14th NATSEM 2018

MALAYSIAN PLANTATION INDUSTRY: CROP OPTIONS

Fruit Set and Weevil

Pollination Issues in Oil Palm
NORMAN K, Ramle M, Saharul A, Rosman S., A. Costa and R. Sivapragasam
 History of weevil pollination in Malaysian oil palm

 In June 1980, Elaeidobius kamerunicus, the oil palm pollinating

weevil was brought into Malaysia from Cameroon.
 February 21,1981, E. kamerunicus was first released in PAMOL
Kluang and later in Sabah in March 13.
 Improved fruit set and fresh fruit bunch yield (Hussein et al., 1991;
Ponnamma, 1999) Allowed the industry to save an estimated
USD 60 million per year (Hussein et al., 1991)
www.krishisewa.com

E. kamerunicus
Current problem in pollination: Low Fruit
Set (FS)
 Incomplete pollination and inefficient pollinator activity
resulted in low number of fertile fruits
 There have been increasing cases of poor fruit set and
low OER as reported throughout Malaysia

Parthenocarpic fruit bunches

Extent of the fruit set problem in Malaysia: Survey 2016-2017
88,381.25 ha

15.21%

84.79%

492,510.51 ha

Tot area responded 580,891.76 ha

Extent of the fruit set problem in Malaysia: Survey 2016-2017

19,109.51
ha 58,259 982 ha
ha
24,368 384 ha
1,588.60 ha ha
the weevil issue – possibilities affecting its population

Plantations have incorporated new techniques or

pesticides that could be toxic for E. kamerunicus.

Increased number of female inflorescences can

affect average male inflorescence

Soil types, cultivars and other management http://www.palmtreepassion.com

practices may also affect the weevil.

Costa A., Sivapragasam , A and Zam A.K. (2018)

Bunch moth infestation associated with low fruit set problem
-issue in peat areas

Caterpillars prefer to feed on parthenocarpic fruits (FGV, 2018)

 Insecticide application in areas with poor FS

25

20
Percentage %

15

10

0
Cypermethrin Fipronil Monocrotophos Metamidophos
Possible factors affecting pollination efficiency of the weevil

Usage of chemical pesticides

 the application of chemical pesticides, especially broad spectrum pesticides
such as cypermethrin, to control oil palm insect pests such as Tirathaba, will
also kill pollinating weevils.

 Proper application of the chemical pesticides is important to ensure optimum

pest control, as well as minimizing damages on beneficial insects and plants.
This can only be achieved via sufficient supervision and control from the
estate management.

MPOB Workshop, Insect Pollination Efficiency in Oil Palm,

1st March 2018
 Effect of Insecticides on the weevil
Idris, A.B., Nurul Fatihah, A.L, Muhamd Fahmi, M H., Muhamad Luqman, H A, Noor Farehan, I., Dzolkifli, O., Ming, S.H., Teo, M. T. and Abu
Hassan, A.(2018)

70 120
a
60 a a a

kamerunicus adult
a a a a a
kamerunicus adult

b 100
50

Mean no of E.
Mean no of E.

c 80
40 c

survived
60 b
30 d
20 40 c
e
10 e e 20 d
0 0

Insecticides

Mean number of newly emerged adult Mean number of adult weevil survived per males
weevil per males inflorescence spikelets at inflorescence spikelets 1 day after treatment. (Su
30 days after treatment (Su Choong Ming, Choong Ming, 2015)
2015)
External factors affecting the pollination
efficiency of the pollinating weevil

Costa A., Sivapragasam , A and Zam A.K. (2018)

Extreme rainfall in Sarawak

Data provided by TH Plantations

Extent of the fruit set problem in Malaysia: Survey 2016-2017

Period Of Occurence of FS Problems (%)

Annual Rainfall of Estates With Low FS

2500-3000mm

2000-2500mm
Possible factors affecting pollination efficiency of the weevil

Extreme rainfall and rat infestation

 Poor fruit set problems were severe when the rainfall is more than 400mm/ month.

 Problems is especially severe in Sarawak, and worse during rainy seasons. Even
when the infestation of Tirathaba was controlled by application of B. thuringiensis,
the poor fruit set problems still persists

 A plantation company has make it compulsory for their estates in peat soil areas to
employ the hatch and carry system. With the usage of such system, the estate has
been able to improve their fruit set.

 In addition, the rat infestation in some estates in second half of the year was
usually high compared to the first half of the year.
 SUPPLEMENTING E. kamerunicus POPULATION:
Hatch and Carry technique
 Weevil box hatchery (WBH)
Dusting viable pollen on post-anthesising male
inflorescence
1 box: 60-80ha
 Centralized Weevil Hatch and Carry (CWHC)
Hut with 16 drums (replacing hatchery box)
8 drums/batch and each drum can cover 125ha
Adult weevils from the drums will be transferred to
recycled mineral water bottle and released at points
throughout estate
1 hut: 250ha
Reduction in parthenocarpic fruits (from 21% - 14%)
Increasing in average bunch weight Courtesy, Genting Plantation Research
Impact of the Hatch and Carry technique

Data by Genting Plantation Research Centre

Possible factors affecting pollination efficiency of the weevil

Age and Sex ratio of palms

 Based on the preliminary studies, poor fruit set problems usually occurs in
young mature plantings (5-8 years old).

 Based on observations, poor fruit set problems usually starts in the second
year of fruiting, as less male inflorescences are available, and this is not
helped by the increasing number of high yielding planting materials, which
focuses more on the production of fruit bunches (95% sex ratio), hence
reducing the density of male inflorescences in the area.

 Healthy sex ratio should be in the range of 65%-70%.

MPOB Workshop, Insect Pollination Efficiency in Oil Palm,

1st March 2018
Hectarage of estates affected with low Fruit Set

30

25

20

Number of
estates
15

10

0
<50 ha 50-100 100-500 500-1000 1000-1500 1500-2000 2000-2500 2500-3000 3000-3500 >3500

Hectarage (ha)
 Fruit set range and weevil parameters
on peat soils - Sarawak
<30% 30-40% 40-50% 50-60%
Fruit set
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Adult Weevil
Per Spikelet 10 15 4 50 8 38 6 31
(AWS)
Adult Weevil
10,970 16,180 1,889 52,602 5,412 74,632 2,612 49,990
per Ha (AWH)
Pollinator Force
462 477 157 2,975 254 2,985 237 2,154
(AWF)
No. of Male Oil Palm
10 18 4 19 7 20 4 21
Inflorescences Sex Ratio
No. of Female Average 71.2
23 35 10 51 19 43 10 71
Inflorescences range (66-77%)
 Fruit set range and weevil parameters
on Mineral soils - Sarawak
<30% 30-40% 40-50% 50-70%
Fruit set
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Adult Weevil
Per Spikelet 10 13 12 36
(AWS)
Adult Weevil
5,112 13,412 3,326 71,992
per Ha (AWH)
Pollinator
232 610 196 2,601
Force (AWF)
No. of Male Oil Palm
1 18 2 19
Inflorescences Sex Ratio
No. of Female Average 69.9
9 20 6 31
Inflorescences range (62-90%)
 Fruit set range and weevil parameters
on Mineral soils - Sabah
Fruit set 40-50% 50-60% 60-70% 70-90%
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Adult Weevil
Per Spikelet 30 34 20 47
(AWS)
Adult Weevil
14,681 16,875 6,480 32,469
per Ha (AWH)
Pollinator Force
1,129 4,219 498 4,960
(AWF)
No. of Male Oil Palm
5 6 3 9 Sex Ratio
Inflorescences
No. of Female Average 62.2
4 13 5 25 range (44-74%)
Inflorescences
 Fruit set range and weevil parameters
on Mineral soils – Peninsular Malaysia

Fruit set 40-50% 50-60% 60-70% 70-90%

Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Adult Weevil
Per Spikelet 51.41 51.41 40.04 45.02 19.11 101.2 14.3 88.46
(AWS)
Adult Weevil
18,302 18,302 24,825 28,151 9,765 57,345 5,806 74,512
per Ha (AWH)
Pollinator
4,576 4,576 5,630 12,412 1,953 14,336 1,419 24,837
Force (AWF)
No. of Male Oil Palm
3 3 5 7 2 6 3 8 Sex Ratio
Inflorescences
No. of Female Average 41.8
4 4 2 5 1 5 1 7
Inflorescences range (25-57%)
 Population density (AWS) of E.k in Malaysia
- Yearly averages (1983-2017)

20-30 years

1983-1986 1998-2003 2002-2016

Mukah Balingian

Kangar

Sedenak
Ulu Dusun

Lahad Datu

Lahad Datu
Kahang Jerantut
Jendarata Lahad Datu
Parit seraya

Prang besar Trusan

Segaliud Lahad Datu
Serdang Bangi

Sessang
Kenyalang
Kluang

10 AWS Ulu Paka

Possible factors affecting pollination efficiency of the weevil

2. Replanting practices
 The uniform oil palm age profile contributed to the poor fruit set problems.

 Poor fruit set problems usually occurred at young mature plantings. Extensive
replanting practices, within short period of time by the plantations as one of the
factor contributing to poor fruit set problems.

 As large area of oil palm is being replanted, the number of available male
inflorescences in the area also reduced, and in turn, causing the population of E.
kamerunicus to decline, as the food source and breeding sites became scarce.

 A good replanting practice should be 3-5% area replanted per year. The need to
maintain pollinator palms (masculine palms) in the replanting areas to provide
enough food source and breeding sites for E. kamerunicus.
MPOB Workshop, Insect Pollination Efficiency in Oil Palm,
1st March 2018
 Extent of the fruit set problem in Malaysia: Survey 2016-2017
Severity of Low FS incidence (%)

Age Profile of Estates With Low FS (%)

11%

31%

58%

<4 Years 4-10 Years >10 Years

 Further studies on the weevil
1. Population dynamic and life table
 The life cycle of the E. kamerunicus, fecundity, natality studies after 35 years of
the introduction.
2. Behaviour and competition study
 Flying distance or the capability of the E. kamerunicus doing the pollinating
activity.
 The breeding site study for E. kamerunicus vs other insects; is there any
significant correlation the competition could reduce the E. kamerunicus
pollinating capabilities.
3. Genetic diversity study
 Developing a baseline to compare the current E. kamerunicus to previous one
introduced in 1981.
 Difference in epigenetics in different weevil populations (North, south, west, east
Peninsular and Sabah and Sarawak)
MPOB Workshop, Insect Pollination Efficiency in Oil Palm,
1st March 2018
Is inbreeding an issue for the pollinating weevil?
Fine-scale population structure, inbreeding risk and avoidance
in a wild insect population.
Bretman A1, Rodríguez-Muñoz R, Walling C, Slate J, Tregenza T.

• most insects tend to have such large- and high-density populations and are so
mobile that they are unlikely to face inbreeding risks

• inbreeding avoidance in insects and its implication in mating systems evolution

somewhat enigmatic.

• 4-year study of a natural population of field crickets.

• movement of all adults within the population
• investigate genetic structure at a fine scale.
• Whilst incestuous matings are not avoided,
• population inbreeding is low, mating is close to random
OUTBREEDING DEPRESSION, BUT NO INBREEDING DEPRESSION
IN HAPLODIPLOID AMBROSIA BEETLES WITH REGULAR SIBLING MATING
Katharina Peer and Michael Taborsky
The Society for the Study of Evolution Received: February 25, 2004; Accepted: November 10, 2004

• A long history of inbreeding is expected to reduce inbreeding depression due to

purging of deleterious alleles,

• Ambrosia beetles (Xyleborini) are bark beetles with haplodiploid sex determination,
strong local mate competition due to regular sibling mating within the natal chamber,
and heavily biased sex ratios.

• We experimentally mated females of Xylosandrus germanus to brothers and unrelated

males and measured offspring fitness.

• Inbred matings did not produce offspring with reduced fitness in any of the examined
life-history traits.

• In contrast, outcrossed offspring suffered from reduced hatching rates.

 Further studies on the oil palm and weevil

1. Planting material study

 Focussing on the clone vs different types of soil.
 Breeding for less compact female flowers
 Incorporate more Masculine Palms to solve the low number of male flowers in
clonal areas. www.krishisewa.com

 High planting density studies to observe the behaviour and the effects on the
fruit set.
2. Estragole study
 look into the release of estragole with respect to clone, soil type, weather and
environment, to see effects with regards to the behaviour of E. kamerunicus

MPOB Workshop, Insect Pollination Efficiency in Oil Palm,

1st March 2018
 Estragole emitted between different planting
materials of oil palm and soils in Sarawak
Idris, A.B., Nurul Fatihah, A.L, Muhamd Fahmi, M H., Muhamad Luqman, H A, Noor Farehan, I., Dzolkifli, O., Ming, S.H., Teo, M. T. and Abu
Hassan, A.(2018)

Clone A

Clone Clone Mineral

A B Clay
Attractiveness and repellency of estragole towards weevil
Idris, A.B., Nurul Fatihah, A.L, Muhamd Fahmi, M H., Muhamad Luqman, H A, Noor Farehan, I., Dzolkifli, O., Ming, S.H., Teo, M. T. and Abu
Hassan, A.(2018)

60

a
50

40
ab
Mean % (+ SE) of Ek
30

20
c
responded

10

0
control 100 ppm 150 ppm 200 ppm

Estragole Concentrations
Fruit set produced by males and females of E.kamerunicus
(Agus Eko Prasetyo and R. Desmier de Chenon, 2018)

Weevils Fruit setting (%)

Male Female Distal spikelet Central spikelet Proximal spikelet
250 0 36.62 a 46.51 a 36.37 a
0 250 79.70 a 79.32 a 80.95 a
125 125 60.65 b 70.54 a 62.93 a

Weevils Fruit setting (%)

Male Female Upper fruits Middle fruits Basal fruits
250 0 67.68 a 38.06 b 13.75 c
0 250 85.86 a 83.77 a 70.34 b
125 125 69.23 a 65.50 ab 59.39 b
The same letter in the same line shows not significant difference between parts of fruit set with Duncan test at 95%
significance level
Attractiveness of weevils (♂ and♀) on inflorescences at anthesis
(Agus Eko Prasetyo and R. Desmier de Chenon, 2018)

Number of weevil Weevil’s sex ratio

Inflorescence
Male Female Male Female
Male
28 53 1 2
(spikelets)
Female
30 129 1 4
(sticky trap)
A need for an importation of another
pollinating weevil?

Major considerations prior of any importation:

• Environment
• Pest control practices
• Replanting practices
• Planting materials
 Insects associated with the oil palm
inflorescences in Cameroon

Prosoestus sculptillis and P. minor are found

mostly living on female inflorescences of palm.
It was reported that in the Cameroons, where all the Elaeidobius species co-exist, fruit set as
low as 40% has also been encountered (Chinchilla and Richardson, 1991).
Comparative efficiency of pollinating weevils Syed (1981)

• Abundance of species on male inflorescence:

E.k > E.s > E.p
• Abundance of species in dry season:
E.k > E.s > E.p
• Abundance of species in wet season:
E.k > E.s = E.p
• Abundance of species on all ages of palm:
E.k > E. p > E. s
• Searching ability :
E.s > E.k > E.p
• Pollen carrying capacity:
E.k (985 per male) > E. s (246 per male)
• Host range
E.k restricted to only genus Elaeis.
Comparative efficiency of pollinating weevils

(Venezuela)

Individuals visiting No. of pollen grains

female inflo
Female Male
E. kamerunicus 31,318 446 985
E. subvittatus 578 116 246

In Brazil, there are presence of E. singularis and E. plagiatus

before 1986, but they were not completely efficient in reaching
high fruit set levels (Müller et al. 2006).

Likely, both may be pollinating other crops than oil palm.

This explains why E. kamerunicus was introduced in Brazil.

Pollen carrying capacity, pollen load and pollen
transferring ability of Elaeidobius kamerunicus Dhileepan (1992)

Sex Pollen Pollen Pollen Pollen

Carrying Load Transferred Transffering
Capacity Ability
(x102) (x102) (x102) (%)
Male 38.6 18.4 14.1 76.4
Female 21.5 11.2 7.8 70.2

Pollen Carrying Capacity – Amount of pollen carried by weevils while congregating on anthesising male
inflorescence
Pollen Load – Pollen carried by weevil while entering receptive female
Pollen Transferred – Amount pollen entering minus leaving the receptive female

 E.kamerunicus carries 3x more pollen than E. subvitattus (Prada et al, 1998)

 Reasons for introduction of Elaeidobius kamerunicus
as the BEST pollinating weevil for oil palm

 In Cameroons, E. kamerunicus predominates the population, whereby

75% is from E. kamerunicus and only 6% is E. subvitattus (Syed, 1984).

 E.kamerunicus carries 3x more pollen than E. subvitattus (Prada et al,

1998)

 E. kamerunicus thrives much better during rainy periods than E. subvitattus

or other pollinators (Syed, 1984) (This criteria was the reason for deciding
the importation of E. kamerunicus to Malaysia in 1981)
 Reasons for introduction of Elaeidobius kamerunicus
as the BEST pollinating weevil for oil palm
 E. subvitattus lays most eggs at the end of the male flower anthesis,
hence many adults that emerge did not carry viable pollen to the
female flowers (Genty et al., 1986).

 With regards to the other pollinator species E. plagiatus – Tuo et. al.
(2011) made biological comparisons and showed that E. kamerunicus
had higher fecundity (58 eggs) and longer life expectancy (59 days)
than E. plagiatus (fecundity, 30 eggs and life expectancy, 32 days)

 Being a dominant pollinator, E. kamerunicus had somewhat decreased

the population of other pollinators (i.e. E. subvitattus and Mistrops
costaricensis) when imported into Costa Rica (Chinchilla and
Richardson, 1991)
Understanding the weevil issue:
Potential causes…..

1. Low genetic diversity

2. Weevil behaviour
Intrinsic factors 3. Population sex ratio
4. Weevil (population) density

5. Climatic factors
6. Soil types
7. Pest Control practices
External factors 8. Planting material
9. Diseases or predators
10. Palm sex ratio
11. Plant physiological stress

• We surveyed the available literature (N = 55 papers or conference abstracts published

from 1979 to 2018) to analyse which effects have been demonstrated or suggested to
influence Ek pollinating efficiency.
A preliminary analysis of individual factors on E.k. pollinating efficiency
+++ High effect
+++ Highly Likely UN = UNKNOWN
++ Medium effect
++ Likely LIKELY + Low effect EVIDENCE ? = To Be Analyzed
+ Likely at low level
0 No effect
0 Unlikely

Factor References Effect Comments

No agreement
Low Rao and Law 1998, Caudwell +++
1 genetic et al 2003, or A bottleneck effect may have occurred when Ek was
diversity Ramle et al unpublished, 0 introduced. Populations have become isolated with
locally low genetic diversity.
Syed 1982, Syed 1984, Hussein
et al 1989, Sambathkumar & Weevil activity may be affected by rainfall and is
Weevil Ranjith 2011, Yue et al 2015,
2 behaviour Melendez & Ponce 2016, +++ restricted to morning
Auffray et al 2017, Idris et al Weevil are attracted by estragole
2018

Dihleepan 1992, Prada et al Male Ek have higher pollen efficiency and carrying
Weevil
3 sex ratio
1998, Situmeang et al 2017, ++ capacity. Distorted sex ratio could lower pollination
Prasetyo & De Chenon 2018 efficiency.
Donough et al 1996, Caudwell
Weevil
2002, Tuo et al 2011, Yue et al Weevil population can fluctuate seasonally or due to
4 (populatio +
n) density
2015, Auffray et al 2017, climatic variables.
Situmeang et al 2017
A preliminary analysis of individual factors on E.k. pollinating efficiency
+++ High effect
+++ Highly Likely UN = UNKNOWN
++ Medium effect
++ Likely LIKELY + Low effect EVIDENCE ? = To Be Analyzed
+ Likely at low level
0 No effect
0 Unlikely

Factor References Effect Comments

Dihleepan 1994, Sugih et al

1996, Basri & Norman 1997, Rainfall can favor the weevil activity if moderate.
Climatic
5 factors
Ming et al 1999, Saravan et ++ Less effect of Ek during dry season. Excessive rain
al 2014, Nurul Fatihah et al reduces the weevil flight activity
2018
Peat soils with more issues regarding low fruit set vs
6 Soil types Idris et al 2018 +
mineral soils? Least analyzed factor.

Ahmad et al 2009
(Biopesticdes), Biopesticides effect remain controversial.
Pest 0
Agus et al 2014, Saravan et Fipronil, acetamiprid, thiamethoxam,
7 control
practices al 2014, Su Choong Ming ++ monocrotophos, L-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin and
2015, Idris et al 2018 deltamethrin had negative effects
(Insecticides)

Melendez & Ponce 2016,

Planting Situmeang et al 2017; Nurul Cultivars may produce different volatiles, and higher
8 ++
material Fatihah et al 2018, Idris et al levels of estragole in some clones.
2018
A preliminary analysis of individual factors on E.k. pollinating efficiency
+++ Highly Likely +++ High effect UN = UNKNOWN
++ Likely LIKELY ++ Medium effect EVIDENCE ? = To Be Analyzed
+ Likely at low level + Low effect
0 Unlikely 0 No effect

Factor References Effect Comments

Nematodes:
Caudwell 2002,
Rats: Syed 1982, Liau Nematodes (E. parthenonema) effect
1984 on survival and fertility of E.
Caudwell et al
Others:
Diseases or
2003, Krantz &
Liau 1984, Ming et al ++ kamerunicus.
9 predators
Poinar 2004,
1999,
Poinar et al
Ponnama et al 2006, Rats, birds (bulbuls), spiders, Reduvidae
2002, 2003, but and earwigs consume Ek on earlier
Sambathkumar & Ranjith
Jackson & Bell
2001
2011, Saravan et al 2014 stages.

Increased number of female

Dihleepan 1994, Caudwell 2001, Teo 2015, inflorescences can affect male
10 Palm sex ratio ++
Nurul Fatihah et al 2018 inflorescence, breeding sites for E.
kamerunicus
Plant Sustained production for several years
11 physiological Basri & Norman 1997 + may reduce the production due to
stress plant stress
 INTERACTIONS (Factor 1 x Factor 2)
FACTOR 2
LG WB SR WD CF ST PCP PM Ds/Pr PSR PS

1. Low genetic
LG N/A ++ ? + 0 0 UN 0 +++ 0 +
diversity WB N/A ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ ++/+ +++ ++ ++
2. Weevil behaviour
3. Weevil sex ratio WSR N/A ? UN 0 + ++ ++ +++ UN
FACTOR 1
4. Weevil density
WD N/A ++ UN ++ ? ? ++ UN
5. Climatic factors
CF N/A ++ UN + ++ + UN
6. Soil types
7. Pest cotrol ST N/A ? ? ? ? +
practices PCP N/A ? UN ++ ++
8. Planting material
PM N/A + + UN
9. Diseases or
predators Ds/Pr N/A ? 0
10. Palm sex ratio PSR N/A 0
11. Plant physiological PS LIKELY EVIDENCE
N/A
stress
+++ Highly Likely +++ High effect
++ Likely ++ Medium effect UN = UNKNOWN
+ Likely at low level + Low effect
0 Unlikely 0 No effect ? = To Be Analyzed
 Preliminary conclusions
• A combination of factors may affect the weevil: for example, climate can affect
nematode; the nematode would affect weevil behaviour survival and there will be
increased effect on Ek survival if low genetic diversity.

CLIMATE x DISEASE x WEEVIL BEHAVIOUR x GENETIC DIVERSITY

• Understanding the causes of the weevil reduced efficiency is necessary

for the oil palm industry to decide appropriate solutions.

• To decide the need to import new batches of weevils, it is critical to

measure the most relevant of these parameters (nematodes
infection, genetic diversity, management practices, sex ratio, recent
climatic data, …) within the same study sites in Malaysia.
 Conclusion
Pollination efficiency of the weevil is affected by many
external and possible intrinsic factors

Any importation of other species has to consider all these

factors which will also affect the incoming species

To check of differences in the epigenetics of the pollinating

weevil, and to further hybridise these populations if
necessary

Hatch and carry technique seems to be the viable option

now to increase fruit set levels in affected areas
Thank you