moves. However there is another factor, which plays an important part in air navigation - the
movement of the air itself.
6. Wind Velocity. Wind is air in approximately horizontal motion. The direction and speed of
that motion defines wind velocity (w/v), and it too can be represented by a vector. It is expressed as a
five or six figure group. The first three figures refer to wind direction (the true direction from which it
blows); the last two or three figures indicate wind speed in knots. The figures representing direction
are separated from those of speed by an oblique stroke. Thus a wind velocity of speed 45 knots
blowing from the east would be written as 090/45, and one of 145 knots from the same direction as
090/145.
Vector Addition
7. Fig 7-2 illustrates the basic navigation

problem; the aircraft is moving at V1 kts through an
air mass which itself is moving at V2 kts (w/v). It is
necessary to find the resultant of these two
component velocities to determine the aircraft's
path over the ground.
8. If the component velocities act in the same

direction (i.e., the aircraft flies directly upwind or
Fig 7-2: Movement of Air Affecting the
downwind), the resultant velocity is the algebraic Path of an Aircraft
sum of the aircraft and wind speeds along the
aircraft heading. However, when the component velocities do not act in the same line, the resultant
velocity is an intermediate speed in an intermediate direction. In such cases it is possible to find the
resultant by constructing a vector diagram, or triangle of velocities.
Triangle of Velocities
9. If the vectors (Fig 7-3) of the aircraft's velocity (AB

or EF) and wind velocity (BC or DE) are drawn (using the
same scale), such that their sense arrows follow each
other, then the resultant velocity vector is the third side.
The sense of this vector is such that its arrow opposes the
arrows of the component velocities around the triangle.
Thus in Fig 7-3 the vector of the resultant velocity is AC or
Fig 7-3: Triangle of Velocities
DF.
10. It can be seen that AC and DF are identical in magnitude and direction; it does not matter in
which order the initial component vectors are drawn as long as their sense arrows follow each other.
Navigation Components of The Triangle Of Velocities
11. The triangle of velocities is used to solve the basic navigation problem. The component
vectors represent the aircraft's velocity (true heading and true airspeed) and wind velocity. The
resultant vector represents the aircraft's true track and groundspeed.
169 The Triangle of Velocities
12. In addition to these vectors the other important quantity in navigation is the angle between the
aircraft's velocity vector and the resultant. This is called the drift angle.
13. Arrow Convention. The vectors are

not normally labeled as in Fig 7-4(a), but are
identified merely by the number of arrows on the
vector. The convention, illustrated in Fig 7-4(b),
is:
(a) The true heading and true

airspeed vector carries one arrow,
pointing in the direction of heading.
(b) The track and groundspeed Fig 7-4: Arrow conventions for the Vectors
vector carries two arrows, pointing in the Forming the Triangle of Velocities
direction of track.
(c) The wind velocity vector carries three arrows pointing in the direction in which the
wind is blowing.
14. In para 11 several new terms e.g. true airspeed, track, and groundspeed were introduced.
These will now be examined in detail.
Airspeed
15. The speed of an aircraft measured relative to the air mass through which it is moving is
termed true airspeed (TAS). It is emphasised that because of wind velocity this speed will differ from
that measured by an observer on the Earth. Airspeed is independent of wind, and is the same
regardless of whether the aircraft is flying upwind or downwind.
16. An aircraft's airspeed is usually measured by an airspeed indicator (ASI). The ASI reading is
termed indicated airspeed (IAS), but this does not equal true airspeed. The difference between these
quantities is caused by a number of inaccuracies which, broadly speaking, stem from two sources, the
ASI itself and the atmosphere.
17. If IAS is corrected for the inaccuracies of the ASI (instrument and pressure (or position)
errors) the result is called calibrated airspeed (CAS). At higher speeds (normally above about 300 kts)
a correction to CAS is necessary to take into account the compressibility of air. This correction varies
with altitude and speed. The speed after this correction is termed equivalent airspeed (EAS). ASIs are
calibrated in relation to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and at mean sea level. At all
other altitudes EAS and CAS are less than TAS because the air is less dense than at sea level. CAS
or EAS may be corrected to TAS by using graphs, tables, digital computers or analogue computers
(such as the Dead Reckoning Computer Mk 4a).
Mach Number
18. An alternative method of quoting TAS is to express it as a fraction of the local speed of sound.
This fraction is known as the Mach Number (M) and is given by:
Mach No = _______TAS_______ = V
Local speed of sound C
Mach Numbers are expressed as decimals e.g.
V = 440 knots and C = 580 knots, then M = 0.76.

V = 725 knots and C = 580 knots then M = 1.25.
19. There are aerodynamic problems, which occur at a certain fraction (depending on the aircraft
type) of the speed of sound. Although this fraction is fixed, it may be represented by widely varying
values of CAS (depending on altitude) and varying values of TAS (depending on temperature). It is
more convenient, therefore, in high-speed flight to display the aircraft's speed as a Mach number
rather than as IAS or TAS. A Mach meter computes and displays this quantity.
20. The speed of sound varies as the square root of the absolute temperature Thus the
calculation of TAS from Mach number is much simpler than, say, from CAS, for the only variable is
temperature.
Groundspeed
21. Since air navigation is concerned with the movement of an aircraft over the Earth, it is
necessary to know the speed at which the aircraft is moving relative to the Earth. This is termed
groundspeed and, like airspeed, it is measured in knots.
22. Groundspeed is usually determined by one of the following methods:
(a) Calculating the effect of wind velocity on the aircraft, i.e. by solving the triangle of
velocities.
(b) Measuring the time taken to travel a known distance between two positions on the
ground.
(c) The use of Doppler equipment.
(d) The use of inertial navigation systems.
Track
23. The direction of the path of an aircraft over the ground is called its track. If an aircraft flies
directly upwind or downwind, or in still air, its path over the ground lies in the same direction as its
heading. In all other cases wind will cause the aircraft to move over the ground in a direction other
than in line with it’s fore and aft axis, and to an observer on the ground it will appear to move crab-
wise rather than straight ahead. In such cases the aircraft's heading and track are not the same.
24. In Fig 7-5 an aircraft at A is flying on a heading

of 290° (T). As it maintains this heading a northerly
wind carries the aircraft from the path it would have
followed in the absence of the wind i.e. AC. Sometime
later the aircraft passes over B; AB then represents the
track and the aircraft is said to have tracked from A to
B. Fig 7-5: Heading and Track
25. The line joining two points between which it is required to fly is known as the required track.
26. In flying from one point to another, the path which the aircraft actually follows over the ground,
is called its track made good (TMG). When TMG coincides with required track, the aircraft is said to
be on track. When TMG and required track are not the same the aircraft is said to be off track.
27. Fig 7-6 illustrates the difference

between required track and track made
good. An aircraft attempting to go from A to
B finds itself some time later at C. AB is
therefore the required track and AC the track
made good. Fig 7-6: Track Required and Track Made Good
(TMG)
28. Any two points on the Earth's surface may be joined by a rhumb line and by a great circle. It
follows, therefore, that tracks may be of two kinds; the rhumb line track, which follows the rhumb line
between two points, and the great circle track, which follows the great circle between the points. By
definition, the rhumb line track maintains a constant direction relative to true North and is therefore in
most cases easier to maintain.
29. Track is measured in degrees and is expressed (like heading) as a three figure group e.g.
045°. It may be measured relative to true North, magnetic North or Grid North and is annotated (T),
(M) or (G) accordingly.
Drift
30. The angle between the heading and track of an aircraft is called drift. Drift is due to the effect
of the wind and is the lateral movement imparted to an aircraft by the wind. An aircraft flying in
conditions of no wind, or directly upwind or downwind, experiences no drift. In such cases, track and
heading coincide. Under all other conditions track and heading differ by a certain amount, referred to
as the drift.
31. Drift may be measured manually by observing the direction of the apparent movement of
objects on the ground below the aircraft (Track) and comparing this direction with the fore and aft axis
of the aircraft (Heading) to obtain the angular difference (Drift). Many aircraft are fitted with automatic
systems that calculate drift continuously by electronic means e.g. Doppler or inertial systems.
32. Drift is expressed in degrees to port (P) or starboard (S) of the aircraft's heading. An aircraft
experiencing port drift is said to drift to port, and its track lies to port of its heading. Thus knowing the
heading of the aircraft, the track can be determined by proper application of drift to heading. If drift is
to port, track angle is less than heading; if to starboard, track angle is greater than heading. Automatic
systems can continuously apply drift to heading to give a direct indication of track.
33. The direct measurement of track, i.e. from

knowledge of actual ground position, enables drift to be
determined provided the heading is known. Thus an
aircraft whose track made good is measured from a map
as 070° (T) while flying on a heading of 060° (T) is drifting
10° to starboard. This relationship is illustrated in Fig 7-7.
Fig 7-7: Drift
Application of the Triangle of Velocities to Air Navigation
34. Having discussed the triangle of velocities and its components it is now possible to review its
application to the solution of navigation problems.
35. The triangle of velocities may be considered to have six parts and each of its three sides
representing a speed and a direction. Knowledge of any four of these parts, generally, enables the
remaining two parts to be found. In navigation the types of problem solved by this method are:
(a) Finding the length and direction of one side e.g. finding track and groundspeed, wind
velocity or, occasionally, heading and airspeed.
(b) Finding the length of one side and the direction of another, e.g. true heading and
groundspeed.
In practice, the triangle of velocities can be continuously resolved by automatic navigation systems.
However, graphical methods may still be used during planning and in flight, using the transparent
plotting disc of the DR Computer Mk 4A/5A. The following examples, employing basic pencil-on-paper
vector plotting, are therefore intended to provide a thorough understanding of the underlying principles
and also illustrate a practical method of solving navigation problems.
Rules for Plotting
36. In plotting the vector triangle there are a number of points to note. The same datum direction
and a uniform unit of measurement must be used for all vectors. Otherwise the diagram will be
distorted and produce erroneous results. Furthermore one must ensure that true airspeed is
measured only along true heading and that similar relationships for track and groundspeed, and wind
direction and wind speed are maintained.
Finding the Length and Direction of One side
37. To Find Track and Groundspeed
Example. An aircraft of TAS 450 kts on a

heading of 090° (T) experiences a w/v of 025°/50
kts. What is its track and groundspeed?
Solution. (Fig 7-8)
(a) Draw AB, the heading and

airspeed vector.
Fig 7-8: Finding Track and Groundspeed
(b) From B lay off the wind vector BC.
(c) Join AC and measure its direction and length: track and groundspeed are found to be
096° (T) and 432 kts respectively.
38. To Find Wind Velocity:
Example: The groundspeed of an aircraft is

500 kts on a track of 260° (T); its true airspeed is
420 kts on a heading of 245° (T). What is the
wind velocity?
Solution: (Fig 7-9)
(a) Plot AB, the heading and true

airspeed vector.
Fig 7-9: Finding Wind Velocity
(b) From A lay off AC, the track and groundspeed vector.
(c) Join BC and measure its direction and length.
Wind velocity found is 129°/145 kts
39. To Find True Heading and True Airspeed
Example. In order to maintain a schedule it is necessary to fly a track of 270° (T) at a groundspeed
of 550 kts. The wind velocity is 350°/60 kts. What true airspeed and what true heading must be flown
to achieve these conditions?
Solution. (Fig 7-10)
(a) Plot AB, the wind vector.

(b) From A lay off AC, the track and
groundspeed vector.
(c) Join BC to obtain the heading
and airspeed vector. Heading and
airspeed are 276° (T) and 563 kts
Fig 7-10: Finding True Heading and
respectively. Airspeed
Finding the Length of One Side and the Direction of Another
40. To Find Heading and Groundspeed. The determination of the heading to make good a
given track, and the resultant groundspeed, is probably the most common navigation problem.
Example. It is necessary to make good a track of 060° (T) whilst flying at a TAS of 450 kts. Wind
velocity is 140°/40 kts. What heading must be flown and what groundspeed will be achieved?
(a) Draw line AX of indefinite length

in a direction 060° (T) to represent
required track.
(b) From A lay off AB, the wind
vector.
(c) With centre B and radius true
airspeed describe an arc to cut AX at C.
The direction of BC, 065° (T), is the
heading required to make good a track
of 060° (T). Fig 7-11: Heading and Groundspeed
AC represents groundspeed, which is measured as 441 kts.

175
CHAPTER 8
USE OF NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
Introduction
1. One of the main tasks in navigation is the plotting and measuring of direction and distance.
To facilitate this, the Douglas Protractor, the Protractor Navigation, and Strike Rules are commonly
used.
DOUGLAS PROTRACTOR
2. The Douglas Protractor consists of a piece

of transparent material, approximately 13 cms
square, the under surface of which has a glossy
finish, and the upper surface a fine matt finish to
receive pencil markings. The edge of the square
is marked off in degrees and numbered at 10°
intervals on two scales, the outer one clockwise
and the inner one, in italics, anti-clockwise. The
remainder of the surface is marked with a series of
lines parallel to the edges. The protractor is
illustrated in Fig 8-1.
3. The protractor can be used in the

Fig 8-1: Douglas Protractor
conventional manner, i.e. the centre point is
placed on the line whose direction is to be measured with the protractor orientated North-South; the
direction of the line is then read on the outer scale. However greater accuracy can be obtained if the
following method is employed:
(a) To Lay Off a Heading or Bearing. The left side of the protractor, which is marked
by the words ‘DOUGLAS COMBINED PROTRACTOR AND PARALLEL RULE’, is used as
the ruling edge. Using any convenient meridian on the chart, the protractor is placed such
that the centre hole and the required bearing in italics on the inner scale lie on this meridian.
The protractor is slid along the meridian until the point from which the heading or bearing is to
be laid off is on the ruling edge and then the required line can be ruled in.
(b) To Read Off a Heading or Bearing. The left side of the protractor, or one of the
lines parallel to it, is placed along the heading or bearing to be measured so that the centre
hole is on the meridian and the North point is in the direction of the bearing. The figure on the
inner scale, where the meridian cuts the edge of the protractor, then gives the bearing.
(c) To Use as a Parallel Rule. The protractor is aligned with one of its parallel lines on
the bearing, and the edge parallel to this line through the point to which the bearing is to be
transferred.
PROTRACTOR NAVIGATION
4. The fixed wing (FW) and helicopter (H) protractors (Figs 8-2 and 8-3) consist of rectangles of
transparent plastic, 20.5 cms X 14 cms, ruled with lines parallel to the longer edges. The longer
edges are etched, in the FW version, with distance markings to scales of 1:2,000,000, 1:1,000,000,
1:500,000, 1:250,000 and 1:50,000. In the H version the 1:2,000,000 scale is replaced with an inch
ruler, and a 1:50,000 grid overlay for the accurate determination of grid references is included. In the
centre of the instrument is a rotating disc marked with degrees around its circumference and with lines
parallel to the North-South and East-West directions. The disc moves against two outer scales, on
the main body of the protractor, which are marked with degrees up to 50°, either side (E and W) of the
central zero. The protractor is used as follows:
Fig 8-2: Protractor Navigation (FW) Fig 8-3 Protractor Navigation (H)
(a) To Lay Off a Heading or Bearing. The heading or bearing to be laid off is set on
the protractor by rotating the central disc until the required direction is aligned with one of the
zero marks of the outer scales. The protractor is then placed on the chart with one long edge
through the point from which the bearing is to be drawn. The whole protractor is then turned
so that the North-South parallel lines of the central disc are aligned with the chart meridians.
(b) To Read Off a Heading or Bearing. The protractor is placed so that one of the
long edges, or one of the parallel lines, is aligned with the line to be measured. The central
disc is then rotated so that the North-South parallel lines are aligned with the chart meridians.
The heading can then be read against the appropriate zero mark on the outer scales. Should
magnetic direction be required, this can be read against the appropriate value of variation on
177 Use of Navigation Equipment
the outer scale. Similar conversions can be made between true and grid directions by
regarding the outer scales as being values of convergency.
STRIKE RULES
5. Strike rules are used in low-level navigation

planning primarily to measure distances in terms of time
run at various groundspeeds, and to construct turning
circles at various speeds. A number of versions are
available (Fig 8-4). The rules consist of rectangles of
transparent plastic with appropriate markings for use with
different map scales. Each edge is etched with distance
run markings, in terms of time, corresponding to the
commonly flown groundspeeds. The body of the rule has
apertures to represent the turning circles appertaining to
45° and 60° angles of bank at a variety of scales and
speeds. Other templates are for various radii circles, and
IP and target markings. Grid overlays, for accurate grid
reference determination, are provided on the ‘F4’ version at
scales of 1:50,000, 1:25,000 and 1:63,360 (1" to 1 mile).
DEAD RECKONING COMPUTER - MARK 4A AND 5A Fig 8-4: Strike Rule (1:250,000)
6. The Dead Reckoning Computer, Mks 4A and 5A are designed for solving the vector triangle
problems of air navigation. The Mk 5A is a reduced size version of the 4A, produced for helicopter
use. Both Mks include an airspeed computer and a circular slide rule
Description
7. The face and reverse of the Mk 4A computer are illustrated in Figs 8-5 and 8-6. It consists of
a metal frame carrying on one side a transparent plotting disc in a graduated compass rose, and on
the other a circular slide rule that is also used for airspeed computation. A reversible sliding card
printed with concentric speed arcs, radial drift lines, and a rectangular grid, moves under the plotting
disc. One side of the sliding card is graduated from 50 to 800 speed units while the other bears a
range from 80 to 320 speed units together with a square grid graduated from 0 to 80. The units can
represent whatever is required (e.g. knots, mph, kmph), provided that the chosen unit is used
consistently. Similarly, one side of the Mk 5A computer is graduated from 30 to 200 speed units and
carries a square grid graduated from 0 to 100 while the other side is blank. The examples in this
chapter use the Mk 4A version.
Fig 8-5: DR Computer, Mk 4A - Face Fig 8-6: DR Computer, MK 4A - Reverse
Wind Triangle Solution
8. The DR Computer reproduces within the rotable compass rose that part of the triangle of
velocities, which is of prime concern, i.e. it shows the wind vector applied between the heading/true
airspeed and the track/groundspeed vectors.
9. The principle is illustrated in

Fig 8-7, in which ABC is the vector
triangle. The compass rose or
bearing plate is orientated to
register the direction of the heading
vector AB, i.e. 270°T, against a
lubber line (marked TRUE COURSE
on the computer). In doing this, the
Fig 8-7: Solution of the wind triangle on DR Computer
compass rose is orientated with MK 4A
respect to the other vectors. Thus the wind vector BC is laid off down wind from B. The wind is
therefore from D, i.e. 159°T. The direction of the track is shown as degrees to port or starboard of
heading, e.g. in Fig 3 the drift is shown as 10° starboard which, when applied to heading, gives a
track of 280°T. In Fig 8-7, if AB (airspeed) is 180 knots and BC (wind speed) 36 knots, then AC
(groundspeed) is 196 knots.
10. It is unnecessary to have the whole of the vector triangle shown on the DR Computer and
therefore only the essential part of the triangle containing the wind vector is shown. The computer
may be used over a range of speeds by adjusting the sliding card so that the curve corresponding to
the true airspeed lies under the centre of the compass rose.
11. Thus the transparent disc acts as a plotting dial on which only the wind vector is drawn, the
heading vector being represented by the centre line on the sliding card and the track vector by the
appropriate radial (drift) line. The centre of the disc is shown by a small circle, which normally marks
the end of the heading vector.
Use of DR Computer MK 4A
12. Wind Speed and Direction. To draw the wind vector when the speed and direction of the
wind are given, the wind direction is set against the lubber line and the wind vector is drawn from the
centre along the centre line in a direction away from the lubber line. The length of the line relative to
the card scale represents the wind speed. The end of the vector so plotted is called the wind point.
Conversely, if the wind point has been found by other means, the wind speed and direction may be
measured by rotating the plotting dial until the wind point lies on the centre line, on the opposite side
of the centre circle to the lubber line. The wind direction is now read against the lubber line, while the
distance of the wind point from the centre measured against them speed scale of the card gives the
wind speed. It is to be noted that the wind vector is always drawn away from the heading pointer
because wind direction is conventionally quoted as the direction from which the wind is blowing.
Headings and tracks are specified as the direction towards which the aircraft is going. It should be
noted also that the scales on the two sides of the card are different so that a wind drawn using one
scale must not be used with the other.
13. Airspeed and Groundspeed. Airspeed is always set, or read, on the centre line of the card
under the centre of the plotting dial. The speed circle under the wind point indicates groundspeed.
14. Variation and Drift. Although the plotting dial is normally orientated with respect to true
north, a variation scale marked on either side of the lubber line can be used to convert true directions
to magnetic and vice versa. This scale may also be used to obtain track by applying drift to heading,
and vice versa.
Examples
15. The examples, which follow, illustrate the versatility of the DR Computer in solving problems
graphically, although only the first two are common in everyday practice. It should be remembered
that the wind always blows outwards from the centre of the computer.
16. To Find Track and Groundspeed (Fig 8-8). The problem is to find track and groundspeed,
given:
Hdg - 185(T)
TAS - 420 kts
W/V - 105/39 kts
It is first necessary to ensure

that the appropriate side of
the sliding card is uppermost.
The following steps are then
carried out:
(a) Set the W/V.

The plotting dial is
rotated until 105° on
the compass rose is
against the lubber line
and a line is drawn (a) (b)
from the centre of the Fig 8-8: Finding Track and Groundspeed
plotting dial, away from the direction set, equal in length to 39 units on the scale (Fig 8-8a).
Once familiarity with the use of the instrument has been gained it will be found necessary only
to plot the wind point, i.e. the end of the wind vector, rather than the complete line.
(b) Set Heading and TAS. The plotting dial is rotated until 185° is against the lubber line,
and the card is adjusted until the 420-speed arc lies under the centre of the plotting dial (Fig
8-8b).
(c) Read Off the Solution Under the Wind Point (Fig 8-8b). It will be seen that the wind
point is on the 5° S drift line. Track can therefore be calculated as: 185° T + 5° = 190° T or it
can be read off on the compass rose against the 5° mark on the drift scale. The speed arc
under the wind point, i.e. 415 knots, gives the groundspeed.
17. To Find Heading and Groundspeed (Fig 8-9). The problem is to find the heading and
groundspeed, given:
Track required - 300(T)
TAS - 320 kts
W/V - 195/45 kts
It is first necessary to ensure that the appropriate side of the sliding card is uppermost. The following
steps are then carried out:
(a) Set the W/V.

This is carried out in the
manner described in
para 16(a).
(b) Set TAS. TAS

is set by adjusting the
card until the 320-speed
arc lies under the centre
of the plotting dial.
(c) The plotting dial

Fig 8-9: Finding Heading and Groundspeed
is rotated until the
required track is registered against the lubber line (Fig 5a). The drift indicated by the wind
point (7 ½ S) is noted; this represents the drift that would be experienced if a heading of
300°T were steered.
(d) The required track is now set against the drift scale mark equivalent to the drift found
in para 17c, i.e. 7 ½ S.
(e) It is possible that the wind point will now indicate a slightly different drift value (Fig 8-
9b). If this is the case, the plotting dial is adjusted until the required track is against this new
value of drift on the drift scale; (8°S in this example).
(f) The required heading (292° T) is read on the plotting dial against the lubber line, and
the groundspeed (329 knots) is indicated by the speed arc lying under the wind point (Fig 8-
9b).
18. Finding W/V by the Track and Groundspeed Method (Fig 8-10). The problem is to find
the W/V given the following data:
Hdg - 095(T)
TAS - 230 kts
TMG - 085(T)
G/S - 245 kts
It is first necessary to ensure that the appropriate side of the sliding card is uppermost. The following
steps are then carried out:
(a) The heading and TAS are set as described in para 16 (b).
(b) Set the Track Made Good and the Groundspeed. Firstly the drift is calculated as the
difference between heading and track, in this example 095° - 085° = 10° P. A pencil mark is
now made on the

plotting dial (Fig 8-
10a) where the drift
line (10° P) intersects
the speed arc
representing the
groundspeed (245
knots).
(c) A line drawn

from the centre of the
dial to this point
Fig 8-10: Finding W/V by Track and Groundspeed Method
represents the wind
`vector. In order to measure it, the dial is rotated until the vector is aligned exactly with the
centre line and running from the dial centre away from the lubber line (Fig 8-10b). The wind
direction can now be read off against the lubber line (200°T), and the wind speed can be
determined by measuring the length of the vector against the speed arcs (44 knots).
19. Correcting a W/V by Finding the Error in a DR Position (Fig 8-11). It is possible to find a
new wind velocity by applying a correction vector to the wind velocity in use, given a simultaneous DR
position and fix. For example, suppose that the wind velocity that has been used is 345°/30 knots and
that after 20 minutes of flight the aircraft's position is fixed at a position which bears 220°T/5 nm from
a DR position. The procedure is as follows:
(a) The card is adjusted until the square-ruled section is under the dial. The wind
direction is set against the lubber line and the wind vector in use is drawn on the dial using a
convenient scale, e.g. one large square = 10 nm (Fig 8-11a).
(b) The error per hour is calculated, (an error of 5 nm in 20 minutes is equivalent to 15
nm per hour). The dial is rotated until the bearing of the fix from the DR position is against the
lubber line. From the end of the wind vector a line is drawn, parallel to the grid lines, towards
the lubber line, and of a length equal to the hourly error at the chosen scale (Fig 8-11b). This
line is the correction vector.
(c) The line from the centre dot to the end of the correction vector represents the new
wind vector. It can be measured by rotating the dial until the vector is aligned with the centre
line and then reading the direction from the lubber line and measuring the speed against the
chosen scale of the square ruled section of the card (Fig 8-11c). In the example the new wind
is 003°/40 knots.
Fig 8-11: Correcting a W/V
21. To Calculate Convergence (Fig 8-12). Convergence may be determined using the
following procedure:
(a) Set the compass rose with North against the lubber line.
(b) Set the zero point of the squared portion of the slide under the centre of the plotting
disc.
(c) Mark ch long upwards from the zero point, on the squared section, using any
convenient scale (Fig 8-12 a).
(d) Rotate the compass rose to set Mean Lat against the lubber line (Fig 8-12b).
(e) Measure convergence horizontally on the squared grid (Fig 8-12b).
Example Ch long 4°, Mean Lat 30°, Convergence = 2°
Fig 8-12(a): Marking of Ch long Fig 8-12(b): Calculating Convergence
The Circular Slide Rule
22. The reverse sides of the Mks 4A and 5A DR Computer carry a circular slide rule. Although
the pocket electronic calculator has superseded the slide rule for carrying out arithmetic, the circular
slide rule is nevertheless useful for the solution of the normal speed, distance and time, and fuel
consumption problems, which regularly occur in navigation.
23. It ought to be remembered that, as with all slide rules, decimal points are ignored during
calculation and only inserted at the end. It is therefore important to have an appreciation of the order
of the result expected.
24. Reflecting the normal usage of the circular slide rule, the outer scale is marked 'MILES', and
the scale on the rotating disc (the inner scale) is marked 'MINUTES'. The inner scale has a large
black arrow indicating one hour.
Calculating Distance and Time
25. The problem most often encountered, which is solved readily by the circular slide rule, is that
of determining the time taken to cover a given distance, or conversely the distance covered in a given
time. To solve these problems, the given groundspeed is set, in knots on the outer scale, against the
black (hour) arrow of the inner scale. Distance is then read on the outer scale, against time in
minutes on the inner scale.
26. Example (Fig 8-13). Given a groundspeed of 470 kts, how long will it take to fly 100 nm, and
how far will the aircraft fly in 8
minutes? By setting 47 on the
outer scale against the hour
arrow it will be seen that a time
of 12.8 minutes on the inner
scale will be read against the 10
mark on the outer scale, i.e. 100
nm takes 12.8 minutes; against
8 on the inner (minutes) scale, a
distance of 62.5 nm will be read
on the outer scale.
Fig 8-13: Distance/Time Calculation
Calculating Groundspeed
27. If the distance flown in a given time is known, the circular slide rule can be used to find the
groundspeed. The procedure is to set the distance flown on the outer scale against the time taken on
the inner scale. The groundspeed is then read on the outer scale against the black (hour) arrow of
the inner scale, e.g. if 40 nm are flown in 7 minutes a groundspeed of 343 knots is read against the
black arrow (Fig 8-14).
Fig 8-14: Calculation of G/S
Fuel Consumption
28. Given the fuel consumption

rate (e.g. in kgs/min) and the leg
time over which that consumption
rate applies, the circular slide rule
can conveniently be used to
determine the total fuel used. The
fuel consumption rate is set on the
outer scale against the appropriate
time on the inner scale. The total
fuel used can then be read on the
outer scale against the leg time on Fig 8-15: Fuel Consumption
the inner scale. Thus in the example (Fig 8-15) a fuel consumption rate of 22 kgs/min is set against
the 1 minute mark (remembering that there are no decimal points and 1 is identical to 10). Over a leg
time of 18 minutes it will be seen that 396 kgs of fuel are used.
Unit Conversions
29. Unit conversions only

require the multiplication and
division of numbers and so any such
calculation could be carried out on a
slide rule, but this is not normally the
quickest or most accurate method;
electronic calculators or graphical
Fig 8-16: Unit Conversion
methods are generally preferred. However the circular slide rule can readily be used to convert
between nautical miles, statute miles, and kilometres. The outer scale has indices marked for each
unit and by setting the known value on the inner scale against its respective index, the corresponding
values in the other units can be read against the relevant index. Thus, for example, setting 18 against
the 'Naut' index gives values of 20.7 statute miles and 33.3 kilometres (Fig 8-16).
Airspeed Computer
30. Description. The air speed computer works on the slide rule principle and has scales for
the following applications:
(a) Computation of TAS from RAS, Corrected OAT and Pressure Altitude, with an
ancillary scale to allow compressibility corrections to be made to TAS above 300 knots.
(b) Inter conversion of TAS and Mach Number.
(c) Solution of Ratio and Proportion problems.
Use for Airspeed Computations
31. The procedure for calculating TAS from inputs of CAS, Corrected OAT, and altitude is as
follows:
(a) The inner disc is rotated so that the value of Corrected OAT is set against the value
of altitude, in thousands of feet, in the window (Fig 8-16a).
(b) The value of computed TAS (Comp TAS) can now be read on the outer scale against
the value of CAS on the inner scale (Fig 8-16a).
(c) If the computed TAS is above 300 knots, an additional correction must be made for
compressibility error. The correction scale appears in the window below the altitude window
and the correction is made by rotating the inner disc anti-clockwise so that the reading of the
correction scale, against its index, is increased by the value of:
(Computed TAS) /100 – 3 divisions
(d) The corrected TAS is now read off on the outer scale against the original CAS on the
inner scale.
(e) To obtain the most accurate results from the computer, pressure altitude and
corrected outside air temperature should be used for all airspeed computations. Even so,
when computing TAS for altitudes particularly above 30,000ft, noticeable, but navigationally
insignificant, errors are produced when compared with results using the mathematical
formula.
32. Example. As an example consider the calculation of TAS from the following data: -
Altitude - 48,000 ft
Corrected OAT - 56˚C
CAS - 210 kts
The procedure is as follows:
(a) Set -56°

against 48 in the
altitude window (Fig
8-16a).
(b) Against 210

on the inner scale
read the computed
Fig 8-16(a): Setting of corrected OAT against Altitude
TAS on the outer
scale - 500 kts (Fig 8-
16a).
(c) As the
computed TAS
exceeds 300 kts, a
compressibility
correction must be
made. The value of
this adjustment is:
(Comp TAS)/100 – 3
divisions = 500/100 –
3 = 2 divisions. Fig 8-16(b): Application of compressibility error correction
to determine TAS
(d) The correction scale is therefore made to read 27½ against its index (Fig 8-16b).
(e) The corrected value of TAS is now read on the outer scale against the value of CAS
(210) on the inner scale. The result is 476 kts.
Mach Number / True Airspeed Conversion
33. The Mach number scale appears in the

altitude window at the upper end of the altitude
scale. The scale can be used for converting Mach
number to TAS and vice versa (Fig 8-17).
34. Mach number and TAS may be inter

converted in one of two ways:-
(a) Set corrected outside air

temperature against the Mach index arrow
(marked M).
(b) Set indicated outside air

temperature against the intersection of
Mach number and 'K' factor. ('K' factor is
empirically determined for each aircraft
type).
(c) In either case, TAS is read on the

outer scale against Mach number on the
inner scale.
Fig 8-17: Mach No/TAS Conversion
35. Example. It is required to determine the TAS corresponding to M0.85 in a corrected OAT of
-50° T.
36. Using the method in para 34 (a)
(a) Set -50°C against the 'M' index arrow.

(b) Read TAS (495) knots on the outer scale against 0.85 on the inner scale.
189
CHAPTER 9
MENTAL DR NAVIGATION
1. It is sometimes useful to be able to solve mentally the problems normally solved on the DR
computer, even though the answers obtained may be approximate. Quick mental methods are
extensively used in navigation and can also be applied by navigators in checking flight plans, or
estimating alterations of heading and revision of ETAs. They are particularly useful in estimating final
airspeed changes to make good a timing point, when delay might leave insufficient time for a change
within the aircraft’s speed range to be effective.
2. The mental solution of problems ac can be conveniently dealt with under the following
headings:
(a) Estimation of distances on maps.

(b) Estimation of direction on maps (tracks and track errors).
(c) Estimation of TAS (from RAS and from Mach number)
(d) Estimation of wind effect (on speed and direction)
(e) Estimation of groundspeed between fixes.
(f) Estimation of ETA.
(g) Estimation of heading corrections (to regain a track or achieve a turning point).
(h) Estimation of speed adjustments to achieve an ETA.
Estimation of Distance on Maps
3. Any long tracks should be broken down into manageable distances before flight. By the
insertion of distance to go on the map, distances can then be estimated reasonably accurately:-
(a) If along or nearly along a track, using the whole divisions of distance to go and adding
any fraction of a division estimated by proportion.
(b) Using any available straight edge (e.g., a pencil, against the latitude scale of the map
or against the distance marks along track.
Estimation of Direction on Maps
4. The method of estimating direction which has the most general application is use of the one in
sixty rule. This is based on the fact that an angle of approximately 1˚ will be subtended by a distance
of 1 nm (or distance unit) at a range of 60 nm (or distance unit). The practical application of this rule is
in a right-angled triangle. If the length of the hypotenuse is 60 units, the number of the same units in
the length of the side opposite the small angle will be approximately the same as the number of
degrees in the small angle. This is illustrated at Fig 9-1.
Fig 9-1: 1 in 60 Rule
5. Proof of One in Sixty Rule.
For a circle, Arc / Radius = Angle subtended at the centre
l / r = θ radians (by definition of Radians)
θ radians = l / r
Multiplying both sides by 57.3,
θ radians x 57.3 = l / r x 57.3
θ˚ = l / r x 57.3 ≈ l / r x 60 ( because 2 Π radians = 360 deg)
Therefore,
l / r x 60 = θ˚
6. Alternative proof of One in Sixty Rule
An angle of 360˚ at the centre of the circle of radius ‘r’ describes an arc length of 2πr units.
(Since the arc in question is the circumference of the circle)
Hence, an angle of θ˚ describes an arc length = (θ / 360 ) x 2πr (9.1)
Let this arc length described by the angle of θ˚ be denoted by l.
l= (θ / 360 ) x 2πr From 9.1

Statement above implies,
l/r = (θ / 360 ) x 2π (9.2)
Therefore,
l/r = (θ / 360 ) x 2 x 3.14 (Substituting for the value of π)
l/r = (θ / 360 ) x 2 x 3 (Equating 3.14 ≈ 3 ) (9.3)
l/r = (θ / 360 ) x 6
l/r = θ / 60
l/r x 60 = θ
191 Mental DR Navigation
7. The practical application of 1 in 60 rule Short Side Sine of Angle Angle

involves a set of assumptions that cumulatively lead 1 1/60 =0. 0167 0° 57’
to an error in the angle calculated. Table 9-1 10 10/60=0.1667 9°36’
summarizes the magnitude of the error in the 20 20/60=0.3333 19°28’
calculated angle. It can be seen from this table that 30 30/60=0.5000 30°
if the small angle is less than 30° the result (subject 35 35/60=0.5833 35°41’
to measuring errors) will be accurate to about ½ ° 40 40/60=0.6667 41°49’
and up to 40° the result is still accurate to 2° which 45 45/60=0.7500 48°35’
is normally all that is required or an estimate.
Table 9-1: Error in Angle
8. Estimation of Track. The application of the one in sixty rule to the estimation of track angle
is illustrated at Fig 9-2. The procedure is:
(a) Decide to which cardinal direction the track is nearest.

(b) From a point (A) where the track crosses a parallel (if nearest East or West) or a
meridian (if nearest North or South measure, using a pencil, 60nm along the track (giving
point B).
(c) Measure the distance from this point to the parallel or meridian.
(d) Apply this distance as an angle (after multiplying it by the ratio 60 bears to the
stepped off distance along track) to the cardinal direction to obtain the track.
(e) If the calculated angle is between 40° and 45° add 2° for greater accuracy.
Fig 9-2: Examples of Track Estimation using 1 in 60 Rule
9. Bisecting the Angle. A

simple but approximate method of
estimating the track is by progressively
halving the angle of the quadrant in
which it lies as shown at Fig 9-3.
Fig 9-3: Track Estimation using Angle Bisection

Estimation of TAS
10. The following methods are however, simple and sufficiently accurate for most mental DR
purposes:
(a) RAS + RAS/60 X Alt in 1000’s of feet = TAS.
(b) RAS + 1.75% RAS X Alt in 1000’s of feet = TAS.
11. Percentages. The procedure is to add a percentage to the RAS in accordance with the
Table 9-2.
% to be added % to be added
Altitude
(ISA Conditions) (Indian Conditions)
5000 7.5 10
10000 15 20
15000 25 30
20000 33 40
25000 50 50
30000 60 64
35000 75 80
40000 100 100
Table 9-2: Percentages to be Added to RAS to Obtain TAS
12. TAS From Mach Number. This method, which assumes an International Standard
Atmosphere, gives reasonably accurate results up to 40,000 feet and for speeds up to Mach 1
(a) Multiply the indicated Mach Number (to two decimal places) by 600.
(b) If the indicated Mach No. is 0.60 or less, add 1 knot for each 1,000 feet below 25,000
feet, or subtract 1 knot for each 1,000 feet above 25,000 feet,
OR
(c) If the indicated Mach no. is greater than 0.60, add 2 knots per 1,000 feet below
25,000 feet or subtract 2 knots per 1,000 feet above 25,000 feet.
Example (i) Ht = 13,000’, MN = 0.43, TAS = (0.43 x 600) + (12 x 1) = 270 knots
(ii) Ht = 32,000’, MN = 0.88, TAS = (0.8 x 600) – (7 x 2) = 514 knots
13. Deviation from ISA. In case ISA conditions do not exist then the deviation from ISA is
added algebraically to the value outlined in para 12 above to cater for not standard atmospheric
conditions, Thus, when prevalent conditions are warmer than ISA, the ISA deviation is added and
under conditions colder than ISA the ISA deviation is subtracted.
Example Ht = 32,000’, MN = 0.88, OAT = -32 deg

TAS (under ISA conditions) = (0.8 x 600) – (7 x 2) = 514 knots
ISA deviation = + 17
Corrected TAS = 514 + 17 = 531 knots
TAS in Climb or Descent
14. For altitudes up to 20,000 feet, the following formulae may be used to determine the altitude
at which TAS may be calculated from RAS to give a reasonably accurate mean TAS for the climb or
descent.
(a) Descent or climb at a constant rate. The altitude at the lower level + Half the
change of altitude
Example Constant ROC 2,000’ to 20,000’, OR, Descent from 20,000’ to 2,000’, mean
altitude for TAS calculation = 2,000’ + ½ 18,000’ = 11,000’
(b) Decreasing ROC. The altitude at commencement of climb + two-thirds the change
in altitude
Example Decreasing ROC 2,000’ to 20,000’, OR, Descent from 20,000’ to

2,000’, mean altitude for TAS calculation = 2,000 + 2/3 x 18,000 = 14,000’
15. For altitude above 20,000’ these approximations become very inaccurate, and mean TAS
should be calculated directly from the data in the ODM for the ac, or from simplified tables based on
the data.
Estimation of Wind effect
17. In Mental DR it is convenient to

treat separately the ways in which wind
affects speed and direction. The method
estimating these effects is given below.
This gives results which, although
approximate, are sufficiently accurate for
most purposes.
18. Fig 9-4 is to be used as follows: Fig 9-4: Percentage Effect of Winds
(a) Wind Effect on Speed. The maximum effect on speed is experienced when the
wind is from dead ahead or astern, and decreases to approximately zero with a beam wind.
The diagram gives the factor of wind strength, for intermediate directions relative to track,
which is added to or subtracted from TAS to give groundspeed.
(b) Wind Effect on Direction. The maximum drift, experienced when the wind is at
right angles to track, is calculated by the one in sixty rule, using the wind speed and TAS.
Max drift angle = (Wind factor x 60)/ TAS
This is then reduced by the drift factor for the wind direction relative to track. When the drift
has been estimated, the heading to steer to make good the required track can be found.
19. Although above fig shows the factors 87% and 97%, in practice the figures 90% and 100%
would normally be used.
Estimation of Groundspeed Between Fixes
20. It is often possible to avoid the necessity of calculating groundspeed between fixes by
working in time and map distance terms rather than in terms of speed. There will however be times,
as for example when changing map sheets, when it is more convenient to use the groundspeed to
revise an ETA. Groundspeed can be calculated by fractional proportion, increasing or decreasing the
time to a convenient whole number fraction of 60 minutes, and increasing the distance in proportion.
For example:
(a) 6.5 minutes to cover 23 nm is equivalent to 6 minutes to cover 23 – (23/13) nm or 6.0

mins to cover 21 nm approx, which gives G/S 210k approx.
(b) 16.5 mins to cover 87nm is equivalent to 15 mins to cover (87- 1 ½ x87/16 ½) nm.
i.e. (87 – 1 ½ x 5), i.e. 79 ½, which gives G/S 4 x 79 ½ = 318 approx.
Estimation of ETA
21. ETA can sometimes be estimated without calculation of groundspeed. The two methods
commonly used are:
(a) Modifying Flight Plan Times by Proportion. For example, suppose an aircraft
arrives at a checkpoint after 18 mins instead of the expected 20 mins, thereby gaining 2 mins
in 20 or 1 in 10. If 50 mins of flight plan time remains, the aircraft can be expected to gain a
further 50 x 1/10 = 5 mins. Thus the aircraft will arrive 7 mins ahead of the original ETA.
(b) Estimation of Leg Time to Go by Proportion. For example, suppose about two
inches (on the map) of a leg has been covered in 11 mins. This distance is stepped off along
the remaining track to go, using a thumbnail against a pencil. If the distance to go is
estimated to be three and a third times the distance gone, the time to go will be further 37
mins.
22. When the estimation of ETA by the use groundspeed is necessary, a fractional proportion
method is used as in para 20, except that for ETA problems it is easiest to increase or decrease the
groundspeed to a multiple of 60 knots, adjusting the distance in proportion. For example:
(a) G/S 287 k to cover 98 nm, is equivalent to 300 k to cover {98 + (1/20) x 98} nm i.e.
103 nm, Time = 103/5 = 20.6 mins.
(b) G/S 374 to cover 205 nm, is equivalent to 360k to cover (205 – 205/27) nm, say (205
-205/30) nm, i.e. 198 nm, therefore time 198/6 = 33 mins.
23. Quite rough approximations can be used in the method with only minor errors being
introduced.
Estimation of Heading Corrections
24. Application of the One In Sixty Rule. When applied to the estimation of track errors and
closing angles the one in sixty rule is normally being applied to small angles only, invariably less than
20°. In these circumstances measurement along the base of the triangle instead of along the
hypotenuse will not produce significant errors. Nor is it necessary to step off a distance of 60nm or a
fixed fraction thereof. The basic procedure used is as follows:
(a) Measure the distance off track (4nm).

(b) Measure the distance along track (41nm).
(c) Multiply the ratio of these two numbers (which gives the distance off in one mile) by
60 to give the distance off in
60 nm (and thus the
approximate angle off in
degrees). In the example,
approx track error = 4/41 x 60
= 4/40 x 60 = 6 ° Fig 9-5: Track Estimation Using 1 in 60 rule
25. Some applications of the one in sixty rule to correct heading are illustrated at Fig 9-6 to 9-10.
In the diagrams angles have been exaggerated for clarity. The following symbols are employed:
A – Departure point or first fix.

B – Second fix.
C – Destination.
TE – Track Error.
CA – Closing angle.
A/H – Alter Heading.
Fig 9-6: A/H = 2 x TE to Regain Required Track

Fig 9-7: Alter Heading to Destination = TE + CA
Fig 9-8: A/H to Destination after a Second Fix on the Opposite Side of Track
Fig 9-9: A/H to Destination after a Second Fix on the Same Side of Track,
Undershooting the Destination
Fig 9-10: A/H to Destination after a Second Fix on the Same Side of Track,
Overshooting the Destination
26. Simplified Application of One in Sixty Rule. A simple and reasonably technique of
applying the one in sixty rule, which can be applied provided heading alterations are kept to within
20°, is: ‘For each mile off track, alter heading by 10° in the appropriate direction and track will be
regained in number of minutes = 6 / {G/S (nm/min)}’. This alteration will restore the aircraft to the
desired track and then either the original heading is resumed or, better still, a heading that will
maintain the desired track.
Estimation of Speed Adjustments to Achieve ETA
27. There are various ways of adjusting a flight to ensure that an aircraft arrives at its destination
(or some point enroute) at a given time. The most common are:
(a) Planning the route so that there is a convenient corner before the destination or
target, which can be cut or extended to gain or lose time.
(b) Flying a ‘dog leg’ or similar procedural alteration of heading to lose time.
(c) Adjusting the airspeed.
28. The methods assume that adjustments to IAS will have a proportionate effect on
groundspeed which are sufficiently accurate provided the aircraft is flown at a reasonably constant
height. The most common procedures are outlined below.
29. Use of Tables and Graphs. When an aircraft type is being flown regularly in the same flight
profile, it may be useful to carry a table or graph showing the gain or loss of time resulting from the
application of changes in IAS (at say 20k intervals of IAS) for a convenient period of time.
30. Pre-Computation of IAS Adjustments. After the flight plan has been completed, the
speed adjustments required to gain or lose one minute can be computed for each leg, and noted on
the flight plan. Multiples of these figures can then be used in flight with reasonable accuracy. If the
flight involves a long leg it can be broken down into sections at prominent pinpoints, and the speed
adjustment required to gain or lose one minute over the remainder of the leg calculated for each point.
31. Estimation of Adjustments to Flight Plan IAS in Flight. This is best explained by and
illustration. Suppose that a leg is being flown at an IAS of 360 k, and the groundspeed gives a flight
plan time of 80 mins. At a pinpoint estimated to be one quarter along the leg the aircraft is one minute
late. If no adjustment is made the aircraft will be 4 mins late at the turning point. To be on time at the
turning point the remainder of the leg must be flown in 59 mins. These figures of time late and time to
go are applied as follows:
Increase in IAS required = IAS x Time late on ETA / Time required to ETA
= 360 x 4/59
= 360 x 4/60 approx
= 24 knots
32. Calculation of True Altitude from Indicated Altitude. The following formula is useful for
calculation of true altitude from indicated altitude knowing the correct free air temperature and the
I.C.A.N temperature at the altitude.
True altitude = Pressure alt + (Pressure alt x 3.5 x Deviation from ISA conditions)/ 1000
This formula will be accurate till about 10,000 feet above which the multiplication factor becomes 4
(instead of 3.5) up to 24,000 feet, above which it cannot hold good.
199
CHAPTER 10
PLOTTING POSITION LINES
1. The line of sight between two points lies along the shortest path between them. The
corresponding radio wave between the two points also follows the same path. Consequently visual
and radio bearings are great circles. This complicates plotting for none of the common plotting charts
portray all great circles as straight lines.
Divergence
2. Divergence is defined as the angular deviation between the great circle bearing between two
points and the straight line bearing between them. Divergence, indicated by the symbol, ∆, between
the straight line joining two points on the chart and the corresponding great circle varies according to:
(a) The projection.
(b) The bearing and distance between the two points.
(c) The area of operation.
3. The Projection. The path represented by a straight line on a chart depends upon the
projection employed in the chart’s construction. On some projections the straight line approximates to
a great circle while on others it is very different. Consequently, the magnitude of the angular
divergence between the straight line and the great circle is a function of the projection being used. In
general terms, ignoring both the effect of the relative orientation of the two points and the area of
operation, the divergence is greater on the Mercator projection than on the other common projections
- the polar stereographic, the Lambert’s conformal, the oblique and transverse (skew) Mercator. On
the Mercator projection the straight line represents the rhumb line.
4. The Relative Orientation of the Two Points. A straight line can represent more than one
path on a projection. For example on the Mercator, Lamberts and polar stereographic projections, the
meridians, which are great circles, appear as straight lines. On the skew Mercator, with the exception
of the meridian through the vertex (oblique Mercator) and the central meridian, anti-meridian and
meridians at 90° (transverse Mercator), the meridians appear as curves. With some exceptions it is
fair to say that the greater the departure from the point or line of origin of the chart, the more the
straight line departs from representing a great circle. The longer the straight line the greater this
discrepancy.
5. Area of Operation. The various chart projections have been devised to provide the most
accurate representation of the Earth within limited areas. It is possible to represent the hemisphere
accurately using five projections. If this plan were rigidly adhered to, the divergence (∆) between the
great circle and the straight line over distances of 500 nm and less would be very small. However
conditions may result in projections being used outside of the optimum areas and for this reason it is
necessary to study the methods of plotting visual and radio position lines.
Expression for Divergence (∆)
6. A general expression for the magnitude of ∆ is given by:
∆ = ½ ch long (sin mean lat – n)
Ch long and mean lat refer to the change of longitude and latitude between the DR position and the
bearing source respectively. n is the constant of the cone, which is discussed in detail in the training
notes on Maps and Charts. For the purposes of this chapter it is sufficient to know that:-
(a) On the Mercator projection, n = 0.
(b) On the Lambert’s conformal projection n may lie between 1 and 0. The precise value
is a function of the parallel of origin.
7. Assuming a small change of longitude along the bearing, the following deductions for each
projection, based on the information above, can be made: -
(a) Mercator. At low latitudes, since the sine of a small angle is small and n = 0, ∆ is
small.
(b) Lambert’s Conformal. ‘n’ is very small for tropical and temperate latitudes. Thus ∆
is generally small in these areas. However, at the limits of a Lambert’s projection there can
be a considerable difference in the sine of the mean latitude and n, depending on the
standard parallels selected and therefore the parallel of origin, where n = sin lat and
divergence is nil.
Plotting When Bearings are Measured at a Ground Station
Mercator Projection
8. On a Mercator chart the straight line represents the

rhumb line, while the great circle appears as a curve concave
to the equator and, particularly outside of the Mercator’s
optimum latitude band of 12.5°S to 12.5°N, this difference must
be considered when plotting bearings. The angle between the
great circle and the rhumb line bearing between two points is
known as conversion angle (CA, see Fig 10-1). The inter-
Fig 10-1: Conversion Angle =
Divergence on a Mercator Chart
201 Plotting Position Lines
relationship between CA and earth convergence on the earth and as depicted on a Mercator is
discussed at Appendix A to this chapter.
9. Although it is the great circle bearing

which the direction finding equipment
measures, it is the rhumb line bearing, which
is initially plotted since this is a straight line.
This bearing is obtained by applying CA to the
great circle bearing such that, in the northern Fig 10-2: Conversion of a Great Circle Bearing
hemisphere, the rhumb line lies nearer 180° T. to the Corresponding Rhumb Line
In the southern hemisphere the CA is applied in the opposite sense so that the rhumb line lies nearer
000°T. For example, if in the northern hemisphere a true bearing of the aircraft is measured as 070°T
and the conversion angle is 2°, the rhumb line bearing is 072°T.
10. From Fig 10-3 it can be seen that to plot the

portion of the great circle bearing in the vicinity of the DR
position in this case, the rhumb line bearing should now
be turned towards 180°T (in the northern hemisphere) at
the DR meridian, through an angle equal to CA. In
practice the value of the conversion angle would have to
be quite large before there was any appreciable
difference between the rhumb line and the great circle in
the vicinity of the DR meridian. Consequently, the Fig 10-3: Obtaining a Position Line
Tangential to the Great Circle at the
rotation of the rhumb line to lie along the great circle at
DR Meridian
the DR meridian can usually be ignored.
11. Calculation of Conversion Angle. Conversion

angle can be deduced from a nomogram (Fig 10-4), a graph
(Fig 10-5), or from the formula. Since n = 0, the formula for
divergence reduces to CA =½ ch long x sin mean lat. For
practical purposes ½ x sin mean lat, which is called the
conversion angle factor, can be reduced to six values to
cover the hemisphere. CA is then the product of ch long and
the conversion angle factor.
Fig 10-4: Conversion Angle Nomogram– ABAC Scale Fig 10-5: Conversion Angle
Lambert's Conformal Projection
12. Depending on the relative magnitude

of the sine of the mean latitude and n, ∆ may
be positive or negative. The area of operation
on a particular Lambert's projection will
determine on which side of the straight line the
great circle lies. If the mean latitude is greater
than that of the parallel of origin then the great
circle will be closer to the pole than the
straight line and vice versa (Fig 10-6). It
should be remembered that the straight line on
Fig 10-6: The Great Circle and the Straight
a Lambert's projection is not a rhumb line. Line on a Lambert's Conformal Projection
13. Theoretically the problems of plotting a great circle on a Lambert's projection are essentially
the same as those for the Mercator. The great circle is converted to the straight line equivalent by
applying ∆, and this line is then rotated at the DR meridian through an angle ∆ to give the tangent to
the great circle. The application of ∆ in both cases is such as to make the bearings nearer 180° if the
mean latitude is greater than the parallel of origin, and nearer 000° if less than this parallel.
Fig 10-7: Graph of ∆ against Mean Latitude Fig 10-8: Graph of ∆ against Mean Latitude
(n = 0.31137) (n = 0.78535)
14. Graphs of mean latitude against ∆ are shown at Figs 10-7 and 10-8 for values of n of 0.31137
and 0.78535 respectively. For a radio position line obtained over a range of 250 nm, ∆ varies from
(approx) -0.6° to 1.5° in Fig 10-7 (at latitudes 0° and 50°) and from -1° to +1° in Fig 10-8 (at latitudes
20° and 70°). These are the maximum values in the circumstances as it is assumed that the aircraft
and station are at the same latitude. If they were at any other position the ch long would be smaller
over the given distance. Thus in the majority of circumstances the great circle can be plotted directly
as a straight line with only minimal error.
PLOTTING WHEN BEARINGS ARE MEASURED AT THE AIRCRAFT
15. The bearing measured at a ground D/F station

will be the same for all aircraft transmitting from different
positions on the same great circle. Consequently, that
great circle is the position line. The converse is not true.
Aircraft flying the same heading and lying on the same
great circle through the station will not measure the
same relative bearing from the ground beacon's Fig 10-9: Aircraft on the Same Hdg
and on the Same Great Circle from
transmission (Fig 10-9). Thus, when the bearing is
the Station Measuring Different
measured at the aircraft, the great circle is not the Relative Bearings
position line.
16. Curve of Equal Bearing (CEB). If all the

points at which aircraft on the same hdg note the
same relative bearing of great circle transmissions
from the same ground station were plotted, they
would be found to lie along a curve. This curve is
called the Curve of Equal Bearing (Fig 10-10). Fig 10-10: Curve of Equal Bearing (CEB)
Plotting Relative Bearings on the Mercator Projection
17. On a Mercator chart the CEB approximates very closely to a mirror reflection of the great
circle on the opposite side of the rhumb line. The angle between the CEB and the rhumb line may be
taken as equal to conversion angle
18. Whenever the conversion angle is less than 6 degrees, great circle bearings taken from the
aircraft (calculated as Hdg + Br(R)) should be converted into thumb line bearing by the application of
conversion angle. The rhumb line bearing is then plotted in reciprocal from the station and this is
considered as the position line.
Example:
Brg (R) of ground station 255°
True Heading of Aircraft 025°
Great circle bearing of ground station from the ac position 280°
Conversion angle 3°
Rhumb line bearing from ac position 277°

Reciprocal to plot from station 097°
19. Whenever conversion angle is of 6° or more an additional step is involved. The position line is
defined by the tangent to the CEB at the DR meridian of the aircraft. This is determined by turning the
rhumb line bearing an angle equal to conversion angle away from the great circle at the DR meridian
of the ac.
20. The following points should be remembered when plotting radio position lines on a Mercator
Chart:
(a) Whether the radio bearing is obtained in the aircraft or passed from a ground D/F
station, the great circle bearing of the aircraft from the station or radio beacon must first be
established.
(b) Conversion angle must be applied to the great circle bearing to obtain the rhumb line
to plot. A small sketch is the best means of showing whether the conversion angle is to be
added to or subtracted from the great circle which is a curve concave to the equator.
(c) The position line, depending on the case, may be plotted as:
(i) Part of the rhumb line bearing.

(ii) Tangent to the great circle through the meridian of the DR position.
(iii) Tangent to the curve of equal bearing through the meridian of the DR
position.
21. Table 10-1 will assist in deciding which of the three apply.
Bearing Measured At
Station Aircraft
Value of CA Value of CA
CA < 6 Deg P/L is CA > 6 Deg P/L

part of Rel Brg
Table 10-1: Plotting Position Line
Plotting Relative Bearings on the Lambert's Conformal Projection
22. The effect of meridian convergence is very apparent on the Lambert's conformal projection.
From Fig 10-11a it can be seen that the bearing of the great circle at A differs from that at B, the
difference being Earth convergence.
23. In attempting to plot the great circle bearing measured at the aircraft, it would be wrong
merely to plot the reciprocal from the source. If this were done the bearing plotted would not cut the
Fig 10-11: The Effect of Meridian Convergence Fig 10-12: Plotting a Great
Circle Bearing (Determined at
the Aircraft)
DR meridian at the measured angle (see Fig 10-11b) but at the measured angle ± convergence. This
problem is overcome by plotting the reciprocal from the source with reference to a line parallel to the
DR meridian (Fig 10-12). As with the Mercator chart, over the distances traveled by UHF, VHF, and
MF radio waves, rotation of the position line at the DR meridian is normally unnecessary.
SUMMARY
24. The methods used to plot position lines are a compromise between precision and expeditious
plotting; the speedier and simpler approximation is normally to be preferred. Although it is not
possible to state an invariable rule, consideration should usually be given to converting the great circle
bearing to the straight line equivalent, whereas the need to rotate the position line at the DR meridian
is normally ignored. The characteristics of the various common projections are summarized below:
(a) The Mercator. The divergence between the straight line and the great circle varies
directly as the sine of the mean latitude along the great circle. Since this projection is often
used over a wide this projection is often used over a wide latitude band significant values of ∆
may be encountered. The need to calculate the straight line equivalent therefore often arises
on the Mercator chart.
(b) The Skew Mercator. Provided the skew Mercator is restricted to the optimum band
of cover, i.e. ± 8° of false latitude, the values of ∆ are small. If the chart is not gridded then
relative bearings must be plotted with reference to the DR meridian and not the meridian
through the ground station.
(c) The Lambert’s Conformal Projection. The standard parallels on these charts can
be widely spaced and at the limits of cover ∆ can be significant. Thus although the great
circle and the straight line can be considered coincident over the greater part of the
projection, this should not be assumed near the limits of cover. When plotting relative
bearings an allowance for convergence must be made, most simply by paralleling the DR
meridian through the ground station.
25. VOR and TACAN Bearings. Although VOR and TACAN bearings are intercepted at the
aircraft, the bearing information is implanted at the ground station. The radials should be plotted with
reference to magnetic North through the ground station on all charts, with divergence applied if
necessary.
(Appendix A)
(Refers to Para 8
of Chapter 10)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CA AND EARTH CONVERGENCY (ON EARTH)
1. Fig 10-13 is an illustration of the

relationship in the northern hemisphere.
Two points A and B are considered. The
great circle between these points is
represented by the straight line (as
occurs on the earth). The R/L between A
and B makes the same angle at each
meridian and therefore curves towards
the equator. The angle between the
great circle and the rhumb line at A and
B are conversion angles and for all Fig 10-13: Relationship between CA and Convergency
practical purposes they may be
considered equal.
2. Now transfer the meridian at A parallel to

itself through B. Since rhumb lines cut all the
meridians at equal angles.
Angle PAB along the R/L = Angle RBD

(Angle 1 in Fig 10-14) (Angle 2 in Fig 10-14)
Hence, α + CA = C + α – CA
CA = ½ C, i.e., conversion angle is equal to half
the Convergency.
Fig 10-14: The Rhumb Line Bearing at A & B

209
CHAPTER 11
RADIUS OF ACTION
Definition
1. Radius of Action abbreviated as (ROA) is defined as the maximum distance that an aircraft
can travel out from a datum point along a specified track before returning to the same or a different
datum point within a specified time.
2. The time so specified, also called the patrol time may be dictated by either fuel considerations
or operational requirements. The specified track that the ac requires to maintain is referred to as the
patrol track. When the ac returns to the start point on completion of the patrol, it is a case of ROA to a
fixed base. In contrast, when the ac departs a certain base and lands at a different base or the same
base (such as an aircraft carrier) on completion of the patrol, it is considered a case of ROA to a
moving base.
ROA – FIXED BASE
Formula Method
3. In calculations of ROA, the critical factor is the patrol time. This may be considered analogous
to the safe endurance associated with PSR. When the ac is on patrol:
Time (out) + Time (back) = Patrol time
Let X represent the maximum distance away from departure base that the ac can reach before
returning to base within the patrol time, designated by P, O and H have their standard connotations of
ground speed “Out’ and ground speed ‘Home’.
Time (out) = X / O
Time (back) = X / H
X/O+X/H=P
Transposing of the terms yields the value of X.
X = POH
O+H
And time to turn, T = X/O = PH
O+ H
Graphical Solution of ROA
4. The graphical solution of ROA is obtained by constructing the triangle of velocities as in the
Fig 11-1 to determine the aircraft’s Radius of Action for one hour. This distance is multiplied by the
patrol time in hours to give the ROA.
5. With reference to Fig 11-1, consider

an ac proceeding on a track TR of 070 (T).
TAS is 300 knots. W/V is 330/ 45 knots. The
patrol time is four hours. The ROA is
calculated as follows:
(a) A represents any point on Fig 11-1: Graphical Solution of ROA

the track TR. From A lay off a wind
vector AW for one hour. With centre W and radius of TAS cut off arcs P and Q on the track on
either side of A.
(b) WP and WQ represent the heading out and heading home respectively. AP and AQ
give the ground speeds out and back respectively.
(c) Through A draw a line parallel to QW cutting WP at S.
(d) Through S draw a line parallel to WA cutting TR at Z. AZ is the ROA for one hour.
Multiplying distance AZ by the patrol time gives the ROA.
Proof of Graphical Solution
6. In the triangle QWP, (Fig 11-1), QW = WP

Hence, QWP is an isosceles triangle and thus angle WQP = angle WPA
AS is parallel to WQ (by construction)
Hence, angle SAP = angle WQP (corresponding angles) = angle WPA
But angle WPA = angle SPA
Therefore, angle SAP = angle SPA
Implies that triangle SAP is also an isosceles triangle.
Thus SA = SP
WP = WS + SP = TAS for 1 hour = WS + SA (Since SA = SP)
Since AW represents the W/V for one hour and WP (i.e. WS + SA) the TAS for one hour, AZ
will represent the total ground distance covered, out and home, in one hour,
i.e., AZ is the ROA for one hour.
Multiplication of AZ by the patrol time (4 hours) gives the ROA.
Alternative Graphical Solution of ROA
7. The time taken to travel any given distance is inversely proportional to the G/S. since the ac
must travel the same distance out and back, the ratio of the time out to time back is equal to the ratio
of G/S back to G/S out.
Time out = G/S back i.e. T / (P – T) = H / O

Time back G/S out
211 Radius of Action
8. Having determined the G/S out and G/S

back represented by AP and AQ in Fig 11-2, the
time to turn may be solved graphically by drawing
an additional line, QL, representing the total time
available to any convenient scale. Join PL through
A draw a line parallel to PL meeting QL at X. QX
represents the time to turn on the scale adopted.
Fig 11-2: Alternate Graphical Solution of

ROA
213
CHAPTER 12
CRITICAL POINT & POINT OF SAFE RETURN
1. An important aspect of flight planning is the calculation of the action to be taken in the event
of a diversion or an emergency. The decision to be made is whether, with the available fuel and
knowledge of the wind velocity, it will be preferable to return to base, divert, or continue to the
destination, and indeed which of these options is feasible. This chapter will describe the various
decision points, which can be determined at the flight planning stage and the methods by which they
can be calculated.
CRITICAL POINT OR PET (POINT OF EQUAL TIME)
Definition
2. This point is also referred to as the Point of Equal Time (PET) or the ‘Route Critical Point’ and
is generally abbreviated as CP. The CP is the point between two airfields from which it would take the
same time to fly to either airfield. The calculation of critical point is based on the ratio of groundspeed
to destination and groundspeed back to base. The TAS selected for the calculation depends on the
type of emergency envisaged. For example in the case of an engine failure a reduced TAS will be
used, whereas in the case of a sudden deterioration in the condition of a patient on a medical
evacuation flight a higher than normal TAS might be appropriate.
3. There are three methods of determining the critical point between two airfields - Formula
method, Use of DR Computer and the graphical method. The fuel ‘Howgozit’ graph can also be used
to determine CP.
Formula Method
4. Fig 12-1 illustrates the problem to be

solved. A and B are the two airfields and C is
the critical point whose position along AB is to
be found. The distance from A to B is D, and
Fig 12-1: Critical Point –
the distance from A to C is annotated as X Solution by Formula Method
(which is to be determined). The groundspeed on to the destination is O and the groundspeed back to
base is H. In most cases these groundspeeds will be calculated on the basis of a reduced TAS. By
the definition of Critical Point the time from C to A is the same as the time from C to B.
Therefore, (D – X) / O = X / H, or, DH – XH = XO,

or, DH = X (O + H), or, X = DH / (O + H) (10.1)
5. At the stage of flight planning the TAS likely to be used in case of the contingency for which
the CP or PET (Point of Equal Time) is being calculated is determined. The available met data in
terms of forecast W/V is used to determine O and H. From knowledge of D (the distance between
airfields between which the CP is being calculated), O and H, the value of X can be calculated. In-
flight, the value of X can be refined based on the W/V data determined in flight. It must be noted that
the calculation of the elapsed time to reach the point X involves the use of the normal TAS.
Solution of Formula on DR Computer
6. The terms of the expression X = DH / (O + H) can be rearranged to give

X/D = H / (O + H)
This rearranged form of the expression for X is suitable for solution on the DR computer. H is
set on the outer scale against (O + H) on the inner scale. X is read off on the outer scale against D on
the inner scale.
Graphical Solution of Critical Point Between Two Airfields
7. Let the two bases be A and B (Fig 12-2). It is required to graphically construct the CP
between these two bases. The steps in the graphical solution are as follows:
(a) At any point on the track, plot the

wind vector downwind (XW) to a
convenient scale (one hour, say).
(b) With W as centre, cut off arcs WQ

(normal TAS for 1 hr), WO (reduced TAS
for 1 hr) and WH (reduced TAS for 1 hr)
on the track. From the respective wind
triangles, XQ becomes the G/S out at
normal TAS, XO the G/S out at the Fig 12-2: Graphical Determination of Critical Point
reduced TAS (O) and XH the G/S home at
reduced TAS (H).
(c) It is now required to divide AB in the ratio of these reduced ground speeds O and H to
determine the CP.
(d) To do this, draw any construction vector AL at A.
(e) Mark off AC = XH, and CD = XO on AL.
(f) Join DB. Draw CP parallel to DB through C. Now, P is the CP.

215 Critical Point and Point of Safe Return
Proof of the Graphical Method
8. It is required to be proved that time from CP to the destination at reduced G/S out (PB / XO) =
time from CP to departure at reduced G/S home (PA / XH) (since CP is the equitime point). By
construction (Fig 12-2), XH = AC and XO = CD. It is therefore sufficient to establish that PB / CD = PA
/ AC
The triangles ADB and ACP are similar triangles. Hence, AB / AP = AD / AC
Therefore (AP + PB) / AP = (AC + CD) / AC, i.e. (1 + PB / AP) = (1 + CD / AC)
Hence, PB / AP = CD / AC or PB / CD = AP / AC = PA/AC
The Critical Line
9. The critical point represents that point on track from which it will take equal time to proceed to
destination or return to base. If the aircraft is off track however the critical point loses its significance
and must be replaced by a critical line. The critical line may be defined as the locus of points from
which an ac will take equal time to proceed to destination or return to base. For a straight-line track
as in Fig 12-3(a), in still air, the perpendicular bisector of track represents the equal time line back to
A or on to B. Thus for an aircraft well port of track (at C) it would be quicker to return to A than
proceed to B in still air.
Fig 12-3(a): Critical Line in Still Air Fig 12-3(b): Wind - Modified Critical Line
10. To be valid this line must be modified for the effect of wind. The time for the aircraft to fly from
the still air critical line to either A or B in still air at the reduced TAS is calculated. The critical line is
then moved upwind by a distance equal to the still airtime multiplied by the wind speed.
11. In the example the still air critical line is at 500 nm, the reduced TAS is 260 kts and the wind
velocity is 060/60. The still air time to fly from the critical line to either A or B is 115 minutes (1.923
hrs). Thus the critical line must be moved upwind (i.e. in the direction 060°T) by 1.923 x 60 nm = 115
nm (Fig 12-3(b)).
12. There is an inherent flaw in the ‘critical line method’ in determining the CP. On application of
the wind effect correction, the critical line has been shifted by the still air time taken to fly from a point
on the critical line to A or to B. The introduction of the wind factor introduces variation in the ground
speed between the tracks from the critical line to A or to B. This would lead to a discrepancy between
the still air time for which the wind effect has been applied and the actual time to reach point A or B.
This is a theoretical consideration, which can be disregarded, unless the wind component is a
significant proportion of the TAS. The best approach to adopt to eliminate this ambiguity is to ensure
that the Hdg / TAS vector towards A or B commences from the equiline rather than the track and
ground speed vector.
Critical Point between Three Airfields
13. The discussion in the foregoing

paragraphs was restricted to the options of
proceeding to the destination or returning to
base. More commonly there will be a third
option of diverting to an off-track airfield. Fig
12-4 shows the still air situation where
Fig 12-4: Critical Point between Three Airfields
between A and L it will be quicker to return to
base, from L to N it will be quicker to divert to C, and beyond N it will be quicker to proceed to B. Thus
L and N represent two critical points. The best method of finding the positions of L and N is graphical
and is based on the critical line solution.
14. To account for the wind effect the points L and N are moved upwind, in the same manner as
constructing a critical line, by an amount equal to the wind speed multiplied by the time to fly from L
and N respectively to C at the reduced TAS. Critical lines are drawn through the ends of the wind
vectors, parallel to LM and NO, and where these cut the track represent the critical points.
Fig 12-5: Critical Point between Three Airfields (With Wind Effect Correction)
15. The method is illustrated in Fig 12-5. AC and BC, joining the departure and destination
airfields to the diversion, are drawn, and the perpendicular bisectors of these lines (LM and NO) are
constructed to cut the track, AB, at L and N. As L is equidistant from A and C and N is equidistant
from B and C, L and N are the still air critical points. Since the wind effects on both the track to the CP
and that to the alternate from the CP are assumed to be the same, the air distance measured on the
track will be in slight error and the method depicted above though close to the truth is not the absolute
truth.
The Air plot Method of Calculating CP Between Three Fixed Bases
16. This is an accurate method for the graphical determination of the CP between three bases
(two bases considered at a time). This method accurately caters for the wind effect while utilizing the
concept of the equitime line between a pair of bases. The steps involved are as follows:
(a) Construct the wind triangle at

A to any convenient scale (1 hour,
say), where AW represents the wind
vector, TW the TAS and TA the G/S
home (Fig 12-6).
(b) Through A draw AO parallel to

WT cutting the perpendicular bisector
MN at O. Fig 12-6: The Air Plot Method
of Calculation of CP
(c) Draw OP parallel to AW. P is
the critical point. Triangle AOP represents the wind triangle from CP to base and triangle COP
represents the wind triangle from CP to the alternate.
(d) The principle of this solution is based on the fact that the triangles AOP and COM
have been constructed for the same time period because the Hdg/TAS vectors have been
plotted form the equiline. This method assumes that the wind velocity on both legs is the
same.
Determination of CP between destination and terminal diversion - Vir Narain’s Formula
17. The CP between destination and terminal diversion can be determined by Vir Narain’s
formula. This formula gives the expression for the location of the CP. This location can be calculated
in terms of the distance of the CP short of destination. This formula states:
Distance of CP from Destination = DxO

2 x A x Cos (θ + φ)
Where, D = Distance of terminal diversion from the destination

O = G/S out along the track to destination
A = TAS
θ = The angle between the track to destination and the track to diversion from the
destination
φ = Drift Angle (+ drift if the diversion is on the opposite side of the drift experienced
on track to destination ; - drift if the diversion is on same side as the

drift experienced on track to destination)
Factors Affecting the CP
18. In still air conditions the CP will be exactly halfway between the two bases being considered.
The factors affecting the position of the CP are:
(a) Distance. Total distance between the two bases.

(b) The Wind Component. The CP will always be up-wind of the midpoint.
(c) TAS. Reducing the speed will increase the significance of the wind and so cause
the CP to move further along track in to the wind
19. Given a head wind component (W) going out and an equal tail wind component coming back,
the CP formula may be written:
D (TAS + W) = D (½ + W / 2 TAS) = D / 2 + DW / 2 TAS

2 TAS
This implies that the CP will be displaced from the mid-point by distance equal to DW / 2 TAS. The
exact factor by which the CP will be displaced is DW / 2 TAS x Cos (Drift Angle). Since the drift angle
is normally a small value and Cos (0) = 1, the factor of Cos (Drift Angle) in the denominator is
generally disregarded. However, it may become significant under conditions of strong beam winds
with the wind speed being a fair proportion of the TAS.
20. Based on this correction to the still air CP position (as a function of wind component) some
Operation Manuals provide a simple table for adjusting the halfway point to derive a Critical Point.
Here is a typical example:
TAS % to be added to D/2
100 10
Table 12-1 gives the percentage increase of the half –
200 5
way distance necessary to allow for a 10 kts head
wind component. 300 3.3
400 2.5
Solved Examples of CP 500 2.0
600 1.7
21. Track 240 (T), WV 310 / 35, TAS 260 kts
Table 12-1: % Increase of the Half Way
distance 530 nm. Distance
∴GS out = 245 kts GS Home = 270 kts
Distance to CP = DH
O+H
= 530 X 270 = 278 nm

245 + 270
and, time to CP = 278 / GS 245 kts = 1 h 08 min
(b) What is distance to CP en route from DARWIN and MELBOURNE distance 1728
nm, cruise TAS 425 kts, 3 engine TAS 400 kts, head wind component from CP to
MELBOURNE 5 kts, headwind component CP to Darwin 20 KT?
∴ for the CP calculation : GS on = 395 kts both at reduced TAS

GS Home = 380 kts
Distance to CP = DH
O+H
= 1728 X 380 = 847 nm
395 + 380
The ETA CP can then be found simply from the normal flight plan after departure; this
type of problem is most frequently used in practice and, despite finding the wind components
by inspection, proved reasonably accurate with a long trip going fairly to plan until an engine
drops out, a pilot who turns back because it happens five minutes before the CP cannot be
criticized for bring dogmatically correct, but his employers and passengers might think him
rather lacking in dash and élan.
POINT OF SAFE RETURN (PSR)

OR
POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR)
Definition
22. The Point of Safe Return (PSR), earlier referred to as PNR is that point furthest removed from
base to which an aircraft can fly and still return to base within its safe endurance. PNR is normally
calculated on long flights where the options are limited to landing at the departure or destination
airfields. The (safety) fuel reserve is stipulated as part of operating instructions or company policy. In
essence, safe endurance is the Fuel on Board (FOB) less the fuel reserve divided by the fuel
consumption. PLE or the ‘Prudent Limit of Endurance’ is the endurance available after deducting the
quantity of the reserve fuel from the fuel on board.
Formula & DR Computer Method To Solve For PSR
23. By definition of PSR,

Time on the outbound leg + Time on the inbound leg = PLE
If T1 = The time to the PNR
O = Outbound groundspeed
T2 = Time home
H = Homebound groundspeed
D = Distance to PNR and P the PLE
Then: T1 + T2 = P
But T1 = D/O and T2 = D/H
Therefore,
D/O+D/H=P
D (O + H) / OH = P
D = POH / (O + H)
i.e. Distance to PSR = POH / (O + H)
and, time to PNR, T = Distance / GS (Out) = PH / (O + H)
Practical Significance of PSR
24. Knowledge of the PSR is useful in cases where there is some doubt about the availability of
the destination and its alternates. The most likely reason for this is weather but there are a number
of other reasons why airports may be closed to traffic. One that could well affect all airports in a
country is political unrest. Obviously before reaching the PSR, the Commander must make his
decision as to whether or not to proceed with the flight. After the PSR, he is committed to the
destination or an alternate to it.
Engine Failure PSR
25. The common practice of assuming that the return flight from the PNR will be with one
engine failed is designed to produce a PNR that is valid even if, after deciding to return at the PNR
because of some emergency at the destination, the engine fails with a resulting loss in economy on
the return flight. It must be emphasized that the primary concern is still that of availability of the
destination airfield. If the failure of the engine was the primary emergency it is more likely that the
main point of concern would be: How soon can a safe landing be made? This ought to be dealt with
as a critical point calculation. A formula for calculation of Engine Failure PSR is placed at Appx A to
this chapter.
Significance of PSR Reserves
26. Any calculation of PSR is susceptible to errors. There are several possible causes of error-
W/V variation, temperature variation, FL changes, route changes, aircraft performance variation – to
mention just some of them. The safeguard is in the reserves catered for. If these are sensibly
adequate, any PNR should be valid, even if the assumptions made in the calculation are not
accurate. The leeway that an adequate reserve provides enables many operators to rely on PSR
tables for a particular aircraft. These are entered with take – off weight, fuel load and estimated
average wind component for the route-FL combination and a distance to the PNR can then be
extracted. Errors caused by the approximations involved should be taken care of by the reserves
employed
Factors Affecting the PNR
27. Wind Velocity. The maximum distance to the PNR will be achieved in still air conditions.
In fact, a very quick approximation is to use half the still air range as the distance to the PNR. Any
wind will reduce the distance for the following reasons
(a) If there is any drift, the effective head wind component on a track is more than the
effective tail wind component on the reciprocal track.
(b) The aircraft will take longer and so experience more head wind effect (time x wind
component) when flying into a head wind than it will experience tail wind effect on the
reciprocal task.
28. The other two factors are:
(a) Fuel available. All other factors being equal, the distance to the PNR will vary
directly with the fuel available: 10% more fuel available will mean 10% greater distance to the
PNR Any variation in fuel flow translates into the quantity of fuel available and affects the
position of the PSR. Percentage variation in fuel flow causes percentage variation in distance
to PSR.
(b) Aircraft performance. The better (more economical) the aircraft performance, the
greater the distance.
Comparison of PNR and CP
29. The following distinctions should be understood when comparing CP and PSR:
(a) PSR is required when there is no possibility of a safe landing being made at the
destination of its alternates. The CP is required against the possibility of an emergency in the
aircraft requiring a landing to be made as soon as possible.
(b) Although the symbols O and H are used both the CP and the PNR formulae they
have different meanings.
Symbol PSR CP
GS on varied TAS from CP
O Full GS Out from departure base to PNR
onward to destination
Full GS or reduced GS back from PNR GS on varied TAS from CP

H
back to departure base back to departure base
30. Careful inspection will show that in case with carrying wind components thorough the flight
and/ or a requirement for engine failure to be considered there could be considerable difference
between the values used for the CP and PNR calculation.
31. It is quire possible, given sufficient fuel for the PNR to be at the destination. This just
indicates that the reserves are sufficient to fly out to the destination and return without refueling.
This kind of fuel planning is possible to some isolated aerodromes where the price of fuel is very
high. As a general rule it can be concluded that the PSR lies beyond CP unless minimum fuel is
carried.
32. Consider a simple case of an ac proceeding on a track from departure to destination, with a
stated value of P (safe endurance). The TAS considered for CP and PSR calculation is equal.
Therefore, the H and O values would be identical in the two formulae.
Distance to CP = DH
(O+H)
Distance to PSR = EOH

(O+H)
If the CP and PNR were to coincide, then
DH = EOH
(O+H) (O+H)
or, D = EO
or, D/O = E
Distance divided by the G/S out is the flight time, which becomes equal to the PSR endurance.
Therefore, when the CP coincides with the PNR the flight time from departure to destination is equal
to the safe endurance. But, the assumption involved ought to be kept sight of, in reaching this
conclusion – the TAS considered for both CP and PNR calculation is the same.
MULTI LEG PNR
33. Following are route details which ignore climb and descent.
Trk(T) Distance WV
TAIPEI – KAGOSHIMA 042 606 260/110
KAGOSHIMA - SHIZUOKA 064 417 280/80
SIZOUKA – TOKYO 011 61 290/50
ETD TAIPEI - 1020 UTC

TAS - 410 Kt (four engines) 350 kts (three engines)
Fuel consumption - 3000 kg/h (four engines) 2800 kg / h (three engines)
Reserve (assume unused) - 45 min

FOB - 15000kg
Give distance to and ETA at the PNR assuming the return flight will be on three engines.
34. Solution. The method used is a very powerful one that can take account of any number
of variables. Although it may seem a little laborious, it should be remembered that nearly half the
work will have already been done when the flight plan was prepared. Briefly the technique is:
(a) Progressively check the total fuel required to go out to and back from each
successive turning point.
(b) Eventually the fuel available will not be sufficient to go out to and return from a turning
point. From the previous turning point decide how much fuel is available to go from there to
the PNR and back to the point.
(c) Comparing this amount with the total fuel required to go out and back on the
complete stage will give the ratio of distance and time out to the PNR compared with the
stage distance and time out.
35. The importance of a systematic layout cannot be over emphasized: Outward Flight:
TAS 410 Kt Fuel consumption 3000 kg/h

Tr GS Dist Time Fuel
(ºT) (kts) (nm) (min) _ (kg)
TAI – KAG 042 491 606 74 3700
KAG – SHI 064 472 417 53 2650
SHI – TOK 011 399 61 9½ 480
Return Flight : TAS 350 Kt Fuel consumption 2800 kg/h
TOK – SHI 191 354 61 10 ½ 490

SHI – KAG 244 282 417 89 4150
KAG – TAI 222 257 606 141 ½ 6600
Fuel Analysis Out Home Out + Home Total

TAI – KOG 3700 6600 10300 10300
KAG – SHI 2650 4150 6800 17100
SHI – TOK 480 490 970 18070
6830 11240
11240
18070 kg Check that this figure agrees with the running total
(underlined) above.
FOB 15000 kg
Reserve 45 min @ 2800 kg/h 2100
PNR fuel 12900
Fuel Tai – KAG – TAI 10300

Fuel KAG-PNR-KAG 2600
Fuel KAG – SI – KAG 6800
2600 = d = t
6800 417 53
d = 159 nm t = 20
Dist Time
TAI – KAG 606 74
KAG – PNR 159 20
TAI – PNR 765 94
ETA at PNR = 1020 + 1 hr 34 min = 1154
LAST POINT OF DIVERSION
36. The last point of diversion (LPD) is a special case of the point of no return. Under normal
circumstances an aircraft will arrive at its destination with sufficient fuel reserves to divert to and
reach its diversion with a specified minimum fuel. However occasionally routes may be flown where
the nearest diversion is at such a distance from the destination that the aircraft cannot carry enough
fuel to reach the destination and then divert safely. Under these circumstances it is possible to
determine that point along track beyond which it is impossible to reach the diversion airfield safely.
This point is known as the 'Last Point of Diversion'.
37. The LPD is found graphically and the

procedure is illustrated in Fig 12-8. A is the
departure point, B the destination, and C the
diversion airfield. The track AB is extended to D
(the false destination) such that AD represents the
limit of safe endurance at the groundspeed along
that track. CD is joined and a perpendicular
Fig 12-8: Last Point of Diversion (LPD)
bisector is constructed, QP, cutting AD at P. The Solution
still airtime from P to C is calculated and a wind vector is drawn upwind from P for this time. A critical
line can now be drawn parallel to PQ cutting the track AB at the last point of diversion for C.
38. In flight it may be necessary to

amend the position of the false
destination in accordance with a
Howgozit fuel trend. Fig 12-9 shows a
Howgozit graph with a fuel trend
drawn in. This is extended to intersect
the minimum fuel line and the distance
equating to this point defines the false
destination, in this example 100 nm
beyond the destination. The LPD is
Fig 12-9: Howgozit Solution of False Destination (FD)
then constructed graphically as above.
Appendix A
(Refers to para 25 of Chapter 12)
ENGINE FAILURE PSR/PNR
1. Distance to PNR, D = POH / (O + H)
2. Now, for calculation of single engine PNR let the outbound flight be on all engines at G/S ‘O’.
Let the normal fuel flow be ‘FFN’ and the time taken for the outbound flight be T1.
Let the return flight on one engine inoperative be at a G/S ‘HR’. Let the fuel flow on return
flight be ‘FFR’ and the time on the return leg be T2.
3. By the definition of PNR, Prudent limit of endurance, P = T1 + T2
Now, T1 = Fuel out / FFN and also T1 = Dist out / G/S out = D / O
Therefore, Fuel out / FFN = D / O
Fuel out = FFN x D / O
Similarly, Fuel home = FFR x D / HR
4. Now, PNR fuel = Total fuel – safety reserves = F (say)
Therefore, F = FFN x D / O + FFR x D / HR = D (FFN x HR + FFR x O)

O x HR
Hence, Distance to PNR, D = ___F x O x HR____

FFN x HR + FFR x O
227
CHAPTER 13
LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION
Introduction
1. The aim of this chapter is to examine some of the problems peculiar to low level navigation,
and where appropriate suggest ways of simplifying the navigation task. The term “low level” will be
assumed to refer to flights at 500 ft AOL by day and 1000 ft AOL by night as per the current AFOs for
flying and the emphasis will be on flights at a speed of about 180 kts or faster.
2. The navigation technique employed during a particular low-level flight will be influenced by
numerous factors, the most important of which are probably:
(a) The operational task.

(b) The crew composition and the field of view of individual crewmembers.
(c) The navigation system fitted in the aircraft.
(d) The terrain being over flown.
(e) The weather.
3. To deal with all the above factors in detail is beyond the scope of this chapter. The subject of
low level navigation will perforce be treated in general terms. It will be assumed that one navigator is
carried in the aircraft, that either he/she or the pilot has a good forward and downward field of view,
and that navigation is being based primarily on map reading, other navigation aids receiving only
incidental mention. It should nevertheless be remembered that although the navigator has the
immediate responsibility for navigating the aircraft, safe navigation is a concern of the crew as a whole
and the fullest use should be made as always of position information and inputs available through
other crew members.
PROBLEMS OF LOW LEVEL FLIGHT
General
4. Some hazards to flight, even if not entirely new, assume a much greater importance in low
level, high speed flight. The crew planning such a flight must take into consideration factors, which
can normally be assumed to have been taken care of by the briefing or planning organization. Some
of these low flying problems are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
Particular Problems
5. Ground Obstructions. In normal flight, planned to be above safe altitude, ground

obstructions are only significant in the terminal areas, and clearance is assured if standard take-off
and landing procedures are adopted. In low level flight such obstructions as electricity pylons, high
tension cables, radio masts, tall chimneys, and ski lifts across valleys are significant and a potential
hazard whenever they occur along or near the route. A properly annotated map must be used.
6. Collision Risks. Some risk of an air to air collision is present at all times, and is by no
means peculiar to low level flight. The crew of a low flying aircraft must however be particularly alert
for other traffic not usually encountered – helicopters, flying club aircraft, gliders, and circuit traffic at
little used airstrips. Thorough pre-flight planning will usually enable a route to be selected where the
risk is minimal, but constant alertness for such traffic, or other high- speed aircraft in the low flying
area, is necessary.
7. Bird Strikes. Information on migratory birds is usually too general and too scanty to be
acted upon by the individual crew, but where such information is available, or where there is local
knowledge of particular bird colonies, it should be taken into account when selecting the route.
8. Surface Visibility and Low Cloud. These factors are usually only of significance in
terminal areas for high and medium level flights. In low level flights they are of importance throughout
the route. Planning the route to avoid a combination of low cloud and hilly ground, or to avoid flying
into sun in an area of industrial haze, are among the commonsense precautions than can be
considered.
9. Airspace Reservations. Low level training flights must avoid the small airspace
reservations, which may be established temporarily, seasonally or permanently. A careful pre-flight
check of flight planning displays, FLIP documents and NOTAMS is therefore essential.
10. Air Traffic Control. Low-level flights will invariably be mostly if not entirely outside
controlled airspace. However, at low-level communications equipment may suffer from range
limitations. Therefore flight crew should plan which link station and frequencies they are likely to use
to relay essential messages.
11. Nuisance. Low flying aircraft are a frequent source of complaint from the public. The
sudden, unexpected passage overhead of noisy jet engines is undoubtedly disturbing, irritating, and
sometimes potentially dangerous to human or animal life. It is up to the crew, when flight planning
and in flight, to reduce the nuisance to the minimum consistent with carrying out the briefed training
task. They should observe meticulously any restrictions imposed on low flying in their training areas
and whenever practicable avoid direct over flight of villages and even isolated communities, or climb
to clear them by, say 1,000 ft.
12. Emergency Drills. All in-flight emergencies call for prompt action. When an emergency
arises at low level the probability is that less time will be available for thought and action than at
229 Low Level Navigation
height. Crew must therefore be absolutely familiar with standard emergency drills and be able to take
appropriate action instinctively.
13. Navigation. Finally, a brief look at the low level navigation problem to which the remainder
of this chapter is devoted. The initial experience of most navigators is that, compared with medium
and high-level flight, low level navigation demands a higher level of sustained concentration. This is
understandable. Even if flying airways three or four miles of tracking error is not normally significant. If
map reading is resorted to, the field of view is such that being a few miles off the planned track still
puts the expected features within view. The aim of the navigator must be continuous and very
accurate track keeping. With practice and good planning the periods of intense concentration can be
reduced At low level, a few miles of track error can be highly significant at any point in the flight, in
that:
(a) Lateral clearance of an obstruction may be lost.

(b) Airfield circuits may be infringed.
(c) A particularly important map reading feature may be entirely missed.
PRE - FLIGHT PREPARATION
Task Briefing
14. Before a low level flight begins, and before flight planning is started, the crew must be given a
clear brief on the task, any restrictions on routing, and the flying limitations to be observed. In
particular, they must be aware of the minimum height above ground they are to observe, and the
minimum visibility below which they must abandon the low level phase of the flight. These limitations
may be more restrictive than the general limitations imposed by the appropriate Command Air Staff
Instructions, depending on the experience of the crew.
Flight Planning
15. Route Selection. Within the limits imposed by tactical consideration or briefed limitations, a
route should be selected which:
(a) Should be favourable as regards terrain and weather.

(b) Takes the fullest advantage of available map reading features.
(c) Avoids airspace reservations, and other areas known to either contain hazards to low
flying.
16. Target Approach. Where the task involves visually locating a target, success will depend
largely on:
(a) Selecting a run-in to the target, which, as far as can be ascertained from a large-scale
map, will give an unobstructed view of the target at the desired range. The run-in should also
take account of the best heading for good visibility (e.g. not into sun in hazy conditions).
(b) The selection of a prominent, preferably unambiguous IP (initial point) at the start of
the run-in a suitable distance form the target. All check features between the IP and the
target, which can be used for a final track correction, should also be noted.
17. Map Selection. Usually a map to a scale 1:500,000 or 1: 1, 000, 000 will be found most
suitable for the main part of the route, possible supplemented by large-scale maps of the target area.
18. Flight Plan. A full flight planning procedure should be followed, and should cover the
following points:
(a) Where acceptable, plan to fly at a constant groundspeed, which is a whole multiple of
60 knots, to simplify in –flight calculations,
(b) Pay particular attention to the recording of safety altitudes and or weather
deterioration in flight necessitating a climb – out from the low-level route.
(c) If flying an established low flying route, be conversant with the regulations published
in the standing orders covering use of the route, as supplemented by local or Command
orders. Pay special attention to joining, overtaking and exit procedures, and to in-flight R/T
procedures.
(d) Ensure proper flight clearance procedure (which may be additional to normal air
traffic control clearance)
19. Low Level Flight Plan. The flight plan form is to clearly indicate the route with information
of phonetic references to the start point, IP and target such as Alpha, Bravo and Charlie. Any change
flight rules is to be clearly indicated on the flight plan form.
20. Fuel Plan. Accurate fuel planning is particularly important for low-level flights. If the flight is
planed to be entirely at low level fuel economy can usually be achieved, should actual consumption
exceed planed consumption for any reason, by recovery at high level. But where a high low high
profile is being flown with minimum reserves it is desirable to consider the diversion problem at the
point most distant form base (and possibly at intermediate points) and derive a suitable plan.
21. Map Preparation and Map Study. All the hazards to low level flight such as airspace
reservation, airfields and gliding sites, high tension cables, obstructions and sensitive areas bordering
the route should be clearly marked. Sources of information are FLIP documents, NOTAMS, flight
planning rooms displays and where applicable standing orders for the route. Check points must be
chosen at appropriate intervals at which the progress of flight in terms of track keeping and timing
action can be monitored. The map study is to be thorough. Such thoroughness ought to obviate
frequent reference to the map or prolonged search on the map for any features.
IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION TECHNIQUE
Entering the Route and Set Heading
22. Irrespective of whether it is intended to set heading over base or at a prescribed low level
route entry point, the low level phase of flight should be begun at an accurate pin-point and the time
recorded accurately. The flight plan ETAs for the whole flight should then be entered (or revised if
already inserted) so that from that from the point on a provisional ETA is available for all turning points
En-Route Navigation
23. Track should be maintained, using either normal calculations or mental DR. Timing will
usually be important, either to stay within the limits of the route clearance or, if the flight clearance
allows adjustments en route, to achieve a prescribed time on target. For track keeping the methods
commonly used are:
(a) Track Crawling

(b) Standard Closing Angle (SCA)
(c) Use of 1 in 60 rule
24. SCA. SCA is a closing angle which provides a closure rate in minutes, equal to the distance
off track. It is given by the expression: SCA = 3600/Ground Speed. Consider an ac with a ground
speed of 180 kts. The standard closing angle = 3600/180 = 20°. This implies that if an ac is right of
track by 5 Nm A/H to the left by 20° would restore the ac back on track in 5 minutes. The derivation of
this expression for SCA is placed at Appendix A to this chapter.
Fuel Graph
25. Fuel checks must be carried out regularly and accurately, and recorded on the fuel graph.
Map Reading
26. The points to note particularly are:
(a) The importance of a methodical approach.

(b) The needs to positively identify features by cross checking with other features.
(c) The special value at low level of linear features and vertical features.
Use of Radio Aids
27. Radio compass bearings, ground D/F bearings and ground radar fixes are unlikely to be of
much value under normal conditions, giving information which is inaccurate, out of date and liable, at
low level, to involve problems of communications range and quality of reception. The can be of use
when the flight involves, a sea crossing, to confirm the coasting-in point, or when flying over
featureless terrain.
Use of Radar
28. Map Painting Radars. The short horizon, hill shadowing, and the shallow oblique target
aspect combine to give an incomplete picture on map painting radars, difficult to interpret in isolation
at very low levels. However, when the map painting radar is part of an integrated navigation system,
and is used in conjunction with a terrain clearance or terrain following radar, it makes an important
contribution to the achievement of an all weather low-level capability
Weather Deterioration
29. It is necessary to attain operational proficiency, to undertake low-level missions in weather

conditions down to the authorized limits. Crew should, however, be careful not to be caught out by
deteriorating weather – particularly by reducing visibility. The change from acceptable to unacceptable
conditions will usually be gradual. As soon as visibility falls below the authorized limits or even earlier
if navigation cannot be carried on safely, the low level mission must be abandoned. If a climb is
necessary, any standing orders for the procedure, and avoidance of infringing controlled airspace
without clearance, must be complied with.
Low Level Navigation at Night
30. There are obviously added difficulties in low level flying at night mostly stemming from the
problems of pin-pointing and maintaining vertical terrain and obstacle clearance when forward visibility
is largely restricted to illuminated features. The techniques employed and operational limitations will
depend on the role and the navigation/ attack system of the particular aircraft type.
Summary
31. Low-level high speed navigation is not an easily acquired skill. Usually several months of
regular practice are needed before a crew can be considered proficient at high speed over difficult
terrain in anything short of ideal flying weather. It can however be a very challenging and satisfying
form of navigation, and with a systematic approach, should present no greater difficulties than any
other navigation technique. It needs the same thorough and accurate flight planning, within the limits
of the time available, and the same intelligent interpretation and application of position information
obtained in flight. Where it is perhaps more exacting is in the need for a higher degree of map reading
skill and speedier and sound airmanship with the stress on observing flying discipline.
Appendix A
(Refers to Para 24
of Chapter 13)
STANDARD CLOSING ANGLE (SCA)
1. This method states: “Alter heading by 3600 / GS (knots) degrees and hold the same for
number of minutes equal to number of nautical miles off track.”
2. In Fig 13-1, the ac is found to be X Nm

off track at A. The distance to go to the on-track
point C is D Nm. The ground speed of the ac is
G.
3. Join AC. Let angle ACB be denoted by

θ. It is required to be proved that:
Fig 13-1: SCA
θ = SCA = (3600 / GS)°
Let the time taken for the ac to proceed from A to C is X mins then, distance A to C is covered in X
minutes. Assuming that AC is nearly equal to BC (considering θ to be small), it can be considered
that distance D is covered in X minutes. Ground speed of the ac is G. To cover G units of distance,
time taken is 60 minutes. Therefore, to cover D units of distance, time taken is D x 60/G minutes. But
the time taken to cover distance D is X minutes.
Therefore, D x 60/G = X (13.1)

(X/D) x 60 = θ (13.2) From 1 in 60 rule
(D x 60/G) x 60 = θ Putting the value of X from (13.1) in (13.2) gives
D
θ = 3600 / GS
NOTE: This expression for SCA is equally applicable to all units of measurement, provided the ground
speed and the off track distances are of the same units.
235
CHAPTER 14
TIMING ACTION
1. Many air operations require that aircraft reach a given point at a precise time. Some
adjustment to the speed or to the distance flown will invariably be necessary to achieve the planned
arrival time.
2. Maintenance of Time Over Target (TOT) in low level sorties, or accomplishment of an

RV(rendezvous) with another formation / a re-fueller ac at medium level or maintenance of specified
ETAs on communication sorties are examples where the pilot requires to play a vital role by means of
timing action.
TIMING BY SPEED ADJUSTMENT
3. The obvious way to alter an aircraft's time of arrival at its target is to increase or decrease the
airspeed, thus changing the groundspeed. If the aircraft is equipped with a Doppler, INS or GPS it is
more convenient to base adjustment directly on groundspeed.
4. Only a small increase above the standard operating speed of an aircraft at a given height is
normally possible without an appreciable penalty in fuel consumption. Small speed changes result in
only small increases or decreases in flight time. For example, at a groundspeed of 200 knots an
adjustment in groundspeed of 10 knots will result in a gain or loss of only three minutes in an hour, the
same adjustment at 400 knots gives a difference of only one and a half minutes per hour. If, therefore,
accurate timing at the target is to be achieved by speed adjustments, action must be initiated as early
as possible. The ideal situation would be to be to take-off on time and make good all points on time by
adjusting speed at each fix.
5. Two factors usually tell against attainment of the ideal. If operating in an area not served by a
reliable wind forecasting service, a situation more common operationally than in training, to stay on
time might lead to impracticable speed changes being required when near the target, to compensate
for major changes from the forecast head or tail wind component. Furthermore, frequent speed
changes when operating high performance aircraft are expensive in fuel. It is therefore good practice
to make only one or two adjustments to speed in the early stages of the flight, and changes at turning
points are usually adequate. The aim is to stay nearly on time but with a progressively decreasing
amount of time in hand, arriving on time at a suitable way point near enough to the target to allow any
reasonable wind changes to be taken care of by speed adjustment. From that waypoint to the target
timing is checked and speed adjusted at each fix.
CALCULATION OF SPEED ADJUSTMENTS
6. The required ground speed changes can be calculated as follows:
(a) On the Dead Reckoning computer, by calculating the groundspeed required between
a fix and the next turning point from time and distance to go.
(b) By the use of formula - simplified down to easily applicable relationships between
speed adjustment and time gained/lost.
(c) By the use of tables, prepared for the usual operating speeds, giving the amount of
time gained or lost if various speed changes are applied for a given period. These tables are,
in turn, prepared from the basic formulae.
(d) By using annotations made on the flight plan of the airspeed adjustments required to
gain or lose one minute, computed for each leg.
7. Calculation of speed adjustment to achieve timing action can be studied distinctly for two
types of application:
(a) Medium Level Navigation

(b) Low Level Navigation
8. The mathematical basis for both the above-mentioned applications is the same. However, the
essential difference is in their method of presentation and in-flight use. Therefore, any discussion of
timing action has to be under the heads of medium level navigation and low level navigation. The
basic formula from which all timing action originates is the same in both cases. This is discussed in
the next section.
Basic Formula for Timing Action
9. The basic formula for timing action originates from the fact that the distance traveled by an
aircraft remains constant whereas time taken to travel the distance and the speed of the ac are
considered variables. Consider the following example:
An ac at 250 Kts of ground speed would cover a distance of 250 Nm in one hour. (i.e.
Distance = 250 x 1). If the aircraft changes speed to 300 kts and covers the same distance,
how much time would be required?
Distance = 300 x Time taken

250 x 1 = 300 x Time taken (because the same distance is being covered, but with
a new speed and time combination)
Therefore, Time taken = 250 x 1/300 hours = 250 x 60/300 minutes = 50 minutes.
237 Timing Action
10. The example considered above leads to the following:

Distance = Distance
Old Speed x Old Time = New Speed x New Time
11. Standard Notation. Since two sets of speeds and time are involved in the basic formula,
the following standard notation is used to denote speeds and time:
SO = Speed Old
SN = Speed New
TO = Time Old
TN = Time New
The basic formula then translates to the form SO X TO = SN X TN (10.1)
TECHNIQUES OF TIMING ACTION AT MEDIUM LEVEL
Calculation of New Ground Speed Required
12. Timing action can be achieved by calculating the ground speed required between a position
obtained and the turning point/destination at which timing action is to be maintained.
Example: An ac is maintaining a ground speed of 200 kts. A pinpoint is obtained at time

1200h which is 100 Nms short of destination. It is required to maintain ETA of 1227h due
operational reasons. What is the new ground speed required?
Distance to go = 100 Nm. TO = 30 minutes TN = 27 minutes

SO = 200 Kts SN =?
SO x TO = SN x TN
or, 200 x 30 = SN x 27
Therefore SN = 200 x 30/27 = 223 Kts.
13. It must be noted that in a practical case for in-flt application, it would take a couple of minutes
for the calculation to be made. Hence, it would be prudent to base the calculations for a time ahead.
In the above example, the calculation needs to be based for a nominal time ahead - for example, for
time 1002. At this time the new speed would actually be implemented. The revised calculations for
time 1002 are :
TO = 28 minutes TN = 25 minutes
SO = 200 Kts SN =?
SO x TO = SN x TN
or, 200 x 28 = SN x 25
Therefore SN = 200 x 28/25 = 224 Kts
Calculation of Correction Required to Old Ground Speed
14. This method is a corollary to the basic formula. In this method, the amount of correction
required to the old speed is calculated rather than a new value of speed.
SO x TO = SN x TN
Let dS denote the difference in speed. Then it follows that dS = SO - SN. Note that dS may
take positive or negative values dependent on whether time is to be gained or lost.
SO x TO = SN x TN
SO x TO = (SO - dS ) x TN
SO TO = SO TN - dSTN
dSTN = SO TN - SO TO
dS = SO (TN - TO)/ TN
i.e. The change of speed required = (Old Speed x Time Required to be gained/lost) divided by
the new value of time required. With reference to the example in para 13 above, it can be
seen that The change of speed required = (200 x 3)/25 = 24 Kts. Since time is to be gained in
this example, old speed of 200 kts needs to be incremented by this value obtained to arrive at
the new speed required of 200 + 24 kts = 224 kts.
TECHNIQUES OF TIMING ACTION AT LOW LEVEL
15. The mathematical basis remaining the same, the significant aspects of low level navigation
which impinge on timing action calculation are:
(a) Low-level missions on a particular ac type are planned at a particular value of ground
speed, which is referred to as the basic speed. All timings are calculated for this basic speed.
Hence, SO in the formula refers to this basic speed.
(b) The units of time used in low level missions are in minutes and seconds (usually
expressed as decimalized minutes) rather than in hours and minutes (as in the case at
medium level navigation).
(c) The navigational activity at low level involves continuous visual contact with the
terrain ahead and below, given the proximity to terrain at which such missions are flown. Such
an in-flt environment does not permit the employment of pencil and paper or reference to
graphs/tables for timing action calculations. The navigator has to employ mental dead
reckoning techniques, with information posted on the map as part of pre-flt preparation. The
techniques adopted for low level have been evolved based on this requirement.
The Basic Formula
16. The formula which is basic to all timing action at low level navigation is derived from the basic
formula applicable to medium level navigation.
239 Timing Action
SO x TO = SN x TN (same as 10.1)
This formula is modified to read: ‘If the speed of the ac is increased/decreased by the basic speed in
speed units per minute then 1 second is gained/lost for every minute of flight’.
Consider a case of speed increase.

The basic speed is expressed as SO .
Speed units per minute = SO / 60.
Therefore, New speed, SN = Basic Speed + Speed units per minute = SO + SO/60
Since one second is gained for every minute of flight, the new time is one minute, or TN = one
minute = 60 seconds.
It now remains to be established that the time old i.e. TO = 61 seconds.
17. Proof. SO x TO = SN x TN
SO x TO = (SO + SO/60) x TN
But TN = 1 minute = 1/60 hours. (This conversion to hours is required as the speed is being
considered in distance units per hour).
SO x TO = (SO + SO / 60) x 1/60
SOTO = SO / 60 + SO / 3600
SOTO = 61SO / 3600
Therefore, TO = 61/3600 hours (Since all time is in hours and TN was in hours)
= 61 seconds.
Since the time taken at the old speed was 61 seconds and the time for which the new speed
was held is 60 seconds, one second has been gained in a minute when the speed was
increased by one sixtieth of the basic speed.
18. A typical application of the basic formula to an Avro ac whose basic ground speed at low level
is 180 kts is illustrated below.
On a low level mission, an Avro ac is 60 Nm short of destination at time 1405 h. The basic
ground speed is 180 kts. If the speed is increased to 183 kts, what is the revised ETA
destination?
Speed increase = 180/60 = 3 kts (one sixtieth of the basic speed).

Old time to destination = 60/180 = 1/3 hours = 20 minutes.
Original ETA = 1425 h
The new speed is held until destination i.e. for a time equal to 60/183 hours = 19.7 minutes.
Since one second is gained for every minute that the new speed is held, the total gain is 19.7
seconds (slightly in excess of 0.3 minutes).
Therefore the new ETA is 1424.7 h
19. In the practical application of the above method, the step of calculating the new time at the
revised speed is omitted. Instead, the gain in seconds is directly equated to the original planned time.
Twenty minutes being the planned time in the above example, the gain is also considered 20 seconds
rather than the accurate calculation of 19.7 seconds. The inaccuracy is more than offset by the ease
of calculation. The value of time required at basic ground speed is already posted on the map and
serves for immediate reference.
The Rate Posting Method
20. This method derives its name because the rate at which time is gained or lost is posted on the
map for ready reference. This rate is posted at every checkpoint. The amount of time gained or lost
for a nominal 10 kts increase/decrease is related to the distance to go at every checkpoint and posted
accordingly on the map. The rate at which the gain/loss of time takes place varies from ac to ac due to
variation in the basic speed. The calculation for Avro ac is considered for example.
21. Rate Posting For Avro Ac. The statement of this method is ‘An increase or decrease of
speed by 10 kts causes a gain or loss of time in seconds respectively, equal to the distance to go’ . An
illustration of this method is as follows:
An Avro ac is 90 Nm short of destination. The speed is increased by 10 kts. What is the time
gained?
The time gained = Distance to go = 90 secs.
22. Proof of Rate Posting Method.
Basic speed = 180 kts. Basic speed per minute = 180/60 = 3 kts
If speed is increased by 3 kts, then 1 sec is gained for every minute of flight (as proved in
basic formula). By rate posting method, the speed increase is 10 kts. = 3.3 times the basic
ground speed per minute.
Therefore, time gained = 3.3 seconds for every minute of flight.
The flight is conducted at 190 kts after the speed correction.
The distance covered in every minute of flight = 190/60 = 3.2 Nm per minute. So, 3.3
seconds is gained for every minute of flight and 3.2 Nm miles are covered in every minute of
flight. Therefore gain per nautical mile = 3.3/3.2 = 1.031 seconds rounded off to 1 second.
Hence, with a speed increase of 10 kts when the basic speed is 180 kts, the time gained is 1
second per nautical mile. A similar calculation for decrease of speed by 10 kts leads to a loss
of 1.17 seconds per nautical mile which again can be rounded off to 1 sec.
Bell’s Method
23. This method states that “Increase or decrease speed by number of knots equal to seconds
late or early and hold it for number of minutes equal to the ground speed per minute.” An illustration of
this method is given below.
241 Timing Action
Consider an ac at basic ground speed of 240 kts. If the navigator observes that the ac is 20
seconds delayed at a check point, then the speed is increased to 240 + 20 = 270 kts. This
new speed is held for 240/60 = 4 minutes for the deficit of 20 seconds to be wiped off.
24. Proof of Bell’s Method.
Let the basic ground speed of the ac be A knots. At a checkpoint the ac is behind the desired
time by X seconds. The ground speed is increased to (A + X) knots and the new speed is
held for (A/60) minutes. It is required to prove that the X seconds is gained by the end of
(A/60) minutes.
New speed = (A + X) knots = (A + X)/60 Nautical miles per minute.

Distance covered in the time that the new speed is held = Speed x Time
= (A + X) /60 nm/min x A/60 min = D Nm (say) - (10.2)
Time required to cover D NM at the original G/S A = Distance x speed = D/A hours
= (D/A) x 60 min = D x (60/A) min - (10.3)
Substituting the value of D from (10.2) in (10.3) gives
Time required to cover D Nm at the original speed A kts
= (A + X)/60 x A/60 x 60/A = (A + X) /60 min
Thus time gained = Old time – New time = (A +X) /60 – A/60 = X/60 min = X secs.
25. One of the primary limitations of the Bells method pertains to the performance limits of the ac
in terms of increase of speed. For example, in a case where a check point has been reached 60
seconds late, the speed increase required is 60 knots. This may not be feasible. Hence, other
methods have been evolved using a lesser requirement of speed change and a proportionate
increase in the quantum of time for which the changed speed is held.
Rule of n
26. This method states: “Increase or decrease speed by n times the G/S per minute and hold
the same for no of minutes equal to 1/n of the number of seconds early or late.”
27. Proof of Rule of n.
Let the G/S of the ac be A knots. At a check point the ac is T seconds late.
The new G/S as per Rule of five would be = A + nA/60 = A(60 + n)/60 knots
= A(60+n)/3600 Nm per minute
This speed is held for number of minutes = T/n
Distance traveled at new speed in nautical miles = (A(60+n)/3600 ) x (T/n) = D (say) - (10.4)
Time taken to travel this distance at the old G/S = D/A hours = D/A x 60 min - (10-5)
Substituting for D from (10.4) in (10.5) gives:
Time taken to travel this distance at the old G/S = (A(60+n)/3600 ) x (T/n) x 60/A min
Thus time gained (in min) = Old time – New time

= A(60+n)/3600 ) x (T/n) x 60/A – (T/n) = T/60 min = T secs.
28. The value of n could be taken by any positive whole number such as 3 or 5, in which case the
rule is called the ‘Rule of Three’ or the ‘Rule of Five’ respectively. The proof of ‘Rule of Five’ is given
in the next paragraph.
Rule of Five
29. It states: “Increase or decrease speed by five times the G/S per minute and hold the same for
number of minutes equal to 1/5th of the time late or early in seconds”.
30. Proof of Rule of Five.
Let the G/S of the ac be A knots.

The new G/S as per Rule of Five would be = A + 5A/60 = 13A/12
Distance traveled at new speed = 13A/12 x X/5 x 1/60 = D (say)
Time taken to travel this distance at the old G/S = D/A x 60 min
= 13A/12 x X/5 x 1/60 x 1/A x 60
= 13X /60
Thus, time gained = Old time – New time = 13X /60 – X /5 = X /60 mins = X secs.
Factor X
31. The methods outlined above such as the Rate posting method, Bells method and Rule of n
cater for conditions when the ac is a given number of seconds early or late at a check point. The
application of these methods ensures that the excess or deficit value of time is adjusted when the
speed is changed and held for a specified number of minutes. But the very fact that a check point has
been reached at a time earlier or later than planned indicates that the actual ground speed obtaining
is different from the basic ground speed used for flight planning. The factor X method addresses the
variation of the actual ground speed and the flight plan value of basic ground speed. Once factor X is
determined, it can be applied as a correction to achieve the basic speed. Factor X is given by the
formula:
Ground Speed per minute x No of seconds early/late / time actually gone in minutes
32. Illustration of Factor X. Consider an ac with a basic ground speed of 180 kts. A
checkpoint is chosen at a distance of 18 Nm from the S/H point. The S/H time is 0930 h. The time at
which the check point should have been reached as per planned ground speed is 0936 h. In-flight, it is
observed that the checkpoint is reached at 093530 h i.e. the ac is 30 seconds early.
Factor X = 3 x 30/5.5 = 90/5.5 = 16.3 rounded off to 16.

Therefore the actual groundspeed = 180 +16 = 196.
243 Timing Action
A correction of 16 kts must be applied by reducing the speed in order to achieve correct timings at
check points ahead. It must be noted that this correction of 16 kts is over and above the correction to
offset the 30 seconds surplus that can be calculated by methods such as Bells method or Rule of n.
Since this method is used to determine the basic speed, it is important to note the time accurately and
fix position accurately before these inputs are used for the Factor X method.
TIMING ACTION BY DISTANCE ADJUSTMENT
33. It may sometimes be desirable to adjust timing by altering the distance to go rather than by
changing airspeed. The various methods of doing this, some of them requiring pre-planning and some
not, are described in the following paragraphs.
60° Dogleg
34. Heading is altered 60° in either direction for

the length of time that is to be lost, then altered 120° in
the opposite direction for the same length of time to
regain track (Fig 14-1). Heading to the next turning
point or target is then resumed. The aircraft will thus
have flown two sides of an equilateral triangle, and the
time lost will be equal to the time taken to fly one side.
35. Small inaccuracies in tracking and time lost will

be introduced by the wind effect during the procedure, Fig 14-1: 60 degree Dog-leg Procedure
but they will usually by negligible if the amount of time
to be lost is small. If the same constant rate of turn is
maintained throughout the three turns, and if legs are
timed accurately from leveling out after a turn to the
start of the next turn, the effect on time lost of the time
taken to turn can be ignored.
36. An aircraft will not exactly regain track at the

conclusion of an equiangular dogleg, but will arrive at a
position down wind of track by an amount proportional
to the time spent on one leg. This is illustrated in Fig
14-2.
37. The downwind displacement of the ac is a
factor to be considered in case of strong winds. It will
be necessary to adjust the time on the second leg to
Fig 14-2: Wind Effect on a Dogleg
ensure that the final turn will bring the aircraft back on
track. If this is not done, the resulting track error will leave a further timing problem, particularly if near
the next turning point. Where such an adjustment will be necessary, it is usual to make the first turn
into the wind direction. This will ensure that track can be rejoined with time in hand, and that it will not
be necessary to extend the second leg to regain track, thus putting the aircraft in the more difficult
position of having to make up time.
38. Plotting of a 60° Dogleg. The legs of a dogleg form an equilateral triangle. In order to
arrive at the final air position for the dogleg, it is sufficient to plot air position at the start of the dogleg
and then step of a distance along the original heading equal to the air distance flown on one leg. This
new position is the air position at the end of the dogleg and is so labelled.
39. Fig 14-3 illustrates the air plot of an aircraft of

true airspeed 420k, which has executed a dogleg to find
a multiple drift wind velocity. Each short leg is of three
minutes duration. Because the triangle formed by the
1015, 1018 and 1021 air positions is equiangular, it is
also equilateral and the 1021 air position could thus
have been found by measuring a distance along the
original heading of 21 mm from the 1015 air position. Fig 14-3: Plotting a 60° Dogleg
The reduction in plotting minimizes the chance of error and saves time. The navigator must realise
that while the distance between the 105 and 1021 air position is only 21 mm, or the equivalent of
three minutes flying, the difference in the times of the air positions is six minutes.
30° Dogleg
40. The 30 degree dogleg involves a procedure

similar to the 60 degree dogleg (Fig 14-4). The
heading is first altered by 30° in one direction then
60° in the other before resuming the original heading.
This procedure is ideal for small adjustments in ETA. Fig 14-4: 30° Dogleg Procedure
41. For each minute to be lost each leg is flown for four minutes in a 30-degree dogleg. This
procedure is useful for small time losses (up to two mins) when it is desired to stay near track and
avoid big alterations of heading.
42. Even when timing is not a consideration, adoption of a formal dogleg procedure to avoid
obstacles or weather will enable the track to be regained and ETA amended with minimum
calculation.
245 Timing Action
45° Dogleg
43. The 45° dogleg involves a similar procedure of a 45° turn to one direction followed by a 90°
turn to the opposite direction to regain the original track.
44. To lose one minute in a 45° dogleg each leg has to be flown for 1.7 minutes.
General Expression for Time Lost in a Dogleg
45. Consider an ac proceeding on a track of

090°. A dogleg of θ° is executed at point A with
the first turn to the left of track and held for a
time T. A turn of 2 θ° is made to the right at point
B and the track is regained at point C.
Fig 14-5: General Expression for Time Lost

Construction in a θ° Dogleg
Drop a perpendicular BD from B on to AC.

The time spent by the ac on the tracks A-B + B-C is 2T.
The time taken for the ac to proceed from A-C without having executed the dogleg is the time
taken to proceed from A to C via D i.e. time taken for AD + AC.
AD = AB (Cos θ°) = T (Cos θ) from triangle ABD.
DC = BC (Cos θ°) = T (Cos θ) from triangle BDC.
Therefore, AC = 2T (Cos θ)
The total time lost on account of the Dog-leg procedure = 2 T – 2 T Cos θ = 2T {1 - (Cos θ )}
46. While carrying out a 60 degree Dog-leg,

Time lost = 2 T (1 – Cos θ) = 2 T (1 – Cos 60) = 2 T x (0.5) = T
Similarly for a 45 degree Dog-leg,
Time lost = 2 T (1 – Cos 45) = 2 T x (0.2928) = 0.5857 x T, which is considered for practical
purposes nearly as 50% of the time spent on each leg owing to the time lost in the turns.
Time lost in a 30 degree Dog-leg = 2 T (1 – Cos 30) = 2 T x (0.1339) = 0.2679 x T, which is
considered for practical purposes nearly as 25% of the time spent on each leg owing to the
time lost in the turns.
Cutting Corners by the Formula Method
47. Consider an ac flying a planned track A-B-C (Fig 14-6). The angle between the tracks AB and
BC is θ°. It is required to gain G minutes. This may be achieved by turning at time T short of the
turning point B and following a track DE to intercept the next track EC.
48. It is required to derive an expression for the time to be gained in terms of the time short of
turning point at which track alteration needs to be commenced. The calculations are based on the
principle of construction of an isosceles triangle.
49. With reference to Fig 14-6, let T be the

time to cover distance DB. The ac is turned on
to track DE, T minutes short of ETA point B in
order to gain G minutes. T is also the time taken
to cover distance BE. IF the ground speed on
tracks AB and BC is assumed constant, then
distance DB = BE. Join DE. Drop a
perpendicular from B to DE at F. Triangle BDF
and BEF are congruent. Therefore, angle DBF =
angle EBF = θ/2 degrees. Fig 14-6: Cutting Corners - Formula Method
In triangle DBF DF = T Sin (θ/2)

In triangle EBF FE = T Sin (θ/2)
DE = DF + FE = 2 T (Sin (θ/2))
The time gained G = the gain in terms of traveling lesser distance DB + BE minus the loss in
terms of traveling the additional distance DE.
This implies, G = (T + T) – (2 T (Sin (θ/2)).
Therefore G = 2T (1- (Sin (θ/2)).
Or, T = G/2(1- (Sin (θ/2)).
The above expression implies that the time to turn short of the turning point in minutes = Time
to be gained in minutes/2(1- (Sin (θ/2)) where θ is the angle between the successive tracks
straddling the turning point.
50. The Track and Time to Fly After Cutting Corners. The value of the track DE to be
followed to cut the corner can also be obtained from Fig 14-6.
Track DE = Track AB + (90 - θ/2).
In general, the factor of (90 - θ/2) may be additive or subtractive depending on whether the
change of track is to the right or left respectively.
The time to fly the track DE = 2 T (Sin (θ/2)) minutes.
51. Illustration of the Formula Method.
An aircraft is on track of 180º deg. The ETA of a turning point is 1012 h. Track after the
turning point is 010º. Find time to turn to gain five minutes.
G=5 and θ = 10°.

T = 5/2(1 – Sin (5)) = 2.6 minutes. This value of T can be rounded off to 3 minutes.
247 Timing Action
Hence the turn to the track to cut corners must be made at ETA turning point – 3
minutes = 1012 – 3 = 1009 h.
The track to turn to cut corners = 180 – (90 – 5) = 180 –95 = 085° and the time to
maintain this track before regaining original track of 010° = 2 x 3 x Sin (5) = 6 Sin (5)
= 2.5 minutes.
Losing Time by Rate 1 Turns (90° Method)
52. The procedure illustrated at

Fig 14-7 could occasionally be useful
in high performance aircraft. A rate
one turn through 90° is made at point
A. Immediately on completion of the
rate 90-degree turn; a reversal turn
through 180° is made to reach from B
to C. A 90° turn I made from C to D.
The diameter of the circle described
by the ac, in the manoeuvre is
Fig 14-7: Losing Time by 90 Degree Turns
denoted by d. The time lost by using
the procedure is arrived at as follows:
Distance A-B-C-D = The length of the semi-circle BC + the length of the quadrantal arcs AB
+ CD = The circumference of a circle of diameter D.
Therefore, distance A-B-C-D = πd
Time taken to cover distance A-B-C-D = 2 mins (360˚ at Rate 1).
Direct distance A-D = d/2 + d + d/2 = 2d (as in Fig 14-7).
Distance πd is covered in 2 mins.
Therefore, time taken to cover distance 2d = 2d x 2/ πd = 4/ π = 1.27 mins
Hence, Time lost = Time difference between path flown A-B-C-D and the direct path AD = 2
min – 1 ¼ min = ¾ min
53. To lose more than ¾ min, ¾ min is subtracted from the time to be lost and the ac is
straightened up between each reverse for half the resultant time.
Cutting Corner
54. If there is a suitably large track alteration along the route, timing may be adjusted by
extending or cutting the corner at that turning point. Two simple examples of this procedure are shown
in Fig 14-8.
55. Given a route A-

B-C (Fig 14-8a), timing is
adjusted by adopting a
new turning point in
place of position B.
Distances representing
1, 2 and 3 minutes of
groundspeed are marked
along the track B C and
its reciprocal, and
marked G1, G2 and G3
(gaining time) and L1, L2
and L3 (losing time). If at
position X the aircraft
was two minutes ahead
of time, heading would Fig 14-8: Cutting Corners for Timing Action
be altered to fly the track
X-L2-C. Alternatively, the track AB may be extended beyond B and the 1, 2 and 3 minute marks
placed on this extension for losing time and on the reciprocal for gaining time. If running late, time
may be gained by turning early to C from G1, G2 or G3 as necessary. If early over B, then turning
towards C could be made from L1, L2 or L3 as necessary to achieve the appropriate number of minutes
delay. However, since the procedure involves track changes, the groundspeed is also different along
the changing tracks. Thus a revision of timing on the new leg will be necessary. Where turning circles
have to be followed for, and using the first method as an example, it is convenient to mark the timing
points along a line parallel to the track from B to C, passing through the originally planned start turn
point at B, as shown in Fig 14-8b. ETA start turn is then easily calculated.
56. It must be noted that this method requires distances X-B and B-C and the angle at B to be
such that triangles XBL3 and XBG3 (also BCL3 and BC G3) may be considered isosceles, so that, for
example, XB is approximately equal to XL2.
Pre-Computed Timing Leg (PCTL)
57. A more precise method of adjusting

timing by revising the distance to be flown is to
use pre-computed timing legs at any convenient
turning point. Use is again made of the principle
of isosceles triangles.
58. Fig 14-9 shows pre-computed timing Fig 14-9: Pre-Computed Timing Leg
249 Timing Action
legs constructed for the route A-B-C. At position B a line BDE is drawn at an angle of 75° to track BC.
The length of BD is the distance flown in, say, four minutes where three minutes is the longest period
it is envisaged will be necessary to make up at that turning point. Similarly, DE is the distance flown in
the maximum time it will be necessary to lose. From D, line BDE is divided into units of distance flown
in one minute, and marked G1, G2, L1, L2 etc as shown.
59. A line DF is drawn at an angle of 75° to BD to intercept BC at F. A-B-D-F is now the ‘on time’
track, used in calculating the required set heading time when completing the flight plan. In-flight the
turn is commenced at any one of the points G1, G2, G3 or L1, L2, L3 depending on whether it is required
to gain or lose time and the number of minutes to be gained or lost.
251
CHAPTER 15
AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)
Introduction
1. RNAV stands for Area Navigation. The genesis of RNAV is in the proliferation of air traffic.
With the advance of aviation, there is a tremendous increase in the volume of air traffic worldwide and
the currently designated normal ATS routes and airways are getting more and more congested,
making it difficult to efficiently channelise the flow of air traffic.
2. To get over this problem, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of USA has started
developing electronic airways which have been laid down from one navigation facility to the next and
these often require other than a direct route between desired points. Therefore an economic need to
shorten routes and reduce congestion over the current conventional fixes like the VORs brought about
a system of direct navigation. This system is called area navigation or RNAV.
Definition
3. Area Navigation can be defined as a method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on
any desired course within the coverage of the station referenced navigation signals or within the limits
of a self contained system capability, or a combination of these.
Navigation Systems required
4. Navigation systems that provide RNAV capability include:
(a) VOR / DME

(b) DME / DME
(c) LORAN C
(d) GPS
(e) Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) or Inertial Reference Systems (IRS)
RNAV capability using VOR / DME, DME / DME and LORAN C are with reference to station
referenced signals.
LORAN C (Hyperbolic system Operates in 90-110 KHz freq band when is used for marine
and air navigation where signal coverage is available) is also with respect to station
referenced signals.
5. GPS is capable of giving continuous indications of position and altitude. But all GPS
receivers are not declared fit for IFR operations. Aviation navigation systems must meet stringent
accuracy, availability and integrity requirements. Integrity is the ability of the system to warn a user
when there is something wrong with the system. (For example, ILS signals are monitored
electronically, and if the monitor detects a mal function they must shut down the ILS within 6 seconds.
This results in a warning flag on the flight deck.
6. One way to approach integrity is through receiver design, and the GPS TSO C-129 calls for
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). RAIM requires at least 6 satellites to be in view.
RAIM works by comparing position solutions using different combination of satellites. Comparing
these solutions can lead to the conclusion that a satellite is broadcasting incorrect data, and the
receiver can then ignore that satellite.
7. Only GPS receivers which meet TSO C-129 are currently approved as the primary navigation
aid for IFR operations. If this standard is not met, grossly incorrect data may be supplied by the
satellite with no error indication. If there is a discrepancy between GPS and the traditional navigation
aids, the aircrew must revert to the traditional navigation aids for navigation.
8. INS is completely self-contained and independent of ground based navigation aids. After
being supplied with initial position info, it is capable of updating with accurate displays of position, alt,
and heading. It can calculate track and distance between two points, display cross error, provide
ETAs, G/S and wind information. It can also provide guidance and steering info for the pilot
instruments.
Generation of Phantom Stations using VOR-DME and TLC
Magnetic North
9. The common
general aviation RNAV
1
system uses the Track
Line Computer (TLC),
2
based on azimuth and 3
distance information Angle 1 = Bearing of aircraft from VOR
Angle 2 = Waypoint bearing from VOR
from a VOR-DME. It is Angle 3 = Angle 2 – Angle 1 = Factor of Track
Waypoint/
also called the RHO- Phantom Station
THETA system.
Fig 15-1: Generation of Phantom Station

10. The RNAV
computer continuously generates fictitious nav aids appropriately called ‘Phantom Stations’. The
information available from the primary avionics of the ac is used to correlate track guidance to way
points on the direct RNAV route. This information is displayed on the user interface in the
253 Area Navigation (RNAV)
conventional format. In effect, the ac derives a perception of a ‘Phantom Station’ existing along the
RNAV route.
11. The computer algorithm in the TLC caters for the following factors:-
(a) Ground Station accuracy and tolerance.

(b) Airborne receiving system tolerance.
(c) Flight Technical tolerance.
(d) System computation tolerance.
(e) Distance from reference facility.
12. Fig 15-2 gives a graphical illustration of an RNAV route. Waypoints 1, 2 and 3 have been
generated for use on the RNAV route from the across track VOR-DME stations at Mystic, Meeker and
Milton.
Mystic
33 Nm Waypoint 2 Waypoint 3
75 Nm Meeker 360˚/15 Nm Milton 360˚/22 Nm
Waypoint 1
BELGRADE HAINES
Mystic 180˚/23 Nm
49 Nm
58 Nm
Meeker
Milton
VOR Route: Total Distance = 215 Nm
Direct RNAV Route: Total Distance = 191 Nm (24 Nm shorter)
Fig 15-2: An RNAV Route
13. Modern flight management systems (FMC) often use DME/DME ((Rho-Rho) systems which
compare numerous DME signals (when coverage is available) to provide position and time and
distance information.
14. Applications of RNAV.
(a) A route structure can be organized between any given departure and arrival point to
reduce flight distance and traffic separation.
(b) Aircraft can be flown into terminal areas on varied pre-programmed arrival and
departure paths to expedite traffic flow.
(c) Instrument approaches can be developed and certified at certain airports, without
local instrument landing aids at that airport.
(d) RNAV will aid in locating airfields with no navigation aids, particularly during low
visibility.
(e) Parallel track Navigation. In addition to providing the means to set up direct
airways, the RNAV computer would also permit to set up a course, which parallels the
published airways. This will permit the ac to keep well clear of most of the traffic, using the
high density airways, it will also permit the ac bypass slower traffic flying at the same altitude,
or the ac can get out of the way of a faster ac overtaking from behind. While using the
parallel track feature the ac will still be able to take advantage of communication, navigation
and emergency facilities that exist along the published airway. The parallel track system can
also be used during departure and approach to facilitate the flow of traffic in terminal areas.
Airspace Using RNAV
15. With the development of reliable and accurate RNAV systems, both domestic and oceanic
airspace were recognized to make use of rigid RNAV performance specifications. Examples of
current RNAV airspace are:
(a) The North Atlantic Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications (NAT MNPS)
airspace uses the North Atlantic Organized Track System (OTS) based on accurate RNAV
separation criterion.
(b) The Northern Track System and Arctic Track system in the Northern and Arctic
control areas are based on the Canadian Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications
(CMNPS).
(c) In USA, the required Nav Performance Capability (RNPC) air space has been
developed to make use of both random and fixed RNAV routes.
(d) RNAV air routes have recently been established in many parts of India.
255
CHAPTER 16
REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE (RNP)
1. The current air traffic management system is experiencing growing difficulty as air traffic
around continues to increase. With air traffic expected to grow at a rate of 5% annually, the industry
needs a new air traffic management system in place that would provide greater capacity in terms of
volume of air traffic and efficiency. With this aim in mind, ICAO set up a special committee in 1988,
named the Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS) committee to find solutions to the existing
problems. FANS offers a space based method for handling increased air traffic, in sharp contrast to
the current system of using ground navigation aids, radars and voice communication and named it as
CNS/ATM plan (Communication, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management). The
navigation element of the CNS/ATM concept centers on the concept of RNP (Required Navigation
Performance).
2. The FANS committee identified that the method most commonly used over the years to
indicate required navigation capability was to prescribe mandatory carriage of certain equipment.
This constrained optimum application of modern equipment.
3. To overcome this problem, the committee developed the concept of RNPC (Required
Navigation Performance Capability). FANS defined RNPC as “A parameter describing lateral
deviations from assigned or selected track, as well as along track position fixing accuracy on the basis
of an appropriate containment level”. The RNPC concept was approved by the ICAO council and was
assigned to the “Review of the General Concept of Separation Panel”. The RGCSP, in 1990 noted
that capability and performance were distinctively different and air space planning is dependent on
“Measured Performance” rather than design capability. Thus they changed RNPC to RNP.
ICAO Perceived Model of RNP
4. ICAO defines RNP as “A statement of the Navigation performance accuracy (in the horizontal,
i.e. lateral and longitudinal) necessary for operation within a defined airspace”. This navigation
performance accuracy is quantified with two values.
(a) A distance in nautical mile (known as RNP type).

(b) A probability level.
5. RNP types are identified by a single accuracy value as envisaged by FANS. The concept
affects both the airspace and the ac. RNP type is based on navigation performance accuracy
expected to be achieved at least 95% of the time by the population of aircraft operating within the air
space. An ac is qualified to operate on an RNP-10 airway if it has demonstrated that the capability
and performance of the airplane navigation system will result in the airplane being within 10 nm of the
indicated position on the navigation system at least 95% of the flying time. System accuracy is based
on a combination of navigation sensor errors, airborne receiver errors, display error and flight
technical error.
RNP Types
6. RNP types are specified by airspace planners to establish the total navigation system error,
allowed in the horizontal dimension (lateral and longitudinal) when operating within a defined
airspace, or on a designated route.
7. In order to simplify RNP types and to make the required accuracy readily apparent to airspace
planners, aircraft manufacturers and operators, the RNP types are specified by the accuracy value
associated with the RNP type. The various RNP types specified for en-route operation are:
(a) RNP 1. (P-RNP – It shall provide 95% containment value of ± 1 Nm) It is envisaged
for supporting the most efficient ATS route operations by providing the most accurate position
information and through the RNAV allowing the greatest flexibility in routing, routing changes
and real time response to system needs.
(b) RNP 4. It supports ATS routes and airspace design based on limited distance
between navigation aids. This RNP type is normally associated with continental airspace.
(c) RNP 5. (B RNAV – It shall provide 95% containment value of ± 5 Nm) The level is
similar to that currently achieved by ac without R NAV capability on ATS routes defined by a
VOR or VOR DME when VORs are less than 100 Nm apart.
(d) RNP 10. It supports reduced lateral and longitudinal separation minimal and
enhanced operational efficiency in oceanic and remote areas where the availability of
navigation aids is limited.
(e) RNP 12.6. It supports limited optimized routing in areas with reduced level of
navigation facilities.
(f) RNP 20. It describes the minimum capability considered acceptable to support ATS
route operations. This minimum level of performance is expected to be met by an ac in any
controlled airspace at any time.
257 Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
8. More demanding RNP types would be required to operate in the vicinity of most aerodromes,
i.e. during the transition between aerodrome and ATS route. The possibility of extending the RNP
concept to terminal operations is being assessed by ICAO.
RNP Airspace
9. RNP may be specified for a route, a number of routes, an area, volume of airspace or any
airspace of defined dimensions an airspace planner or authority chooses. Potential applications of
RNP include:
(a) A defined airspace, such as NATMNPS airspace for a specific RNP type.
(b) A Fixed RNP Route. These are permanent, published ATS routes which can be
flight planned for use by ac approved for a special RNP type.
(c) Contingency RNP Routes. These are published ATS routes which can be flight
planned and which can be made available to ac approved for a specific RNP type during
limited time periods.
10. Ideally airspace should have a single RNP type. However, RNP types may be mixed within a
given airspace. An example would be a more stringent RNP type (DME-DME) being applied to a
specific route in a VOR DME airspace.
11. RNP can apply from T/O to landing with different phases of flight requiring different RNP
types. As an example, RNP type for take off and landing may be very stringent, whereas RNP type
for enroute may be demanding.
ATS Procedures
12. ATS procedures in RNP airspace will generally be the same as existing ATS procedures, but
there are special procedures at times depending on the functional requirement of a specific RNP type.
For example the functional requirement of RNP type airspace may be to fly offset from the planned
route centerline by a specific distance. This can be a very useful tool for ATC in:
(a) Tactical situations where an offset may be employed instead of radar vectoring.
(b) Strategic situations where a systematic offset may be employed as a means of
increasing the capacity of the airspace without improving safety.
13. Also special ATS procedures apply for mixed RNP types, involving transit between different
types of RNP airspace. This requires detailed planning such as:
(a) Defining specific points where traffic would be diverted.

(b) Use simulation to test the plan.
(c) Clear only aircraft approved for operations in specific RNP type airspace,
(d) Obtain regional agreement detailing the required responsibilities.
Aircraft Requirements
14. There are many different types of navigation equipment that will meet the requirements of one
or more RNP types. The least sophisticated would be the VOR-DME navigation system whereas the
most sophisticated would be a RNAV system coupled to FMS.
15. Ac will require airworthiness and operational approval. The navigation systems would be
required to demonstrate an acceptable availability and “continuity of function” prior to approval.
Sufficient redundancy would have to be incorporated.
16. ‘Continuity of function’ refers to an assurance that, through a combination of sensors or

equipment, guidance information permitting navigation to the appropriate level of RNP will continue to
be provided for an acceptable period of time after the loss of a sensor.
17. It is anticipated that most aircraft operating in the future RNP environment will carry some
type of RNAV equipment.
259
CHAPTER 17
DIRECT INDICATING COMPASSES AND DIRECTION INDICATORS
PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS SYSTEM (DICS)
Introduction
1. A direct indicating compass system

(DICS) consists of a freely suspended magnet
system which can align itself with the horizontal
component of the Earth's magnetic field thus
defining the direction of Magnetic North. By
aligning a compass card with the North-seeking
(red) end of the magnet system as shown in Fig
17-1, the aircraft's magnetic heading can be read
off against a lubber line.
Fig 17-1: Basic DICS

Properties
2. DICS must exhibit the following properties:
(a) Horizontality. The magnet system must remain as near horizontal as possible.
(b) Sensitivity. The magnet must be sensitive.
(c) Aperiodicity. The magnet's behaviour must be aperiodic (i.e. without recurring
oscillations).
Horizontally
3. Freely suspended in the Earth's magnetic field, a magnet system will align itself with the
direction of that field. At the magnetic equator the field direction is parallel to the Earth's surface at all
other places the magnet system is tilted in the direction of the total field (T), where T is the resultant of
the horizontal and vertical fields.
4. If the magnet system were allowed to align itself with the T field it would be difficult to align
the compass card accurately moreover, the tendency to tilt would reduce the magnetic moment in the
horizontal plane in which direction is measured. A pendulous suspension system is therefore used to
overcome the magnet system's tendency to tilt. When the pendulously suspended magnet system
tilts to align with T, the magnet system's centre of gravity is displaced from the vertical through the
pivot (Fig 17-2). The magnet system's weight forms the couple Wd, which acts to restore the magnet
system to the horizontal.
Sensitivity
5. DICS must be sensitive and able to

indicate the local magnetic meridian quickly and
accurately. Sensitivity may be increased by the
following methods:
(a) Increasing the magnetic moment

of the magnet system.
(b) Reducing the moment of inertia
of the magnet system.
(c) Reducing the friction at the
suspension point. Fig 17-2: Pendulous Suspension
6. A compromise is reached between the magnetic moment and the moment of inertia
requirements by using a number of small, light, powerful magnets as the magnetic sensing element of
the compass. Friction at the pivot is reduced by using jewelled bearings and also by suspending the
magnet system in a fluid which reduces the weight acting on the pivot and lubricates the bearing.
7. Aperiodicity. The vibrations and oscillations experienced in flight by a suspended magnet

system tend to cause undesirable periodic oscillations. Aperiodicity is achieved using a magnet
system with a low moment of inertia and high magnetic moment, the same compromise applied for
sensitivity. Damping filaments, which create drag forces and reduce the magnet system's tendency to
oscillate, are also used.
DICS - ERRORS AND LIMITATIONS
General
8. In addition to the errors caused by external magnetic fields, DICS are subject to the errors
and limitations covered in the following paragraphs.
Turning and Acceleration Errors - Cause
9. If an aircraft fitted with a DICS is subjected to horizontal accelerations the accelerating forces
may cause errors in the indicated heading. The accelerations may be the result of speed changes or
from the central acceleration experienced in a turn; both have similar effects on the compass system,
the resultant errors being greatest when the accelerating force acts at right angles to the magnetic
meridian with which the compass is aligned, i.e. when the aircraft changes speed on easterly or
westerly headings, or turns through North or South. The errors are caused by the displacement of the
261 Direct Reading Compasses
and Direction Indicators
magnet system's centre of gravity from the line through the pivot. This displacement results in the
formation of couples which rotate the magnet system and produce heading errors.
Turning and Acceleration Errors - Effect
10. Consider an aircraft in the Northern Hemisphere increasing speed whilst heading West, or
turning from North or South on to West. In both cases the accelerating force acts through the pivot
which is the magnet system's point of attachment to the aircraft. The reaction force acts, not through
the pivot, but through the magnet system's centre of gravity.
11. Looking down on the magnet system in Fig 17-3 it can be seen that a couple is produced
which turns the magnet system anti-clockwise. Considering the effect of these forces in the vertical
plane together with the magnetic forces acting on the magnet, it can be seen from Fig 17-4 that the
accelerating force and its reaction create a couple which tilts the magnet system out of the vertical.
The vertical component of the Earth's magnetic field no longer acts through the pivot, but can be
resolved into two orthogonal components. One component (Z cos ө) acts through the pivot, and the
other (Z sin ө) at 90° to the pivot. ө is the angle of tilt. In Fig 17-4 it is shown that the component Z sin
ө tends to pull the blue end of the magnet to the right. An equal but opposite effect is created at the
red end, and a magnetic couple is created which turns the magnet system anti-clockwise (Fig 17-5).
Fig 17-3: Accelerating Force Fig 17-4: Acceleration Fig 17-5: Couple
Producing Couple Causing Tilt Causing Turn
12. Two couples, one mechanical and one magnetic, turn the magnet system anti-clockwise. If
the error is caused by an increase in speed, the effect is an apparent turn to North, i.e. the compass
over-reads. If the error is caused by turning, the effect depends on the direction and rate of turn. In
turns through North, the magnet system turns in the direction of turn and in all but the most violent
manoeuvres, the indicated turn is slower than the actual turn, i.e. the compass under reads the turn
indicating a turn of perhaps 20° for an actual turn through 45°. In turns through South, however, the
magnet system turns in the opposite direction to the turn and the indicated turn is greater than the
actual turn, i.e. the compass indicates a turn of perhaps 40° for an actual turn of 20°.
Summary
13. The effects of turning and acceleration errors are summarized below:
(a) Northern Hemisphere.
(i) Acceleration on westerly headings and turns to the West cause the magnet
system to rotate anti-clockwise.
(ii) Acceleration on easterly headings and turns to the East cause the magnet
system to rotate clockwise.
(iii) Acceleration causes an apparent turn to the North.
(iv) Turns through North cause the compass to under-indicate the turn.
(v) Turns through South cause the compass to over-indicate the turn.
(b) Southern Hemisphere. The effects are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.
Minor Errors
14. The following minor errors also occur:
(a) Scale Error. Scale error is caused by errors in the calibration of the compass card.
(b) Alignment Error. Alignment error is caused by the incorrect mounting of the
compass in the aircraft, or by a displaced lubber-line. The error is corrected by the compass
swing.
(c) Centring Error. Centring error occurs when the compass card is not centred on the
magnet system pivot.
(d) Parallax Error. When reading DICS care must be taken to ensure that the eye is
centred on the face of the compass. If the line of sight is offset parallax errors occur.
Operational Limitations
15. A DICS has the following limitations which make it unsuitable for use as the primary heading
system of a modern aircraft:
(a) It depends upon the size of the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field for
its drive and thus it becomes insensitive and unreliable at high magnetic latitudes.
(b) It must be installed in the aircraft cockpit, which is normally an area of high magnetic
deviation.
263 Direct Reading Compasses
and Direction Indicators
(c) It can only provide magnetic heading, whereas true or grid heading may be required
on occasions.
(d) Turning and acceleration errors make it only suitable for use in straight,
unaccelerated flight.
(e) There is insufficient torque to enable it to drive transmission systems to feed other
aircraft equipment.
Advantages
16. Despite the limitations of a DICS it is likely to be fitted to most aircraft for the foreseeable
future as a standby compass. In this application it has the advantages of being cheap to purchase
and install, small and light, simple and easy to maintain and operate, and requiring no power, except
for lighting.
A PRACTICAL DICS
The E2 Series
17. The principles of the DICS are exemplified in the E2

series of standby compasses which are widely used (Fig 17-
6). The differences between the E2A, E2B and E2C are
minor and mostly concern the lighting arrangements. The
compasses have a vertical card fastened to the magnet
system, graduated every 10 degrees, with figures every 30
degrees. The cardinal points are marked with the
appropriate letter. The compasses are designed to give an Fig 17-6: E2 Compass
operational accuracy of ±10°; in good,
stable flight conditions the accuracy may
approach the bench accuracy of 2.5°.
18. Design. Fig 17-7 shows an

exploded view of an E2 compass. The
bowl is plastic with a lubber line marked
on the front inside. The magnet is a
steel ring to which a dome is attached.
The iridium tipped pivot screws into the
centre of the dome and rests in a
sapphire cup secured to the vertical
stem by the cupholder. The compass Fig 17-7: E2 Compass - Exploded View
bowl is filled with a silicone fluid and a bellows at the rear of the bowl allows for a change of the
volume of the liquid due to variations in temperature. Provision is made for correction of coefficients
A, B, and C.
19. Serviceability Checks. Before use, the compass should be checked to ensure that the
bowl is not cracked or damaged and is completely filled with fluid that is free from excessive
discolouration, bubbles and sediment.
265
CHAPTER 18
MAGNETISM: GENERAL AND TERRESTRIAL
1. A magnet has the following properties:
(a) It attracts other piece of iron and steel, with its powers of attraction concentrated at
each end, called its poles. The attraction can be exerted at a distance, the effect decreasing
with increasing distance.
(b) When a magnet is freely suspended, one end tends to point in a Northerly direction
and is called the North seeking or RED Pole, the South seeking end being called the BLUE
pole.
(c) With two magnets near each other, the red pole will tend to attract the blue pole of the
other, while like poles repel each other.
(d) The amount of possible magnetism is limited by the mass of magnetic material in the
magnet. When a magnet can no longer by any means be made more powerful, it is said to be
saturated.
(e) No magnet can exist with only one pole: even if broken into pieces, each piece would
become a complete magnet with poles of equal strength.
2. The Molecular Theory supports this last point, Any piece of iron consists of molecules, each
of which is a magnet but exerting its magnetism haphazardly giving no resultant magnetism to the-
iron bar. On magnetization, however, each molecule is lined up so that all of them exert their
magnetism in the same direction; with every one lined up, the bar is now a magnet, and magnetically
saturated, at its maximum magnetic strength.
3. The sphere of influence of a magnet is called its magnetic field composed of its magnetic
lines of force. These are the lines the direction of each being the path in which an isolated red pole
free to move would travel, i.e., from North pole to South pole. They are quite definite, and never cross,
since they depend on their position with regard to, the attracting blue pole, the repelling red pole.
Thus, a magnet lying across the magnetic field of another magnet would tend to take up the direction
of the line of force running through ft with the opposite poles nearer to each other.
Hard and Soft Iron
4. Any metal which can be rnagnetised at all comes under one of these headings soft iron can
be easily magnetised and will just as readily lose its magnetism when the magnetising influence is
removed. Hard iron is difficult to magnetise but once done tends to remain permanently. Hard iron
magnetism is called ‘permanent’ while soft iron is called ‘temporary’ or ‘induced’.
5. The Coercive Force is the power which hard iron has of resisting magnetisation, or if already
magnetised, of resisting de-magnetisation.
Terrestrial Magnetism
6. The Earth itself is a magnet, with its own magnetic field, with a blue pole in the vicinity of the
True North Pole. Thus a freely suspended compass needle will line itself up with its red pole pointing
to the Earth's Magnetic North Pole.
7. The Magnetic Poles are areas on the Earth's surface where a freely suspended compass
needle, influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field will stand vertical.
8. The Angle of Dip in this case is 900. The Angle of Dip is defined as the angle between the
horizontal and a freely suspended compass needle influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field.
Thus the Magnetic Equator or Aclinic Line is an imaginary line on the Earth's surface joining all points
where the Angle of Dip is Nil, and can be said to be the dividing line between the Earth's blue and red
polarity. Isoclinals are lines on charts joining all places having the same magnetic dip.
9. The Earth's line of total force (T) at any particular place is the line of force in which a freely
suspended compass needle lies in the Earth's magnetic field when influenced only by the Earth's
magnetic field. It follows that only at the Magnetic Equator will the needle be horizontal, only at the
Pole will it be vertical The Directive Force is that component of the Earth's total force which acts in a
horizontal plane, known as H. Likewise the vertical force in the vertical plane is known as Z. The
magnetic meridian is simply the direction in a horizontal plane of the freely suspended compass
needle Influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field, i.e. the direction of the directive force. Thus, we
have a triangle of forces
depending on the
position of the compass
needle in the Earth's
magnetic field which
solves the actual
horizontal direction and
angle from the
horizontal which it will
actually take up along
Fig 18-1: Nearer to Magnetic Fig 18-2: Nearer to Magnetic
the line of the Earth's
Pole Equator
267 Magnetism: General and Terrestrial
total force.
10. A change of magnetic latitude will thus affect the freely suspended needle: the nearest to the
Pole, the greater Z, and the less H : conversely, near to the magnetic equator, Z is small, H is high.
An examination of Figs 18-1 and 18-2 will reveal the following relationship:
(a) Tan dip = Z

H
(b) Z = H tan dip
(c) H = Z
tan dip
(d) Sin dip = Z , where T is the total force

T
(e) T = Z
sin dip
Changes in the Earth’s Magnetic Field
11. The earth’s magnetic field at any point is defined from the knowledge of its three
characteristics, that is, variation, intensity and angle of dip. Such a field is very irregular and seems to
be forever changing. There are long-term changes, periodic changes, local anomalies and a magnetic
storm may play havoc.
(a) Secular Change. This is the long term change and reasonably predictable. At one
time it was thought that this occurred due to the rotation of the magnetic pole round the
geographical pole. Unexpected changes have been recorded at different places and the
overall results do not bear out this theory entirely. Since these changes are more of a
localised nature, they might be caused by changes in the cur-rents flowing deep within the
earth’s interior in a particular region. Of these changes, as aviators we are primarily-interested
in the changes in variation. The predicted rate of annual change is given on the maps, either
by a statement in words, e.g. annual change 7’ E, or by an arrowed line across the isogonal
with a numeral on it. The arrow head indicates the direction of the change and the numeral
gives the number of nautical miles movement per year.
(b) Periodic Changes. Irregular changes occur daily, annually and every 11 years.
(i) Daily changes appear to be caused by the electric currents flowing in the
ionosphere. These currents are the result of the ‘atmospheric tides’, the sun’s heating
action providing the energy. The tidal currents in the ionosphere then modify the
earth’s field. The changes swing between 4' on a quiet day to 12' on a sun-spot day,
the maxima occurring just before sunrise and at noon.
(ii) The annual change takes place in the form of a cycle varying between 2’E to
2’W, the maxima occurring around.21st March and 21st September. The changes in
the southern hemisphere are opposite in sense and it is thought that the earth’s
motion round the sun is concerned with this type, of disturbance.
(iii) The 11 year changes, like the daily changes are positively associated with
the 11 year sun-spot cycle. When the activity is at a maximum, the disturbances are
also at a maximum.
(c) Local Anomalies. Strictly speaking no two places may be expected to have
exactly the same field. This is due to the varying rock formation both on the surface and the
interior. However, these differences are by no means remarkable and do not draw the
attention of the aviator. On the other hand there are places, blessed with an abundance of
ferromagnetic substances, which clearly distinguish themselves from the neighboring regions,
causing deviation limited to the locality and only near the surface. Greenland for instance is a
tidy magnet in its own right, and there is a small area in mid-atlantic, a few miles in diameter
too. A place near Port Snettlsham in Alaska causes a difference of 60° in the compass
direction on the surface: it reduces rapidly with height (15° at 3000 ft).
(d) Magnetic Storms. Associated with sun-spot activity magnetic storms may last from
a few hours to several days. The intensity varies from 'small' to 'very great' and may envelop
the whole earth in a matter of minutes. The effect on the aircraft's compass varies with
intensity, but both variation and the horizontal directive force are modified. Generally the
effect is more severe in higher latitudes; a deviation of 20° by the needle when flying near
Iceland in magnetic storm is on record.
12. The regular changes can be allowed for when the

isogonals are plotted for an area. Those lines joining
places of equal magnetic variation, and the amount of
annual change of variation forecast: in the UK, the total
change is about 7'E, and is hardly likely to be of
significance to the pilot until he uses a chart more than 5
years old. Remember the definition of variation? The
angular difference between the true and magnetic
meridian at a point measured in degrees East or West of
True. A line joining places of nil variation is the agonic line.
And isoclinals are lines joining all places of equal magnetic Fig 18-3: CDMVT
dip.
13. To redefine deviation, it is the angular difference between the magnetic meridian and the
direction taken up by a particular compass needle, measured E or W of the magnetic meridian.
269 Magnetism: General and Terrestrial
Aircraft are full of disturbing magnetic influences, and considerable thought is given by constructors
and designers to reduce them. Fig. 18-3 should refresh your memory.
14. Summary of the Definitions
(a) Isogonal. A line on the surface of the earth along which all points have the same
variation. These lines generally face the magnetic pole but it is not always the case.
(b) Agonic Line. A line on the surface of the earth along which all points have nil
variation.
(c) Variation. This is the angle between the horizontal direction taken up by a freely
suspended magnetic needle under the influence of the earth’s magnetic fields alone, and the
direction of true north. It is named east or west according to whether the north-seeking end of
the needle lies to the east or west of the true meridian.
(d) Magnetic Equator or Aclinic Line. The line along which all points have zero dip.
It runs close to the equator, to the south of the equator in South America and to the north of it
in Africa and the Orient.
(e) Isoclinal. It is a line along which all points have equal dip.
271
CHAPTER 19
AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM AND COMPASS SWING
Aircraft Magnetism
1. The permanent magnetism is mostly induced during construction by the Earth's field. The
fuselage during assembly receives a large amount of hammering, specially if much riveting takes
place, and since it remains stationary in the workshop for a long time, the continual hammering will
help the molecules of the metal in their tendency to align themselves with the Earth's magnetic field.
They will in fact, be slowly jolted into alignment. Thus, any metal of the "hard" variety in the fuselage
will become permanently magnetized with a polarity depending on the heading of the fuselage during
assembly. The half of the fuselage nearest to local Magnetic North will contain the red pole and that
nearest to local Magnetic South the blue pole.
2. During normal flight the aircraft and the compass needle are both horizontal. Therefore,
except in special circumstances, it is necessary to consider only that part of the permanent
magnetism in the aircraft which is horizontal in effect.
3. If an attempt were made to neutralize the effect as it is by placing a magnet with opposite
polarity diagonally across the aircraft, considerable difficulty would be experienced in determining at
just what angle the magnet was to be placed and that strength of magnet was to be employed.
4. So, to simplify correction, the aircraft's diagonal magnetism is analysed into two component
parts, one fore.-and-aft and the other athwartships. The precise effect of these components can
easily be measured in the form of compass Deviation; neutralizing magnets (usually called corrector
magnets) of the required strength can then be placed fore-and-aft and athwartship as required. For
convenience, the horizontal fore-and-aft component of the aircraft's permanent magnetism is known
as P, and the horizontal athwartships component Q. The vertical component only considered in
certain cases, is known as R.
5. Vertical "soft" iron in aircraft magnetized by the Earth's field can have the same effects upon
the compass as components P and Q and will act with the latter in their respective fore-and-aft and
athwartships. planes.
6. Component P and its allied "soft" iron can be represented by a single magnet of similar
strength and polarity lying fore-and-aft. In the aircraft referred to above, this magnet would lie with its
red end forward and blue end aft. Its effect upon the magnetic compass needle can best be
understood with reference to Fig. 19-1.
Fig 19-1: Typical effect of P and Fig 19-2: Typical effect of Q and
Allied Soft Iron Allied Soft Iron
7. The maximum deviation will be caused when the fore-an-aft magnet is at right angles to the
compass needle. This occurs when the aircraft is heading east or West by compass, the sign of
Deviation on East being opposite to that on West. In the case under consideration, the signs will be –
and + respectively. Zero Deviation will occur when the aircraft is heading North or South by compass,
in which positions the fore-and-aft magnet is in line with the compass needle. Intermediate amounts
of deviation occur at other headings. Deviations as shown above are is a sine curve pattern.
8. Similar treatment of Q and its allied “soft” iron gives cosine curve as in Fig 19-2. Maximum
deviation due to this cause occurs on the North and South.
Coefficient B and C
9. Coefficients Band C are the calculated quantities of deviation due to P and Q respectively
(vertical “soft" iron effects are included).
10. Coefficient B is the algebraic value of the deviation produced by component P and its allied
vertical "soft” iron when the aircraft is heading Magnetic East. It is calculated by the formula:
B = (Deviation on Magnetic East-Deviation on Magnetic West)

2
Example
11. When swinging an aircraft, the following Deviations were determined:

Deviation on Magnetic East = + 3°
Deviation on Magnetic West = - 5°
Coefficient B = + 3° - (- 5°) = - 3° + 5° = 4°
2 2
12. Coefficient C is the algebraic value of the deviation produced by component Q and its allied
vertical "soft” iron, when the aircraft is heading Magnetic North. It is calculated by the following
formula: C = (Deviation on Magnetic North-Deviation on magnetic South)
2
273 Aircraft Magnetism and Compass Swing
Example
13. The following deviations were found while swinging an aircraft:-
Deviation on Magnetic North = - 2°

Deviation on Magnetic South = + 4°
Coefficient C = - 2° - ( +4°) = - 2° - 4° = -3°
2 2
Coefficient A
14. An aircraft compass when installed heading correctly, has its lubber line (the mark which
represents the aircraft's heading and against which course is read) exactly in the fore-and-aft line
passing through the compass position. If however, the lubber line is displaced, all courses read
against it will have an error equal to the number of degrees by which it is out of alignment. For
example, if the lubber line be displaced 3° to Starboard of the fore-and-aft line, all courses read will be
3° too great. If a course of 048° is indicated, the correct heading would be 045° and so on. The
compass would, under these circumstances, have an apparent deviation, constant on all headings, of
-3°.
15. Certain arrangements of horizontal "'soft" iron can also produce a constant deviation
indistinguishable from the mechanical kind referred to above. It is seldom of any appreciable value.
Constant deviation, two causes of which are given above, is known as coefficient A. To eliminate
coefficient A it is necessary merely to rotate the whole compass until the lubber line IS correctly
positioned. It is calculated by the following formula:
A = (Deviations on. Magnetic N + NE + E + SE + S+ SW + W +NW)
8
Example
16. The following deviations were found when swinging an aircraft.
Magnetic Heading Compass Deviation

N -1°
NE -3°
E -5°
SE -2°
S -0°
SW +1°
W +2°
NW -0°
Coefficient A = -1° - 3° - 5° - 2° - 0 + 1° + 2° - 0° = - 8° = - 1°
8 8
Detecting Aircraft Magnetism
17. The purpose of detecting aircraft magnetism is to neutralize as much of the aircraft’s magnetism
as possible and thereby to provide the compass with a position in which it can operate to the best
advantage. Sound, it is to tabulate for the information of the pilot any deviations remaining after the
coefficients A, B and C have been eliminated.
18. For accurate and reliable results, aircraft should be swing under the conditions in which the
compass is normally used, namely, in cruising flight. When this is not possible, aircraft is swung on
the ground.
19. Swinging, combined with simple maintenance schedule should be carried out at specified
times and circumstances to ensure the best service from the compasses at all times.
20. The elimination of coefficients B and C is brought about by the introduction of magnetic fields
at the compass position of such strength and polarity that they exactly neutralize components P & O
and their allied components (due to vertical “soft” iron). These neutralizing magnetic fields are
produced by either of two devices:
(a) The first of these devices is obsolescent and consists of a block of wood secured
beneath the compass. In this block are a number of holes, some drilled fore-and-aft and
others athwartships. Small magnets are inserted in the fore-and-aft holes until coefficient B is
eliminated and in the athwartships until C is eliminated.
(b) The second device, in general use and sometimes known as the micro-adjuster
consists of a circular metal box secured beneath the compass. Inside the metal box are two
pairs of magnets, one pair lying fore-and-aft and the other athwartships. When neutral, the
magnets in each pair lie parallel, with opposite poles adjacent. If a magnetic field is required
to neutralize P or Q, the appropriate pair of magnets is opened scissor wise by gearing, until it
forms a cross. This is achieved by means of a special key inserted and turned in either of two
external control heads. The opening of the magnets causes a magnetic field to be released
for neutralizing purposes. The further the magnets are opened, the stronger the field
becomes.
21. To compute the necessary compass Deviations, the magnetic headings of aircraft, obtained
from external sources, are compared with the respective compass heading. The magnetic headings
may be obtained in either of two ways:
(a) If using a compass base, the aircraft can be aligned on the compass base line as
requisite. It is as well to ensure that the base has been calibrated within the last 4 years. The
last date of calibration should be found painted on it.
(b) 1f a compass base cannot be used, the best method is to place a landing compass,
or a convenient type of bearing compass, accurately ahead of astern of the aircraft and not
less than 30 yards from it. A bearing along the centre line of the aircraft then give its magnetic
heading. Care must be taken to keep the compass used well away from any local disturbing
magnetic influence.
22. The use of engines during swinging on the ground is optional. Since they cannot be run
continuously at cruising rpm to simulate an active flying condition, there is no object in using them
except for manoeuvring.
Swing Procedure and Theory
23. The process of swinging is divided into three distinct phases. The first of these is the
correcting swing, during which coefficients Band C are computed and eliminated; with whatever
corrector device is fitted. The second is the check swing, the object of which is to determine what
deviations remain. The third is the computation and removal of coefficient A and the recording of
residual deviations for the information of the navigator pilot.
24. Before carrying out a swing, the following preparation is necessary:
(a) Check the compass for serviceability.
(b) Remove from the aircraft any magnetic object not normally carried in flight and liable
to affect the compass. Ensure that no magnetic objects, liable to affect the compass, are
carried by those engaged on the swing.
(c) See that magnetic equipment, normally carried in flight and likely to affect the
compass, is in position as far as possible. The flying controls, if near the compass, should be
kept in level flying position throughout the swing.
(d) Take the aircraft to a compass base or some other level site removed from local
magnetic disturbance.
25. On arrival at the selected site the swing may be carried out by the method given below. The
aircraft's heading must be within 5° of the desired heading.
The Coefficient Method
26. First Phase.
(a) Place the aircraft's head on magnetic North and note the deviation
(b) Place the aircraft’s head magnetic East and note the deviation.
(c) Place the aircraft’s head on magnetic South and note the deviation. Calculate
coefficient C and correct it in the following manner:
(i) Change the sign of C (since the aircraft is now heading south) and add it
algebraically to the compass reading. This figure will be what the compass must read
after correction. Now use the corrector device to make the, compass read this figure.
To do this with the micro-adjuster, insert the special key in one of the two control
heads whose common axis lies at right-angles to the compass needle (in this case
the port and starboard control heads) and turn gently in the appropriate direction until
the required reading is obtained. Then remove the key. If using corrector box, insert
magnets athwartship until the required reading is obtained.
(ii) Example. The compass of an aircraft reads 358° when the aircraft heading
is 000°M. The deviation is therefore +2°. When heading 180°M, the compass reads
182°. The deviation is therefore -2°.
Coefficient C = (Deviation on N-Deviation on S)
2
= 2° - (- 2°) = +4° = + 2°
2 2
While the aircraft is on Magnetic South, the coefficient C of + 2° will be eliminated if
the compass is made to read 182° - (+ 2°) viz. 180°.
(d) Place the aircraft’s head on magnetic West and note the deviation Calculate
coefficient B and correct it as for coefficient C, as follows:
(i) Change the sign of B (since the aircraft is now heading West) and add it
algebraically to the compass reading. This figure will be what the compass must read
after correction. Then use the corrector device to make the compass read this figure.
To do this with the micro adjuster, insert the special key in one of the two control
heads whose common axis now lies at right-angle to the compass needle (in this
case the fore-and-aft control heads) and turn gently in the appropriate direction until
the required reading is obtained. Then remove the key. If using a corrector box insert
magnets fore-and-aft until the required reading is obtained.
(ii) Example. The compass of an aircraft reads 093° when the aircraft heading
is 090°M. The deviation on East is therefore -30. When heading 270°M the compass
reads 267°. The Deviation on West is therefore + 3°.
Coefficient B = (Deviation on E - Deviation on W)

2
= - 3° - (+3°) = -6° = - 3°
2 2
(iii) While the aircraft is on magnetic West, the coefficient B of -3° will be
eliminated if the compass is made to read 267°(-3°), viz. 270°.
27. Second Phase. Conduct a check swing by placing the aircraft's heading successively on
the eight Cardinal and Quadrantal Points, and note the deviation on each.
28. Third Phase.
(a) From these eight deviations, calculate coefficient A. Loosen the compass fixing
screws, and remove A by rotating the whole compass that number of degrees in the
appropriate direction (clockwise if A is +, and vice-versa). Re-tighten the screws. Coefficient A
should be corrected only if of the order of 1.5° more, and then only on the authority of the
responsible navigation officer.
(b) Prepare and fit in the aircraft a Deviation Card of the remaining deviations.
(c) Fill in the Compass Log Book. A suitable pro-forma is given below in the example of a
swing by the coefficient method.
Example
29. A HJT-16 aircraft is swung on ground on 30 Sep 94. The filled in pro-forma at Table 19-1
shows the results of the first two phases, as described above for the standby compass.
30. After the Check Swing and the removal of coefficient A, the residual deviations are found, as
tabulated in the right-hand column of the pro-forma.
Recording Deviation
31. The remaining Deviations referred to in Third Phase (b) above must be recorded for use in
the air. For this purpose, Deviation Cards are provided for the use of the Pilot and Navigator. They are
placed in their appropriate holders near the compass position to which they refer.
Table 19-1: Compass Swing Card

279
CHAPTER 20
TIME
Introduction
1. Our measures of time are based on the Earth's rotation about its own axis, the Earth's rotation
around the Sun, and the movement of the solar system in our galaxy and the movement our galaxy in
the Universe. We therefore need to know something about elementary astronomy.
Kepler's Laws
2. The Solar System consists of the sun and major planets (of which the Earth is one).
Planetary orbits (and therefore the Earth's orbit) are governed by Kepler's laws of planetary motion
which are:
(a) The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci.
(b) The line joining the planet to the sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps out equal
areas in equal time.
(c) The square of the sidereal period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean
distance from the sun.
3. The important laws (a) and (b) are illustrated in the Fig 20-1.
Fig 20-1: Kepler's Laws
4. Kepler's First Law. A planet travels around the Sun in an elliptical orbit as shown in Fig 20-
1.. The Sun is at one of the foci, F1, of the ellipse as indicated (the second focal point is shown at F2
but may be ignored). Because of its elliptical orbit, the planet will be at its closest point at P, known as
'perihelion'. At position A, the planet is at a point furthest from the Sun known as 'aphelion'. Perihelion
occurs in early January (approx 4th). Aphelion occurs in early July (approx 4th).
5. Kepler's Second Law. At position B, the planet approaches 'aphelion' (A) and the radius
vector SB will sweep out the area SBA in the time between B and A. However, a corresponding
situation at Q as the planet approaches 'perihelion' (P) requires the radius vector SQ (which is shorter
than SB) to move faster than SB to
ensure that the area SQP has the
same area as SBA. Thus the planet
moves faster around its orbit near
perihelion than it travels around its
orbit near aphelion. In summary, in
an elliptical planetary orbit, the
orbital speed is fastest at perihelion
and slowest at aphelion. The
Earth's orbital situation is viewed
from the North Celestial Pole (NCP),
i.e. the point in the sky directly
Fig 20-2: Earth Orbit
above geographic North Pole, is
illustrated in Fig 20-2.
Note.
(a) The earth rotates about its geographic N/S axis in an anti-clockwise direction when
viewed from the NCP. This rotation determines our measurement of a 'day', (to be discussed
later.)
(b) The Earth orbits the Sun in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from the NCP.
The orbital period determines our measurement of a 'year'. The changing orbital speed affects
our measurements of a day.
The Seasons
6. It is a common misconception that the change of seasons are governed by the Earth's
distance from the Sun. This is not true. As the Sun's heat is transmitted radially, the effect of the
distance change between 91.4 million statute miles at perihelion and 94.6 million statute miles at
aphelion would only be to change the amount of heat received by the Earth by about 3%, not enough
to explain the marked changes between the summer and winter (Fig 20-2).
7. The predominant cause of the Seasons is the inclination (tilt) of the earth. The Earth's axis is
inclined (tilted) at an angle of 66.5° to its orbital plane and this is often stated as 23.5° to the normal to
the orbital plane, i.e. 90°- 66.5° = 23.5°.
8. Adding the inclination of the Earth to a diagram of the Earth's orbit as in the Fig 20-3 and 20-4
below illustrates the annual seasonal changes.
281 Time
Fig 20-3: The Earth’s Orbit
Fig 20-4: The Seasons
9. The sun appears vertically above 23½° S on the 21st of December. This is known as the
Northern Hemisphere (NH) Winter Solstice or Southern Hemisphere (SH) Summer Solstice. The sun
will appear above 23½ °N on the 21st of June at the NH Summer Solstice or SH Winter Solstice. The
sun crosses the equator from South to North on about 21st March. This is known as NH Spring
Equinox or SH Autumn Equinox. Six months later it crosses the equator from North to South on about
21st September when it is NH
Autumn Equinox or SH Spring
Equinox. During the period of
one day the sun appears to
move along a parallel of
latitude from East to West.
Fig 20-5 which is a simplified
diagram is for definition
purposes.
Fig 20-5: Earth’s Orbit
10. In Fig 20-5, the plane of the Earth's orbit around the sun is labelled the 'Plane of the Ecliptic'.
This is an adequate definition although some textbooks refer to the Ecliptic as the plane of the annual
path of the Sun. The plane of the equator is called the 'Plane of the Equinoctial'. (equal day / night).
The Plane of the Ecliptic and the Plane of the Equator are inclined to each other at an angle of 23.50.
(This angle is called the obliquity of the ecliptic). At a given time of year, the angle that the Sun is
above or below the equator determines the season and affects the length of daylight / night. The
angle is known as declination. Declination is analogous in the sky to latitude on the Earth. The Sun's
declination changes annually between 23.5°N (Sun overhead the tropic of Cancer) through 0° (Sun
overhead the Equator) to 23.5°S (Sun overhead the Tropic of Capricorn) and then back through 0° to
23.5°N. The annual cycle of the Sun's declination is illustrated in Fig 20-6. The declination of the Sun
may be considered to follow a sine wave with its peak amplitude being 23.5O and its cyclic period
being one 'year'.
Fig 20-6: Declination of the Sun
11. You may notice that the dates of the solstices and equinoxes may be quoted in some
textbooks as about 21st 22nd, of the appropriate month. This occurs simply because the precise date
depends on the relationship between the year considered and the leap year cycle. Students are not
expected to be able to calculate the precise date of these solar events. The length of daylight / night
at a given latitude varies with the declination of the Sun. The rate of change of the length of daylight
will therefore be greatest when the rate of change of declination is greatest. The diagram shows that
this situation occurs at the equinoxes (about Mar 21 and Sep 21). The above situation is not true in
several special cases when the latitude considered is either the Equator or is above 66°N/S.
Measurement of Days and Years
12. A 'day' may be defined as the length of time taken for the Earth to rotate once about its axis
measured against a celestial body, e.g. the Sun or a star. Measurements against a star are called
'sidereal' and against the Sun are called 'solar'.
283 Time
13. Civil Day. A Civil day should be related to periods of light and darkness so that 1200 hrs is
always about halfway between sunrise and sunset. The civil day should therefore be based on the
Sun. It should be of a constant length.
14. Sidereal Day. A Sidereal bay is measured against a distant star and is of nearly constant
length. However, it is not related to light and dark and is not suitable as a civil day.
15. Apparent Solar Day. An apparent Solar Day is measured against the real or apparent Sun
(the one that 'appears' to you). However, using the apparent (real) Sun introduces the problem of the
Apparent Solar Day not being a constant length.
16. Consider the situation including the Earth's orbit around the Sun, illustrated in Fig 20-7,
showing the Earth's orbit viewed from the North Celestial Pole (NCP). The NCP is an imaginary point
at a distance along the continuation of the earth's axis from the S pole to the N pole projected out into
space.
Fig 20-7: Sidereal Day / Apparent Solar Day
17. Consider the Earth at position A but in a solar system where the earth was stationary. An
observer at position Z would have the Sun and a distant star directly over his meridian. After one
complete anti-clockwise rotation of the Earth, the Sun and the star would be over the observer's
meridian again. The apparent solar day and the sidereal day (based on the star) would be equal. This
is a false situation.
18. In the period of one 360O revolution, the Earth travels around its orbit to position B. After a
360O revolution, the distant star is again over the observers meridian (a sidereal day) but an additional
rotation and further orbit to position C is needed put the Sun again over the observer's meridian. Thus
an apparent solar day is longer than a sidereal day. But, as stated before, the Earth's orbital speed
changes throughout the year. Thus, an Apparent Solar Day cannot be of constant length.
19. Mean Solar Day. The Mean Solar Day is the average length of an apparent solar day
(averaged over the year). It is of constant length and related to light and darkness; it is used as the
'civil' day and is divided into hours, minutes and seconds of 'mean' time. It is sometimes helpful to
think of the Sun traveling westwards around the Earth rather than the earth spinning eastwards. In
the case of mean time, we consider the mean (average) Sun circling the earth every 24 hours. This is
the basis of Local Mean Time (LMT).
20. A Sidereal Year is the time taken by the Earth to complete an orbit of the Sun measured
against a distant star. Its length is 365 days and 6 hrs. A Tropical Year (an apparent solar year) is the
length of one cycle of the seasons. Its length is 365 days, 5 hrs and 48.75 minutes. A Calendar Year
is normally 365 days. It is kept in step with the tropical year by adding a day every 4th year, a 'leap'
year. A fine adjustment is made on 3 occasions every 400 years. (At a centennial, when the first 2
numbers of the century are not divisible by 4, the leap year is omitted.)
Fig 20-8: Local Hour Angle / Greenwich Hour Angle
Hour Angle
21. In para 10, the Declination of a celestial body (in our case, the Sun) was shown to be similar
(analogous) to latitude. In the same way, Hour Angle can be shown to be analogous to longitude. The
Earth spins in an easterly direction, 360° in every 24 hours. Thus, a celestial body (the Sun or a star)
will transit across a given meridian at 24 hour intervals. It is convenient to simplify this situation by
considering that the celestial bodies circle the Earth in westerly directions, e.g. the sun rises in the
East and travels in a westerly direction to set in the West and continues westerly to eventually rise
again in the East.
22. The Hour Angle of a celestial body is defined as the arc of the Equator (equinoctial)
intercepted between the meridian of a datum and the meridian of the body, measured westwards from
0° to 360°. Thus when a celestial body transits a given meridian, its Hour Angle is 000°. When the
body transits the anti-meridian, its Hour Angle is 180°. If the given meridian is Greenwich, the Hour
Angle is known as the Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) which is directly analogous to longitude. A body
285 Time
with a GHA of 050°, will be transiting the 050W meridian. A body with a GHA of 180° will be transiting
the l80W meridian. But, note that a body with a GHA of 270° will be transiting the 270W meridian, i.e.,
the 090E meridian.
Conversion of Arc (Angle) To Time
23. To solve time problems we need to be able to convert angular arcs to time in hours and
minutes. Because the earth rotates 360° in 24 hrs, we can convert angular arc to time as follows:
360° = 24 hrs
15° = 1 hour
1° = 4 minutes
15' of a degree of arc = 1 minute of time 15"'(seconds of arc) = 1 second of time
Example Convert 127° of arc into time.
Divide 127° by 15 = 8.4667 hours. The answer is now in hours but the hours
must be converted to minutes Convert the decimals of hours (.4667) to
minutes by multiplying by 60, i.e. .4667 x 60 = 28. So the answer is 8hrs 28
minutes
Local mean time
24. The Earth rotates daily around its geographic axis, anticlockwise if observed from above the
North Pole. It is convenient sometimes to consider the Earth as stationary and the Sun traveling
around the Earth once a day in a clockwise direction. This alternative fits well with our. perception that
the Sun rises in the East and sets in the West. For further discussions, this alternative will be used
and, unless otherwise stated, the Sun referred to is the 'mean' Sun.
25. When the mean sun transits (crosses) a particular meridian, the Local Mean Time (LMT) at all
places on that meridian is 1200 hrs (midday, noon). Similarly, when the mean sun transits the anti-
meridian of a point, the LMT at the point is 0000 hrs (2400hrs) or midnight. Conventionally, midnight
of a particular night, say the night of the 6th/7th, is regarded as 2400hrs LMT on the 6th or 0000 hrs
on the 7th.
Local Mean Time (LMT)
26. Fig 20-9 illustrates the situation when the mean Sun is transiting (crossing) the meridian of
45E on 16th May (the date is chosen simply for illustrative purposes). Thus the LMT at all places on
the 45E meridian (Baghdad, Aden, Madagascar) is 1200 LMT on 16th May (local mean date).
27. Remember, it takes the Sun 1 hour to travel 15° of longitude. At 45E, the LMT is 1200 hrs on
16th May, (the Sun is crossing the meridian of 45E). At 90E (approx India) the LMT is 1500 hrs on
16th May (the Sun passed the meridian 3

hours ago: 45 = 3 x 15 = 3hrs). At 135E
(approx Japan) the LMT is 1800 hrs on
16th May. At 180E (mid-Pacific in the
eastern hemisphere) the LMT is 2100 hrs
on 16th May. Now working to the west
from the 045°E meridian. At 0 E/W (the
Greenwich Meridian), the LMT is 0900
LMT on 16th May. LMT at the Greenwich
Meridian is known as Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) also called Zulu 'Z', which
used to be the Earth's standard time. The
present standard time is called Co-
ordinated Universal Time (UTC) which for
Fig 20-9: Local Mean Time
all practical purposes is the same as
GMT.
28. At 45W (Newfoundland) the LMT is 0600LMT on the 16th May. At 90W (mid USA), the LMT
is 0300 LMT on the 16th May. At 135W (Alaska), the LMT is 0000 LMT on the 16th May. This time
may be considered to be also 2400 hrs LMT on the 15th May. At 180W (mid Pacific in the western
hemisphere). LMT is 2100LMT on the 15th May. But, from the previous argument, at 1800E, the LMT
is 2100 LMT on 16th May. Thus at the 180O
meridian, the LMT date changes by a day
although the LMT time remains the same.
Thus:
Traveling westward across the 1800

meridian, the LMT date increases by one
day.
Traveling eastward across the 1800
meridian, the LMT date decreases by one
day.
This situation is illustrated in Fig 20-10 using

an LMT at Greenwich of 0300 LMT on the
19th (0300 UTC on UTC date 19th). Fig 20-10: LMT
Co-Ordinated Universal Time (UTC)
29. Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) changes at a constant rate and is regulated against
International Atomic Time (IAT) derived from atomic clocks. UTC is regularly corrected to match GMT
287 Time
(the LMT at the Greenwich Meridian) but the corrections are very small. For all practical navigation
purposes, UTC equals GMT. UTC is the datum for world time. It is often necessary to convert LMT
into UTC or vice versa. Based on the fact that the sun appears to travel across the earth from east to
west, the following rule applies:
Longitude east, UTC least (less advanced)

Longitude west, UTC best (more advanced)
For example: (a) Find the UTC if the LMT in Cairo (longitude 30E) is 0900 hours.
LMT Cairo 0900

Arc/Time (Long 30E) - 0200
UTC 0700 (UTC LEAST)
(b) Find the UTC if the LMT in Madrid (longitude 04W) is 0400 hours.
LMT Madrid 0400

Arc/Time (Long 04W) + 0016
UTC 0416 (UTC BEST)
(c) Find the LMT in Berlin (longitude 13E) if the UTC is 1345 hours.
UTC 1345 (UTC LEAST)

Arc/Time + 0052
LMT Berlin 1437 (Long East)
(d) Find the LMT in San Francisco (longitude 122W) if the UTC is 2115 hours.
UTC 2115 (UTC BEST)

Arc/Time -0808
LMT San Francisco 1307 (Long West)
Local Mean Time / UTC Problems
30. Note that in basic LMT problems, the latitude is unimportant. For instance, all points on the
75W meridian have the same LMT. This example includes Ottawa (Canada), Philadelphia (USA),
Kingston (Jamaica), Bogota (Colombia) and Lima (Peru). We recommend that students layout
problems logically and always work through UTC as in the examples below.
Example 1. If the LMT at 'A', 40ON 137°50’'W, is 1812 LMT on 18 August, what is the LMT
at 'B', 30OS 121°12'E?
Day (D) Hour (D) Minute (M)

LMT at A 18 18 12 LMT
O
Arc / Time conversion 137 50’W +9 11
UTC (Long west, UTC best) 19 03 23 UTC
O
Arc / Time conversion 121 12’E 8 05
LMT ‘B’ (Long east, UTC least) 19 11 28 LMT
Answer: 1128 LMT on 19th August
Note. This question could have been completed without UTC. The Ch long between A and B is
259°02' minutes which converts as 17 hours 16 minutes later than A's LMT. The method through UTC
seems longer but it is too easy to make a mistake if you try to take short cuts, especially if the date
changes. Always use the method above and work through UTC.
Example 2. If it is 1012 UTC on 15 Dee at SON 030W, what is the LMT in:
(a) Singapore (00030'N 105°00'E)

(b) Hawaii (22°00'N 155°00'W)
Note. UTC is the same all over the world. Giving the initial position as 50ON 030OW is a 'red herring'.
(a) Day (D) Hour (D) Minute (M)

UTC 15 10 12 UTC
Arc/Time 105°E +7
LMT Singapore (long E, UTC least) 15 17 12 LMT
(b)
UTC 15 10 12 UTC
Arc/Time 155°W 10 20
LMT Hawaii (long W, UTC best) 14 23 52 LMT
Zone Time (ZT)
31. Although UTC is the worldwide time datum for aviation purposes, it has little civil use far from
the Greenwich meridian. Humans tend to rise some time in the morning and go to bed some time in
the late evening. On a cruise ship in mid Pacific, it would be disappointing if you chose to go up on
deck to sunbathe when your watch was reading l000 hrs UTC! This problem was recognised
centuries ago and the system of Zone Time (ZT) was used to keep ships' time in synchronisation with
the periods of light and dark.
289 Time
32. Zone Time was based on the fact that the Sun transits 15 degrees in one hour. The datum for
the Zone Time system was the Greenwich Meridian (0 E/W). All ships within longitudes 7.5 W and 7.5
E would keep a Zone Time the same as GMT (UTC). The correction from Zone Time to GMT (UTC)
would be zero.
33. Ships between

longitudes 7.5 E to 22.5 E
would have a Zone Time
one hour later than GMT
(UTC). This Zone was
numbered -1, the
correction to be applied to
Zone Time to calculate
GMT (UTC). Similarly,
ships between longitudes
22.5E to 37.5E would be
in the zone numbered -2.
Fig 20-11: Zone Time
The numerical labels
continue as minus values up to 180E. For ships in the western hemisphere, a similar system applied.
Thus, ships at longitudes between 7.5W and 22.5W would be in the zone numbered +1, i.e., the zone
time is earlier than UTC and 1 hour must be added to Zone Time to calculate UTC. The numerical
labels increase as plus values to 180W. The system is illustrated in Fig 20-11. Note that the 150
zone centred on the 1800 meridian is divided in 2 zones. From 172.5W to 180W, the zone is +12.
From 172.5E to 180E, the zone is -12. Thus, crossing the 180E/W meridian requires a change of one
'zone' day in exactly the same sense as is required in LMT.
34. Zone Letters. The zones are also labelled using letters, the most familiar zone being that
around Greenwich which is labelled 'Z' (Zulu). Zones number -1 to -12 (to the east of Greenwich) are
labelled A to M in ascending order omitting J. Zones +1 to +12 are labelled N to Y.
Standard Time
35. Zone Time (ZT) gives a convenient standard for ships at sea, keeping the hours of the day
approximately synchronised with daylight and darkness. However, the system would not be
appropriate for use on land. For example, the 7.5 E longitude line runs through the middle of Nigeria -
it would be inconvenient if western Nigeria kept a time 1 hour in advance of eastern Nigeria.
36. Each country nominates its own Standard Time (ST), normally notified in the Air Almanac as
a correction to UTC. Clearly, each country aims to fix a Standard Time such that 1200 hr ST occurs
about the middle of the period of light and 0000 ills ST in about the middle of the period of darkness.
Thus Standard Time will be close to both Local Mean Time (LMT) and to Zone Time (ZT) but will not
be exactly the same.
International Date Line
37. Local Mean Time and Zone Time always change by a day at the 180° E/W meridian. Thus, it
would be logical to conclude that Standard Time changes by 1 day at the 180O E/W. This is not
Fig 20-12: International Date Line
always so. Chatham Island (44° S 176° W) approximately 400 nm south-east of New Zealand, is
listed with a correction of 12 hours 45 minutes. The island is administered by New Zealand and
populated by New Zealanders (and sheep). However, it lies in the western hemisphere whereas New
Zealand lies in the eastern hemisphere. Thus, Chatham Island's date should be one day earlier than
New Zealand's date, e.g. when it's Sunday on Chatham Island, it will be Monday in New Zealand. This
is administratively inconvenient. To correct the problem the 'dateline' which should be on the 180 E/W
291 Time
meridian is moved to the East so that, instead of being 176W, the island is considered time-wise to be
at 184E. The adjusted dateline is known as the International Date Line - a line generally following the
180E/W meridian but occasionally adjusted to east or west for political/administration purposes.
38. A similar situation occurs with the Tonga Islands. The Tonga Islands (22°S 170° W) are part
of the same Pacific Island group as Fiji (17°S 178°E) and wish to keep the same day despite being in
different hemispheres. Using the dateline of 180 E/W, Tonga would have to keep a time one day
earlier than Fiji. To overcome this problem, the International Dateline is moved further east to keep Fiji
and Tonga on the same Standard Time day.
39. A similar situation exists with Chatham Island mentioned previously and with the two other
anomalies of this type, i.e. the extreme far east of Russia and Wrangell Island. In these other cases,
the International Dateline has also been adjusted. A corresponding situation exists with the far
western islands of the Aleutian chain which lie in the eastern hemisphere. Here, the International
Dateline is adjusted further west to keep the whole Aleutian chain on the same day as the USA. The
dateline is shown in Figure 27.4.
Sunrise and Sunset
40. Local noon occurs at the same Local Mean Time on all meridians (1200 hrs LMT). It is also
true to say that the sun rises at the same LMT at all places on the same parallel of Latitude and it
sets at the same LMT at all places on the same parallel of latitude.
41. On an imaginary earth with no tilt and no atmosphere, the Sun would rise at 0600 LMT and
set at 1800 LMT (and there would be no seasons). However, the Earth's tilt results in seasonal
changes and the declination of the sun affects the length of night and day, i.e. it changes the times
of sunrise and sunset. The effect varies with latitude. The declination of the Sun varies with the
calendar. This is illustrated in the next simplified diagrams.
Northern Summer/Southern Winter
42. This is illustrated for the situation on or about 21 June ( Midsummer Day) when the Sun's
declination is furthest North, i.e., the Sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer (23 ½°N): the earth's
North Pole is tilted towards the Sun. Ignoring the effects of atmosphere (see later), half the earth
would be in darkness (night).
43. An observer at 'R' would rotate eastwards as shown in Fig 20-13. He would experience a
short period of night and a long period of day. Thus, the sun must rise earlier than 0600 hours and
set later than 1800 hours. (In the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer). An observer at 'S' would
experience a long period of night and a short period of day. The sun will rise later than 0600 hours
and set earlier than 1800 hrs.

It is southern winter. An
observer at E (the Equator)
experiences equal periods of
night and day with sunrise
and sunset at approximately
0600 hours and 1800 hours
respectively. An observer at
Position X (the Arctic Circle)
or further north experiences
Fig 20-13: Sunrise / Sunset
constant day, this is the 'land
of the midnight sun'. With the effects of the atmosphere included, this occurs at anywhere north of
66N on June 21. In contrast, an observer at position Y (the Antarctic Circle or further south),
experiences constant night - the Antarctic winter when the sun never rises.
Northern Winter/Southern Summer
44. A corresponding situation for December 21st when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away
from the Sun is
given below.
The observer at
R (Fig 20-14)
experiences a
short period of
day and a long
period of night.
T)1e sun rises
later than 0600
and sets earlier Fig 20-14: Sunrise / Sunset
than 1800 hours. It is northern winter. The observer at S experiences a short night and a long day.
The sun rises earlier than 0600 and, sets later than 1800. It is southern summer. The observer at E
(the Equator) again experiences equal periods of day and night. The observer at X experiences
constant night as do all observers north of X (68N). The observer at Y experiences constant day as
do all observers south of Y (66S).
45. The length of day and night and the timings of sunrise and sunset vary with latitude and with
the declination of the Sun (the calendar date). At the Equator, periods of day and night may be
considered to be equal at all times of the year. (Because of atmospheric effects, the length of the
day at the Equator is approximately 6 minutes longer than the length of the night)
293 Time
Twilight
46. Before sunrise, there is a period when it becomes light, and after sunset there is a period
when it remains light. These periods are called generally 'twilight'. Although the Sun is below the
horizon, the Sun's rays are being refracted in from the atmosphere and result in an extended period of
light. It is therefore worthwhile to consider what we call the 'horizon'.
47. Consider an
observer at position Q (Fig
20-15) on the earth's
surface. His 'Sensible
Horizon' is the tangent to
the Earth's surface (ignoring
terrain features). This is the
horizon that would be
'sensed' by instruments
such as a spirit level. Fig 20-15: Sensible / Visual Horizon
48. Because of atmospheric refraction, the 'visual' horizon is below the 'sensible' horizon by about
34' of arc. When the top 'lip' of the sun passes below the visual horizon, at sunset, the centre of the
Sun is another 16' of arc (the radius of the Sun viewed from Earth below the visual horizon). Thus the
centre of the Sun is approximately 50 minutes of arc below the sensible horizon at sunset. As 50' of
arc equates to 3 minutes of time, this means that at sunset, the centre of the sun is already 3 minutes
of time below the sensible horizon. An equivalent argument would show that, at sunrise, the centre of
the Sun is 3 minutes of time below the sensible horizon. This explains the fact that the length of day at
the equator is approximately 6 minutes longer than the length of night.
49. Twilight is that period before sunrise and after sunset when refracted light from the Earth's
atmosphere gives an amount of illumination. The amount of illumination varies with the Sun's
depression below the sensible horizon and with atmospheric conditions.
(a) Civil Twilight. Civil twilight occurs when the Sun's centre is 6° or less below the
sensible horizon. Illumination is such that it is possible to carry out day time tasks without
additional artificial lighting. For example, a daytime visual approach is possible. This is the
only twilight period considered in the Air Almanac.
(b) Nautical Twilight. The centre of the Sun is between 6° and 12° below the sensible
horizon. (General outlines are discernible and the brighter stars are visible).
(c) Astronomical Twilight. The centre of the Sun is between 12° and 18° below the
sensible horizon. (Astronomical twilight is often considered to be 'complete darkness').
Night
50. The definition of 'night' is the 'period between the end of evening civil twilight and the
beginning of morning civil twilight, or such other period between sunset and sunrise as may be
prescribed by the appropriate authority'. An example of the definition is the Air Navigation Order which
defines the period of night flying as from 30 minutes after sunset to 30 minutes before sunrise at the
surface.

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FIS BOOK 4

1. Terms and Definitions 93

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

5. Rhumb Line. It is a regularly curved line

8. Parallels of Latitude. These are the small

9. In order to fly in a given direction, a navigator

13. Variation. It is the angular difference between the

14. Isogonals. These are lines joining the places of

Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True

23. Relationship of Units.

24. Heading. Heading is the direction in which

Thus in Fig 1-4 Heading = 080° (T)

29. Back Bearing. The direction with

30. Relative Bearing. Bearing measured

(a) Knots or nautical miles per hour K or kts

43. Symbols and Conventional Signs:

(a) Heading Hdg (T)

(d) Wind Velocity

(e) Pin Point

(g) Fix Simultaneous

(h) Fix Running

(j) Air Position

THE EARTH, DISTANCE AND DIRECTION

4. The Poles. The extremities of the diameter about

5. East and West. East is defined as the direction in

6. North and South. The two poles are distinguished

Lines Drawn on the Earth

8. Great Circle. A great circle is a circle on the

9. Small Circle. A small circle is a circle on the

10. The Equator. The Equator is the great circle

11. Meridians. Meridians are semi-great circles

12. Parallels of Latitude. Parallels of latitude are

18. In Fig 2-6a, if AB, the arc of a great circle,

19. Because of the Earth's uneven shape the actual

(a) Knots, or nautical miles per hour (kt)

Direction on the Earth

26. The angular difference

"Variation East, Magnetic Least, Variation West, Magnetic Best."

Direction Magnetic 100° (M)

Direction Magnetic 100° (M)

"Deviation East, Compass Least, Deviation West, Compass Best."

Direction Compass 100° (C)

Direction Compass 100° (C)

Fig 2-8: Deviation

Derivation of True Direction

33. It is possible therefore to express a direction given

Compass direction 225° (C)

POSITION REFERENCE ON THE EARTH

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

5. Latitude is defined as the angular distance from the

6. The longitude of any

9. If the two points are

(a) (b) (c)

12. The distance between two given meridians,

Departure (nms) = ch long (minutes of arc) x cos mean lat

where mean lat = ½ (Lat A + Lat B)

Disadvantages of the Latitude and Longitude Reference System

(a) The Universal Transverse Mercator Grid (UTM).

THE UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR GRID