B.

Tech 1st Year 1st Semester

Mathematics(M101)
Teacher Name: Kakali Ghosh

LECTURE-- 1

Vector algebra and vector calculus

Introduction : Vectors are frequently used in many branches of pure and applied mathematics and
in physical and engineering science.

Scalar: A scalar is a physical quantity which has magnitude only but no definite direction in space.
For example density, volume , temperature , work , speed, heat etc.

Vectors: A vector is a physical quantity which has magnitude and is related to a definite direction in
space. For example Velocity, Acceleration, Force etc.

A vector is a directed segment of straight line on which there are distinct initial and terminal
points. The arrows indicate the
direction of vectors. The length of the line segment is the magnitude
of the vector. For example, PQ is a vector directed from P to Q.
P      Q

a
 
Thus PQ = a .

Unit vector: A vector a whose magnitude is unity is called unit vector and is denoted by â .
 
Null Vector : A vector a whose magnitude is 0 is called Null vector, denoted by O .
 
Equal vector : If two vectors a ( a ) and b ( b ) are said to be equal if they have equal magnitudes
 
and same direction and denoted by a  b .

Addition of two vectors : Let a and b be any two given vectors.

 
a +b
B


b


O a A
    
If three points O , A , B are taken such that OA = a , AB = b , then the vector OB is called vector
    
sum or the resultant of the given vectors and a and b and write as OB = a + b.
   
Subtraction of two vectors: We define the difference a  b of two vectors a and b to be the sum
     
of the vectors a and - b , i.e. a  b = a  (b )

Multiplication of a vector by a real number: Let  be scalar. Then a is a vector whose
magnitude is |  | times that of a and direction is the same as that of a or opposite of a , according
as  is positive or negative.
   
Collinear vectors: Two vectors a and b are said to be Collinear or parallel if a =  b where 
is a scalar. A system of vectors is said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same straight line.

Coplanar vectors: A system of vectors is said to be Coplanar if they are parallel to the same plane.

x y z
Linearly dependent and Linearly independent vectors: A set of vectors   ,  ,  is
| OP | | OP | | OP |

said to be linearly dependent , if there exist a set of scalars x,y,z,……not all zero, such that x a + y
 
b + z c +………..= 0.

Otherwise they form a linearly independent set of vectors. Thus for a set of linearly independent
   
vectors a , b , c ,.... if x a + y b + z c +………..= 0 , then we have x = y = z = ……..= 0.

Position vector of a point:

 The
 position vector (p.v ) of a point P with respect to a fixed origin O
  
in space is the vector OP . If OP = a , we write P ( a ) as the position vector of P is a .
 P - Q



a

a 
b
O   
If a and b are position vectors of P and Q respectively , then PQ = b - a = p.v. Q – p.v. of P.

The position vector of the point P whose Cartesian coordinates are (x,y,z) is given by
  
r  xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ . Obviously | r | = x 2  y 2  z 2 where direction cosines of OP =
x y z
(  ,  ,  ).
| OP | | OP | | OP |

Z
P

Let OP makes   with the rectangular axes at O ( The figure above). Then cos  , cos  , cos 
are called the direction cosines of OP and we can write
  
x = | OP |cos  , y = | OP |cos  , z = | OP |cos 

The unit vector in the direction of OP is given by

OP 1
  ( xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ)  cos iˆ  cos ˆj  cos kˆ ,
| OP | | OP |
where iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vectors along the coordinate axes and (x,y,z) is position of P w.r.t O.
 
Projection or component of a vector on an axis : Let AB be a vector and OX be an axis. A plane
passing through A which cuts OX perpendicularly at P. Then P is the point of projection of A on
OX.

B
A

P Q
O X

Similarly , we take point of projection Q of B on OX. Then PQ is called projection or component of
the vector AB on the axis OX.
   
If AB makes an angle  with OX , then component of AB on OX = | AB |Cos  .

Illustrative examples:

1) Show that the vectors i – 3j + 5k , 3i – 2j+k , 2i + j - 4k form a right angle triangle.

Soln: Let a = i – 3j + 5k, b = 3i – 2j+k and c = 2i + j - 4k .

We see that a + c = b, Therefore a,b,c form a triangle in a plane. Now

|a| = 12  (3) 2  52 = 35
|b| = 32  (2) 2  12 = 14
|c| = 22  (1) 2  (4) 2 = 21

 | b |2  | c |2  14  21  35 | a |2 . Therefore the given vectors form a right angle triangle.

2.a) Show that the vectors (2,4,10) and (3,6,15) are linearly dependent.

2.b) Show that the vectors (1,2,3) and (4,-2,7) are linearly independent.

Soln 2a) Let a = (2,4,10) and b = (3,6,15)

Let x and y be two scalars , such that

xa+yb=0
or, x(2,4,10) + y(3,6,15) = 0
or, (2x + 3y, 4x+6y,10x+15y) = (0,0,0)

Equating from both sides, we get

2x + 3y = 0

4x+6y =0

10x+15y =0

Solving these , we get x= 3, y = -2, which are not all zero. Hence 3a– 2b = 0
Therefore the vectors a , b are linearly dependent.

Soln 2b) Let a = (1,2,3) and b = (4,-2,7)

Let x and y be two scalars , such that

 xa+yb=0
Therefore x(1,2,3) + y(4,-2,7) = 0

Equating both sides, we get x + 4y =0

2x -2y =0

3x +7y =0

Solving we get , x = y = 0

Therefore, x a + y b = 0 , only if x = y=0.

Thus the given vectors are linearly independent.

3) Show that the following vectors are coplanar:

3a – 7b -4c , 3a -2b + c , a + b +2c where a , b ,c are any three non

coplanar vectors

Soln: If the given vectors be coplanar , then it will be possible to express one of them as a linear
combination of the other two.

Let 3a – 7b -4c = x (3a -2b + c) + y (a + b +2c) , x and y are scalars.

Comparing the coefficients of a,b,c from both sides , we get,

3x + y =3 , -2x + y = -7 , x + 2y = -4

Solving the first two equations we get , x= 2 and y = -3 .

These values of x and y satisfy the 3rd equation. Thus

3a – 7b -4c = 2 (3a -2b + c) + (-3) (a + b +2c)

Therefore the 1st vector can be expressed as linear combination of the other two.

Hence , the three given vectors are coplanar.

Assignment:

1) If a = i -2j+2k then show that |a| =3 and direction cosines are 1/3 , (-2/3), 2/3

2) Prove that the vectors (2,3,-6) , (6,-2,3) and (4,-5,9) form the sides of an isosceles triangle.

3) Show that the vectors a = (1,2,3) , b = (2,-1,4) and c = (-1,8,1) are linearly dependent and
also show that the vectors a = (1,-3,2) , b = (2,-4,-1) and c = (3,2,-1) are linearly
independent.

4) Determine the values of  and  for which the vectors (-3i + 4j +  k) and (  i + 8j + 6k)
are collinear.
5) Find the constant m such that the vectors

           
a  2i  j  k , b  i  2 j  3k , c  3i  mj  5k are coplanar

Multiple Choice Questions

  
1)The unit vector along the vector 2i  j  k is
1   
 2i  j  5k  (b)  2i  j  5k  (c) 1  2i  j  5k
     
(a)  (d) none
30 30
         
2) If a  2i  3 j  k , b  6i  9 j  3k then a and b are
(a) Coplanar (b) independent (c) collinear (d) none
 
3)If for two vectors a and b
                
| a  b  mj  5ka  2i  j  k , b  i  2 j  3k , c  3i | = | a  b | , then a and b are
(a) Parallel (b) orthogonal (c) collinear (d) none
LECTURE- 2
PRODUCT OF VECTORS:
DOT PRODUCT

Objective: Definition of Dot product

Angle between two vectors

Projection

Proof of Cosine formula.

Definition:

The dot product of a and b, written as a.b, is defined by

a.b = a b cos 
where a and b are the magnitudes of a and b and  is the angle between the two vectors.

The dot product is distributive:

a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
and commutative:
a.b = b.a
Knowing that the angles between each of the i, j, and k vectors is /2 radians (90 degrees) and cos
/2 = 0, we can derive a handy alternative definition: Let,
u = ai + bj + ck
v = xi + yj + zk
then,
u.v = (ai + bj + ck).( xi + yj + zk)
=>u.v = (ai + bj + ck). xi + (ai + bj + ck).yj + (ai + bj + ck).zk
The angle between any nonzero vector and iteself is 0, and cos 0 = 1, so i.i = 1 etc., Hence,

u.v = a x + b y + c z

This means that for any vector, a,

a. a = a2

Finding the angle between two vectors

We can now, given the coordinates of any two nonzero vectors u and v find the angle  between
them:
u = ai + bj + ck
v = xi + yj + zk
u.v = u v cos 
u.v = a x + b y + c z

=> u v cos  = a x + b y + c z

=>  = cos-1 o (a x + b y + c z) / ( u v ) p To get used to this method check out this applet
What would happen if one of the vectors was the null vector 0, from (0,0,0) to (0,0,0). This is the
only vector without a direction and it isn't meaningful to ask the angle between this vector and
another vector. How does our method fail if we try?
One of the main uses of the dot product is to determine whether two vectors, a and b, are othogonal
(perpendicular).
If a . b = 0, then either, a is orthogonal to b, or
a = 0, or
b = 0.

Projection

It will often be useful to find the component of one vector in the direction of another:

We have a given vector a, and we want to see how far it extends in a direction given by the unit
vector n. The distance is d, which, from simple trigonometry we can calculate as,
d = a cos 
=> d = n a cos 
=> d = a . n

Proof of the cosine formula

You have two sides of a triangle, a and b, and the angle in between, C, - the problem is to find the
remaining side c. You kill the problem by recalling the cosine formula:
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2 a b cos C
but have you ever seen a proof? The proof by geometry isn't very friendly but with vectors it takes
all of 3 lines (using the second triangle above): c.c = (b - a).(b - a)
=> c2 = b.b + a.a - 2a.b
=> c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C

Finding the distance between two places, along the surface of the Earth

From the latitudes and longitudes of two places on the Earth together with the radius of the Earth we
can determine the position vectors of the two places with the origin at the centre of the Earth. If you
have two points on the circumference of a circle then the radius of the circle times the angle (in
radians) subtended by the two points at the centre of the circle gives the arc distance between the two
points. Using the dot product we can find the angle subtended by our two position vectors, multiply
by the radius of the Earth, and hey presto we have the great circle distance.

WORKED OUT EXAMPLE:

       
1) Find the angle between a  2i  2 j  k and b  6i  3 j  2k .
 Solution: We know that a.b = a b cos  where a and b where a and b are the magnitudes of a
and b and  is the angle between the two vectors.
Now a = 22  22  (1) 2 =3 , b = 62  (3) 2  22 =7
a.b =2.6+2.(-3) + (-1).2 =12 – 6 -2 =4

a.b 4 4
Then cos  =    0.1905 and  = 790 approximately.
ab 3.7 21
   
2) If | a | = 3 and | b | = 4, then find the values of the scalar  for which the vectors a   b
 
and a  b will be perpendicular to one another.

   
Solution: The vectors a   b and a  b will be perpendicular to one another if

       
( a   b ) . ( a  b ) = 0 i.e a.a   a.b   b .a   2b .b =0


i.e | a |2 -  2 | b |2 =0 i.e 32 -  2 42 = 0

9 3
2    
i.e 16 4

      
3 ) Given two vectors  3iˆ  ˆj ,   2iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ ; Express  in the form   1   2 where 1 is parallel to
  
 and  2 is perpendicular to  .
Soln: The vector is parallel to  for all values of the scalar  , since
  
(  )   =  (    )=  0  0
 
Therefore, 1 =  =  ( 3iˆ  ˆj )

Let  2 = xiˆ  yjˆ  zkˆ
 
Since  2 is perpendicular to  , therefore,  .  2 =0  3x-y = 0 or, y=3x

Therefore  2 = xiˆ  3 xjˆ  zkˆ
  
Now   1   2
Therefore, 2iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ =  ( 3iˆ  ˆj )+( xiˆ  3xjˆ  zkˆ )=(3  +x) iˆ +(3x-  ) ĵ +z k̂
Equating coefficients of iˆ , ĵ , k̂ from both sides , we get ,

3  +x = 2, 3x-  = 1, z=-3
Solving first two equations we get, x=1/2,
 = 1/2
Therefore y=3/2
 1ˆ 3 ˆ
  i  j  3kˆ
Therefore, 1 = ½( 3iˆ  ˆj ) and  2 = 2 2

Assignment:
  
(1) Find a vector of magnitude 11 perpendicular to the plane of vectors 2i  j  k and
 
i 2j k .
     
(2) If  ,  ,  be unit vectors satisfying the condition       0 , then show that

    3
 .   .   .  
2
 ˆ ˆ ˆ  ˆ ˆ  
(3) If a  i  j  k , b  i  j  2k and c  2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ , then find the vector  which satisfies
ˆ
  
 .a  2,  .b  1 and  .c  5

    
(4) If   2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ,   iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ,   3iˆ  4 ˆj  2kˆ , then shopw the projection of    in the
 17
direction of  is .
3

Multiple choice question:

(1) The angle between the vectors the vectors 2iˆ  ˆj  kˆ and iˆ  3 ˆj  5kˆ is
(a) 450 , (b) 900 , (c) 00 , (d) none.
(2) The value of p for which the vectors iˆ  5 ˆj  pkˆ and piˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ are perpendicular is
(a) 5 ,(b) 0 , (c) -5 , (d) 3 .
(3) The component of vector iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ on the vector 4iˆ  4 ˆj  7 kˆ is
(a) 19 , (b) 19/9 , (c) 9/19 , (d) 9 .
       
(4) If a  b  c =0 and | a | =3 ,| b | =5 , | c | =7 then angle between a and b is
  
(a)  ,(b) , (c) , (d) .
3 2 4

LECTURE-3

Cross Product:
Objective: Definition
Finding normal vectors
Some properties of cross product
.
Definition
The cross product of a and b, written a x b, is defined by:
a x b = n a b sin 
where a and b are the magnitude of vectors a and b;  is the angle between the vectors, and n is the
unit vector (vector with magnitude = 1) that is perpendicular (at 90 degrees to/ orthogonal to/ normal
to) both a and b. But there are two vectors that this could be - one on either side of the plane formed
by the two vectors), so we choose n to be the one which makes (a, b, n) a right handed triad.

Like in the definition of the dot product where we pulled  out of a hat and said it was the angle
between the two vectors without any way of finding it, so we need a way of finding n for out
definition of the cross product to be any use. Again the i, j, k vectors come to our rescue, giving us
an equivalent definition: let,
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
b = b 1 i + b 2 j + b3 k
then,
a x b = ( a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) x (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
The cross product of any two parallel vectors is the null vector since sin 0 = 0, and also
ixj=k
jxk=i
kxi=j
and
j x i = -k
k x j = -i
i x k = -j
Using these, we can eventually find:
a x b = (a2b3 - a3b2)i + (a3b1 - a1b3)j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k
That's our equivalent definition. If you're familiar with determinants you may see this can be written
more conveniently as,

| i j k|
| a1 a2 a3|
| b1 b2 b3|
Finding the normal vectors

Using the equivalence of our two definitions,

a x b = (a2b3 - a3b2)i + (a3b1 - a1b3)j + (a1b2 - a2b1)k = n a b sin 
you can now find n
To get used to the cross product try out this cross product applet

Some Properties of the Cross Product

(1)The cross product is anti commutative:

axb=-bxa
(2)The cross product of parallel vectors is the null vector, in particular:
axa=0
(3)Also | a x b | is the area of the parallelogram formed by a and b,

a = a b sin 

Worked out examples:

 
a b 1   
(1)Find the unit vector perpendicular to both    (3iˆ  5 ˆj  11kˆ) 2i  j  k and
| a b | 155
  
3i  4 j  k . Find also the angle between them.

       
Solution:Let a = 2i  j  k and b = 3i  4 j  k

iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
a  b  2 1 1 =(1-4) iˆ -(-2-3) ĵ +(8+3) k̂
3 4 1

=-3 iˆ +5 ĵ +11 k̂
  
| a  b | (3)2  52  112  155

 
a b 1
Hence the required unit vector is    (3iˆ  5 ˆj  11kˆ)
| a b | 155

 
Now | a | = 22  (1) 2  12 = 6 , |b | = 32  42  ( 1) 2  26

So the required angle between the given vectors is

   155 
 | a b |  1 155
sin 1     = sin 1    sin
 | a || b |   6 26  156

 2    2
 
(2) Show that a  b  a 2b 2  a.b .  
 2   
      
2
Solution: We have a  b  a 2b 2  a.b , a.b | a || b | cos 

  
   
   
 a b  
 
2 2
= a  b . a.b = | a |2 . | b |2  | a || b | cos 

2 2  
= a .b  a.b    
| a |2  a 2 

        
 
(3) Prove that a  b  c  b   c  a   c  a  b  0  
        
 
Solution: L.H.S = a  b  c  b   c  a   c  a  b  
           
 a b  ac  b c  b  a  c  a  c b

           
 a b  c  a  b  c  a b  c  a  b  c  0

   
a  b  b  a 
 

Assignment:
(1) Find a vector of magnitude 9 which is perpendicular to both the vector 4iˆ  ˆj  3kˆ

and 2iˆ  ˆj  2kˆ .

    1  
(2) If a , b are unit vectors and  is the angle between them , show that sin  | a  b |
2 2
(3) Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector 2i  j  k and 3i  4 ˆj  kˆ and obtain
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
the sine of the angle between them.

Multiple Choice Questions:

   
(1) If   2iˆ  3 ˆj  4kˆ,   iˆ  ˆj  kˆ , and then    is

iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ
(a) iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ , (b) iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ (c) , (d) none
6

     
(2) If  .(    ) = 0 , then the vectors  ,  ,  are

(a) coplanar , (b) independent , (c) collinear ,(d) none