MINI REVIEW

published: 03 February 2016

doi: 10.3389/feart.2016.00007

Detecting and Correcting for

Paleomagnetic Inclination Shallowing
of Sedimentary Rocks: A Review
Yong-Xiang Li 1* and Kenneth P. Kodama 2
1
State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposit Research, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Institute of Geophysics and
Geodynamics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China, 2 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, PA, USA

Magnetic anisotropy and the elongation/inclination (E–I) approaches have been

increasingly employed as two important means for detecting and correcting the
paleomagnetic inclination shallowing in sedimentary rocks that was first recognized
60 years ago. Both approaches are based on certain assumptions, and thus have
advantages and intrinsic limitations in investigating shallow inclinations in sedimentary
rocks. The E–I approach is relatively easy to use, but it needs a large dataset
to adequately sample paleomagnetic directions due to paleosecular variation (PSV)
of the geomagnetic field. Also, slow sediment accumulation rates (SARs) and local
tectonics could lead to under- or over-corrections using the E–I approach. For the
Edited by:
magnetic anisotropy technique, labor-intensive, sophisticated laboratory rock magnetic
Andrew Philip Roberts,
The Australian National University, experiments are required in order to accurately determine both bulk magnetic anisotropy
Australia of remanence-carrying grains and magnetic anisotropy of an individual particle, i.e.,
Reviewed by: “a” factor, of samples. Our review shows that, despite the intensive laboratory work
Mike Jackson,
University of Minnesota, USA
necessary for applying anisotropy-based inclination corrections, it is worth investing the
Lisa Tauxe, effort. In addition, the joint use of magnetic susceptibility and remanence anisotropy
University of California, San Diego,
measurements as well as detailed rock magnetic measurements for determining the
USA
particle anisotropy “a” factor have the advantage of retrieving direct evidence of inclination
*Correspondence:
Yong-Xiang Li shallowing and correcting for it with high confidence. We caution against use of either of
yxli@nju.edu.cn the two approaches without full appreciation of the underlying assumptions and intrinsic
limitations of each technique. The use and comparison of both techniques could provide
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to the most robust inclination shallowing correction for sedimentary rocks.
Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism,
a section of the journal Keywords: inclination shallowing, sedimentary rocks, magnetic anisotropy, elongation/inclination, rock
Frontiers in Earth Science magnetism, paleomagnetism

Received: 30 October 2015

Accepted: 14 January 2016
Published: 03 February 2016
INTRODUCTION
Citation: One of the outstanding problems in understanding paleomagnetic records of sedimentary rocks
Li Y-X and Kodama KP (2016)
is inclination shallowing, i.e., the recording of magnetic remanence inclination that is shallower
Detecting and Correcting for
Paleomagnetic Inclination Shallowing
than that of the ambient field in which sedimentary rocks were magnetized. Recognition of non-
of Sedimentary Rocks: A Review. ideal paleomagnetic recording in sedimentary rocks raises concern because our knowledge of the
Front. Earth Sci. 4:7. spatial-temporal behavior of the geomagnetic field is largely based on paleomagnetic records from
doi: 10.3389/feart.2016.00007 sedimentary rocks due to their widespread occurrence and ability to record geomagnetic field

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Li and Kodama Detecting and Correcting Inclination Shallowing

variations relatively continuously. Recognition of inclination stronger evidence for inclination shallowing and offer new
shallowing in sedimentary rocks has led to efforts to investigate insights into detecting and correcting for inclination shallowing.
processes that can cause this problem since it was first discovered
60 years ago (King, 1955). Laboratory re-deposition experiments
and modeling work have shown that inclination shallowing THE ELONGATION/INCLINATION (E–I)
could occur during sediment deposition and can be related to APPROACH
factors such as particle shape, viscosity, pH, and current shear
(e.g., Griffiths et al., 1960; Verosub et al., 1979; Tauxe et al., The E–I approach takes advantage of the characteristic
2006). Paleomagnetic studies of recent sediments and ancient directional distributions of paleomagnetic directions due
sedimentary rocks have demonstrated that inclination shallowing to geomagnetic secular variation. Tauxe and Kent (2004)
could also take place after deposition and is associated with constructed a statistical model of geomagnetic paleosecular
sediment compaction (Deamer and Kodama, 1990; Kodama, variation (PSV), i.e., TK03.GAD, to quantify directional
1997). The degree of inclination shallowing can be described by distributions. The TK03.GAD model was configured to fit the
the empirical formula (King, 1955): paleomagnetic directional data from lava flows erupted over
the past 5 Myr and accounts for the latitudinal dependence
f = tan (Io )/tan (If ) (1) of virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) scatter S(λ). This model
is designed to have a circular distribution of VGPs and thus
where f is the flattening factor, Io is the observed, shallowed predicts an elongated distribution of magnetic directions along
inclination and If is the inclination of the ambient field. The the magnetic meridian. The degree of elongation, E, decreases
flattening factor f ranges from 1.0 (no inclination shallowing) to with increasing latitude, and therefore increasing inclination,
0 (total inclination shallowing). I. Thus, an E–I curve is created from this model. Deviations
While our knowledge of the acquisition mechanism of of the E–I relationship of observed paleomagnetic directions
depositional remanent magnetization (DRM) and post- from the expected E–I curve could indicate the existence of
depositional remanent magnetization (pDRM) continues inclination flattening. Specifically, an elongated distribution of
to advance via modern, more sophisticated laboratory re- directions along the perpendicular to the meridian, i.e., E–W
deposition experiments and novel modeling work (Katari and in the horizontal plane, is considered diagnostic of inclination
Tauxe, 2000; Jezek et al., 2012; Spassov and Valet, 2012; Roberts shallowing. Once inclination shallowing is recognized, the degree
et al., 2013), examining the reliability of paleomagnetic records of shallowing can be quantified utilizing the model’s E–I curve.
from sedimentary rocks is of paramount importance before Because the flattening factor, f, ranges from 1.0 to 0, varying the
these data are used to test tectonic models and to examine f factor leads to different E–I pairs. Once an E–I pair matches
geomagnetic field behavior. Not all sedimentary paleomagnetic the E–I curve of the model, an optimum f value is found and the
records are plagued by inclination shallowing, but many have corrected inclination If is obtained by correcting the data using
been significantly biased by this phenomenon (Kodama, 2012). the obtained f value (Tauxe and Kent, 2004).
Hence, it is critical to detect and correct for shallowing to ensure One obvious advantage of the E–I approach is that it
the reliability of paleomagnetic data from sedimentary rocks. is relatively easy to use and no additional rock magnetic
To detect inclination shallowing in sedimentary rocks, one measurements are required (see Section The Magnetic
straightforward approach is to compare paleomagnetic data Anisotropy-Based Approach). Only the E–I data analysis is
from sedimentary rocks with those from coeval igneous rocks, necessary for standard paleomagnetic data. This approach has
provided that the contemporaneous age of both types of rocks been widely used since its introduction.
can be assured and a sufficient number of igneous cooling While it is easy to use and often provides reasonable
units are sampled to adequately average secular variation. These interpretations, the intrinsic limitations associated with the
requirements can be satisfied in some sections where multiple assumptions are noteworthy. First, the TK03.GAD model is
basalt layers are sandwiched between sedimentary layers (Gilder based on fitting paleomagnetic data from the past 5 Myr and it
et al., 2003; Li et al., 2013). However, in reality, such conditions assumes that the geomagnetic field behaved similarly throughout
are rare and are not commonly present in a sedimentary section geological time. To test whether the model is valid further
of interest. For situations like this, two means of detecting back in time, Tauxe et al. (2008) analyzed paleomagnetic data
and correcting for inclination shallowing are widely used, from large igneous provinces (LIPs) with ages back to the
the magnetic anisotropy-based approach (Jackson et al., 1991; Cretaceous and found that the E–I pairs of these data agree with
Kodama, 1997) and the elongation/inclination (E–I) technique the model’s prediction. Paleomagnetic data from ∼1.1 Ga lava
(Tauxe and Kent, 2004). While numerous studies have used these flows also appear to agree with the model (Tauxe and Kodama,
two approaches, it is important to note that both approaches are 2009). So far, the model has not been tested with data from
based on certain assumptions and, thus, each has its intrinsic the Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic. Furthermore, the previously
limitations. In this brief review, we comparatively assess these mentioned LIP data are mainly from middle-high latitudes and
two approaches by highlighting their basic assumptions and data from middle-low latitudes are lacking. It will be important
associated limitations. Our analysis cautions against blind use to test the model with data from mid-low latitudes where the
of these techniques and emphasizes that the combined use elongation feature of magnetic directions is most pronounced
of different types of magnetic anisotropy data could provide as predicted by the model. Second, a large dataset (n > 100)

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Li and Kodama Detecting and Correcting Inclination Shallowing

is needed to represent a sufficiently long period of time so that f to magnetic anisotropy:

directional distributions caused by PSV are adequately sampled.
For sedimentary rocks, the time period recorded by a sample is a Kmin (a + 2) −1
f = (2)
function of sediment accumulation rate (SAR; Kodama, 2012). Kmax (a + 2) −1
SARs in pelagic or hemipelagic settings are usually about 1.0–
10.0 cm/kyr or less. A typical paleomagnetic specimen of 2.2 cm where Kmax and Kmin are the normalized maximum and
thickness would average 220–2200 years or more, which suggests minimum axes of the bulk magnetic anisotropy, and a is the
that PSV has been smoothed even in one specimen. This is in anisotropy of individual magnetic particles. For remanence-
sharp contrast to the spot reading of the geomagnetic field from carrying hematite grains, Tan and Kodama (2003) modified
lava flows over the past 5 Myr on which the PSV model is based. Equation (2) as follows:
Therefore, the E–I method is not suitable for sedimentary rocks
with slow SARs. While the dataset should be large enough to Kmin (2a + 1) − 1
f = (3)
adequately sample PSV, the duration sampled should not be so Kmax (2a + 1) −1
long that the results are affected by plate motion (Tauxe and
Kodama, 2009). Third, local tectonics need to be taken into assuming that hematite occurs as platelets with the remanence
account. Relative vertical-axis rotations between sampling sites confined to the basal plane of the particle. The advantage of
can lead to an apparent E–W elongation, which is not related to this approach is that inclination shallowing is directly linked
inclination shallowing. Kodama (2012) pointed out that the E– to evidence for shallowing, i.e., magnetic anisotropy. In this
I method led to an over-correction of inclination shallowing in approach, it is assumed that the initial magnetic anisotropy at
Oligocene–Miocene redbeds from coastal California (Hillhouse, deposition is nearly isotropic or negligible and that magnetic
2010), where the over-correction was attributed to unrecognized particles initially align faithfully with the ambient field. Also,
vertical-axis rotations. Fourth, the TK03.GAD model assumes the degree of inclination shallowing corresponds to the degree
hemispheric symmetry of the geomagnetic field. Asymmetrical of magnetic anisotropy development. This assumption appears
field behavior at high latitudes may persist and the model can to be supported by field data. For instance, laminated rocks
only predict field behavior at high latitudes of the northern have been shown to have a stronger foliation and shallower
hemisphere (N.H.) reasonably well (Cromwell et al., 2013), which inclinations than mass-flow faces in an extensional basin on
would thus limit its use to N.H. data only. Finally, Linder and the Iberian margin (Garcés et al., 1996). Also, well-foliated
Gilder (2012) recently stated that circular VGP distributions, as Cretaceous marine sedimentary rocks from Baja California
required by the TK03.GAD model, are based on paleomagnetic have shallower inclinations than non-foliated samples (Vaughn
directions derived from a wide distribution of site longitudes. et al., 2005). Besides these end-member scenarios, development
However, because paleomagnetic studies are usually from one of magnetic anisotropy was found to generally correspond to
or two localities, they argue that a Fisherian distribution of the degree of inclination shallowing in a Quaternary marine
directions and the associated precision parameter, k, should be succession that is undergoing compaction on the northern slope
used for a paleomagnetic study instead. No details are given as to of the South China Sea (Li et al., 2014).
how k can be used for E–I corrections. Nonetheless, while the E– In Equations (2) and (3), inclination shallowing is a function
I approach is relatively easy to use, its assumptions and intrinsic of both bulk magnetic anisotropy and individual particle
limitations should be kept in mind, and uninformed use of the anisotropy (Figure 1). Therefore, in addition to standard
approach may lead to over- or under-corrections. paleomagnetic data acquisition, detailed laboratory rock
magnetic experiments are needed to determine the bulk
magnetic remanence anisotropy and the individual particle
THE MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY-BASED anisotropy.
APPROACH
Determining Bulk Magnetic Anisotropy
Magnetic anisotropy, or magnetic fabric, is described by a Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) is perhaps the most
second-rank tensor that is graphically represented by an ellipsoid widely measured bulk magnetic anisotropy in paleomagnetic
(Tarling and Hrouda, 1993). Magnetic anisotropy can thus be studies. However, AMS is carried by all types of magnetic
characterized by the shape and orientation of the principal axes minerals in a rock, i.e., diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and
(Kmax , Kint , Kmin ) of the ellipsoid. During deposition and post- ferrimagnetic minerals. For inclination shallowing corrections,
depositional compaction, bedding-parallel flattening can cause the bulk magnetic anisotropy used must be the remanence
shallower inclinations than that of the ambient field and the anisotropy, i.e., the anisotropy of only the remanence-carrying
development of an oblate fabric, which is characterized by Kmin grains. If the remanence is carried by magnetite, the remanence-
perpendicular to bedding with Kint and Kmax lying within the carrying magnetite grains are identified by the coercivity
bedding plane (Tarling and Hrouda, 1993). The presence of range over which the characteristic remanent magnetization
oblate fabrics is commonly taken as evidence for inclination (ChRM) was isolated by alternating field (AF) demagnetization.
shallowing (Kodama, 1997). The bulk anisotropy of these grains can be determined by
Jackson et al. (1991) developed a theoretical model for measuring, in theory, three orthogonal partial anhysteretic
correcting inclination shallowing that links the flattening factor remanent magnetizations (pARM). In practice, redundant

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Li and Kodama Detecting and Correcting Inclination Shallowing

FIGURE 1 | Schematic diagram that indicates how inclination shallowing is a function of both bulk anisotropy and individual particle anisotropy “a”
factor.

measurements (e.g., nine orientations in McCabe et al., 1985) for IRMs acquired at a low field following the approach of
are necessary to accurately define a second-rank tensor. McCabe et al. (1985) can be severely undermined by the
Between each step of pARM acquisition and measurement, effects of magnetic history on IRM acquisition (Tauxe et al.,
the sample is demagnetized at a peak AF high enough to 1990; Mitra et al., 2011). To overcome these issues, high-
remove the previously applied pARM. The measurements field IRM (hf-IRM) can be alternatively used to measure
are then used to compute the anisotropy of anhysteretic the bulk remanence anisotropy (Kodama and Dekkers, 2004).
remanence (AAR), i.e., the bulk remanence anisotropy of the The applied field is strong enough to saturate all hematite
sample. grains along each orientation, therefore, there is no need to
If the remanence resides in hematite, remanence-carrying demagnetize the samples between each hf-IRM orientation to
grains are identified by the unblocking temperature ranges remove the influence from the previously applied IRM. For
over which the ChRM was isolated. Bulk magnetic anisotropy instance, a hf-IRM can be imparted at an applied field of 5 T
of these grains can be determined by measuring isothermal along nine orientations and measured accordingly (Bilardello
remanent magnetization (IRM) acquired with an applied direct and Kodama, 2009). Regardless of the type of remanent
current (DC) field high enough to magnetize the coercivity magnetization used to determine the bulk anisotropy, all of
component that carries the ChRM (Tan and Kodama, 2002; these techniques require labor-intensive laboratory experiments.
Tan et al., 2003, 2007). For example, Tan et al. (2003) Simplified procedures have, therefore, been proposed. One
used a DC field of 1.2 T applied along nine orientations, procedure involves imparting and measuring the remanent
following McCabe et al. (1985), for the Cretaceous Kapusaliang magnetization along only three orthogonal directions, two
Formation redbeds of central Asia. Thermal demagnetization within and the other perpendicular to the bedding plane
at 680◦ C was performed between each step of IRM acquisition (Tan and Kodama, 2002; Tan et al., 2003; Schmidt et al.,
and measurement, and the nine orientation IRMs were 2009). Alternatively, multiple subsamples collected along three
then used to determine the bulk magnetic anisotropy of orthogonal directions can be treated separately (Bilardello,
isothermal remanence (AIR). Alternatively, samples can be 2015). Another procedure involves imparting an IRM at 45◦
given partial thermal remanent magnetizations (pTRM) along to the bedding plane to quantify the anisotropy (Hodych and
nine orientations using the unblocking temperature range Buchan, 1994). These simplified treatments essentially estimate
determined by thermal demagnetization of the ChRM and the the bulk anisotropy based on partial anisotropy measurements.
bulk magnetic anisotropy can be determined by the anisotropy The partial bulk anisotropy needs to be compared with one
of thermal remanence, i.e., ATR (Tan and Kodama, 2002; determined from a complete second-rank tensor to ensure that
Schmidt and Williams, 2013). Repeated heating can cause they are equivalent. Also, for the multiple subsample approach,
transformation of mineral phases and changes in the magnetic a non-uniform distribution of magnetic particles could bias bulk
grain size distribution of samples. Also, AIR determination anisotropy determination.

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Li and Kodama Detecting and Correcting Inclination Shallowing

Determining Individual Particle of magnetite and goethite on ChRMs carried by hematite

Anisotropy a (Bilardello and Kodama, 2010). Monitoring AMS during stepwise
Individual particle anisotropy a can be determined by chemical demagnetization allows determination of bulk magnetic
redeposition-compaction experiments, direct measurement anisotropy of pigmentary hematite by subtraction of AMS
of magnetic mineral extracts, or a curve fitting technique between two demagnetization steps and isolation of bulk
(Kodama, 1997, 2009). Redeposition-compaction experiments magnetic anisotropy of detrital hematite grains (Tan and
are conducted in a known field to mimic deposition and natural Kodama, 2002; Tan et al., 2003). The other challenge is that
post-depositional processes. Compacted samples are treated it is difficult to accurately determine the individual particle
as if they were natural samples so that their ChRM and bulk anisotropy a factor.
anisotropy can be measured. Since the ambient field at which
the experiments were conducted is known, particle anisotropy OUTLOOK
“a” can be determined by joint use of Equations (1) and (2).
For magnetic extracts, magnetic particles are dispersed in Comparative studies of the E–I and anisotropy-based approaches
epoxy that is exposed to a static magnetic field to align the yield generally consistent results (e.g., Tauxe et al., 2008), which
particles along the field as the epoxy solidifies. The remanent demonstrate the effectiveness of both approaches for correcting
magnetization along the hard- and easy-axis are measured shallow inclinations. However, either of these approaches should
and particle anisotropy is defined by the ratio of the easy-axis not be used without full appreciation of their underlying
component over the hard-axis component. Both redeposition- assumptions and intrinsic limitations. The E–I approach is easy
compaction experiments and direct measurements of magnetic to use, which presents both opportunities and dangers, such
extracts involve a significant amount of laboratory work. To as inadequate sampling of PSV or local vertical axis rotations.
simplify the procedure, Kodama (2009) developed a curve-fitting The anisotropy-based approach involves intensive laboratory
approach that involves least-squares fitting of bulk anisotropy rock magnetic experiments, thus making it less desirable, but
data to a theoretical correction curve to find the effective particle magnetic anisotropy provides direct evidence for the inclination
anisotropy. shallowing. Use and comparison of both techniques would
The advantage of the anisotropy-based method is that be valuable for robust inclination shallowing correction in
it focuses directly on the magnetic grains that carry the sedimentary rocks.
shallowed inclination. The disadvantage is that it requires
intensive laboratory rock magnetic experiments. Many of these
experiments need specialized instruments that are not commonly AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
available in paleomagnetism laboratories, thus limiting their
All authors listed, have made substantial, direct and intellectual
use. In addition, there are two main challenges in using
contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.
this method. One is isolating bulk anisotropy of ChRM-
carrying grains and the other is determining individual particle
anisotropy. Rocks often contain different types of minerals ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with different grain sizes. Isolating the anisotropy of ChRM-
carrying grains can be challenging because it can be masked We thank Bin Wen for help with crafting the figure. We
by the anisotropies of co-existing magnetic minerals that do thank Editor Andrew Roberts and Reviewers Mike Jackson and
not carry a ChRM. Combined use of different treatments can Lisa Tauxe for their insightful comments that helped improve
help to isolate contributions from different magnetic mineral the manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge fruitful discussion
fractions. For example, AF demagnetization at 100 mT and with Xiaodong Tan. Y.-X. Li is supported by the National
thermal demagnetization at 125◦ C have been combined with the Natural Science Foundation of China (41274071, 41230208). K.
nine position anisotropy measurement to eliminate the influence P. Kodama is supported by NSF EAR-1322002.

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Frontiers in Earth Science | www.frontiersin.org 6 February 2016 | Volume 4 | Article 7