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2020 Electrodynamics

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  Electrodynamics
 GENERATORS

A generator is a device that converts input mechanical energy from an external source into
electrical energy as output.

 ENERGY CONVERSION IN GENERATORS

 A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy:

 The mechanical energy can come from any mechanism that rotates the rotor or the
arm of the generator.
 When the turbine (attached to the rotor of the generator) turns (a mechanical process),
through principle called electromagnetic induction, emf (electrical energy) is induced
in the terminals of the generator.
 Generator is less than 100 % efficient because energy can also be converted to:
a. Friction between moving parts.
b. Electrical resistance in wires.

 COAL-FIRED POWER STATIONS

 In coal-fired power stations such as those used by Eskom, coal is used to heat up
water which turns into steam moving at high speed.
 The steam turns the turbine which causes an emf to be induced in the generator.
 The steam provides mechanical energy which turns the turbine and the generator turns
the mechanical energy in electrical energy.

 HYDROELECTRIC POWER
 In a hydroelectric power plant, water that is placed at a relatively high altitude e.g. a
dam on a mountain is allowed to move down the steep slope and turn the turbine
which causes the generator to produce emf, so whether it is hydroelectric power,
nuclear power, coal power or geothermal power, the principle is the same i.e. a
certain mechanism turns the turbine of a generator which then produces emf as it
rotates.

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  HOW GENERATORS WORK

 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 The principle behind the functioning of a generator is the principle of electromagnetic

induction i.e. Faraday’s law.
 Faraday’s law states: The emf induced in a coil of a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux linkage.

 Formula:

KUTHI HUUUU!
 ε - is the emf induced in the wire, in volts (V).
 N- is the number of turns or loops of the wire.
 Δ𝜙 - is the change in magnetic flux linkage in webers (Wb) and 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 Δt - is the time taken for the change in magnetic flux in seconds.
 The minus sign (-) indicates that the emf produced leads to current with a magnetic
field in a direction that tends to decrease the change in magnetic field. This is known
as Lenz’s law.
 Lenz’s law states: The emf induced in a coil of wire leads to current with a
magnetic field that tends to decrease the change in magnetic flux.
 Thus, a change in magnetic flux caused by a moving magnet, or moving or rotating
conductor or changing area results in an emf induced in the wire.

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  A SIMPLE AC GENERATOR

 The basic important components of an AC (alternating current) :

 Magnetic field
 North pole of a magnet
 Armature
 Carbon brush
 Slip rings

AC GENERATOR

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 DC GENERATOR

 Notice especially, the slip rings which is an important structural difference from a DC
generator.

 FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A GENERATOR

 Armature: Allows emf and current to be induced through it, as it rotates in the
magnetic field.
 Magnets: provides magnetic field that passes through the armature
 Slip rings:
a. Allows current to change direction every half-rotation of armature.
b. Allows continuous contact with brushes so that current can be transmitted to
terminals without breaking the circuit.
 Carbon- brushes:
a. maintains electrical contact with the slip rings.
b. conducts or takes current out of the coil.

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  AC GENERATOR AT WORK

 Consider an AC generator with its armature turning clockwise by some mechanical

Force. A generator rotated clockwise by a force.
 Magnetic field is always directed from North Pole to South Pole.
 To determine the direction of the current through each part , we use right hand rule.
 We shape and orient our right hand so that the first finger (for finger or index finger)
so that it points to the right, whilst our thumb points upwards, the second finger points
into the page.

 Magnitude and direction of current and emf induced in an AC generator

 AC generators produce alternating current (AC).

 Alternating current is current that changes direction periodically according to a
specified frequency or period.
 The right hand-rule is used to determine the directions of magnetic field, force and
current.
 Alternating voltage is voltage that changes polarity periodically according to a
specified frequency of period.
 In South Africa, Eskom generators in power plants produce alternating current that
has a frequency of 50 Hz ( f = 50 Hz) and changes direction according every 0,02

seconds : T=

T=

= 0,02 s.
 The graphs of alternating current and alternating voltage are sinusoidal i.e. they are
shaped like sine and cosine graphs
 The magnitude and direction of emf (voltage) and current produced by an AC
generator is directly linked to the rotation of the armature in the generator and its
orientation in comparison to the magnetic field surrounding it.

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KUTHI HUUUU!!!
 Magnetic flux is the product of the perpendicular component magnetic field passing
through the coil and the area of the coil.
 The equation 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 When the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the normal is perpendicular to
the surface and parallel to the magnetic field and the magnetic flux is at its maximum
value (BA) since = 1. The perpendicular component of the magnetic field is
along the normal to the surface or coil through which the magnetic field passes.
 When the coil is parallel to the magnetic field, the normal is perpendicular to the
surface and magnetic field and the magnetic flux is minimum i.e. = 0.

 DC GENERATOR

 A DC generator produces Direct Current.

 Direct current is current is current that maintains its direction.
 The direction of current is that of conventional current which flows from positive to
negative.
 DC generator is similar in many respects to an AC generator.
 One major difference between the two is that a DC generator has a split ring or
commutator instead of two slip rings.

 FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A DC GENERATOR

 Armature: Allows emf and current to be induced through it as it rotates in the

magnetic field.
 Magnets :provides magnetic field that passes through the armature (coil)
 Split rings (or commutator ):
a. Allows induced current to flow in one direction
b. Allows continuous contact with brushes so that current can be transmitted to
terminals without breaking the circuit.
 Carbon brushes :
a. Maintains electrical contact with the split rings
b. Conducts/ takes current out of the coil.
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  DC GENERATOR AT WORK

 Consider a DC generator with its armature that is made to turn in the anticlockwise
direction by some mechanical effort.
 Magnetic field: Magnetic field is always directed from north to south.
 Direction of current through armature: We use the right hand rule to determine the
direction of the current through the armature:

 The first finger points to the right to indicate the direction of the magnetic field.
 The thumb points the direction of the force or coil
 The second finger shows the direction of the current.

 DC generator with its armature rotating due to some mechanical effort

Points to consider:

 The type of current induced in the generator is taken as conventional current.

 Conventional current refers to current that flows from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal.
 The current maintains its polarity throughout the rotation of the armature.
 The commutators are fixed and rotate as the armature rotates.
 The carbon brushes are just connectors and have no effect on the polarity of the emf
or current induced.

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  How the commutators maintain polarity of emf produced

 The emf and current induced in a DC generator has the same polarity (positive
terminal and negative terminals do not change or swap) through the rotation of the
armature. This is achieved by the use of the commutator.
 Every half cycle, the induced emf changes direction whilst at the same time, the two
segments of the commutator swap the brushes that are connected to them.
 This way, the emf across the terminals of the DC generator maintains its polarity.

 Magnitude and direction of induced emf as armature rotates:

 The magnetic flux in a DC generator changes in the same way that it changes in an
 AC generator. The current induced, however maintains the same direction because the
part of the armature and split-ring connected to one brush always has current flowing
in the same direction.

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  MOTORS

A motor is a device that converts input electrical energy into output mechanical energy.

 ENERGY CONVERSION IN MOTORS

 Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy:

 A motor does the exact opposite of what a generator does.
 A motor can be used as a generator if its shaft (or rotor) is turned mechanically.
 And a generator can be used as a motor if it is connected to a source of energy e.g. a
battery.

 A SIMPLE DC MOTOR

 The essential components that are needed for the building of the motor:

 Permanent magnets
 coils (armature)
 commutator for DC motor
 slip rings for AC motor
 brushes
 power supply/battery

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 AC MOTOR

DC MOTOR

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  PRINCIPLE OF MOTOR OPERATION

 Electric motors operate on the motor effect.

 The motor effect is the phenomenon whereby a current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field experiences a magnetic force perpendicular to the current in the
conductor and magnetic field through it.
 The motor effect can also be defined as the interaction between the magnetic field due
to the current in the conductor and the external magnetic field.
 When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the moving charges
in the conductor will experience a force which is perpendicular to the magnetic field
through the conductor and the current inside the conductor.
 Due to the force exerted on the charges, the conductor will move in the direction of
the force exerted on it.
 The direction of the force exerted on the current-carrying conductor is given by
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE:

 The thumb indicates the direction of force (and movement) of the conductor.
 The first finger indicates the direction of the magnetic field through the conductor.
 The second finger indicates the direction of the current inside the conductor.

 THE MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE DEPENDS ON

 The magnitude of the current (I) inside the wire, measured in amperes (A).
 The length (l) of the part of the conductor inside the magnetic field, measured in
meters.
 The strength of the perpendicular component of the magnetic field (𝐵⊥) passing
through the conductor.

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KUTHU HUUUUU!!!

 The maximum force is exerted on the conductor when it is perpendicular to the

magnetic field and zero when it is parallel to it.
 A force that tends to rotate an object is called torque.
 Torque is defined as the moment of a force or the rotational effect of a force.
 There is maximum torque exerted on the conductor when the force is perpendicular to
the distance that connects the point of rotation to the point where the force acts.

KUTHU HUUUUU!!!

 N is the number of turns of the coil.

 I is the current inside the coil in amperes (A)
 The conductor experiences a force inside the magnetic field.
 The current flowing through the circuit is conventional
 A is the area of the coil in square meters
 B is magnetic field through the coil (in tesla, T).

 The torque on (and speed of rotation of) the armature can be increased by:

 Increasing the number of turns of the coil.

 Increasing the current through the coil.
 Increasing the area of the coil.
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field i.e. using stronger magnets.

 INERTIA OF THE COIL

 Since the DC motor has split-rings which are separated from each other, there is a
point (when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field) during the rotation of the
armature where the carbon brushes are not in contact with the split rings.
 At this point, there is no current flowing in the armature.
 What keeps the armature rotating at this point, is the inertia of the coil.
 Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any change in its state of motion.

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  USE OF AC GENERATORS

 Generation of electric power in power plants (e.g. hydroelectric power plants, wind
power plants, nuclear power plants, coal-fired power plants and geothermal power
plants).
 Alternating current is easy to step-up (increase by using a step-up transformer) and
step-down (decrease by using a step-down transformer).
 Most household appliances (appliances found at ‘home’) work on alternating current.

 USES OF DC GENERATORS

 In factories that does electroplating (covering a metal with another metal).

 In factories that produce chemicals such as chlorine and aluminium through
electrolysis (use of electricity to make a chemical reaction occur).
 In locomotives that are driven by diesel-electric motors.
 Due to the use of commutators (which are expensive), many DC generators are being
replaced by AC generators.

 USES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

 Escalators and elevators.

 Cars e.g. starter, windscreen wipers.
 CD players.

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  ALTERNATING CURRENT

 Alternating current is current that changes direction periodically according to a

specified frequency.
 Alternating emf (or voltage) is voltage that changes polarity periodically according to
a specified frequency.
 In South Africa, power stations produce current and voltage with a frequency of 50
Hz.
 The graph of voltage versus time for alternating current is sinusoidal
 The output voltage (V) varies as the armature of an AC generator rotates.
 The crests and troughs of the graph represent the maximum or peak voltage (Vmax).
 The graph of current versus time for alternating current is also sinusoidal
 The output current (I) also varies with time as the armature rotates.
 The crests and troughs of the graph represent maximum or peak current (Imax)
 Output voltage of an AC generator varies with time as the armature rotates.
Note that the average voltage is zero. (Vav = 0 V)
 Output current (I) of an AC generator varies with time as the armature rotates.
Note that the average current is zero. (Iav = 0 A)

 The root-mean-square (rms) values for ac current and voltage.

 The root-mean-square value is the square root of the average of the square of the
AC current or voltage.
 RMS voltage: is the value of the voltage in a DC circuit that will have the same
heating effect as an AC circuit.
 RMS current: is the value of the current in a DC circuit that will have the same
heating effect as an AC circuit.
 If every output value of voltage is squared, every value becomes positive and the
average can be found.

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  AC AND DC GRAPHS

 Starting from zero if the plane of the coil is vertical to the magnetic field

 Starting from maximum if the plane of the coil is horizontal to the field

 DIRECT CURRENT

POSITIONS OF A COIL VS GRAPH



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 

 ALTERNATING CURRENT

POSITIONS OF A COIL VS GRAPH

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 VOLTAGE

CURRENT

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 POWER

KUTHI HUUUUUU!!!
 Vrms is the root-mean-square value of the voltage in volts (V)
 Vmax is the maximum voltage in volts (V)
 Irms is the root-mean-square value of the current in amperes (A).
 Imax is the maximum current in amperes (A)
 Pave is the average power dissipated in watts (W).
 R is the resistance of the resistor in ohms.
 Vmax is always greater than Vrms.
 Imax is always greater than Irms.
 ADVANTAGES OF AC OVER DC
 Alternating current can be stepped-down or stepped-up (using transformers)
 It can be transferred over long distances with minimal or no loss of power.
 AC can be generated in much higher voltages than DC.
 AC generators are easier and cheaper to construct than DC generators as they do not
consist of commutator.

 WINDMILLS OVER COAL-DRIVEN GENERATORS

 Advantage: less environmental pollution (noise or gases).

 Disadvantage: will not operate in absence of wind.

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