UNIT 3 - Engineering Seismology

Engineering seismology is the study and application of seismology for engineering purposes. It generally
applied to the branch of seismology that deals with the assessment of the seismic hazard of a site or region
for the purposes of earthquake engineering. It is, therefore, a link between earth science and civil
engineering.

Two principal components of engineering seismology.

• Studying earthquake history (e.g. historical and instrumental catalogs of seismicity) and tectonics
to assess the earthquakes that could occur in a region and their characteristics and frequency of
occurrence.
• Studying strong ground motions generated by earthquakes to assess the expected shaking from
future earthquakes with similar characteristics. These strong ground motions could either be
observations from accelerometers or seismometers or those simulated by computers using
various techniques, which are then often used to develop ground motion prediction equations (or
ground-motion models.

Basic Seismology
Definitions:

1. Seismology is a scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the
Earth or through other planet-like bodies and with artificially produced vibrations of the earth and
of the internal structure of earth. It includes the study of origin, geographic distribution, effects
and possible prediction of earthquakes.
2. Paleo seismology is related field that uses geology to infer information regarding past earthquakes
3. Seismograph is recording of earth motion as a function of time.
4. Seismoscope is an instrument that documents the occurrence of ground motion (but does not
record it over time.
5. Seismometer is an instrument that senses ground motion and converts the motion into some
form of signal accelerometer – a seismometer that records acceleration, also known as strong
ground motion geophone - another name for a seismometer, commonly used in active source
seismology
6. Seismometry is the design and development of seismic recording systems data logger – device
that converts analog to digital signal and stores the signal

Chronology of Instrumentation

The first known instrument for earthquakes measurement is the

Chang seismoscope built in China in 132 B.C. Balls were held in
the dragons’ mouths by lever devices connected to an internal
pendulum. The direction of the epicenter was reputed to be
indicated by the first ball released.
132 – first seismoscope (Heng, China)
1751 – seismoscope which etched in sand (Bina, Italy)
1784 – first attempt to record ground motion as a function of time using a series of seismoscopes
(Cavalli, Italy)
1875 – first true seismograph (Cecchi, Italy)
1889 – first known seismogram from a distant earthquake is generated (Rebeur-Paschwitz, Germany)
1914 – first seismometer to use electromagnetic transducer to sense ground motion (Galitzin, Russia)
1969 – first digital seismograph (data recorded in discrete samples on a magnetic tape (U.S.
researchers)
1990s – broadcast of real time seismic data via internet

Earthquake

What is an earthquake?

An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another. The surface
where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface where the
earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is
called the epicenter.

Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller earthquakes that happen in the same place
as the larger earthquake that follows. Scientists can’t tell that an earthquake is a foreshock until the larger
earthquake happens. The largest, main earthquake is called the mainshock. Mainshocks always have
aftershocks that follow. These are smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards in the same place as the
mainshock. Depending on the size of the mainshock, aftershocks can continue for weeks, months, and
even years after the mainshock!

What causes earthquakes and where do they happen?

The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle and crust. The crust and the top of
the mantle make up a thin skin on the surface of our planet.
But this skin is not all in one piece – it is made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of the
earth. Not only that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving around, sliding past one another and
bumping into each other. We call these puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the edges of the plates are
called the plate boundaries. The plate boundaries are made up of many faults, and most of the
earthquakes around the world occur on these faults. Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get
stuck while the rest of the plate keeps moving. Finally, when the plate has moved far enough, the edges
unstick on one of the faults and there is an earthquake.

Why does the earth shake when there is an earthquake?

While the edges of faults are stuck together, and the rest of the block is moving, the energy that would
normally cause the blocks to slide past one another is being stored up. When the force of the moving
blocks finally overcomes the friction of the jagged edges of the fault and it unsticks, all that stored up
energy is released. The energy radiates outward from the fault in all directions in the form of seismic
waves like ripples on a pond. The seismic waves shake the earth as they move through it, and when the
waves reach the earth’s surface, they shake the ground and anything on it, like our houses and us!

How are earthquakes recorded?

Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs. The recording they make is called a
seismogram. The seismograph has a base that sets firmly in the ground, and a heavy weight that hangs
free. When an earthquake causes the ground to shake, the base of the seismograph shakes too, but the
hanging weight does not. Instead the spring or string that it is hanging from absorbs all the movement.
The difference in position between the shaking part of the seismograph and the motionless part is what
is recorded.

The cartoon sketch of the seismograph shows how the instrument shakes with the earth below it, but the
recording device remains stationary (instead of the other way around).

How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?

The size of an earthquake depends on the size of the fault and the amount of slip on the fault, but that’s
not something scientists can simply measure with a measuring tape since faults are many kilometers deep
beneath the earth’s surface. So how do they measure an earthquake? They use the seismogram
recordings made on the seismographs at the surface of the earth to determine how large the earthquake
was (figure 5). A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long
wiggly line that wiggles a lot means a large earthquake. The length of the wiggle depends on the size of
the fault, and the size of the wiggle depends on the amount of slip.

The size of the earthquake is called its magnitude. There is one magnitude for each earthquake. Scientists
also talk about the intensity of shaking from an earthquake, and this varies depending on where you are
during the earthquake.

How can scientists tell where the earthquake happened?

Seismograms come in handy for locating earthquakes too, and being able to see the P wave and the S
wave is important. You learned how P & S waves each shake the ground in different ways as they travel
through it. P waves are also faster than S waves, and this fact is what allows us to tell where an earthquake
was. To understand how this works, let’s compare P and S waves to lightning and thunder. Light travels
faster than sound, so during a thunderstorm you will first see the lightning and then you will hear the
thunder. If you are close to the lightning, the thunder will boom right after the lightning, but if you are far
away from the lightning, you can count several seconds before you hear the thunder. The further you are
from the storm, the longer it will take between the lightning and the thunder.

An example of a seismic wave with the P wave and S wave labeled.

P waves are like the lightning, and S waves are like the thunder. The P waves travel faster and shake the
ground where you are first. Then the S waves follow and shake the ground also. If you are close to the
earthquake, the P and S wave will come one right after the other, but if you are far away, there will be
more time between the two.

P Waves alternately compress and stretch the crustal material parallel to the direction they are
propagating. S Waves cause the crustal material to move back and forth perpendicular to the direction
they are travelling.

By looking at the amount of time between the P and S wave on a seismogram recorded on a
seismograph, scientists can tell how far away the earthquake was from that location. However, they
can’t tell in what direction from the seismograph the earthquake was, only how far away it was. If they
draw a circle on a map around the station where the radius of the circle is the determined distance to
the earthquake, they know the earthquake lies somewhere on the circle. But where?

Scientists then use a method called triangulation to determine exactly where the earthquake was (see
image below). It is called triangulation because a triangle has three sides, and it takes three
seismographs to locate an earthquake. If you draw a circle on a map around three different
seismographs where the radius of each is the distance from that station to the earthquake, the
intersection of those three circles is the epicenter!
Triangulation can be used to locate an earthquake. The seismometers are shown as green dots. The
calculated distance from each seismometer to the earthquake is shown as a circle. The location where
all the circles intersect is the location of the earthquake epicenter.

Can scientists predict earthquakes?

No, and it is unlikely they will ever be able to predict them. Scientists have tried many different ways of
predicting earthquakes, but none have been successful. On any particular fault, scientists know there
will be another earthquake sometime in the future, but they have no way of telling when it will happen.
List of major earthquakes
A list of the 20 largest earthquakes in the world (USGS).
List of Earthquakes in the Philippines

Largest Earthquakes in the Philippines in the 21st Century

Causes of Earthquakes
The Earth’s crust consists of seven large lithospheric plates and numerous smaller plates. These plates
move towards each other (a convergent boundary), apart (a divergent boundary) or past each other (a
transform boundary).
Earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of stress along faults in the earth's crust. The continuous
motion of tectonic plates causes a steady build-up of pressure in the rock strata on both sides of a fault
until the stress is sufficiently great that it is released in a sudden, jerky movement. The resulting waves
of seismic energy propagate through the ground and over its surface, causing the shaking we perceive as
earthquakes.

Tectonic Earthquakes

Earthquakes caused by plate tectonics are called tectonic quakes. They account for most earthquakes
worldwide and usually occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates.

Induced Earthquakes

Induced quakes are caused by human activity, like tunnel construction, filling reservoirs and
implementing geothermal or fracking projects.

Volcanic Earthquakes

Volcanic quakes are associated with active volcanism. They are generally not as powerful as tectonic
quakes and often occur relatively near the surface. Consequently, they are usually only felt in the vicinity
of the hypocentre.

Collapse Earthquakes

Collapse quakes can be triggered by such phenomena as cave-ins, mostly in karst areas or close to
mining facilities, as a result of subsidence.

Sources of Earthquake Data

IRIS (Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology) is a university research consortium dedicated to
exploring the Earth's interior through the collection and distribution of seismographic data.

Seismic Data Sources:

Permanent Networks

• Global Seismographic Network - The IRIS Global Seismographic Network (GSN) is one of the four
major components of IRIS Consortium. The goal of the GSN is to deploy 128 permanent seismic
recording stations uniformly over the earth's surface. Learn more about the GSN
 • The International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks (FDSN) is a global organization. Its
membership is comprised of groups responsible for the installation and maintenance of broad-
band seismographs either within their geographic borders or globally
• Regional Networks - Several regional networks contribute data to the IRIS archive or have open
access to their data sets. List of regional networks
• Virtual Networks at the IRIS DMC - A virtual network is a group of stations and/or seismic
networks.

Temporary Networks and Experimental Data

• PASSCAL - The Program for the Array Seismic Studies of the Continental Lithosphere (PASSCAL) is
another one of the four major components of IRIS. PASSCAL operates a pool of over 400 portable
seismic instruments to record active source reflection data, active source refraction data or
natural source recordings of earthquakes.
• Other Sources -IRIS also has an archive of other temporary deployments from several different
sources including:
➢ United States Geological Survey (USGS)
➢ Seismic Equipment Infrastructure in the UK (SEIS-UK)
➢ U.S. National Ocean Bottom Seismograph Instrument Pool (OBSIP)
➢ and other academic institutions.

Earthquake Data from the USGS Earthquakes Hazards Program (EHP) provide data on global earthquakes
for the last 7 days and highlights the history of earthquake occurrences around the world. Earthquakes
are represented on maps with links to data including latitude, longitude, magnitude, and time. Symbols
representing earthquakes are varied in size, representing magnitude, and in color, representing time of
earthquake occurrence (within the last hour, the last 24 hours, or the last 7 days). The site also provides
general trends and statistics, documentation of the largest earthquakes to ever occur, the most
destructive in history, those with high death tolls, earthquakes listed by year, and the 15 largest US
earthquakes.

Use and Relevance

The National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) is part of United States Geological Survey (USGS)
Earthquake Hazards Program (EHP). Data from the EHP are used by response agencies to determine how
to direct resources. Scientists use this dataset to determine how earthquakes effect an area and
whether seismic data can be used to predict future earthquakes. Engineers use this dataset to study
how shaking effects structures and how structures can be built to withstand damage.

Earthquake Data in the Philippines

At present, PHIVOLCS operates 101 seismic monitoring stations all over the Philippines. These stations
are equipped with seismometers that detect and record earthquakes. Data is sent to the PHIVOLCS Data
Receiving Center (DRC) to determine earthquake parameters such as magnitude, depth of focus and
epicenter. Together with reported felt intensities in the area (if any), earthquake information is released
once these data are determined.
Elastic Rebound Theory
In geology, the elastic-rebound theory is an explanation for how energy is released during an
earthquake.

As the Earth's crust deforms, the rocks which span the opposing sides of a fault are subjected to shear
stress. Slowly they deform, until their internal rigidity is exceeded. Then they separate with a rupture
along the fault; the sudden movement releases accumulated energy, and the rocks snap back almost to
their original shape. The previously solid mass is divided between the two slowly moving plates, the
energy released through the surroundings in a seismic wave.

Theory

After the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake, geophysicist Harry Fielding Reid examined the
displacement of the ground surface along the San Andreas Fault in the 50 years before the earthquake.
He found evidence for 3.2 m of bending during that period. He concluded that the quake must have been
the result of the elastic rebound of the strain energy stored in the rocks on either side of the fault. Later
measurements using the global positioning system largely support Reid's theory as the basis of seismic
movement.

Explanation

The two sides of an active but locked fault are slowly moving in different directions, where elastic strain
energy builds up in any rock mass that adjoins them. Thus, if a fence is built straight across the fault as in
original position of the figure (A), it is perpendicular to the fault trace at point E, where the fault is locked.
The overall fault movement (large arrows) causes the rocks across the locked fault to accrue elastic
deformation, as in figure (B). This deformation may build at the rate of a few centimeters per year. When
the accumulated strain is great enough to overcome the strength of the rocks, the result is a sudden break,
or a springing back to the original shape as much as possible, a jolt which is felt on the surface as an
earthquake. This sudden movement results in the shift of the roadway's surface, as shown in figure (C).
The stored energy is released partly as heat, partly in alteration of the rock, and partly as a seismic wave.
Then the rock rebound to original undeformed shape as in figure (D)
Effect to the nature of rock along the fault

The effects of the failure depend on the nature of the rock along the fault. If it is weak and ductile, what
little strain energy that could stored will be released relatively slowly and the movement will occur
aseismically or resisting the destructive forces of earthquakes. If, on the other hand, the rock is strong
and brittle, the failure will be rapid. Rupture of the rock will release the stored energy explosively, partky
in the form of heat and partly in the form of the stress waves that are felt as earthquakes.

In (a) the slow deformation of rock in the vicinity of a plate boundary results in a buildup of strain energy
in the rock in the same way that strain energy builds up in a ductile stick deformed as on the right. If the
strength of the rock excedeed, it will rupture, releasing strain energy in the form of vibrations, much of
the energy in the stick woulb be released when the stick breaks. After the erathquake, the rock is displaced
form its original position. The total relative displacement of the plates is the sum of the slip displacament
at the fault and possible displacments due to warping distortion of the edges of the paltes near the fault.

Relationship to Earthquake Recurrence

The theory of elastic bound implies that the occurrence of earthquakes will relieve stresses along the
portion of a fault on which rupture occurs, and that subsequent rupture will not occur on that segment
until the stresses have time to build up again. The chances of an earthquake occurring on a particular fault
segment should therefore be related in some way to the time that has elapsed since the last earthquake,
and perhaps, to the amount of energy that was released. In a probabilistic sense, then individual
earthquakes on a particular fault segment should not be considered as random, independent events. This
characteristic is important in seismic hazard analysis.

Because earthquakes relieve the strain energy that builds up on faults, they should be more likely to occur
in areas where little or no seismic activity has been observed for some time. By plotting fault movement
and historical earthquake activity along a fault, it is possible to identify gaps in seismic activity at certain
location along faults. According to elastic rebound theory, “either the movement is occurring aseismically
or strain energy is building in the vicinity of these seismic gaps”. In areas where the latter is known to be
the case, seismic gaps should represent the most likely location for future earthquakes. A number of
seismic gaps have identified around the world and large earthquakes have subsequently been observed
on several of them. The use of seismic gap offers promise for improvement in earthquake prediction
capabilities and seismic risk evaluation.

Relationship to Tectonic Environment

Elastic rebound also implies tectonic environment capable of storing different amounts of energy will
produce earthquakes of different size. Consider, for example, the tectonic environment in the vicinity of
a spreading ridge plate boundary.

• First, the crust is thin; hence the volume of rock in which the strain energy can build up is small.
• Second, the horizontal component of the relative plate movement is extensional; hence normal
stress on the fault plane, and with it rupture strength is low.
• Third, the rock is relatively warm and ductile (able to be deformed without losing toughness), so
it will not release strain energy suddenly.

Taken together, these factors limit the total strain energy that can build up and be suddenly released at
spreading ridge boundary. These factors explain the observed absence of a very large earthquakes at
spreading ridge boundary.

Seismic Moment

The concept of elastic rebound theory can be used to develop a useful measure of the size of an
earthquake. The seismic moment of an earthquake can be given by:

Mo = AĎ
Where:  is the rupture strength of the material along the fault
A is the rapture area
Ď is average amount of slip

The seismic moment is named for its unit of force times length; however, it is more measure of work
done by the earthquake. As such, the seismic moment correlates well with the energy released during
an earthquake. The seismic moment can be estimated from the geologic records for historical
earthquakes, or obtained from the long-period component of a seismogram
Faults
Earthquakes occur on faults. A fault is a thin zone of crushed rock separating blocks of the earth's crust.
When an earthquake occurs on one of these faults, the rock on one side of the fault slips with respect to
the other. Faults can be centimeters to thousands of kilometers long. The
fault surface can be vertical, horizontal, or at some angle to the surface
of the earth. Faults can extend deep into the earth and may or may not
extend up to the earth's surface.

How do we know a fault exists?

• Past fault movement has brought together rocks that used to be

farther apart;
• Earthquakes on the fault have left surface evidence, such as
surface ruptures or fault scarps (cliffs made by earthquakes);
• Earthquakes recorded by seismographic networks are mapped
and indicate the location of a fault.

Some faults have not shown these signs and we will not know they are there until they produce a large
earthquake. Several damaging earthquakes in California have occurred on faults that were previously
unknown.

There is a wide range of faulting. Furthermore, faults themselves can form surprisingly complex patterns.
Different types of faults tend to form in different settings. It has been found that the faults at active rifts
are different from those along the edges of mountain ranges.

When an earthquake occurs only a part of a fault is involved in the rupture. That area is usually outlined
by the distribution of aftershocks in the sequence.

Hypocenter and epicenter of earthquake

We call the “point” (or region) where an earthquake rupture initiates the hypocenter or focus. The point
on Earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter is called the epicenter. When we plot earthquake
locations on a map, we usually center the symbol representing an event at the epicenter.
Generally, the area of the fault that ruptures increase with magnitude. Some estimates of rupture area
are presented in the Table below.

Table 1 Rupture area of certain earthquakes

Although the exact area associated with a given size earthquake varies from place to place and event to
event, we can make predictions for “typical” earthquakes based on the available observations. These
numbers give a rough idea of the size of structure that we are talking about when we discuss earthquakes.

Table 2. Fault dimensions and earthquakes

Fault Structure

Although the number of observations of deep fault structure is small, the available exposed faults provide
some information on the deep structure of a fault. A fault “zone” consists of several smaller regions
defined by the style and amount of deformation within them.
 Structure of an exposed section of a vertical strike-slip fault zone

The figure shows structure of an exposed section of a vertical strike-slip fault zone. The center of the fault
is the most deformed and is where most of the offset or slip between the surrounding rock occurs. The
region can be quite small, about as wide as a pencil is long, and it is identified by the finely ground rocks
called cataclasite (we call the ground up material found closer to the surface, gouge). From all the slipping
and grinding, the gouge is composed of very fine-grained material that resembles clay. surrounding the
central zone is a region several meters across that contains abundant fractures. Outside that region is
another that contains distinguishable fractures, but much less dense than the preceding region. Last is the
competent “host” rock that marks the end of the fault zone.

Fault Classifications
• Active faults are structure along which we expect displacement to occur. By definition, since a
shallow earthquake is a process that produces displacement across a fault. All shallow
earthquakes occur on active faults.
• Inactive faults are structures that we can identify, but which do not have earthquakes. As we can
imagine, because of the complexity of earthquake activity, judging a fault to be inactive can be
tricky. However, often we can measure the last time substantial offset occurred across a fault. If
a fault has been inactive for millions of years, it’s certainly safe to call it inactive. However, some
faults only have large earthquakes once in thousands of years, and we need to evaluate carefully
their hazard potential.
• Reactivated faults form when movement along formerly inactive faults can help to alleviate strain
within the crust or upper mantle. Deformation in the New Madrid seismic zone in the central
United States is a good example of fault reactivation.

Faulting Geometry

Faulting is a complex process and the variety of faults that exists is large. We will consider a simplified but
general fault classification based on the geometry of faulting, which we describe by specifying three
angular measurements: dip, strike, and slip.
 Figure explaining about dip

In Earth, faults take on a range of orientations from vertical to horizontal. Dip is the angle that describes
the steepness of the fault surface. This angle is measured from Earth’s surface, or a plane parallel to
earth’s surface. The dip of a horizontal fault is zero (usually specified in degrees: 0°), and the dip of a
vertical fault is 90°.

Figure explaining about strike

The strike is an angle used to specify the orientation of the fault and measured clockwise from north. For
example, a strike of 0° or 180° indicates a fault that is oriented in a north- south direction, 90° or 270°
indicates east-west oriented structure. To remove the ambiguity, we always specify the strike such that
when we “look” in the strike direction, the fault dips to our right. Of course, if the fault is perfectly vertical
we have to describe the situation as a special case. If a fault curves, the strike varies along the fault, but
this seldom causes communication problem if we are careful to specify the location (such as latitude and
longitude) of the measurement
 Figure explaining about slip

Dip and strike describe the orientation of the fault, we also have to describe the direction of motion across
the fault. That is, which way did one side of the fault move with respect to the other. The parameter that
describes this motion is called the slip. The slip has two components, a “magnitude” which tells us how
far the rocks moved, and a direction (it’s a vector). We usually specify the magnitude and direction
separately. The magnitude of slip is simply how far the two sides of the fault moved relative to one
another. It is a distance usually a few centimeters for small earthquakes and meters for large events. The
direction of slip is measured on the fault surface, and like the strike and dip, it is specified as an angle.
Specifically, the slip direction is the direction that the hanging wall moved relative to the footwall. If the
hanging wall moves to the right, the slip direction is 0°; if it moves up, the slip angle is 90°, if it moves to
the left, the slip angle is 180°, and if it moves down, the slip angle is 270° or –90°.

Hanging wall movement determines the geometric classification of faulting. We distinguish between “dip-
slip” and “strike-slip” hanging-wall movements.

Dip-slip movement occurs when the hanging wall moved predominantly up or down relative to the
footwall. If the motion was down, the fault is called a normal fault, if the movement was up, the fault is
called a reverse fault. Downward movement is “normal” because we normally would expect the hanging
wall to slide downward along the foot wall because of the pull of gravity. Moving the hanging wall up an
inclined fault requires work to overcome friction on the fault and the downward pull of gravity. When the
hanging wall moves horizontally, it’s a strike-slip earthquake. If the hanging wall moves to the left, the
earthquake is called right-lateral, if it moves to the right, it’s called a left-lateral fault. The way to keep
these terms straight is to imagine that we are standing on one side of the fault and an earthquake occurs.
If objects on the other side of the fault move to our left, it’s a left-lateral fault, if they move to our right,
it’s a right-lateral fault.

When the hanging wall motion is neither dominantly vertical nor horizontal, the motion is called oblique-
slip. Although oblique faulting isn’t unusual, it is less common than the normal, reverse, and strike-slip
movement. Fig. 2.16 explains about different fault classifications.
 Different fault classifications

Normal faulting is indicative of a region that is stretching, and on the continents, normal faulting usually
occurs in regions with relatively high elevation such as plateaus. Reverse faulting reflects compressive
forces squeezing a region and they are common in uplifting mountain ranges and along the coast of many
regions bordering the Pacific Ocean. The largest earthquakes are generally low-angle (shallow dipping)
reverse faults associated with “subduction” plate boundaries. Strike-slip faulting indicates neither
extension nor compression, but identifies regions where rocks are sliding past each other. The San
Andreas fault system is a famous example of strike-slip deformation-part of coastal California is sliding to
the northwest relative to the rest of North America-Los Angeles is slowly moving towards San Francisco.

World map of fault lines and tectonic plates

Plate Tectonics
Definitions:

• Tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plate size can vary greatly, from
a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the
largest.
• Oceanic crust - the relatively thin part of the earth's crust which underlies the ocean basins. It is
geologically young compared with the continental crust and consists of basaltic rock overlain by
sediments.
 • An oceanic spreading ridge is the fracture zone along the ocean bottom where molten mantle
material comes to the surface, thus creating new crust. This fracture can be seen beneath the ocean
as a line of ridges that form as molten rock reaches the ocean bottom and solidifies.
• Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's
mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with
the less dense lithosphere of a second plate, the heavier plate dives beneath the second plate and
sinks into the mantle
• Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean [where old ocean crust
from one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another plate, raising mountains, causing earthquakes,
and forming volcanoes on the seafloor and on land.
• The continental crust is the layer of granitic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks which form the
continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. It
is less dense than the material of the Earth's mantle and thus "floats" on top of it.
• Lithosphere is the rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it
is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales
of thousands of years or greater.
• The asthenosphere is the highly viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile region of the upper mantle
of Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at depths between approximately 80 and 200 km below the
surface
• Rising magma - The magma rises and collects in chambers within the crust. As magma fills the
chamber, pressure grows. If the pressure gets high enough, the magma can break through the crust
and spew out in a volcanic eruption. Most explosive volcanoes occur above subduction zones.

Crustal generation and destruction according to the theory of plate tectonics

Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin: tectonicus, from the Ancient Greek: τεκτονικός, lit. 'pertaining to
building’) is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of seven large plates and the movements
of a larger number of smaller plates of Earth's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth
between 3.3 and 3.5 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea
developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-
tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken into
tectonic plates. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how
they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the
type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building,
and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries (or faults). The relative movement of
the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by
its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction, or one plate moving under another,
carries the edge of the lower one down into the mantle; the area of material lost is roughly balanced by
the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total
geoid surface area of the lithosphere remains constant. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred
to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking
(contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.

Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than
the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection; that is, the
slow creeping motion of Earth's solid mantle. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination
of the motion of the seafloor away from spreading ridges due to variations in topography (the ridge is a
topographic high) and density changes in the crust (density increases as newly formed crust cools and
moves away from the ridge). At subduction zones the relatively cold, dense oceanic crust is "pulled" or
sinks down into the mantle over the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell. Another explanation lies
in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of
these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

Types of plate boundaries

1. Divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary is a linear feature that exists between two
tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents
initially produce rifts, which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate
boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent boundaries
also form volcanic islands, which occur when the plates move apart to produce gaps that molten
lava rises to fill.
2. Convergent boundary is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One
plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone
can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone.
These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to
volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent
boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and
continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries
vary depending on crust types.
3. Transform fault or transform boundary is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is
predominantly horizontal. It ends abruptly where it connects to another plate boundary, either
another transform, a spreading ridge, or a subduction zone.
Seismograph and Seismogram
A seismometer is a mechanical device that
measures and amplifies ground motion at a
point on the Earth’s surface or in a borehole.

A modern seismograph records ground

motion (from a seismometer) in digital format
onto magnetic or optical disk

Seismometer Seismograph

A seismogram is a visual representation of ground motion at a point in space as a function of time

Seismometers measure Ground Motions

> ground motions can be described and measured in different ways:
1. ground displacement
2. ground velocity
3. ground acceleration

Types of seismometer/seismograph
1. Short/Long Period Seismometers & Geophones
> used prior to 1990’s
> work on damped pendulum theory
> resonant frequency at 1 Hz, 0.1 Hz
> mass incorporates solenoid which moves in a
magnetic field
 2. Modern Broadband Seismometers
> record motions faithfully
between 100 - 0.001 Hz
> driven by sophisticated
feedback electronic circuits
> motion is measured
through voltage required to
keep masses stationary

3. Strong Motion Seismographs

> made from MEMS &
sensitive to large accelerations
> regular seismometers go
off scale
> used in triggered mode to
study effects of large eq’s
> employed by engineers to
aid in design of earthquake
resistant infrastructure

Seismic Networks
> arrays of seismometers deployed for a common purpose
1. Global Seismic Network
2. Regional Networks
3. Portable Arrays
4. EarthScope

GLOBAL SEISMIC NETWORKS

> 150+ stations globally distributed

> high quality stations with detection limit ~M=4
> partly underwritten by military agencies to aid in nuclear test ban verification treaties
> some sites involve seismometers in boreholes to minimize noise
> most communications by satellite
REGIONAL SEISMOGRAPH NETWORKS

> Japanese Hi-Net has over 600 short-period,

borehole stations
> since 2000, has led to many
important discoveries
> 10-20 km spacing

Canadian National Seismograph Network (B.C.)

> G.S.C. operates ~30 seismographs in SW B.C.
> note concentration on V.I. and lower mainland

Pacific Northwest Seismic Network

> UW operates ~100 sp and ~10-20 BB sites through
Washington and Oregon
> significant data exchange between CNSN and
PNSN
PORTABLE ARRAYS
> many countries possess
portable instruments used
for temporary field campaigns
> Canada: POLARIS (Portable
Observatories for Lithospheric
Analysis and Research
Investigating Seismicity
> can be used in aftershock or
structural studies

Portable Array Vaults

> makeshift vaults with solar power
> data archived onto loggers that record continuously
> typical deployment 1-2 years

EARTHSCCOPE
> new generation of portable experiment; cover whole USA at 70 km spacing
> each station active for 18 months, deployed roll-along array over 15 years

Seismograms
> incredibly rich and varied in appearance depending on source, frequency content, distance etc.

Many ways to extract information from seismogram:

1. Identify main phases, extract time/amplitude
2. Identify scattered phases
3. Match whole seismogram
Use information to extract knowledge of earthquake and/or earth structure
Long Period Seismograms Regional Seismograms
> T > 10 s > higher frequency (>1Hz), more complex,
> dominated by S and surface waves harder to identify individual P, S, surface waves
> simple to model

Prediction of Earthquakes

Earthquake prediction is a branch of the science of seismology concerned with the specification of the
time, location, and magnitude of future earthquakes within stated limits, and particularly "the
determination of parameters for the next strong earthquake to occur in a region.[ Earthquake prediction
is sometimes distinguished from earthquake forecasting, which can be defined as the probabilistic
assessment of general earthquake hazard, including the frequency and magnitude of damaging
earthquakes in a given area over years or decades.

Prediction can be further distinguished from earthquake warning systems, which upon detection of an
earthquake, provide a real-time warning of seconds to neighboring regions that might be affected.

In the 1970s, scientists were optimistic that a practical method for predicting earthquakes would soon be
found, but by the 1990s continuing failure led many to question whether it was even possible.
Demonstrably successful predictions of large earthquakes have not occurred and the few claims of success
are controversial. For example, the most famous claim of a successful prediction is that alleged for the
1975 Haicheng earthquake. A later study said that there was no valid short-term prediction. Extensive
searches have reported many possible earthquake precursors, but, so far, such precursors have not been
reliably identified across significant spatial and temporal scales. While part of the scientific community
hold that, taking into account non-seismic precursors and given enough resources to study them
extensively, prediction might be possible, most scientists are pessimistic and some maintain that
earthquake prediction is inherently impossible

Prediction methods

Earthquake prediction is an immature science—it has not yet led to a successful prediction of an
earthquake from first physical principles. Research into methods of prediction therefore focus on
empirical analysis, with two general approaches: either identifying distinctive precursors to earthquakes,
or identifying some kind of geophysical trend or pattern in seismicity that might precede a large
earthquake
1. Precursors - An earthquake precursor is an anomalous phenomenon that might give effective
warning of an impending earthquake. Reports of these – though generally recognized as such only
after the event – number in the thousands, some dating back to antiquity. There have been
around 400 reports of possible precursors in scientific literature, of roughly twenty different
types, running the gamut from aeronomy to zoology. None have been found to be reliable for the
purposes of earthquake prediction
2. Animal behavior - After an earthquake has already begun, pressure waves (P-waves) travel twice
as fast as the more damaging shear waves (s-waves). Typically, not noticed by humans, some
animals may notice the smaller vibrations that arrive a few to a few dozen seconds before the
main shaking, and become alarmed or exhibit other unusual behavior. Seismometers can also
detect P waves, and the timing difference is exploited by electronic earthquake warning systems
to provide humans with a few seconds to move to a safer location. A review of scientific studies
available as of 2018 covering over 130 species found insufficient evidence to show that animals
could provide warning of earthquakes hours, days, or weeks in advance. Statistical correlations
suggest some reported unusual animal behavior is due to smaller earthquakes (foreshocks) that
sometimes precede a large quake, which if small enough may go unnoticed by people. Foreshocks
may also cause groundwater changes or release gases that can be detected by animals.
Foreshocks are also detected by seismometers, and have long been studied as potential
predictors, but without success (see #Seismicity patterns). Seismologists have not found evidence
of medium-term physical or chemical changes that predict earthquakes which animals might be
sensing
3. Dilatancy–diffusion - In the 1970s the dilatancy–diffusion hypothesis was highly regarded as
providing a physical basis for various phenomena seen as possible earthquake precursors.[41] It
was based on "solid and repeatable evidence"] from laboratory experiments that highly stressed
crystalline rock experienced a change in volume, or dilatancy, which causes changes in other
characteristics, such as seismic velocity and electrical resistivity, and even large-scale uplifts of
topography. It was believed this happened in a 'preparatory phase' just prior to the earthquake,
and that suitable monitoring could therefore warn of an impending quake. Although these
predictions were informal and even trivial, their apparent success was seen as confirmation of
both dilatancy and the existence of a preparatory process, leading to what were subsequently
called "wildly over-optimistic statements that successful earthquake prediction "appears to be on
the verge of practical reality. However, many studies questioned these results, and the hypothesis
eventually languished. Subsequent study showed it "failed for several reasons, largely associated
with the validity of the assumptions on which it was based", including the assumption that
laboratory results can be scaled up to the real world. Another factor was the bias of retrospective
selection of criteria
4. Changes in Vp/Vs - Vp is the symbol for the velocity of a seismic "P" (primary or pressure) wave
passing through rock, while Vs is the symbol for the velocity of the "S" (secondary or shear) wave.
Small-scale laboratory experiments have shown that the ratio of these two velocities –
represented as Vp/Vs – changes when rock is near the point of fracturing. In the 1970s it was
considered a likely breakthrough when Russian seismologists reported observing such changes
(later discounted.[50]) in the region of a subsequent earthquake. This effect, as well as other
 possible precursors, has been attributed to dilatancy, where rock stressed to near its breaking
point expands (dilates) slightly. Study of this phenomenon near Blue Mountain Lake in New York
State led to a successful albeit informal prediction in 1973, and it was credited for predicting the
1974 Riverside (CA) quake. However, additional successes have not followed, and it has been
suggested that these predictions were a flukes. A Vp/Vs anomaly was the basis of a 1976
prediction of a M 5.5 to 6.5 earthquake near Los Angeles, which failed to occur.
5. Radon emissions - Most rock contains small amounts of gases that can be isotopically
distinguished from the normal atmospheric gases. There are reports of spikes in the
concentrations of such gases prior to a major earthquake; this has been attributed to release due
to pre-seismic stress or fracturing of the rock. One of these gases is radon, produced by
radioactive decay of the trace amounts of uranium present in most rock. Radon is useful as a
potential earthquake predictor because it is radioactive and thus easily detected, and its short
half-life (3.8 days) makes radon levels sensitive to short-term fluctuations. A 2009 review found
125 reports of changes in radon emissions prior to 86 earthquakes since 1966. But as the ICEF
found in its review, the earthquakes with which these changes are supposedly linked were up to
a thousand kilometers away, months later, and at all magnitudes. In some cases, the anomalies
were observed at a distant site, but not at closer sites. The ICEF found "no significant correlation".
6. Electromagnetic anomalies - Observations of electromagnetic disturbances and their attribution
to the earthquake failure process go back as far as the Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755, but
practically all such observations prior to the mid-1960s are invalid because the instruments used
were sensitive to physical movement. Since then various anomalous electrical, electric-resistive,
and magnetic phenomena have been attributed to precursory stress and strain changes that
precede earthquakes, raising hopes for finding a reliable earthquake precursor. While a handful
of researchers have gained much attention with either theories of how such phenomena might
be generated, claims of having observed such phenomena prior to an earthquake, no such
phenomena has been shown to be an actual precursor.
7. VAN seismic electric signals - The most touted, and most criticized, claim of an electromagnetic
precursor is the VAN method of physics professors Panayiotis Varotsos, Kessar Alexopoulos and
Konstantine Nomicos (VAN) of the University of Athens. In a 1981 paper[68] they claimed that by
measuring geoelectric voltages – what they called "seismic electric signals" (SES) – they could
predict earthquakes. In 1984 they claimed there was a "one-to-one correspondence" between
SES and earthquakes – that is, that "every sizable EQ is preceded by an SES and inversely every
SES is always followed by an EQ the magnitude and the epicenter of which can be reliably
predicted" – the SES appearing between 6 and 115 hours before the earthquake. As proof of their
method, they claimed a series of successful predictions. Although their report was "saluted by
some as a major breakthrough", among seismologists it was greeted by a "wave of generalized
skepticism". In 1996 a paper VAN submitted to the journal Geophysical Research Letters was given
an unprecedented public peer-review by a broad group of reviewers, with the paper and reviews
published in a special issue; the majority of reviewers found the methods of VAN to be flawed.
Additional criticism was raised the same year in a public debate between some of the principals.
8. Corralitos anomaly - Probably the most celebrated seismo-electromagnetic event ever, and one
of the most frequently cited examples of a possible earthquake precursor, is the 1989 Corralitos
anomaly. In the month prior to the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake measurements of the earth's
magnetic field at ultra-low frequencies by a magnetometer in Corralitos, California, just 7 km from
 the epicenter of the impending earthquake, started showing anomalous increases in amplitude.
Just three hours before the quake the measurements soared to about thirty times greater than
normal, with amplitudes tapering off after the quake. Such amplitudes had not been seen in two
years of operation, nor in a similar instrument located 54 km away. To many people such apparent
locality in time and space suggested an association with the earthquake. Additional
magnetometers were subsequently deployed across northern and southern California, but after
ten years, and several large earthquakes, similar signals have not been observed. More recent
studies have cast doubt on the connection, attributing the Corralitos signals to either unrelated
magnetic disturbance or, even more simply, to sensor-system malfunction.
9. Freund physics - In his investigations of crystalline physics, Friedemann Freund found that water
molecules embedded in rock can dissociate into ions if the rock is under intense stress. The
resulting charge carriers can generate battery currents under certain conditions. Freund
suggested that perhaps these currents could be responsible for earthquake precursors such as
electromagnetic radiation, earthquake lights and disturbances of the plasma in the ionosphere.
The study of such currents and interactions is known as "Freund physics". Most seismologists
reject Freund's suggestion that stress-generated signals can be detected and put to use as
precursors, for a number of reasons. First, it is believed that stress does not accumulate rapidly
before a major earthquake, and thus there is no reason to expect large currents to be rapidly
generated. Secondly, seismologists have extensively searched for statistically reliable electrical
precursors, using sophisticated instrumentation, and have not identified any such precursors. And
thirdly, water in the earth's crust would cause any generated currents to be absorbed before
reaching the surface.
10. Disturbance of the daily cycle of the ionosphere - Tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust are claimed
to cause waves of electric charges that travel to the surface of the Earth and affect the ionosphere.
ULF* recordings of the daily cycle of the ionosphere indicate that the usual cycle could be
disturbed a few days before a shallow strong earthquake. When the disturbance occurs, it is
observed that either the D layer is lost during the day resulting to ionosphere elevation and
skywave formation or the D layer appears at night resulting to lower of the ionosphere and hence
absence of skywave. Science centers have developed a network of VLF transmitters and receivers
on a global scale that detect changes in skywave. Each receiver is also daisy transmitter for
distances of 1000 - 10,000 kilometers and is operating at different frequencies within the network.
The general area under excitation can be determined depending on the density of the network. It
was shown on the other hand that global extreme events like magnetic storms or solar flares and
local extreme events in the same VLF path like another earthquake or a volcano eruption that
occur in near time with the earthquake under evaluation make it difficult or impossible to relate
changes in skywave to the earthquake of interest.
11. Satellite observation of the expected ground temperature declination - One way of detecting the
mobility of tectonic stresses is to detect locally elevated temperatures on the surface of the crust
measured by satellites. During the evaluation process, the background of daily variation and noise
due to atmospheric disturbances and human activities are removed before visualizing the
concentration of trends in the wider area of a fault. This method has been experimentally applied
since 1995. According to this version the emission is a result of the quantum excitation that occurs
at the chemical re-bonding of positive charge carriers (holes) which are traveling from the deepest
layers to the surface of the crust at a speed of 200 meters per second. The electric charge arises
 as a result of increasing tectonic stresses as the time of the earthquake approaches. This emission
extends superficially up to 500 x 500 square kilometers for very large events and stops almost
immediately after the earthquake

Protection against earthquake damage

Measures against earthquakes

1. Personal measures
• Seek shelter under stable tables or under door frames.
• If outside, stay away from buildings, bridges and electricity pylons and move to open
areas.
• Avoid areas at risk from secondary processes, such as landslides, rockfall and soil
liquefaction.
• After an earthquake, check gas, water and electricity pipes and lines for damage.
• Listen to the radio and follow the instructions issued by the authorities.
2. Technical/biological measures
• No measures can be taken to prevent earthquakes themselves, however limited
measures exist that can counteract their secondary effects like landslides, rockfall and
soil liquefaction.
• Earthquake-proof planning and design of buildings
• The microzoning of the local geological substratum provides indicators of areas in which
tremors will have a particularly strong or attenuated effect.
3. Organizational measures
• At present, earthquake prediction is insufficiently precise to provide the public with
sufficient advance warning. For this reason, adequate preparedness and assistance in
catastrophes is extremely important in areas affected by earthquakes. Measures of this
nature enable numbers of human lives to be saved.

Reducing Earthquake Damage

Earthquake damage depends on several factors. Two very important factors are the strength and duration
of the seismic shaking and the materials and design of structures. Earthquake damage and loss of life can
be reduced by determining the earthquake risk for an area, building earthquake resistant structures, and
following earthquake safety procedures.

The first step to reduce earthquake risk is to assess the danger or probability of an earthquake in an area.
Earthquakes are most common along the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates. Scientists use several
methods to determine earthquake risk. One way is to study historical records of earthquakes and look at
where they have occurred in the past. They also study seismic gaps. A seismic gap is an area along a fault
where there has not been any earthquake activity for a long period of time. Scientists hypothesize that
the buildup of strain along a seismic gap will eventually lead to an earthquake.
Origin of Universe

The universe began with a hot explosion called the Big Bang. The aftermath of the Big Bang consisted
mostly of radiation, but as things cooled, the elements hydrogen and helium formed .

Big Bang Theory - Evidence for the Theory

• First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning.
• Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to their distance. This
is called "Hubble's Law.” This observation supports the expansion of the universe and suggests
that the universe was once compacted.
• Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, we should be able to
find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, this was discovered a 2.725-degree Kelvin (-454.765-
degree Fahrenheit, -270.425 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB)
which pervades the observable universe.
• Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the observable
universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins .

What is a “nebula”?
• A cloud in space
• Made of gas and dust
• Can have stars inside
• Most of the ones we see are inside our Milky Way Galaxy
The Solar Nebula Theory
• Basis of modern theory of planet
formation
• Planets form at the same time from
the same cloud as the star.
• Planet formation sites observed today
as dust disks of T Tauri stars
• Sun and our solar system formed
~ 5 billion years ago.

Formation of Solar Nebula

(a), (b) The solar nebula contracts
and flattens into a spinning disk.
The large blob in the center will
become the Sun. Smaller blobs in
the outer regions may become
Jovian planets.
(c) Dust grains act as condensation
nuclei, forming clumps of matter that
collide, stick together, and grow into
moon-sized planetesimals.
(d) Strong winds from the still-forming
Sun expels the nebular gas.
(e) Planetesimals continue to collide
and grow.
(f) Over the course of a hundred million
years or so, planetesimals form a few
large planets that travel in roughly
circular orbits.

Relationship of Big Bang and Solar Nebula Theory

• The Big Bang Theory considers the creation of all the matter and energy that exists in the
universe, anywhere.
• The Solar Nebula theory uses that matter and energy, to create galaxies and solar systems.
Origin of Element
• Very small volume expands “Big Bang”
• A few minutes energy cools to form H
• Hydrogen gas clouds condensed to form
main sequence stars.
• H fuses to form He and heavier atoms
• “Main sequence stars” form Oxygen and Carbon.

Origin of Heavy Elements

• A star more than 8-20 times the mass of
our sun burns faster, then expands into a
red super giant star, similar to Betelgeuse.
• Pressure is high enough to also produce the
heavier elements including silicon Si,
magnesium Mg, iron Fe.
• Once its fuel is exhausted,
a supernova explosion occurs.

Origin of Our Solar System

Our solar system with its abundant collection of heavier elements condensed from the gas cloud left
after the explosion of a supernova.

Supernova ejects matter-rich pressure waves into space

Local concentrations of dust coalesce

Balance between gravity and solar wind

Origin of Earth
Earth, along with the other planets, is believed to have been born 4.5 billion years ago as a solidified cloud
of dust and gases left over from the creation of the Sun. For perhaps 500 million years, the interior of
Earth stayed solid and relatively cool, perhaps 2,000°F. The main ingredients, according to the best
available evidence, were iron and silicates, with small amounts of other elements, some of them
radioactive.

Earth: A perfect Spot

• Earth's distance from the Sun allows water to exist as a liquid.
• The biosphere of Earth has moderated the composition of the atmosphere to make it more suitable
for life. Vegetation absorbed large volumes of carbon dioxide and produced oxygen O2 and Ozone
O3.
• Earth's atmospheric gases protect the planet from all but the largest incoming space projectiles
(comets, meteorites) and ozone blocks harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
Layers of Earth

Earth Internal Structure is defined by:

• Chemical composition
• Physical properties
• Deduced from Seismographs of Earthquakes
• Meteorites lend support

Layers defined by composition

• Crust - This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and granite.
There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is denser and thinner and
mainly composed of basalt. Continental crust is less dense, thicker, and mainly composed of
granite.
• Mantle - lies below the crust and is up to 2900 km thick. It consists of hot, dense, iron and
magnesium-rich solid rock. The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere,
which is broken into plates, both large and small.
• Core - is the centre of the earth and is made up of two parts: the liquid outer core and solid
inner core. The outer core is made of nickel, iron and molten rock. Temperatures here can reach
up to 50,000 C

Earth’s internal structure composition

• Main layers of Earth are based on physical properties including mechanical strength
• Outer layers mostly Silicate Minerals: Crust and Mantle
- Lithosphere (behaves like a brittle solid) Crust and uppermost mantle
- Asthenosphere “weak sphere”. Rest of Upper Mantle, Heat softened, plastic solid
- Lower Mantle - Solid due High Pressures
• Inner Layers Core - Iron and Nickel
- outer core hotter than melting point – liquid
- inner core solid due to high pressures

-
Liquid Outer Core causes Magnetic Field
- Earth has a large liquid outer core, makes a magnetic field, and so a thick atmosphere

The Magnetic Field protects the Atmosphere. The Atmosphere protects Earth from most meteors

Origin of magnetic field:

the liquid outer core

Theory of Continental Drifts

Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over
geologic time relative to each other, thus appearing to have "drifted" across
the ocean bed. The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first
put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was independently and
more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his hypothesis was
rejected by many for lack of any motive mechanism. Arthur Holmes later
proposed mantle convection for that mechanism. The idea of continental drift
has since been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains that
the continents move by riding on plates of the Earth's lithosphere
Alfred Wegener first presented his hypothesis to the German Geological Society on 6 January 1912. His
hypothesis was that the continents had once formed a single landmass, called Pangaea, before breaking
apart and drifting to their present locations. Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift"
and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he
presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the
physical processes which might have caused this drift. He suggested that the continents had been pulled
apart by the centrifugal pseudoforce (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of
astronomical precession, but calculations showed that the force was not sufficient.

Continental drift hypothesis:

Supercontinent Pangaea began breaking apart about 200 million years ago

South American and African Coastlines Fit

As late as 1953 – just five years before Carey introduced the theory of plate tectonics – the theory of
continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following grounds.
• First, it had been shown that floating masses on a rotating geoid would collect at the equator,
and stay there. This would explain one, but only one, mountain building episode between any
pair of continents; it failed to account for earlier orogenic episodes.
• Second, masses floating freely in a fluid substratum, like icebergs in the ocean, should be in
isostatic equilibrium (in which the forces of gravity and buoyancy are in balance). But
gravitational measurements showed that many areas are not in isostatic equilibrium.
• Third, there was the problem of why some parts of the Earth's surface (crust) should have
solidified while other parts were still fluid. Various attempts to explain this foundered on other
difficulties.

Geophysicist Jack Oliver is credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate tectonics which
encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and the New Global
Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations, including those he set up in
the South Pacific. The modern theory of plate tectonics, refining Wegener, explains that there are two
kinds of crust of different composition: continental crust and oceanic crust, both floating above a much
deeper "plastic" mantle. Continental crust is inherently lighter. Oceanic crust is created at spreading
centers, and this, along with subduction, drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in
continuous orogeny and areas of isostatic imbalance.
Modern evidence

Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal
fossils are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The
fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South
Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus in rocks of the
same age at locations in Africa, India, and Antarctica.[67] There is also living evidence, with the same
animals being found on two continents. Some earthworm families (such as Ocnerodrilidae,
Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa.

Hazards due to earthquakes

A number of naturally occurring events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornados, and floods, are capable
of causing deaths, injuries and property damage. These natural hazards cause tremendous damage
around the word each year. Hazards associated with earthquakes are commonly referred as seismic
hazard. Earthquakes are the cause of thousands of deaths and colossal loss and damage of properties
and the natural landscape. Such a devastation and loss could be significantly mitigated through advance
assessment of seismic hazard and risk and through the implementation of appropriate land use,
construction codes, and emergency plans. If major earthquakes could be predicted, it would be possible
to evacuate population centres and take other measures that could minimize the loss of life and perhaps
reduce damage to property as well
Hazards associated with earthquakes
1. Ground or Seismic Shaking
2. Structural Hazard (Destruction of Infrastructure)
3. Liquefaction
4. Landslides
5. Tsunami
6. Fire
7. Flooding
8. Lifeline hazards (Disruption of service)

Ground shaking

Ground or seismic Shaking is a term used to describe the vibration of the ground during an earthquake.
Seismic shaking is caused by body waves and surface waves. As a generalization, the severity of ground
shaking increases as magnitude increases and decreases as distance from the causative fault increases.
Seismic shaking is generally strongest closest to the epicenter. Strong seismic shaking can occur in areas
of loose soil or filled in land far from an epicenter. The filled soil magnifies the effects of the seismic waves.
Structures in such an area can experience severe damage though far from the epicenter.

Structural Hazard (Destruction of Infrastructures)

Without doubt, the most dramatic and memorable images of earthquake damage are those of structural
collapse. From the predictable collapse of the unreinforced masonry and adobe structures in which many
residents of underdeveloped areas of the world lives to the surprising destruction of more modern
construction. Structural damage is the leading cause of death and economic loss in many earthquakes.
However, structures need not to collapse to cause death and damage. Falling objects sucks as brick facings
and parapets on the outside of the structure or heavy fixtures and shelves within a structure have caused
casualties in many earthquakes. Interior facilities such as gas and water piping, lighting, electrical lines
and storage system can also be damage during earthquakes.

Liquefaction

Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, water-logged sediments at or near the ground surface lose
their strength in response to strong ground shaking. Liquefaction occurring beneath buildings and other
structures can cause major damage during earthquakes. When liquefaction occurs, what had been stable
soil suddenly turns into liquid. The liquid cannot support buildings or other structures. Buildings and
bridges may settle and collapse. Underground storage tanks or sewer lines may float to the surface. For
example, the 1964 Niigata earthquake caused widespread liquefaction in Niigata, Japan which destroyed
many buildings. Also, during the 1989 Loma Prieta, California earthquake, liquefaction of the soils and
debris used to fill in a lagoon caused major subsidence, fracturing, and horizontal sliding of the ground
surface in the Marina district in San Francisco.
Landslides

Earthquakes can trigger different types of mass movements. These mass movements can often do more
destruction and loss of life than the initial quake. Earthquakes often cause loose rock and soil on slopes
to move. These movements are called landslides. More commonly, earthquake-induced landslide cause
damage by destroying buildings, or disrupting bridges and other constructed facilities. Manu earthquake-
induced landslide result from liquefaction phenomena, but many others simply represent the failures of
slopes that were marginally stable under static condition. In areas where the water content of the soil is
high, an earthquake can start a mudflow. During a mudflow, a mixture of soil and water slides downhill
rapidly burying everything beneath.

Tsunami

Rapid vertical seafloor movement caused by fault rupture during earthquakes can produce long -period
sea waves called tsunamis. In open sea, tsunamis travel great distance at high speeds but difficult to detect
– they usually have heights of less than 1 m and wavelengths (the distance between the crest) of several
hundred kilometers. As a tsunami approaches shore, however, the decreasing water depth causes its
speed to decrease and the height of the wave to increase. In coastal areas, the shape of the seafloor may
amplify the wave, producing a nearly vertical wall of water that rushes far inland and causes devastating
damages.
Earthquake-induced waves in enclosed bodies of water are seiches. Typically caused by long period
seismic waves that match the oscillation of the water in the lake or reservoir. Another cause of seiche can
be formed when faulting causes permanent vertical displacement within lake or reservoir.

Fire

The six main earthquake hazard is fire. These fires can be started by broken gas lines and power lines, or
tipped over wood or coal stoves. They can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines that feed the
fire hydrants are broken, too. For example, after the Great San Francisco Earthquake in 1906, the city
burned for three days. Most of the city was destroyed and 250,000 people were left homeless.

Flooding

Another main hazard is flooding. An earthquake can rupture (break) dams or levees along a river. The
water from the river or the reservoir would then flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe sweeping
away or drowning people.
Lifeline hazards

A network of facilities that provide the services required for commerce and public health can be found in
virtually any developed area. These networks, which include electrical power and telecommunication,
transportation, hospital and emergency services, water and sewage, oil and gas distribution, and waste
storage systems, have collectively come to be known as lifeline. Lifeline systems and facilities that
comprise them provide services that many take for granted but which are essential in modern industrial
areas. Lifeline failures not only have severe economic consequences but also adversely affect the
environment and quality of life following an earthquake. Lifeline failure can cause disruption and
economic losses that greatly exceed the cost of repairing facilities directly damaged by earthquake
shaking. Lifeline failures can also hamper emergency response and rescue efforts immediately following
damaging earthquakes. For example, Most of the damage in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, was
caused by a fire that could not be fought properly because of the broken water mains.