Technology, business model, and market design adaptation toward smart

electricity distribution: Insights for policy making

ac*
Guillermo Ivan Pereira , Jan Martin Specht d, Patrícia Pereira da Silva abc
and Reinhard Madlener d

a
Energy for Sustainability Initiative
MIT Portugal Program, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra
Rua Luís Reis dos Santos, Pólo II, 3030-788, Coimbra, Portugal
gpereira@student.dem.uc.pt
b
Center for Business and Economics Research, Faculty of Economics, University of Coimbra.
Av. Dias da Silva, 165, 3004-512, Coimbra, Portugal
patsilva@fe.uc.pt
c
INESC Coimbra, Institute for Systems Engineering and Computers at Coimbra
Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-290, Coimbra, Portugal
d
Institute for Future Energy Consumer Needs and Behavior (FCN)
School of Business and Economics / E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University
Mathieustraße 10, 52074 Aachen, Germany
MSpecht@eonerc.rwth-aachen.de, RMadlener@eonerc.rwth-aachen.de

*Corresponding Author: Guillermo Ivan Pereira, gpereira@student.dem.uc.pt.

1
Technology, business model, and market design adaptation toward smart

electricity distribution: Insights for policy making

Abstract
The transformation of the electricity sector towards a sustainable energy supply and use has

a disruptive potential for infrastructure and utilities. The spread of digital technologies,

renewable energy, and prosumers requires a swift and well-guided adaptation of the

electricity distribution industry to smart grid technologies and related business models. This

paper, based on the large technical systems (LTS) conceptual framework, investigates the

complex evolution and company and market design adaptation need s. Challenges and

opportunities are analyzed through nine multi-stakeholder workshops, held in two EU

member states (Germany and Portugal) in 2016-2017, engaging distribution system

operators, researchers, academics, and integrated utility companies. The results indicate

considerable uncertainty for DSOs regarding the value of large-scale smart meter rollouts.

Also, a corporate culture with resistance to change is observed, challenging the integration

of novel technologies and processes. Traditional regulation is seen as a barrier to smart grid

investments, and is associated with job losses and knowledge destruction. Policy-makers can

benefit from these insights on the dynamics of DSOs, which can contribute to public policy

design and market reform which traditionally has often been mainly concerned about

operational efficiency in a steady-state, stable economy.

Keywords
Electricity distribution; smart grid; technology; business model; market design; policy.

2
1. Introduction
The transition towards a low-carbon energy sector is currently a priority in most countries,

recently reinforced through the Paris agreement signed in 2015 at the COP 21. Many

European countries have set targets for the share of renewable energy: Germany, for example,

aims to reach a share of 35% renewable energy by 2020, while Denmark and Sweden have

set 50% as a target (Anaya and Pollitt, 2015). Commonly envisioned transition paths include

the integration of the heating and mobility sector into the electricity sector on the

consumption side (sector coupling). The generation of electricity is expected to gradually

shift from centralized thermal power plants to distributed energy resources (DER), which

either feature high energy efficiency levels, due to combined heat and power generation, or

are based on renewable energies, and thus carbon-free during operation, such as wind

turbines and solar photovoltaic modules (Castro and Dantas, 2017; Palensky and Dietrich,

2011; Pereira and Silva, 2017).

Smart grids will play a key role in integrating these distributed energy resources and their

associated flexibilities, increase energy and economic efficiency, and empower customers

(European Commission, 2012), which is why the European Union (EU) prompted its member

states to ensure the rollout of intelligent metering systems (European Commission, 2009a).

These developments can be expected to strongly impact electricity distribution system

operators (DSOs) their grid operations and the role of network infrastructures in the future

(Lavrijssen et al., 2016; Pereira et al., 2018a).

While there has been some general discussion on challenges and opportunities for DSOs in

a smart grid future (BMWi, 2014; Droste-Franke et al., 2012; Lavrijssen et al., 2016; Siano,

2014), few insights on recent developments and on how DSOs face this transition can be

3
found in the literature (Pereira et al., 2018b). This research aims to contribute to a more

detailed understanding of the ongoing sociotechnical transition dynamics impacting the

electricity distribution industry in the European Union. The research design implemented in

this study frames the distribution industry adaptation dynamics as a changing Large

Technical System (LTS). Implementing the LTS conceptual framework in this regard proves

particularly useful as its initial conceptualizations were derived from the appearance and

evolution of electricity networks between 1880 and 1930 (Hughes, 1983). Now, one century

later, the analysis of the complex processes underpinning the power sector, and the changing

role of distribution infrastructure, are yet again critical. Particularly for electricity

distribution, technological innovations, including distributed generation, electricity storage

and demand response, supported by public policy agendas with ambitious decarbonization,

decentralization, and digitalization goals; and changing consumer profiles are pressuring

stable, and reliable distribution systems. In this context it becomes relevant to dedicate efforts

for understanding this adaptation process, for Hughes:

“the effort to explain the change involves the consideration of many fields of human activity,
including the technical, the scientific, the economic, the political, and the organizational. This is
because power systems are cultural artifacts.” (Hughes, 1983, p. 2).

As a result of this approach, this paper presents empirical insights on the challenges and

opportunities that the sociotechnical transition towards smart grids and distributed energy

resources represent for DSOs, and for the transformation of the electricity distribution

industry in the European Union. The analysis conducted encompasses technology, business

model, and market design aspects, for existing contributions in the literature often focus on

the specificities of a single dimension. By doing so, we aim at providing a complementary

perspective to the following areas of action focused on the electricity distribution industry
4
adaptation dynamics. Firstly, the growing discussion focusing on the regulatory models to be

applied on DSOs in the future (ACER and CEER, 2017; CEER, 2015, 2014), as well as the

ongoing discussion on the most adequate electricity market design for the EU as part of the

Clean Energy for All Europeans policy proposals (Council of the European Union, 2017a,

2017b, 2017c; European Commission, 2016a). Secondly, the efforts in understanding the role

of smart grid and distributed generation technologies in a changing electricity system and the

opportunities and benefits these represent (Gangale et al., 2017; Giordano et al., 2013, 2011;

Giordano and Fulli, 2011; Hall and Foxon, 2014; Krishnamurti et al., 2012; Ruiz-Romero et

al., 2014). Lastly, the importance of identifying the most adequate business model innovation

approach and capabilities needed to realize the added value possible from new technologies

and enabling policies (Helms, 2016; Nisar et al., 2013; Reuver et al., 2016; Shomali and

Pinkse, 2016).

The findings presented result from a series of nine multi-stakeholder workshops, conducted

in 2016 and 2017, engaging experts in the field, in Germany and Portugal, as two

representative EU member countries. Participating stakeholders include experts from

research, academia, and industry exposed to both the national and European context on the

energy transition. This research was developed within the scope of the project “The

Electricity Sector Transition – Transnational Experiences from DSOs and Cooperatives”

jointly developed by the Energy for Sustainability Initiative (EfS), University of Coimbra,

Portugal, and the Institute for Future Energy Consumer Needs and Behavior (FCN) at the

E.ON Energy Research Center, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides background

information on the large technical systems conceptual framework, and on the business model,

5
legislative aspects, and technology developments that influence DSOs. Section 3 describes

the research design, after which section 4 presents and discusses the findings. Finally, section

5 summarizes the main challenges and opportunities identified, whereas section 6 draws

conclusions and provides policy implications and recommendations.

2. Background
2.1. Large technical systems conceptual framework

Large Technical Systems (LTS) encompass a complex network of assets and technologies,

organizations, and legislative elements, implemented to deliver critical services to society

(Bijker et al., 2012; Ewertsson and Ingelstam, 2004; Hughes, 1987). As a conceptual

framework of analysis it focuses on achieving a greater understanding on the interaction and

evolution of its elements, aiming at delivering an integrated view for a better understanding

of its complex evolution and adaptation (Davies, 1996). In LTS, adaptation and development

are driven by the occurrence of reverse salients and critical problems. A reverse salient occurs

when an existing or new component operates out of sync with the overall system elements.

In the case of electricity distribution, for instance, the growing diffusion of small-scale

distributed generation from solar PV and wind technologies represent such reverse salients,

challenging the traditional operation of the networks and the regulatory and business

operations traditionally in place. Acting upon reverse salients and the challenges they create

for the system is what enables transitions in LTS.

The transition-oriented conceptual foundations of LTS have led to two noteworthy streams

of knowledge development. Firstly, its direct applications for the understanding of changes

in large technical system-based industries, such as energy networks (Bolton and Foxon, 2015;

Hasenöhrl, 2018; Markard and Truffer, 2006; Palm and Gustafsson, 2018), water

6
infrastructure (Dobre et al., 2018), and telecommunication, food, and transportation (Davies,

1996; Vleuten, 2018), to name just a few. Secondly, its contribution to the evolving field of

enquiry on socio-technical sustainability transitions (Farla et al., 2012), and its specific

analytical approaches such as the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) (Geels, 2002; Rip and

Kemp, 1998), and the Triple Embeddedness Framework (TEF) (Geels, 2014), which have

been used to design policy for low-carbon development across technologies, firms,

industries, and regions.

Furthermore, the relevance of LTS as a conceptual framework has been recently reinforced

given its ability to facilitate the understanding not only of the systems’ development and

growth, but also of reconfiguration in mature systems, as is the case of electricity distribution

(Sovacool et al., 2018). Understanding the recent adaptation dynamics towards a smart and

sustainable electricity distribution industry in the EU benefits from this conceptual approach,

as its original aim was specifically to study infrastructure-based, capital intensive industries

(Truffer et al., 2010). Considering this, the LTS conceptual framework provides a sensible

approach for understanding the sociotechnical transitions in electricity distribution,

particularly the changing roles and responsibilities of electricity distribution system operators

(DSOs). Therefore, it enables to develop insights for policy making that consider business

model, legislative, and technological challenges, and opportunities.

2.2. The business model of incumbent DSOs

For the EU, ‘distribution system operator’ means a natural or legal person responsible for

operating, ensuring the maintenance of and, if necessary, developing the distribution system

in a given area and, where applicable, its interconnections with other systems and for

ensuring the long-term ability of the system to meet reasonable demands for the distribution

7
of electricity. (European Commission, 2009a). For this service of general economic interest,

DSOs are remunerated through a regulated tariff. While this description might sum up the

incumbent role of DSOs in the past quite well, it falls short when it comes to the recent

developments in the context of the energy transition.

The traditional, asset-focused task of operating, maintaining, and developing distribution grid

assets already extends to the operation of smart metering devices, with the DSO becoming a

data hub operator (Eurelectric, 2010). The diffusion of distributed generation and storage

assets as well as the coupling of the heat and the mobility sector result in the problem that

private households can be less and less represented by standard load profiles, which increases

the importance of having more detailed information on local grids. Furthermore, the

historical hardware solutions to grid shortages focused on grid expansion can be

complemented by operational solutions such as flexibility management.

Another aspect not considered in the traditional definition of a DSO is the degree of supply-

side concentration, where significant differences exist across Europe. Germany, for example,

at about 880 DSOs, is on top of the list among the EU member countries, whereas countries

such as Ireland, Portugal or Lithuania have a single or dominant DSO (Eurelectric, 2013;

Prettico et al., 2016). Despite these regional idiosyncrasies, all Member States are subject to

EU legislation and also to the transition from natural monopolistic markets with vertically

integrated companies to liberalized markets and unbundling, both of which are outlined next.

2.3. Market design, legislation and regulation of European grids

The European Commission (EC) set security of energy supply, sustainability, and

competitiveness as the main goals for the energy market (European Commission, 2015,

2010). The introduction of competition was identified as a key element for achieving these

8
and was gradually implemented through the EC energy packages (1996, 2003, and 2009) that

pushed for the liberalization of the electricity market and the unbundling of the vertically

integrated electric utilities (European Commission, 2016b; Ringel and Knodt, 2018). These

policies were transposed to national law in most EU countries, which is why the operation of

electric grids can today be seen as an independent business that may largely exclude other

activities in the fields of electricity generation or retailing (exceptions for small operators

with less than 100,000 customers exist, cf. European Commission (2009a).

A second important aspect on European legislation is the guaranteed grid access for

electricity from renewable assets (European Commission, 2009b). For grid operators this

implies that they must adjust and expand their grid according to the ongoing diffusion of

renewable energy generation, potentially causing significant costs. Since grid operators

function as natural monopolies, countries had to find ways in their national legislation to

incentivize grid operators’ minimization of expenditures for grid operation and expansion.

In Germany, which hosts around 880 DSOs, an incentive regulation method was enacted in

2007, and applied since 2009, which simulates competition between grid operators through

the comparison of key performance indicators, thus promoting efficiency (BNetzA, 2014;

Deutscher Bundestag, 2007). Conversely, Portugal, with one dominant DSO, while also

focused on measures to increase operational efficiency, also gives attention to find new ways

to incentivize innovation activities (Eurelectric, 2016).

Smart grids can contribute to reduce the need for grid expansion and consequently reduce or

postpone costs (Lavrijssen et al., 2016; Pudjianto et al., 2007; Siano, 2014). An essential

element for reaping this benefit are smart meters since they allow for an active management

of the devices behind the meter (cf. McHenry (2013) for further discussion). Considering

9
this, the EU requested cost-benefit analyses of smart meter rollouts in their member states in

2009 and compared the insights gained in 2014. While 16 states decided to go for a

comprehensive rollout until 2020, 7 states, including Germany and Portugal, remained

skeptical (BMWi, 2013; European Commission, 2014a). While German policy-makers

finally agreed to a moderate rollout until 2032 in the “Act on the Digitization of the Energy

Transition” endorsed in 2016, no national legislation for a rollout exists in Portugal until

today.

2.4. Technological changes in grid operation

In the past, DSOs solely received electricity from the upstream transmission system, which

then was delivered to the local customers. With the diffusion of small-scale generation assets

on the distribution grid level more electricity has now to be fed back to the higher voltage

levels. This excess of local production can lead to limitations in the thermal capacity of the

local grid infrastructure or violations of the permitted voltage band (Pepermans et al., 2005;

Veldman et al., 2013). These limitations and violations can be mitigated in different ways,

including a reinforcement of the local power lines, adjustable local power transformers,

provision of reactive power, electricity storage devices as local buffers, re-dispatching of

distributed generation assets and others, all having their specific individual pros and cons

(Lopes et al., 2007). Figure 1 shows the recent evolution of the share of wind and solar in the

total electricity generation, of which up to 90% is estimated to be connected to DSO

networks, directly impacting grid operations (European Commission, 2017a). A similar topic

is the one of grid stability and ancillary services where DSOs at present rely on conventional,

centralized power plants. With those fading, renewable assets have to become better

integrated, as the DSOs have to manage their grids in a much more active and “smarter”

10
manner than in the past (Anaya and Pollitt, 2015; Ipakchi and Albuyeh, 2009; Lopes et al.,

2007; Martinot, 2016; Reddy et al., 2014).

35.0%
Total renewable generation
Wind generation
30.0%
Solar generation
28.8% 29.6%
27.4%
25.0%
25.4%
23.5%
20.0% 21.7%
19.7%
19.0%
17.0%
15.0% 16.1%
15.4%
14.3% 14.8%
9.6%
10.0% 8.9%
7.9%
6.9%
6.1%
5.4%
4.2% 4.6%
5.0% 3.5% 2.6% 3.4% 3.4%
3.0% 3.1%
1.8% 2.1% 2.5% 1.4% 2.2%
0.4% 0.7%
0.0% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2%
0.0% 0.0%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure 1. Share of renewables on total electricity generation for the EU-28. Source: Authors’ elaboration from Eurostat
(2018)

One popular form often mentioned is the grid-friendly operation of local flexible assets such

as electric vehicles in the form of demand side management, as investigated by Dallinger et

al. (2013) for California and Germany. Table 1 shows the evolution of electric vehicles and

charging infrastructure in the EU-28.

Table 1. Electric vehicles and charging stations evolution for the EU-28. Source: Authors’ elaboration from EAFO (2018),
and EEA, 2016)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Electric vehicles on the road
Battery electric vehicles 700 9 787 23 919 47 702 85 413 143 811 207 239 328 351
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles n.a. 336 9 350 35 228 68 627 158 550 252 735 349 084
Total electric vehicles on the road 700 10 123 33 269 82 930 15 4040 302 361 459 974 677 435

Available charging stations

Normal charging n.a. 3882 13054 22528 32099 52960 82958 101947
High speed charging n.a. 13 296 1013 2349 6262 9775 14824
Total charging stations available n.a. 3895 13350 23541 34448 59222 92733 116771
n.a.: no information available

11
This might turn out important since increasing production and consumption peaks could

potentially impose massive costs for grid expansions unless a way is found to operate these

assets in a grid-friendly manner (Palensky and Dietrich, 2011; Wood and Funk, 2017).

However, this path to smart grids requires smart meters as a key element, as mentioned

above. The rollout of these smart meters goes along with new challenges for DSOs, who

often find themselves in the role of meter operators, in terms of safe digital communication,

data property and privacy issues, and new technological specifications, e.g., in terms of

installation and calibration (Depuru et al., 2011; Yan et al., 2013).

3. Research design
3.1. Case study methodology
The analysis of the adaptation dynamics of electricity distribution towards smart grids in the

EU is conducted following a case study methodology, which supports the development of

empirical insights through interaction with electricity distribution stakeholders by collecting

data related to their real-world contextual setting (Dul and Hak, 2008; Krivokapic-Skoko and

O’neill, 2011). This approach facilitates insight collection from stakeholders and contributes

to the identification of existing and emerging challenges and opportunities. Moreover, it

provides a flexible method through which multiple perspectives can be obtained (Yin, 2011).

Considering the conceptual framework of LTS in which this research is developed, a case

study research design supports an empirical approach aimed at gaining a better understanding

of the sociotechnical transition of the electricity distribution industry. On the scope of

transition studies’ analytical approaches, the case study methodology falls within the

initiative-based learning methodologies (Turnheim et al., 2015). Initiative-based approaches

are driven by the importance to understand actor’s perspectives and perceptions as shifts and

adaptation occur, often considering their technological, organizational, and cultural aspects

12
included in this study. Notwithstanding the context-rich insights attainable through this

approach, it faces also the possible challenges of a bounded perception of the stakeholders

engaged, limited by their immediate situation and constraints. However, this limitation is

counterbalanced by the value of a detailed understanding of how transitions impact actors

(Schot and Geels, 2008), which can contribute to adjustments to policies and incentives, or

the identification of new priorities for DSO adaptation.

3.2. Implementation and cases characterization

The research design was implemented through nine multi-stakeholder workshops conducted

between May 2016 and October 2017. Multi-stakeholder workshops represent an action-

based participatory element in this research (Kindon et al., 2007), due to their ability to

generate discussion and facilitate insight collection across heterogeneous participants

(Mahroum et al., 2016; Schut et al., 2015). A survey with open questions was designed to

facilitate discussion during the workshops. Table 5 presents the covered dimensions, topics,

and open questions of the analysis (Sreejesh et al., 2014). The questions selected for use

during the workshops reflect the focus of the analysis to encompass business model,

legislative, and technology aspects related to the adaptation of the electricity distribution

industry. Figure 4 details the research design process.

The data collected through the workshops was coded by the research team, resulting in

several topics within the broader categories considered in the survey with open questions: (1)

business model and organizational issues; (2) operations, technology, and asset management;

and (3) market design and regulation. Participating stakeholders represent two groups:

stakeholders active in the electricity supply chain and stakeholders outside the electricity

supply chain. The participants in the workshops are located in Germany (DE) and Portugal

13
(PT) as two representative cases of the diverse dynamics of the electricity distribution in the

EU (Eurelectric, 2016, 2013). Figure 1Figure 2 and Figure 3 contrast trends in the EU 28

with the cases of Germany and Portugal as indicative evidence of the representativeness of

these case studies in the general EU context by looking at the evolution of renewables shares

and electric vehicle market, as proxies for the distributed energy resources diffusion.

60.0% Ren ewables EU 28

Ren ewables DE
Ren ewables PT
50.0%

40.0%

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

25.0% Wind EU 28
Wind DE
Wind PT
20.0%

15.0%

10.0%

5.0%

0.0%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

14
 7.0%
Solar EU 28
6.0% Solar DE
Solar PT
5.0%

4.0%

3.0%

2.0%

1.0%

0.0%
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure 2. Share of total renewables, wind, and solar on total electricity generation for PT, DE, and EU-28. Source: Authors’
elaboration from Eurostat (2018)
2.50% EV market s hare EU 28
EV market s hare DE
EV market s hare PT
2.00%

1.50%

1.00%

0.50%

0.00%
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Figure 3. Electric vehicles’ market share for PT, DE, and EU-28. Source: Authors’ elaboration from EAFO (2018).

Table 2 provides additional details on the German and Portuguese electricity distribution

industry characteristics through a set of indicators of industry structure, evolution, and

infrastructure characteristics.

15
 Table 2. Electricity distribution characterization for Germany and Portugal. Authors’ elaboration from Cambini et al. (2016);
Eurelectric (2013); Gangale et al. (2017); and My Smart Energy (2018a, 2018b).
Electricity distribution characterization Germany Portugal EU 28

Distribution industry structure

Distribution sector concentration Low Medium
Regulatory mechanism Incentive Hybrid
Innovation support mechanism None Enhanced rate of return
DSO Ownership Largely public Largely private
DSOs with > 100 000 consumers 75 3 190 a
Connected consumers 49 294 962 6 137 611 263 370 337 a
Distributed power (TWh/Year) 511 52 2 581 a

Industry evolution
s in 1997 1 000 4 2 553 a
No. of DSO No. of DSOs in 2003 900 1 1 762 a
No. of DSOs in 2010 880 13 2 335 a

Infrastructure characteristics

Distribution line < 1 KV 65% 62% 60% b

voltage (% of
1 – 100 KV 30% 38% 37% b
total distribution
infrastructure)
> 100 KV 5% - 3% b

Line density (km lines/km 2) 5 2.4 2.7 b

Grid length and
Overall line length (km) 1 772 696 222 627 9 952 844 a
components
No. of MV and LV transformers 461 900 64 458 3 918 178 a

Smart grid investments (€ / M € GDP

267.08 495.81 379.32 b
2015)

Smart grid investments (€/Capita) 9.86 8.61 13.01 b

Smart grid
development The German government
No nationwide rollout
expects a rollout of 30% of
Smart meter roll-out mandated. Several pilot
smart meters (15.8 M meters)
projects are under way.
by 3032
a
EU-28 total; b EU-28 average.

16
Our findings are anonymized. However, background information on the participating

stakeholders is provided. In terms of stakeholders active along the electricity supply chain, 4

distribution system operators participated in the workshops, operating under different

structural and regulatory frameworks. The participating delegates from DSOs represent a

heterogeneous group, which we deem relevant as a source of complementary perspectives on

adaptation issues towards smarter grids. Table 3 provides information regarding their scale

in terms of connected consumers, the degree of separation of electricity distribution activities

from other activities through unbundling, as well as the regulatory framework and market

structure and operational characteristics 1 2 3. The stakeholders outside the electricity supply

chain include the research group conducting the study, a research center focused on smart

grids, and the innovation unit of an electric utility group holding (see Table 3).

1 Regarding the regulatory framework characteristics our participants are subject to either incentive -based or
hybrid approaches. An incentive-based approach offers possibilities for DSOs to increase their financial
earnings if certain efficiency improvement targets are met (Cambini et al., 2016). A hybrid approach is based
on a combination of cost- and incentive-based approaches. Cost-based regulation enables DSOs to recover their
investments plus a set rate of return. Hybrid approaches often result in combinations of a cost -based approach
on capital expenditures and an incentive-based approach for operational expenditures (Cambini et al., 2016;
Eurelectric, 2014).
2 Considering innovation incentives these can include access to a higher rate of return for innovation-related

investments, as well as a specific mechanism s to adjust revenues throughout the regulatory period for research
and development-related costs (Eurelectric, 2016).
3 Market concentration is a measure of the electricity distributed by the DSOs in a Member State (Eurelectric,

2013). Low concentration exits when the electricity distribution market is based mostly on small, local DSOs,
for which the three largest DSOs distributed less than 50% of the total distributed electricity. Medium centration
occurs when one DSO is responsible for more than 80% of the total distributed electricity, or when the three
largest DSOs distribute more than 60% of the electricity.

17
 Table 3. Stakeholder description.
Stakeholders within the electricity sector supply chain.
Operations Regulatory framework Market structure
Consumers Distributed Total grid
Stakeholder Unbundled Regulatory Innovation DSO
(approx.) electricity length Ownership
approach incentives Concentration
(GWh/year) (KM)
Largely public,
DSO A Yes 4 000 000 16 428 182 461 Incentive No Low municipal
ownership
Largely public,
DSO B Yes 100 000 2 681 3 366 Incentive No Low municipal
ownership
DSO C Yes 5 000 000 44 599 225 422 Hybrid Yes Medium Largely private
Largely public,
DSO D No 15 000 5.9 321.3 Incentive No Low municipal
ownership

Stakeholders outside the electricity sector supply chain.

Stakeholder Description
This is the research group conducting the study. These comprise researchers from the University of Coimbra,
Researchers and Academics A
Coimbra, Portugal and from RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany.
The electric utility company represented by this stakeholder owns distribution systems in Southern America and
Electricity Utility Innovation
Southern Europe, as well as other supply chain activities. The innovation unit is responsible for driving disruptive
Unit A
change for the group of companies owned.
This research center focuses on power systems and power economics research, with a specific focus on smart grids
Research Center A
and new electricity sector market design.

Table 4 provides details on the workshops, including the number of participants, stakeholder

groups represented, workshop goals, the region where these were delivered, as well as dates

(month and year) they were conducted.

18
 Table 4. Research workshop details.
Workshop No. of Workshop
Stakeholders groups Workshop goals
no. participants date
1 4 Researchers and Academics A (n=4) Establish research framework May, 2016
Semi-structured interviews, and
2 6 Researchers and Academics A (n=5), DSO A (n=1) May, 2016
data collection
Semi-structured interviews, and
3 6 Researchers and Academics A (n=4), DSO B (n=2) Jun., 2016
data collection
Data analysis, and refine research
4 5 Researchers and Academics A (n=5) Sep., 2016
framework
Semi-structured interviews, and
5 7 Researchers and Academics A (n=5), DSO C (n=2) Sep., 2016
data collection
Researchers and Academics A (n=5), Semi-structured interviews, and
6 6 Sep., 2017
Electricity Utility Innovation Unit A (n=1) data collection
Semi-structured interviews, and
7 7 Researchers and Academics A (n=5), DSO D (n=2) Sep., 2017
data collection
Researchers and Academics A (n=4), Semi-structured interviews, and
8 5 Oct., 2017
Research Centre A (n=1) data collection
Data analysis, and discussion of
9 4 Researchers and Academics A (n=4) Oct., 2017
results

Table 5. Open questions for workshops.

Analysis Questionnaire
Questions
dimension topic
- What is your perspective in terms of the activities presented recently as grey areas to be performed by
DSOs? i.e.: electric mobility infrastructure, smart metering equipment installation and maintenance, energy
efficiency services, data management, and integration of distributed energy resources.
- What are the main drivers for operational efficiency improvements?
Strategy and
Business - What is the value of flexibility for DSOs?
operations
model and
organizational - Do you outsource any business activities? Which ones?
issues - How engaged are you in the energy transition and DSO role adaptation?
- Is the operation of small isolated areas a challenge for DSOs?
Organizational - What are the main drivers for engaging in research and development projects?
change - Have any new business units or departments been created because of the changes in the power sector?
- What are your means to increase the service availability and quality of service levels?
Technological Technology
- How does the DSO handle the connection of new distributed energy resources to the distribution gird?
adaptation and innovation
- What forecasting techniques are applied for renewable energy plants connected to the distribution grid?
Regulatory
framework - What is the impact of the regulatory framework in the business operations?
Market and policy - Does the 100 000 customers rule for unbundling result in an advantage or a disadvantage for DSOs?
design and aspects
regulation
- What is your perspective on the appearance of new market players in the electricity sector in the future?
Market design
- What is your perspective on electricity distribution market structure?

19
Figure 4. Research design. Authors’ own elaboration.

4. Insights from the multi-stakeholder workshops

4.1. Operations, technology, and asset management
4.1.1. Integration of distributed energy resources/distributed generation

The increase of distributed generation units connected to distribution grids is contributing to

a more decentralized electricity system. Their integration on traditional distribution

operations is a challenge for DSOs, with wind generation being the most challenging

technology. “The biggest challenge in terms of integration of renewables are wind farms,

however we must also consider smaller scale technologies such as PV and the impacts these

might have.” (representative DSO B). The extent of these challenges is stronger in rural areas,

where more opportunities to deploy distributed generation exist, particularly wind, given land

20
availability, as opposed to urban areas4 where deployed capacity is generally lower, and

mostly solar PV. "The integration of renewable energy generation at the distribution level is

particularly challenging, considering that in some areas production is between 15 to 50 times

higher than consumption. This is often the case in rural areas, which require expensive grid

expansion to handle the increased distributed generation.” (representative DSO A).

Regarding distribution infrastructure, increases in distributed generation will impact mostly

the low- and medium-voltage segments of the grid. As described in section 2.3, the growing

share of distributed generation connected to the networks challenges also the traditional

configuration and use of up-stream electricity infrastructure. This was confirmed by our

experts who also observed an impact on network stability and a rapid increase in investments

needs. “We have to improve transformers capacity in several districts very quickly even

though such measures are time and capital intensive. Several solutions exist, but the costs

will be very high.” (representative DSO B).

4.1.2. Operations and maintenance

Changes on how electricity is distributed to consumers requires adaptation in terms of

operation and maintenance of the grids. An exploitation of flexibility potentials within the

distribution grid is one possible way to meet the upcoming challenges of a distributed energy

system and could potentially reduce the need for investments related to grid expansion. "We

have some flexibility management possibilities, but these are very limited. Flexibility

management can be a solution instead of grid expansion.” (representative DSO B).

4 “This is not a significant challenge for us. We have no wind generation connected to the grid, and only a small
share of PV. This is related to the fact that our distribution operations concentrate in an urban area.”
(representative DSO D)

21
Furthermore, distributed generation can contribute to significant changes in infrastructure

usage in isolated areas, where consumption remains unaltered while electricity generation

increases. Larger DSOs do not consider the operations and maintenance in these areas as

challenging. “Operating and maintaining small isolated areas is not a challenge, it is in fact

okay, and is a good business.” (representative DSO A). Conversely, small DSOs have a

different perception, considering this as a challenge. “Small isolated areas sometimes can be

challenging from an operational perspective." (representative DSO B). These different

insights call for more attention regarding the impact of DSO size in distribution network

operation and maintenance.

Redesigning the operations of distribution networks will benefit from a clearer understanding

of the role of the DSO in the future. Managing system flexibility and enabling flexibilities

from distributed generation, electricity storage, and demand response can contribute to value

creation (Damsgaard et al., 2015). However, a consistent legislative framework is needed to

settle the options and duties of (monopolistic) DSOs.

4.1.3. Smart grid technologies

Smart grid technologies were discussed as enabling components to facilitate the adaptation

of distribution operations. Smart grid technologies can include monitoring and automation

components that increase access to grid data and control capabilities. Moreover, these can

include components that enable the integration and interaction with distributed generation

and distributed energy resources. For instance, electric vehicles and the associated charging

infrastructure were indicated as having the potential to bring disruption to the electricity

distribution sector. However, DSOs are not certain regarding the most adequate

implementation plan. “In the current context electric mobility can be a game changer.

22
However, we need to understand if there will be charging stations at home? if charging

stations are stranded capital? And if there should be a subsidy for charging stations?”

(representative DSO A). Moreover, electricity storage represents also an interesting future

option, for which a supportive regulatory framework should be established. “In addition,

storage is also seen as an opportunity for disruption. Regulation should be revised to set the

right incentives.” (representative DSO A).

Smart grid technologies are expected to enable new services and contribute to increased

consumer management capabilities. “Our smart grid projects focus on either smart metering

or distribution automation applications. The type of remote services possible for the DSO as

a smart meter operator are for instance to connect a consumer, disconnect a consumer due

to a non-payment, automated billing, etc.” (representative DSO C). The added value

resulting from evolving towards smart grids relates to the possibilities to access new data.

“Much of the value that can be created comes from data currently collected, and data that

can be collected in the future through more sensors, smart meter deployment, and

partnerships with external data providers.” (representative Electricity Utility Innovation

Unit A).

Standardization is essential for a successful adaptation of DSOs given the increasing

deployment of smart meters, grid automation technologies, control devices, and other smart

grid technologies (representative Research Centre A, representative DSO C). Moreover, the

ability of DSOs to adopt smart grid technologies is influenced by their scale. Smaller DSOs

notice grater challenges for rolling out innovative technologies “The rollout of smart grid

technology, in this case smart meters, is challenging for small DSOs.” (representative DSO

D).

23
4.1.4. Smart meter technologies

Smart meters provide remote measurement and communication of electricity usage in smart

grids, and are often referred to as the initial step to take in a smart grid deployment plan

(Kabalci, 2016; Sharma and Saini, 2015). The added value of smart meters lies on their ability

to provide more detailed information about grid usage, as well as increase fault location

capabilities. “From a grid expansion perspective, having more data, through more

monitoring points can help in understanding the network better." (representative DSO D).

Moreover, smart meters support observability, and can contribute to improvements in

network congestion management (representative Research Centre A). However, the potential

for smart meters is lowered without dynamic pricing of electricity. “Smart meters can

provide better information about the grid. However, these have little potential in a one-tariff

system. Tariffs should be dynamic for smart metering to be attractive” (representative DSO

A). Nonetheless, while smart metering technologies are perceived as important and of added-

value, our stakeholders did not consider it necessary to have a smart meter at every end-point,

and mentioned that having data from smart meters collected from 10% to 15% of the end-

points only would be sufficient 5 .

These insights provide a valuable perspective on the DSOs perception on their benefits

related to large-scale rollouts of smart meters. To estimate the value of roll-out on a

macroeconomic scale, these benefits have to be contrasted with the associated costs.

5 “We don’t see the need for a smart meter in every end-point. If 10% of the homes have a smart meter in a
specific area it is enough to provide the necessary information on the status of the grid." (representative DSO
A, representatives of DSO B, DSO C, and DSO D presented agreeing views).
“Smart meters could help DSOs to support the observability of the grid and contribute to better congestion
management.” (Research Center A)

24
Therefore, the EU requested the member states to conduct a cost-benefit analysis in its Third

Energy Package set a target of 80% of smart meters by 2020 whenever this cost-benefit

analysis is positive (European Commission, 2009a, 2014b). As described in section 2.3, this

cost-benefit analysis in Germany turned out negative with smart meters being feasible only

above a certain consumption threshold (BMWi, 2013). For Portugal a first study indicated

positive results, however, due to sever economic challenges, Portugal decided to review the

original findings and considered the analysis inconclusive also refraining from the ambitious

80% target of the EU (ICCS-NTUA and AF Mercados EMI, 2015). The observed position

across DSOs can offer new possibilities for other players to support the deployment of smart

meters in the EU. Despite this insight on the perceived value of smart meters the responsible

party for implementation and ownership across the EU are mainly DSOs (European

Commission, 2014a, 2017b).

Connected to the perception of limited added value from a full rollout of smart meters,

alternative technology options are being considered to support DSO adaptation. The need for

information on every end-point of the grid is perceived as limited. “We are not sure if a smart

meter is the right device to provide us with the information we need from the network. The

interest in more information regarding the current grid conditions is rather small. We see no

need for smart metering for real-time consumption measurement. Metering of only certain

parts of the grids is sufficient to reveal enough information about distributed generation.”

(representative DSO B).

Also, the rollout of smart meters encompasses technical and economic challenges. Technical

challenges are related with the complexity around data management and cybersecurity.

Economic issues are related with the potentially shorter lifespan of smart meters, in

25
comparison to its electromechanical predecessors. “The deployment of smart metering can

increase complexity around data collection and cybersecurity issues. Moreover, the possible

provision of new services and functionalities adds to the concerns associated with hacking.

This adds to the challenges associated with costs, and cost allocation for consumers,

Traditional meters have had a lifetime of 16 years. Smart meters have an expected lifetime

of 8 years, with possibilities to last up to 13 years.” (representative DSO D). Standardization

is also an important aspect when it comes to smart meter technologies’ adaptation and

adoption by DSOs. “Right now, DSOs are analyzing communication protocols and how these

can be standardized.” (representative DSO D).

4.1.5. Legacy technologies

Adapting electricity distribution networks has been generally discussed around the

importance of innovative technologies and approaches to network operations. However,

legacy technologies are also a relevant element in supporting DSOs adaptation. These

represent existing technologies, which have been incrementally improving and are perceived

as low-cost and low-risk options. “In addition to the disruptive technology options there are

also low-cost legacy technologies that when implemented result in significant efficiency

increases for the DSOs. These include controllable low voltage transformers, and

standardized automated controls.” (representative DSO A). The following example on the

relevance of legacy technologies was provided: “Our substations are quite old but the

automation present in them from the 1980s works well enough.” (representative DSO C).

Grid expansion is mostly within the scope of legacy technologies and has always been part

of DSOs operations. Despite their historical experience, grid expansion is an increasingly

challenging task due to location constraints for both transformer stations and lines. "We have

26
clear plans for grid expansion and we plan to pursue them. These expansion plans are mostly

related with building new lines. This brings challenges related to the fact that it is not easy

to find places to build new transformer stations, as well as the fact that most of the lines must

be planned as underground lines being costlier and less durable.” (representative DSO B).

Despite the challenges, grid expansion is a priority for DSOs. "At present we are concerned

with the building and maintenance of the grid." (representative DSO B).

4.2. Business model and organizational issues

4.2.1. Existing business model

The significant changes in the technology and regulatory environment (cf. section 4.3)

suggest that also the underlying business model of electricity distribution and value creation

approach might have to be adapted or even completely redeveloped. "Our current business

model is hardly profitable, and we expect legislative changes in the future. Still, we are not

taking an active role in contributing to shape these future regulations.” (representative DSO

A). Despite the challenges resulting from existing business models, electricity distribution is

an interesting business, which can benefit from timely adaptation to the changes in

technologies and policies. This adaptation requires understanding the role of DSOs in

providing or facilitating new services. “Being a network company only (unbundled) is a good

place to be, there are good chances to do new tasks in the future. What is important is to start

these new tasks." (representative DSO B).

4.2.2. Business restructuring and mergers

Adaptation of the electricity distribution industry is intertwined with an adaptation of the

entire electricity sector supply chain. Changes in the electricity sector have resulted in

restructuring and mergers across utilities, aimed at increasing economic performance and

27
improving their position to engage in new business areas. “Due to financial turmoil our

mother company is splitting into two companies to capture capital from the markets. One of

the companies will keep all the generation and trading related activities. A new company will

keep the distribution network, renewable energy, and retail-related activities, as the more

profitable business areas.” (representative DSO A).

An example of these restructuring efforts has been observed in two German utilities, E.ON

and RWE. In 2016, E.ON’s restructuring approach was based on a demerger that resulted in

the creation of a spin-off company, Uniper, covering the unregulated business activities.

RWE, following a different strategy, also demerged, but retained its unregulated activities,

and created a spin-off company, innogy, for distribution grids, retail, and renewables (Zank

et al., 2016). After this demerger actions, in 2018 E.ON presented a takeover offer over the

newly created innogy, with the goal to create two more stable players, one focusing on

networks and retail activities – the New E.ON, and one focusing on generation and trading –

the New RWE. This restructuring aims to contribute to simplify the two utilities corporate

structures, making them more transparent and easier to valuate. Moreover, this merger can

reduce the risk of acquisitions by foreign investors (E.ON, 2018; E.ON and RWE, 2018;

Zank, 2018). Figure 5 describes the evolution through demergers and mergers and

acquisitions for these two utilities.

28
Figure 5. RWE and E.ON restructuring. Author’s elaboration from E.ON (2018), E.ON and RWE (2018), Zank (2018), and
Zank et al. (2016).

Mergers are considered an opportunity by small DSOs, which are looking for ways to reach

greater economies of scale. "Right now, we are considering merging with another DSO. This

merger is needed because we are constantly being pushed to reduce our operational costs to

improve our efficiency factor. Because of this more than 50% of our employees had to be

fired in recent years. In line with this, we estimate the best conditions for medium/big DSO

players in the future" (representative DSO B). Moreover, collaboration across smaller scale

DSOs has been considered as an option to overcome challenges for technology acquisition.

“We joined 7 other DSOs, servicing altogether a consumer population of some 200,000 to

achieve greater economies of scale for acquiring technology.” (representative DSO D).

29
However, the experts from academia pointed out that there are also several cases where big

DSOs lost concessions when the municipalities decided to found and own, local energy

supplier/grid operator.

4.2.3. Innovation

Collaborative innovation efforts through Research and Development (R&D) projects are

being pursued by DSOs as a source of knowledge and capability development for integrating

and operating new technologies. DSOs are engaged in exploring new grid technologies and

services. “We are participating in innovation projects and R&D in partnership with

academic institutions. Our projects include advanced usage of smart meters, central battery

storage and intelligent control of the systems.” (representative DSO A). In terms of their

approach to innovation, DSOs are interested in both exploitation and exploration.

Exploration activities are concerned with understanding how new technologies and processes

can be part of the electricity distribution industry. These include projects focusing on smart

meter integration, storage integration, and intelligent control of systems. Also, through the

development of virtual power plants, integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems.

Exploitation activities focus on more traditional aspects of the electricity distribution

operations. These include improvements in asset management, as well as innovations in

business processes. “Complementing our more disruptive applications, we develop internal

projects to support the innovation in asset management and business processes."

(representative DSO C).

While being engaged in innovation-driving efforts is an important aspect, this activity is still

challenged by a corporate culture with considerable levels of inertia to changes that embody

unfamiliar technologies, processes, and stakeholders. "As the electricity sector has been to a

30
large extent tied to stringent regulations and legacy technologies, certain innovation

proposals are hard to pass through. Here having an internal innovation unit enables greater

levels of confidence and buy-in from internal decision makers, that external players with

disruptive ideas and proposals would not have.” (representative Utility Innovation Unit A).

Concrete examples of the existing inertia to engage in disruptive transformation processes

were discussed. For instance, the creation of an innovation hub to mobilize disruptive

innovation efforts was considered as unacceptable on the scope of the DSO strategy. “Our

unit proposed the creation of a digital energy disruptor hub outside of the company, which

would foster disruptive ideas for the electricity sector. The executive board and internal

decision makers annihilated the idea, claiming it would cannibalize our business.”

(representative Utility Innovation Unit A). Another example was associated with a proposal

to submit the DSOs smart meters to an ethical hacking group, to better understand the extent

of the DSOs cybersecurity vulnerabilities. “We as innovation unit proposed to our DSO that

the smart meters being deployed would go through an ethical hacking consulting firm to

understand the extent of cybersecurity threats. The board did not feel comfortable with the

idea and rejected it." (representative Utility Innovation Unit A). This gives a sense that there

are things that should rather remain unknown, and that maybe research must be conducted

outside the companies themselves.

4.2.4. Future business model

The future business model for DSOs is expected to enable value creation and capture through

flexibility management services. DSOs are willing to provide new services and integrate new

technologies, therefore expanding the scope of their activities and responsibilities. "The

future of our business requires operating flexibility to reduce the network operational costs

31
and make the most of distributed energy resources and flexible demand. Moreover, we see a

future in which we include new smart elements to operate our networks, such as new

transformers, and where we are responsible for the coordination of the ancillary services for

the system.” (representative DSO A). Managing electricity storage units is considered as one

of the opportunities within flexibility services. "We want to be able to contract storage to use

it for grid balancing. We see a future in which one of our roles is to provide ancillary grid

services.” (representative DSO B).

In addition to the emphasis on system flexibility management, creating value from d ata is

one of the opportunities considered promising in a more digital electricity system. These

opportunities result from the direct access to new data that DSOs benefit when integrating

smart meters and sensors as part of grid modernization actions. Moreover, access to data

from third parties can contribute for creating data-driven services. However, delivering these

benefits from data will only be possible through a shift in DSOs conservative culture

regarding data access and sharing. "However, while data represents significant opportunities

for new service development, it is still difficult to get buy in from decision-makers on matters

that involve sharing data or using it in new ways. Previous attempts to implement ideas that

require data sharing from the DSO to other partners resulted in reactions such as: ‘That is

not what we do’, ‘We are a regulated business, we are not supposed to share data’, and ‘That

is not part of our operations’. (representative Electricity Utility Innovation Unit A). The

possible business model changes around data do not necessarily indicate that DSOs will

become actively engaged in delivering new services for electricity consumers. This may be

a more suitable role for other market players. Nonetheless, DSOs can play an important role

in facilitating those market players that have the capabilities to deliver innovative services.

32
Future business models around data and digitalization can benefit from blockchain

technology (Aitzhan and Svetinovic, 2016; Knirsch et al., 2018; Mengelkamp et al., 2017b),

similar to the approach being followed by LO3Energy in Brooklyn, New York (Mengelkamp

et al., 2017a). While blockchain and the possibilities for introducing smart contracts seem

attractive, it is possible to do similar things without any blockchain technology. However, at

least both big DSOs (A and C) indicated that they would like to be perceived as pro-actively

considering innovative and potentially disruptive technologies such as blockchain in their

future operations.

Beyond the complexities of technological adaptation, introducing new services in electricity

distribution requires additional resources and capabilities that are not part of the DSOs

existing operations. DSOs are assessing their future needs to better understand how to adapt.

“From a capability perspective, we are now looking at the resources we have available and

how these can support the challenges brought by the energy transition. Soon, we expect to

have a clearer idea if our technical and human resources are adequate for the digitalization

of electricity distribution.” (representative DSO D)

Moving toward new business models requires detailed planning and consideration for the

necessary investments and changes to be implemented. However, these plans are challenged

by the need for DSOs to react to changes in the distribution network, such as the growth of

connected distributed generation units. “The choice to pursue new business opportunities,

and associated investments, faces a barrier related with the limited planning horizon. Plans

are basically made as a reaction to new surges in connected distributed generation units.”

(representative DSO B). The need to continuously improve operational efficiency contributes

also to the challenges of implementing strategic changes in the business model. This often

33
 results in preference being given to reactive measures such as outsourcing of activities and

staff reductions. “Considering our challenging operational framework, we see outsourcing

of business activities and staff reduction as options for the future.” (representative DSO B).

The characteristics of future business models can also be understood by considering the

possible changes across core electricity distribution activities (see Table 6).

Table 6. Evolution of DSO activities (DSO A). Authors’ elaboration from DSO A (2016).
Activity Traditional Today Future
Electricity Grid stability control with increasing
Load management Flexibility management
management shares of distributed generation
Monitoring and control based on
Operation Static load flow calculation Automated operational control
additional measurements
Asset Standardized equipment Integration of novel technologies Operation and control of smart equipment
management
Exchange of aggregated values, Immediate, transparent, and non-
Communication Operation of a data platform
mostly for billing discriminatory data transfer

System Provision of ancillary services via

Local voltage quality Introduction of ancillary services
reliability distribution system

4.3. Market design and regulation

4.3.1. Market structure

Market structure is a relevant aspect when considering adapting market designs and existing

regulatory frameworks. The electricity distribution industry across the EU presents a

heterogeneous concentration, which is mostly the result of the historical and cultural

perception of the interaction between communities and their electricity infrastructure. “DSO

market concentration is mostly related to the fact that local communities wanted to have

some control over their energy infrastructure. Therefore, patchy structures are a result of

every community wanting to own their grid.” (representative DSO A).

The attractiveness of electricity distribution as a business creates possibilities for changes in

market structure. Municipalities are becoming increasingly interested in operating their local

34
electricity distribution grids. This can result in a shift in ownership from larger, integrated

DSOs that operate distribution grids through concessions with municipalities, to ownership

by municipalities. “For instance, we have contracts with the municipalities for 20 years

regarding the operation of their local grid, however, we note an increase in municipalities

willingness to operate their grid by themselves, given that grid operation is a good business.”

(representative DSO A). This shift was observed in Hamburg, Germany when the incumbent

utility Vattenfall lost the grid operation concession to a municipality (representative Research

Centre A). This structural change was the result of a referendum for the re-municipalization

of energy networks held in 2013 (Wagner and Berlo, 2015).

Changes in market structure can also result from different adaptation capabilities across

different DSOs scales. In this context, larger DSOs seem to be better prepared to adapt to

technological changes, given their ability to capture greater economies of scale because of

their larger consumer base. “Larger DSOs companies have an easier time rolling out smart

meters, and other smart grid related technology.” (representative DSO D).

Electricity sector reforms impact also the distribution market structure. Market liberalization

was introduced as a driver for more affordable, higher quality electricity services. However,

having an integrated view of the electricity supply chain, which was a possibility in vertically

integrated utilities, can also be beneficial in times of disruptive change in the electricity

sector. When pushing for innovation it does help to look at the entire electricity supply chain.

35
4.3.2. Regulatory aspects

The regulatory framework in each country was presented as important to incentivize DSOs

in the rollout of new technologies. To this end, existing market designs focusing on

operational efficiency improvements represent a sensible approach for a traditional electricity

distribution industry. However, it is less compatible with a changing electricity sector in

which new technologies are being integrated across the electricity supply chain, which impact

electricity distribution. This hinders the engagement of DSOs in smart grid developments.

"This is bad news for smart grid related projects that often reduce the operational efficiency

and harm revenue collection capability. This regulatory approach creates barriers on the

business strategy DSOs pursue. This results in a preference for grid expansion instead of

smart grid investments, since a smart grid would increase the operational costs, where a grid

expansion increases the capital costs and thus increase the efficiency factor." (representative

DSO A). This insight highlights the importance to reevaluate and adjust how cost structures

are regulated as distribution networks become smarter and integrate grater levels of

distributed energy resources. Regulatory models that support innovation and the transition to

smart grids must consider a new balance between operational expenditures (OPEX) and

capital expenditures (CAPEX). For instance, managing and coordinating higher shares of

distributed generation can result in increased OPEX while supporting CAPEX containment

or deferment, which challenge the traditional CAPEX bias. Despite the importance of

rethinking cost structures only Finland, France, Ireland, and the United Kingdom have

implemented incentives for OPEX associated to innovation activities (Eurelectric, 2016).

Regarding the investment needs to adapt to a changing electricity sector it is important to

highlight that financial resources are not a significant barrier; the real barrier is obtaining

36
business plan approval. “For all these future activities we need to be able to get the money,

but this is not difficult; what is difficult is obtaining an approved business model by the

regulator for these investments." (representative DSO B). Efforts to adjust existing market

design and regulations have benefited from the growing resources dedicated to advancing the

energy transition. “The energy transition is supporting an increased attention into topics

related to the changing role of DSOs." (representative DSO A).

While Germany and Portugal are lagging in terms of legislation mandating large-scale smart

meter rollouts, consequently impacting the transition to smart grids, other EU member

countries present more prominent outlooks. These differences across Member States are

partly due to differences in innovation and adaptation support of each country’s regulatory

framework. In Germany, only a limited number of innovative projects are approved by the

regulators for DSO development, whereas in Portugal a scheme of a 1.5% bonus to the rate

of return was initially implemented. The regulatory frameworks in both Portugal and

Germany exclude large-scale pilots or innovative technology rollouts, and are considered as

presenting some degree of regulatory hurdles to innovation (Eurelectric, 2014).

Concurrently, regulatory approaches implemented in Italy, Norway, and the United

Kingdom, have been presented as best practices. The Italian regulator has been increasingly

supporting the transition to smart grids since 2010 and has approved several pilot projects

which receive a 2% bonus to the rate of return for a 12-year period, providing DSOs with

long term positive economic signals to engage in smart grid s diffusion. The Norwegian

regulator allows DSOs to recover innovation costs directly through tariffs, capped at 0.3% of

their grid asset value. In the United Kingdom, the regulator has established an innovation

stimulus package to support innovation. The package includes ‘The Network Innovation

37
Competition’, in which DSOs compete for funding sources; the ‘Network Innovation

Alliance’, through which DSOs receive an allowance based on their innovation strategy; and

the ‘Innovation Rollout Mechanism’, which allows DSOs to request additional funding for

innovative activities to be implemented in the regulatory period (Eurelectric, 2014, 2016).

In addition to regulatory aspects, the acceptance of new technologies also plays a critical role,

such as smart meter acceptance by the households, which is closely related to data protection

issues and cybersecurity concerns. The importance of these two aspects is widely accepted

by the all interviewed experts and corroborated by the experiences in other countries. In the

Netherlands, for instance as one of the early movers regarding smart metering, an insufficient

consideration of privacy issues led to a significant loss in acceptance and delayed the rollout

by several years (Hoenkamp et al., 2011) . The UK, on the other hand, deliberately promoted

their rollout and set up the Smart Metering Early Learning Project to investigate how to best

engage customers in the rollout process. As a result, about 73% of smart meter owners would

recommend it to others, with only 3% being skeptical. In this case, of those who still have an

old meter, 48% would like to get a smart meter soon (Smart Energy GB, 2018).

5. Synopsis of challenges and opportunities

The insights obtained from the multi-stakeholder workshops are classified into challenges

and opportunities for electricity distribution (companies’ and system’s/technologies’)

adaptation needs. This provides an updated perspective on what is hindering the adaptation

of electricity distribution, as well as on which future opportunities are being considered. In

terms of operations, technology, and asset management (see Table 7) challenges are

perceived when it comes to both smart grid, and smart meter technologies, as well as legacy

38
 technologies. Future opportunities include flexibility management from distributed energy

resources, and more access to data as a new source of added value.

Table 7. Operations, technology, and asset management

Topic Challenges Opportunities
• Operations at the medium and low voltage
Integration of segments of the grid.
distributed energy • Surge of distributed generation in rural areas.
• Increase system flexibility on low-voltage levels.
resources/distributed • Time and capital-intensive investments
generation required.
• Network stability.
Operation and • Peak loads, both in consumption and
• Flexibility management.
maintenance production.
• Identify the best approach to integrate electric • Electric mobility.
mobility in electricity distribution grids. • Electricity storage.
Smart grid • Regulatory framework and incentives for • Smart metering.
technologies electricity storage. • Distribution automation.
• Standardization of technologies for seamless • Data-driven innovations.
integration. • Partnerships with external data providers.
• One-tariff system that hinders smart meters
potential to send economic signals.
• Uncertainty if smart meters are the best
• More information about the grid.
technology for DSOs data needs.
Smart meter • Fault location capabilities.
• Increased complexity in data collection
technologies • Observability.
• Cybersecurity and hacking concerns.
• Network congestion management.
• Investment and cost allocation.
• Shorter life span of the technology.
• Standardization of communication protocols.
• Finding new places to build new transformer
• Low-cost legacy technologies that increase efficiency (Low
Legacy technologies stations.
voltage transformers, standardized automated control devices)
• Obtaining permits for underground lines.

Business models and organizational challenges (see Table 8) include strategic restructuring,

which has been pursued through demergers, creation of new companies to support

reallocation of assets and operations, and more recently mergers and acquisitions. While

innovation is being pursued and is considered a source of knowledge for expanding service

offering, the inertia associated with DSOs traditional business culture challenges the adoption

of innovative technologies and hinders the possibilities for disruptive ideas to be considered.

Opportunities encompass integration and adaptation of distributed energy resources, and the

facilitation of data-intensive services.

39
 Table 8. Business model and organizational issues.
Topic Challenges Opportunities
Business
• Separating the more profitable from the less profitable • Use mergers to boost scale-effects.
restructuring
segments of the value chain. • Use partnerships to share development costs and risks.
and mergers
• Advanced use of smart metering.
• Battery storage.
• Intelligent systems control.
• Electricity sector historically tied to regulations and • Virtual power plants.
legacy technologies. • Integration of solar PV.
Innovation • Innovation proposals are hard to pass through. • Participation in R&D projects with universities and external
• Decision-makers adversity to disruptive ideas from partners at National and European level.
external stakeholders (e.g. from start-ups). • Technology exploration and exploitation.
• Improve asset management.
• Business process improvement.
• Internal innovation initiatives.
• Expand service offering.
• Integrate new technologies.
• Decision-makers adversity to using data for service • Develop new capabilities.
innovation. • Operate system flexibility.
Future
• Understanding the technical and human resources • Provide ancillary services.
business
needed. • Data-driven business models.
model
• Difficulty to establish future development plans, which • Increase data collection through more sensors.
are mostly driven by distributed generation diffusion. • Partner with external data providers for new service offerings.
• Outsource business activities.
• Staff reductions.

Regarding market design and regulation (see Table 9) challenges are associated with the

possible limitations of a liberalized market structure when considering disruptive changes.

Moreover, pursuing operational efficiency can act as a barrier on smart grid investments, as

well as result in job losses in the industry.

Table 9. Market design and regulation

Topic Challenges Opportunities
• Liberalized market structure can result in a siloed view of • Considering the entire electricity sector supply chain, and how
Market the different segments of the supply chain. innovation can improve it, beyond current market structures.
structure • Focus on operational efficiency compromises smart grid
investments.
• Continuous efficiency improvements • Increasingly engage in innovation activities that support smart
Regulatory
• Obtain regulatory approval for new business models. grid diffusion and create knowledge to adapt the regulatory
aspects
framework.

Further, we identified adaptation challenges that are perceived to impact DSOs differently,

depending on their scale (see Figure 6).

40
Figure 6. DSOs’ scale and associated challenges.

6. Conclusions and policy implications

This study provides insights on challenges and opportunities for DSOs regarding technology,

business models, and market design in the EU. Through a series of nine multi-stakeholder

workshops in two representative EU Member States, Germany and Portugal, we collected

qualitative up-to-date perspectives on how DSOs are facing and accommodating the shift to

a smarter, more decentralized, and sustainable electricity sector. As the discussion on the

digitalization of the electricity system increase, our findings reveal uncertainty regarding the

value of full-scale rollouts of smart meters by DSOs. Policy makers should consider how this

influences future expectations regarding large-scale diffusion of smart metering technology

and should ensure that all potential benefits actually become exploited.

Adapting operations for the provision or facilitation of these new value-added services, such

as flexibility management, is considered a promising opportunity. However, we observe a

corporate culture with high levels of inertia to change. Future policies should consider the

impacts of inertia to change in the deployment of innovative technologies and adoption of

41
new business processes. Evolving toward smart grid technologies and processes can be

challenging with a regulatory framework focused on continuous improvement of operational

efficiency. Our insights also indicate that while operational efficiency is important, it may

result in job losses in the quest for cost reductions, as well as motivate outsourcing of core

business activities, leading to loss of internal knowledge and technical capabilities. Policy

makers should consider these impacts when designing regulation to support smart grid

investments and capability development by DSOs.

The results further provide a recent guiding reference on the challenges and opportunities

impacting the electricity distribution industry in the EU, helping to pave the way for future

research and considerations. Other countries are well advised to learn from experiences made

in the investigated countries. In Portugal, the DSOs agreed with the regulator on a voluntary

rollout without a legislative mandate and with the primary goal of value maximization. In

Germany, on the other hand, the economic incentives for DSOs were apparently insufficient

to ensure a quick diffusion on their own. Furthermore, the data protection and cybersecurity

requirements have not yet been finalized. This is problematic both because it does not really

contribute to dispel concerns and as an additional hurdle preventing a quick rollout even after

a law mandating the general rollout-process has been enacted. Future work includes

collecting more insights to understand how existing policies contribute to more adaptable

DSOs across the EU, and DSOs’ capabilities in delivering new business models.

42
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Portuguese National Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) for supporting this work
through the grant PD/BD/105841/2014, funded through the POPH/FSE. Additionally, this work has been supported by FCT
under project grant: UID/MULTI/00308/2013, SAICTPAC/0004/2015-POCI-01-0145-FEDER-016434, and POCI-01-
0145-FEDER-029820 as well as by the Energy for Sustainability Initiative of the University of Coimbra. The workshops
were financially supported by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Council of Rectors of Portuguese
Universities (CRUP) under the project “The Electricity Sector Transition – Transnational Experiences from DSOs and
Cooperatives”.

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