19

Vector Algebra
STRUCTURE
191. VECTORS
192, TYPES OF VECTORS
191. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS
19'4. ADDITION
195. PROPERTIES OF OPERATION OF ADDITION
196. SUBTRACTION
19'7. MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR
198. ORTHONORMAL BASES
199. PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
1910, SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS OR DOT PRODUCT
1911. PROPERTIES OF SCALAR PRODUCT
1912. VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT
1913, PROPERTIES OF VECTOR PRODUCT

OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand
• Addition, subtraction, scalar product and vector product and
solve problems based on the above.

191. VECTORS

In mathematics we generally deal with two kinds of quantities. Those

which are specified b y a single real number called the magnitude, in
other words, those which measure quantities but not related to any direc-
tion in space. Such quantities are called scalars. The examples of such
q uantities used are in measurement of mass, volume, electric charge, tempe-
rature, sales, production, etc. The other types of physical quantities are
those which have got magnitude as well as a definite direction in space.
Such quantities are called vector quantities or simply vectors. The most
familiar examples of this type are for the mtasurement of velocity, accelera-
tion, etc


VECTOR ALGEBRA
771

A vector is often denoted as a directed line or line segment. Such

a line has an initial point or the origin and a terminal point or the terminus,
and whose direction is indicated by an arrow. Such a directed line in
geometric expression has the following three attributes.
(i) length or magnitude,
(ii) support or inclination, and
(iii) direction or sense.
-4.
Thus in vector /18, 4 is called the origin and 13 the terminus. The
magnitude of the vector is given by the length AR and its direction is
from A to B or 11 to A depending on the A
arrow indication. In addition to the
above notation of vectors giving their A
origin and terminus, we shall use bold
face type a. b. c Tho corresponding
italic letters a, b, c denote only the magnitude of the vectors, We also use
- -4 -
I,], k vector bases or just i, j. k depending oil context in which these
have been employed.
19'2. TYPES OF VECTORS
I. Free and Localised Vectors. When we are at liberty to
choose the origin of the vector at any point, it is said to be a free vector
but where it is restricted to a certain specified poiat, the vector is said to
be a localised vector.
I(. Null Vector. If the origin and terminal points of a vector
coincide, it is said to he a zero or null vector. Evidently its length is
zero and its direction is indeterminate. A null vector is denoted by the
bold faced type o. All zero vectors are equal and they can be expressed
as A,4, /18, etc.
111. Unit Vector. A vector whose modulus is unity is called a
unit vector. If there be any vector a whose modulus is a, then the
corresponding unit vector in that direction is denoted by a which has its
parallel supports.
-. a
a=-O a or a=—

IV. Reciprocal Vector. A vector whose direction is the same as

that of a given vector a but whose magnitude is the reciprocal of the
magnitude of the given vector, it is called the reciprocal of a and is written
as
- •l a
Thus if o=a a, then a a -
772 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

V. Equal Vectors. Two vectors are

0 said to be equal if they have (1) the same length
(magnitude). (ii) the same sense and (iii) the
same or parallel Supports. The equality is sym-
bolically denoted by a b. Thus equal vectors
may he represented by parallel lines of equal
length drawn in the same sense or direction
Irrespective of the origin.

Al3=EF= CDV--CD
VI. Co-initial Vector.
origin are called co-initial vectors. Vectors having the same initial point or
VII. Collinear Vectors. Any number of vectors are said to be
collinear when they are parallel to the same line whatever their magnitudes
may be.
VII!. Coplanar Vectors. Vectors whose supports are parallel to
the same plane are called coplanar Vectors.
Any plane which is parallel to this plane is
called the plane of site/i rectors.

X t±yb is coplanar with the vectors /

a, b, whatever be the values of the scalars
X and y. If
a, h he two non-colljiicar
V ectors then every vector r coplanar with a
and 11 can he repi-esenteti as a linear combj- / --
nation. 0 a
-. -4
If three vectors arc coplanar, then any one of them can be expressed
In
terms of the other two. Converse also holds good, i.e., if there are
three vectors and any one of them cart be expressed in terms of the other
two then the vcctoc are coplanar.
Rcmj I. If a, h be two non-colljnear vectors, then any vector
1, coplanar ith a, h call expressed as ,= xa +
yb and x, .y being scalars.
2. No: . cophjr,ir Vectors, If a, b, c
Coplanar v ectors, then any v ector r be three 11011-ci1ljiiejr and non-
can be expressed as
r=xa+yb--zc
-. Y, 1 are scalars.
IX. Lin ear Combination . The linear combination is the
addition
of two or more vectors multiplied by the respective sealans. For example,
w
e have the vectors a. b, c and the respective scalais x , y and z •
linear c ornbjiition of (he 'c
'File
above vectors will then be ex prsse(l
r'Ya+)h+zc
With numerical expression of scalars, vector combinations can he
2a -f b, 3a+2b-4c, —4a+3b±2c
VECTOR ALGEBRA 773

X. Linear Depeitcicnec. Now a linear combination r may he of

linear dependence or independence. The vectors a, 1) c are said to
be dependent if there are scalars X, y arid z not all zero such that their
linear combination with scalar multiplications yield it zero vector as
indicated below
xa -f-yb+zc=O [0 is a zero vector]
It' there is no such set of scalars that the linear combination of
vectors with scalar multiplications yield a zero vector then the vectors a,
b and c are linearly independent. In such a case the linear combination
r will be a zero vector only if all the scalars x, y, z are zero.
Xl. Position Vector. Any vector joining an arbitrary point of
origin 0 and the terminal point P can be the position vector in a place
which can he used to explain vector from other origins but terminating at P
or those from other origins in the same plane. In a way this concept of
position vector is the basis of vector geometry Ny e are discussing here.
Fo illustrate, we express the position vector OP in the following
figure in terms of On and OR which are from the same origin as
- —)
m0A -1 nOB
in -I-n
Ma 4 flJ)
--
where the point P divides the vector AB in the
ratio in :
This result we had ohtined earlier in the chapter on Coordinate
Geometry.
Example 1. The position vectors of four points, P. Q, R, S are a,
— -4
b, 2a I-3h, 2a-31i respectively. Express the vectors PR, RS and PQ in
lerm.c of a 017(1 b.
Solution, Let 0 be the origin.

OPr=a,OQ=h, OR2a+3b,0S2a-3b
-4 --4 ->
Now PROR-0Prr2al-3b—aa -f 3b

RS=OS—QR=2a-3b--2a---3b - --6b

and /'QrOQ—OPb---a
Example 2. Show that the points a-2b+3c, 2a-f-3b-4c and
- 7b + lOc are collinear.
 774
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
Solutton. Let the given points be denoted by A, B
and C. Let C
be the origin of reference, then
-+ -* --,.
AB=OB_OA:=2a+3h_4c_a+2b_ 3c=a+5b-7c
--)- - .-).
AC=OC---OA=-7b+ lOc-a-1-2b -3c
--a-5b+7c-(a4 Sb-7c)
- -+
AB=-AC
- -*
hus the vectors AB and If are either parallel or collinear.
T
Further because these vectors are cotcrminus, hence the points A,
B, C are collinear.
Example I Show that the vectors 2i -j -F k, i -3j--51, 3j-4j-4k
are coplanar.
Solution. Let 2i -j Fkx (i- 3j- 5k)-y(3i_4j --4k)
- 2i-j-I-k(x±3)) i-(3x I- 4y) j•-(5x•f4y)k
x---3y==2
3x-4y=i
5x-j-4y_i
From (1) and (2), we get x=- - 1 , y.= 1.
These values of x and y satisfy the equation (3). Hence the vectors
are Coplanar.
Example 4. Show that the points. --6a--f-3b--l-2c, 3a-2b+4c
5a f- 7b-l-3c, -l3a--i7h-c are coplanar, a, b, c
vectors. being three non-coplanar

Solution. Let the given points be A, B, C and D.

Let 0 be the origin of reference, then

O A = --6a+3b+2c, OB=3a-2b+4c
-
0C-=5a+7b3c ODz=_l3a+17bc
-) - -4
Then A OBOA3a2b+4c6a_3b -2c
-9a--5b-r-2c
-4 -4 -4
ACQC_QArr5a+7b3c+6a_3b_2c
11 a -4-4 b -+ c

VECTOR AI.CWnRA 775

-4 -- --,-
AD=0D-0.4- - 13,i I- 17h—c+6a--3b-2c
----7a--14b-3c

Let us first prove that the vectors AB, AC, AD are linearly connected.
Let
jAB 4-ThAC7rAD, then
1[9a—%-l- 2c]+t?i [I la-F-4b-4- c ]- —7a1 14b- ic
- (91+1 l'n) a +[- 51 + 4rn ] b-I (2 / -I- ni ) c= —ia-F- 14b--3c
91+1lrn==---7
—51+4n'=14
214-in ---3 .. (3)
Solving (I) and (2), we get
in --1
These values of I and rn satisfy the equation (3) also. hence vectors

AB, W. AD arc coplanar.

llccaase these vectors are coterminus, hence the four points '4, /3, C
and L) are coplanar.

193. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS

The two important operations are addition and inultipliCrttiofl
whereas subtraction and division follows from them. It should be rcmeifl-
bered that the operations oil -are element by eletiicnt because a
vector is an ordered set. We have discussed with two dimensions but a
vector point can be in 'i-dimensional space indicated by the n number of
elements in a vector.
194. ADDITION

If is a vector represented by OA and b is a vector represented by

AR so that the tc:minus of a is the initial
point of b, then their sum or resultant c_._ --i------ -S
(a-f-b) is dehned to be the vector
represented in magnitude and direction by
OB, where 0/3 is the third side of the
triangle OAB. This method of addition is a
called the triangle law of addition.

If a is a vector represented by OA and b is a vector represented by

OC (i.e., they have a common origin) then their sum (a + b) is defined to


776
i-iiJSiNrs MAT TtMA11C

Lc the vector represented it, magnitude and direction by 011, where OABC
is the completed parallelogram. This method of addition is called the
parallelogram law of addition. It may be noted that these two methods
ar, identical as is ObVIOUS from the definition of the c(luality of vectors.

195. PROPERTJFS OF THE OPERATION OF ADDITION

1, lIlCliLn'o/i Property. If it F I' iiii(l b ' then a-+ h(E V.
II. Coninuiioii'c Property , a+ I): I) 1 a for all a, 1 ) E V.

Proof. Let 0A =-a and AB -- b he two given vectors.

+
13v t rtangte law of addition, 0/3= a + b
( T o j iri d ete Ille parallelogram OAI?C.

Then OA_=CRra and OC- - AB- b, Now

04 -A/3--0B c-a-lI, and 0C--(13'=(1/1=bfa

Hence itH h-- 13 ft

III. 1 vsociative Property , a I (I, -I-c) - (a 4-b) -c for all a, b, cE V

and BC --c he an y three vectors.

Proof. Let 0.4 a, 4/3=1)
[hen

a +(b+c)UA+(r11fl BC) 0.4 -i-AC0C (1)

- .-) - - - -
Again (a i b) + c (0.-f-f-4134 iic- OBA BC= 0C (2)
Foin (I) and (2), we ha %e
a ± (b fc) -(a--r-b)+c
IV. Identity or Zero Property . '[here exists a zero vector or identity
cctor for addition such that
a+o-"a:=o±a for all aF V
VECTOR ALGEBRA 77?

llccause of this property the vector o is called the additive identity or

the netural element for addition.

V. Negotive Property . For any vector a there is , I vector - a with

the property that

i
a - (-. a ) o aol ( -- . ) I- a- o
On account o f this propert y , the vector ( - I) a is calledthe ncittive of
he vector a and we write
a_( I) a
It should he notcd that the existence of the four properties of addi-
tion comp sition is referred to b y saviag that the set 0 f vectors is a com-
mutative group for the nddit i on corn position.
addition

19 . 6. SUBTRACTION
Suht raction is the inverse of tile operation of addition as shown
below
a---a=--(- a ) =a -f-( 1) ;t-O
It can also he dehned as a difference of two positive vectors or a
SUM of a pCsitise and a negative vector as shown below.
. h-a-4-(—h)
also --- (a - -h) - - — a li
Diagrarnatically we can show these results as follows

-a B
/
-b

191. MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR.

If rn is any scalar, then the product ma of a vector a and the real
number n, is defined as a vector whose magnitude is Ffl times the modulus
of a and whose direction is the same as that of n or the opposite direction
according as the scalar rn is positive or m1egatic.

The division of a vector a by a real number in is defined as the

multiplication of the vector a by

PROPERTJ E 01 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

j It has an ifl(CTfla/ CO#fl/?OSiI ion oii/'. i.e., if
aF V then in a F V


778
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
H. It has an identity element such that
I . a= a , I for all a V
111. It has a zero element such that
0. aO=a.0
IV, It has an associative proper!)'
,n (ii a)(mn) a, for all a V
V . It distributes over addition of two vectors, i.e.,
(0) 'ii (a ± b) 'ii a--iii b
(b) ( rn + it) a 'it ± a for all a, hE V
}
19'8. ORTFiONORMAL BASES
A set of vectors such that the length of each vector is unity and any
two Vectors are orthogonal then they form orthonormal bases. The vectors
are orthogonal when their inner product is zero. Let us take three ortho-
normal bases I. j, k as shown in the adjoining figure
Now, their relations are of the type that
1. i=l,j.j=l,k k-=t
and i.j0,j.k0,i.k-
The above vectors are coplanar, being in the
same plane. Since their inner product is zero, they
arc orthogonal and therefore they constitute
orthonorinal bases.
Further to illustrate the two vectors which are
perpendicular (will have cos angle of 900 which is
equal to zero) are orthogonal as shown below
r_ •-'

2 1 I —1 1 4
)

2
L 3 J
1
showing that i . are perpendicular and therefore orthogonal and forra
orthonormal bases.

19'9. PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

There are two different ways by which vector quantities are multi-
plied, one is called scalar or dot product and the other is called vector or
cross product. The former is a mere number and does not involve any
direction whereas the latter is associated with a definite direction and as
such is a vector quantity. However in each case the product is propor-
tional to the products of the lengths of the two vectors and they also follow


VECTOR ALGEBRA 779

the distributive law just as in the product of ordinary numbers. The scalar
or dot product of two vectors a and b is written as it b, i.e., by placing a
dot (.) between a and b whereas the vector or cross product of vectors
a and b is written as ax b, i.e., by placing a cross (<) between it and h.
1910. SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS OR DOT
PRODUCT
The scaler or dot product of two vectors a and b is defined to be t/u
scalar
a b I cosO
where 0 is the angle between the vector quantities a and b and a
b 1 are the moduli of a and b respectively.
1911. PROPERTIES OF SCALR PRODUCT
I. Commutative Property. From the a hove we find that
a bb . a =ab cos 0, i.e., scalar product is commutative.
a - b a b Scalar Product
• • • cos -
aL = a 13 Preductof inoduli
11. The scalar product of two lion-zero vectors is positive, zero or
negative according as the angle between them is acute, a right angle or
obtuse.
III. Scalar product of a ector with itself, i.e., the square of a vector
is equal to the square of its modilus.
a . a= I a j I a I cos a
IV. Condition of Perpendicularity. If two vcctc'rs and b are per-
pendicular, then a . b=O ('. a b=ab cos 90 . 0). i.e., for perpendi-
cular vectors, the scalr product is zero. Conversely if a - b-O, then
either a-O or b-=O or ft is perpendicular to b.
V. If two vectors have the same direction, 0 0 or cos, 0 1
a. b=.ab
and if two vectors have opposite directions, QL c or cos i = 1
VI. (i) a. (—b)= —a . b
(ii) (—a).b=—a.h
(iii) (—a). (—b)=a . b
Proof. (i) a. (—b)=ab cos ( g -Q) -(--a) - b
=—ab cos 0 —(a . b)
VII. Orthonorinal vector trjad.c i, j, k. We know that i , j. k are three
mutually perpendicular unit vectors.
i'=j 2 k2 =i and i . j=j . k = k . i=O
VIII. Distributive Law of Multiplication, i.e.,
a - (b-l-c)=a. b+a. c


780 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

B C Proof. 'faking o as origin, let

- -
Oil, OR and BC represent the vectors
b/I a. 13 and c respectively so that OCh+c.
Draw BL and CM perpendiculars from B
and C on OA.
OL and GM are projections of
GB and OC on 04 and LM is the projec-
tion of BC on OJ.
0lt 1=01- {-LM

Thus the algebr;ijc sum of the projections of 011 and BC on GA

- the projection of OC on 04

a . (h-I c) -a. (OC)O1(0C cos 0)

- 0A(OM)=- 04(OL-l- LM)
OA(OL)-I OA(L4-f)
b+a c
because OL and Lilt are the projections of b, c on a.

On the same lines, we can prove that

(al (c-ld=(a-Ib). c - I (a+h). d
=a. c -I-b. c -i-- a. .d
IX. Scalar product to terms of components.
;k (1 1' I 07 j -}. (J 1k and hh 1 i+ b2 j 4-b 3 k he two vectors a and b,
then Let
a . 1) (Ii -1 a 2j - 0 3 k) . (b 1 i -I- b 2 j -I- h310 (!1 b 1 -J- (Z2b2 -f-- a3b.
('.' i . i=j j - -lc . k= I and i . j=j . k k .
i - O)
I.e.,
the scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the product of
their corresponding components.
X. Angle between two rectors in terms of the components of the
given vectors
Let 04 a = a 1 j +aj -f a.k and OR b =b, +b2j+bk
be two vectors aml 0 be Ihc angle between them.
0.4 r- and 013= /b12+b22+b32
Now it b=O4 . OB Cos Q

Cosb

VECTOR ALGEBRA 781

.- .-).
Exa mple 5. Give,: that a , b are two vectors (11d
---). -^
a = a 1 iH- a 2 j1 a3k ni,/

Ik where i, j, k are or:nowrnzal or

ortIionornwitrad of vectors, sho a that
—> —
a b - a 1 b, -I-- a,h j- a3b

Solution. We know that

-^—. -s--), -
j 1r I, j Js I, k k1

and ij--f L(), j.kk.jO, k.iI.kO

a b -(i t- a ,j-I- a 3k ) (h 1 i--/j-f hk)

- —
-a,h 1 ( I i ) + ab 1( f .) ) .f-(Jb( k k )

j . 1 b 2 (
•a .j)f-a2b 1 (j. I )-(1b3 ( j. k
—4-

-L 0 2 /) 2 K k J) i-a3b 1 ( k I) a L f( i. k)

al/si. /54 .

1912. VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT

J'he vector (or cross) prothict of two vectors a (Jfl(l b. written (IS a > h
(S a vector c, where
is
(1) modulus I C a b sin 0, where 0 tile aale
vectors a, h. and 0 9 180f.

(ii) tic support. of the vector c, 5

perpendicular to that of a • as well as of b, C
(iii) the sense of the vector c is such
that a, b, v is a right handed 5'stdui.
/ 7
Thus the vector product of two
vectors a and b whose directions are
inclined at an angle 0 is defined as —
0
a X t)- C!!) Sin 0 n

where a I b I and n is a Unit vector perpendicular to both a

and b and the sense of n is such that a, b, n form a right-handed triad of
vectors.
 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS
782
Also the modulus (Jb sin U of a X b is the area of parallelogram whose
adjacent sides are and b.
1913. PROPERTIES OF VECTOR PRODUCT
I. The vector product is not coniniritai ire. In fact
axh= ---(bxa)
This follows from the fact that the magnitude and support of b x a
are the same as those of a x b but the senses are different.
11. —a)(b.--(aXI)), ax(—h)=—(a>b),
(--a) x (— b) xb
Generall y max nh--=rnn(a > ht =a < mu h,
where at and a are any scalars, positive or negative.
III. The vector product of two parallel or equal vectors is the zero
vector, for in this case, 0 or 180, so that sin 0 = 0 and as such
a x b=0
From here it also follows that a a=0.

Convere!r, if ax b =0, oh sin on =0, then either a— 0 or b= 0, or

sir. 0= 0, i.e., either of the vectors is a zero or null vector, and in case
neither of the vectors is a zero vector, then sin U being zero shows that they
are parallel.
IV. in case the vectors are perpendicular, i.e., e=90, then
0 = 1 so that >( b=ab . a.
Sin

Thus the cross product of two perpendicular vectors is a vector whose

modulus Is equal to the product of the modulus of the given vectors and whose
direction is such that a, b and I form a right-handed system of mutually
perpendicular vectors.
V. Vector product of unit vectors i, j, Ic.

We have ixi=jXj=kXk=0
i Xj=k=—j Xi
j xlc=i=—kxj
k xi=j-=—iXk.
e To express the vector product as determinant-
VI.
L t a and Ii be the two vectors. Let us express them in terms of
orthonornal unit vector i, j . k, I.e.,
t=ai-l- a2j-J--a 3k and b=b 1 i + b,j+b3k.
a > b (ai aj -a3Ic) X (b) 1- b2j-f-b31)
{a 1 b1 (i x i)-1-a 1b2 (i xj)+a,b'30 x Ic))
-1-(a0b 1 (jxi)4 a.2b, ( j x j)+ a2 b3 (j xk)}
4{Oab i (kxi)4-aaba(liXj)+a5ba-(kxk)}


VIcroR ALGEBRA 783

-= (ab,1 --- /,)i-- (o1 -- a 1 h)j f (ah. - a2b1)k

1:3
'2

b 1 h., 1)3
Iaxhj
VII. nn (4
a . b
-,/(a2b2 a3 152 ) -j-(a3 b 1 - a 1 b.) 2 -1-_(a1b,
(a l lt4^
a b22 + b)
V (1. The magnitude of a x h can he expressed in terms of scalar
products, i.e.,
1))
( x 2 a l b 2__ (a .
P3'oot'. (aXb)=(aXli) (axh).= a,.<.b I
= a2 2
s1ll 2 0
I b
=I a 2 1) I2 (I —cos2 0)
A 2 b cos2
= a 2 b 2 —(a . b)2

IX. If a, b, c be three vectors, then

Example 6. Find the angle between the vectors

(1) a=i-F-2j+2k, h=i--2j+2k
(ii) a-2i--l-j+1k, b=-2i+2j+2k
j
(iii) p =a 1 i+ b 1 j + ck, q =a 3 i-4- b 3 +c21,
and find the condition that they are perpendicular to each other,
Solution. (i) a , b(i-4-2j-1-2k) - (i-2j-f-2k)

=1-4+4=1
a=/1 2 +22 +22 =3 , b=',/ji._2)2+23
a.b 1
Cos O=
at 1b19
6=cos" (1/9)
(ii) a . b=2(-2)+1.2+ 1.2=O
-Tr
Cos 6=0

i.e., Vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other.

p . q=u1a3-f-b1b2fc1c.,
p=sV a i .+ b 1 2 +c 1 2 q W2


784 I3tJSINPSS MATHEMATICS

P 010.,-f- bb, 4C1C2

CC), 0
I P I q I -- Vaib2 /J2.b32

The condition that FJ -: '- provides a1a2 +'), 6 24 C 1 C 2 =-O.

Example 7 .Shmnv i/Jul the vectors 2 -j - k, I-- Jj --5k and

3 -4j - 41 t form the LI] (I rn;1i1 aug led triangle ,4/so /aJj the remain-
jug angles of the trjam,'/e
Sol kit inn. Let us SUOSC that
a 2i -j -ik, b-'i-3j--5k
and c-J--4j 4k
Let a and h represent the vectors BA and
( ' fl respectively.
2)

1 hen CA .r (-'I?- 1- BA
=-.(i-3j-- 5h)3-(2i j k)
3i 4j 4kc

a, li and c. form the sides of a triangle.

Again a I) - 7 (2i-- j f-k) - (i -- 3j --5k)

- l)( -3) -(l)(-5)
=-2-f-3 5
­0

-. a and h, it'., BA and CH are perpndicu1ar to each other,

- C
Also COS .1 -- ---------
a I I
(2i--j+k) . (3i--4j-- 411)
-- V(2 1 ^l1,.i 2 ) Y(32-1.4214-')
(2)( 3) - ( -- I )( -4) f (1) ( ­1) 6 14 -4 6
/6 \//. - 41

mi -'I
/ (1

0 b.c
cos C -
-
b -
---3j-Sk). (3i-4j- 4k)
V(l 2 1 3-i-
5) /(31+42_i_4)
1)(3) -I- (__3)( -4) + (- 5)(- 4)
i / i5 '\/41


VLC Ii iR AI_GI'URA 785

3 f2-4-2t) A/1
- 35Y41 V 41,
1/35
C
or os'\/
(- )
-
Example, 8. Given three vectors a, b, c, such that

7 a 2 i +31+6 k

7 b ? i - .6 /4-2 k

7 6 i +2 .1 —3 k

Show ihat i, I' e are each of jo li t Jcnih and are maivallY perpendicul(-;

Solution. We are giver; the vectors

- 2 3 6
C, -— -i--- - - k
_7 7 .

3 6 > 2
0

6 2. 3
C i + / -

2 0 3 ... 49
Magnitude of a - +(.) =

/ 6 2 2 ' 149
Magnitude of' b - b = () +(-)

- ' I 6' 2 2 /49

Maimitude of c c \! (i +(--) +(- ) = .—
c are;ill or ruanitude equal io ; i.e.. they are urot
VectOrs
N'w to prove that they are nuttiafly perpendicular, let tis take their
dot products
6\ i3 ,--6 2
\7 7. 7 \7 7 7

2. 3 3 . 6 2. 6 0-- 18-t-12
TY:7 - 7.749
,
Vectors and 6 are perpendicular.
a


786
BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

. 7- 4 ). ( 74
3.6 6.2 2.3 181260
7.7 7.7 7.7_ 49

Vectors h :tnd c are perpendicular.

3 6 (6 2
l i+--7-k)..-.
2.6 3.2 3.6 I246---I

-
Hence vector,
'ectors a, i' and C are mutually perpcndcular.
a/
Example 9. If a -- 3i j
- 2k, b-2 t-j-k, ci-2j±2k, find
b) '< c n3 a : (h' c) and hence ihow
chow that (a ;< b) c7l a x 11 >< c).
Solutjo
j j k
axb=3 -1

2 !
(axb)<c( -i-4-7j-5k)x(_2j+2k)
j km
= -1 7 524i7j--5k
1 -2 2
S iniiarly we can show that
j k
hxc=- 2 I -I •--5j-Sk
2 -2 2
aX(bxc)=r(3j- j+2k)<(_5j_5k)
* k j
= 3 -1 2 =15(•j--k)

0 -5 --5
From (I) and (2), we conclude
(a> b)xc-7^-ax(bxc)
zauip1e 10. If a= 2i-j-fk and b---3i-14j-k,
prove that ax b
epresents a vector which is perpendicular to both a and b.


VECTOR ALGEBRA 787
Solution. i j k

aXb - 2 — 1 I -=--3i+5j+1Ill:

3 4 --1
(ax). a=-( --3i5j+ Ilk). (21—j+k)
=-6-5+Il
-o
Here (ax Ii) is perpendicular to a. Similarly we can prove that
(a< b) is perpendicular to b also.
-^ —
Example II. Two vectors a and b are expressed In terms of unit
vector as follows
-- ---p - .-* -* -- —).-
a=2 i - 6j . -3 k anjib = 4 i + 3J-- k.
What is the wilt vector perpendicula r lo each of the vectors. Also determine
she sine of the angle between the given vectors.
jj k

Solution. axb= 2 --6 --3 - 15i-_lOj-{-30k

'4 3 --II
a> b1 / i 52+IO2 +3O \f535

Unit vector perpendicular to each of tic vectors a and b

axb 15i--.10j+30k
I ab — 35

_ 3. 2. 6
— -- :—
----j,- --k.

•I axbf
sill 0 ,/22462+32,/42432+12

— -_-h Ii
'I
\/

Example 12. Prove that

ax (bc)+ b x (c+a)+C x (a+b)=O

a
Solution. L.H S. a xb+axc+bxc+b ><

±C x a 4-C X
788 BusiNess MATHEMATICS
.-.+ --4. -.-)
0 x c)--(c > u) l-(b x c)—(a x h)
-). -). -4. -1-
-I-(c x a) — (b x c)
_()-= R.1-1.S.
Example 13 Show that the diagonals of (1 rhombus are at rig/It
angles.
D
Soluton. With A as origin let

b / be the position vectors of

then

/ b-: d is the position Vector

of C.
__-_,..•__________B
Now AC=/7+d

Si. ii - h.
-3. --. -). -.
AC 131) (/)-1 d)(d—h).d2—b2)
(: 1R=. Al), i.e., h —ij
-4.
Since the scalar product of AC and HD I S zeta it follows that ;IC
and B!) are at right angles.
Exarnplr 14. 1)/s the mid-paint of the (tie BC OJ (2 triangle ABC,
show that
AW--AC'--2 (AD 2 ± 13D2) A
Solution. With A as origin let

b, e be tVi e poitiovctorsof B
and C so that the position-vector of
D is •-(b--f-c)
-
Now 81)4D—A3

-
Agaii 4g2+AC AB—b,
(..• 4C-(,)

Thus AD 2 BD 2 +*(/) c) 2 — (C — 17)2

=[(b2-f-c2)-f-2( b c)- F c2 + b2_ 2(b . c)}

4(bs{c2)
2(AD 2 +BD 2 )= AB' +AC2


VECTOR AI.OFnRA 789
Exaazp1e 15. In any triangle ABC, show that
Sin .4 Sin B sin C
a h a
-). - -)-
Soluti on. Let a, h, a represent the
sides of the J1BC.

TT

ax(a+b4-c)=O

I.e., (ax a)+(aX/))-l-(ax c)=O

-> --
But (aa)=O
-4 -4 _>- -4 -^ --7
(aXb)=_(axc)r (cxa)
-> -4 -- - 7
axbH.Icxa!

Similarly I c x a J = bxc
- -
Now I a x b J [ab sin (n-- C)1 - ab sin C etc.
Now ab sin C=ca s in Jj=hc Sin A
sth A sin B sin C
Or
a b c
EXERCISES
1. The position vectors of the four points A, B, C, D are a, b,
- -4
2a+3b and a-2h respectively. Express AC, BD, BC and DA in terms
of a and h.
2. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, show that
(i) 2a -3b+c, a+b-2c, a+2b+4c,
(ii) b4-c, c+a, a+b
are also non-coplanar.
3. If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, show that the points
6a :2h_c, 2a—b+3c, ---a+2b-4c, —12a—b-3c
are coplan ar.
4 If a—_2i+3j--4k, h=3i+j-2k, c=-2i—j+k, find
(i)a.b,(ii) axb,
(iii) a . (b x c).


790 BUSINESS MATHEMATICS

5. A vector is a linear combination of the vectors 3i+4j+5k

and 61+7j-3k and is perpendicular to the vector 1 +1 —k. Find the
vector.
6. The dot product of a vector with the three vectors 2i, 3) and 4k
are respectively 6, 18 and 16. Find the vector.
7. If a=2i-I-j-fk and b=-21+4-I-2k, find the angle between
the vectors a and b. Also find a Unit vector perpendicular to the plane
of these two vectors.
8. If a=41+j- k, b=3i-2j+2k and e=—i-2j-fk, calculate a
unit vector parallel to 2a—h -c but in the opposite sense.
9. 'three vectors are given below
a=21- 5j+3k, b= 31+31+6k, c= 21+71+4k
Find the magnitudes of the vectors (a— b) and (c-- a) and also find
their inner product (a --. ( c —a).
10. Prove that the three vectors 1-2j+3k, —21+31-4k and
—1+2k form a linearly dependent system. [CA., November 19911
ii. Given three vectors
a1 = 5i+7j+ Ilk, a2 -2i+j+ 3k, a3r-3i+6j+8k
Find a vector k 1 ai + k a2 -j_ k 3 aa where the scalars are k 1 --1, k21,
k1 =L Are the three vectors linearly dependent or independent ?
[CA., May 19
12. If 0 is the angle between two unit vectors a and b, show that
1 0
I a-f-b I =cos T.

13, if a and b are two vectors, then show that

(axb) 2 +(a . b)2 - a 1 2. I b 2
14. If a=21—j-j-2k, br=lO1_2j+7k, find the value of aXb. Also
find a unit vector perpendicular to the given vectors.
15. If aXb=cXd and axc=bxd, show that a—d is parallel
to b—c.
[Hint. (a—d)x(b---.c)
aX b a Xc - dx b + dxc
= (a x b) - (ax c) + (b x ci)— (c X d) =0
Vetor (a—d) is parallel to vector (b- c).J
ANSWERS
1. AC==a-}-31,, DB=—a—b, BC-2a+2b, DA=2b.
4. (I) —I, (ii) --10i-16j-7k, (iii) —11
5. —31 + 1 If-f 8k. 6. 31+&+4A.
1
7. ---, -- 1. i + --k.1
8. 6i- 6j-f- 5k).
(-

14. aXb=-31+6j+6k; --
 20
Matrix Algebra

STRUCTURE
200. INTRODUCTION
201. DEFINITION
202. TYPES OF MATRICES
20'3. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX
204. EQUALITY OF MATRICES
205. MATRIX OPERATIONS
206. ADDITION AND SU I3TRACTION
20*7. PROPERTIES
208. MULTIPLICATION
209, PROPERTIES
20'10. [RANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
20'II. DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
2012. DETERMINANT OF ORDER TWO
2013. CRAMER'S RULE
2014. DETERMINANT OF ORDER THREE
2015. SOLUTION OF TI-IREE LINEAR EQUATIONS
2016. SARRUS DIAGRAM
2017, PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
20'18. EXPANSION OF THE DETERMINANTS
2019. MINORS OF A MATRIX
2020. CO-FACTORS OF A MATRIX
2021 ADJOINT OF A MATRIX
2022. INVERSE OF A MATRIX
2023. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
2024. GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD
20-25. RANK OF A MATRIX