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MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION

MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY

• The word psychology comes from the roots psyche, which means
“mind,” and logos, meaning “knowledge or study.”
• In 1590, Rudolf Goeckel used the term “psychology”. This word is the
combination of two Greek Words “ psyche” and “ logos”.
• psychology is now defined as the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes.

DEFINITION
• “Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
• Behavior is overt, manifest, obvious, and easy to study; the mental
processes that help carryout These behaviors are covert, underlying,
hidden, and not easy to study.
• Besides behavior, what causes these behaviors to occur and the
mental processes involved in It is an important area of interest for a
psychologist.
• Psychologists study animals’ behavior too; to better understand and
predict human behavior, The study of animal behavior becomes
essential at times, especially because some researches Cannot be
carried out with humans due to safety reasons or ethical issues.
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• In general, the goals of psychology as a science are to describe,
Understand, predict, and control behavior.
DESCRIPTION

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 • Answering psychological questions requires a careful description of
behavior.
• Description or Naming and classifying, is typically based on making a
detailed record of behavioral observations.
• Useful Knowledge begins with accurate description, but descriptions
fail to answer the important “why” Question.

UNDERSTANDING /EXPLANATION
• We have met psychology’s second goal when we can explain an
event. That is, understanding Usually means we can state the causes
of a behavior.
PREDICTION
• Psychology’s third goal, prediction, is the ability to forecast behavior
accurately.
CONTROL
• Description, explanation, and prediction seem reasonable, but is
control a valid goal, Control May seem like a threat to personal
freedom.
• However, to a psychologist, control simply refers to altering
conditions that affect behavior. If We suggest changes in a classroom
that help children learn better, we have exerted control. If a Clinical
psychologist helps a person overcome a terrible fear of heights,
control is involved. Control is also involved in designing airplanes to
keep pilots from making fatal errors.
• Clearly, psychological control must be used wisely and humanely. .

• What is the nature of this behavior? (description)

• Why does it occur? (understanding and explanation)
• Can we forecast when it will occur? (prediction)
• What conditions affect it? (control)

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HISTORICAL ROOTS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
• Although psychology did not exist in its present form thousands of
years ago, its application
Can be traced even at that stage of history.
• Psychology was considered as the science of soul .subsequently the
meaning of psychology has Undergone many changes from time to
time.
• It came to be described as science of Mind, the science of
Consciousness and the science of Behavior .
PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF SOUL :
• In ancient days , the Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle
interpreted Psychology as the Science of soul and studied it as a
branch of Philosophy. But the nature of soul could not be Defined
and as such gradually the definition of Psychology in terms of the
soul was rejected.
PSYCHOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF MIND
• It was the German philosopher Kant who argued that considering
Psychology as the science of The soul was quite inappropriate .He
suggested that it could be defined as the science of mind . Other
philosophers in the middle ages also were in agreement with this
conception. However ,they failed to give an exact description of the
nature and form of the mind .Hence, theDefinition of psychology as
the science of mind also did not get acceptance for long.
PSYCHOLOGY AS THESCIENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
• In the 19th century psychologists like Wilhelm Wundt, William James
and others beganConsidering Psychology as the science of
consciousness .But later on psychologists Discarded this definition
also on the ground that psychology deals not only with the Conscious
level of the mind but also with its subconscious and unconscious
levels.
Psychology As The Science Of Behavior

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 • At the beginning of the 20th century , when psychologists attempted
to develop Psychology into a pure science , it came to defined as the
science of behavior. The term Behavior was popularized by J.B
WATSON. Behavior is the resultant manifestation of both Conscious
and unconscious urges. It can be observed and measured in an
objective way.

PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES ON MODERN PSYCHOLOGY

• Psychology emerged from Philosophy
• Philosophers in the West as well as East were explaining thought and
behavior
• Addition of newer and better methods of investigating these
explanations led to the emergence Of psychology.
• Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge and reality. The
ancient philosophers’ method of introducing problems and then
questioning proposed solutions is at the core on today’s scientific
method.
Indian origin
• The ancient Indian philosophy existed much earlier than other formal
explanation.
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 • The earliest traces are found in the yogic philosophy prevailing in
1000 BC .
• According to this philosophy mind and body are interlinked and affect
each other.Physical exercise help s mental development and vice
versa.
• The later philosophies example Vedic, postulate varied explanation in
this regard.
THE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
HIPPOCRATES (460- 367 BC )

• One of the more important advances in Greek philosophy and

science was the separation of the practice of medicine from religion.
• Hypocrites was a physician who not only raised standard of medical
investigation but also developed the code of ethics for physicians.
• He Alcameon stressed upon the significance of the brain in
psychological processes and he approached the problems of
medicine systematically.
• He postulated the theory of humors that account for the basic human
activity.
• He believed that the perfect health is the result Of the proportionate
mixture of these humors. To him, there were four basic humors that
were associated with different temperaments.

• He believed that four temperaments form personality:

• Sanguine (Cheerful and Active)
• Melancholic (Sad)
• Choleric (Angry and Aggressive)
• Phlegmatic (Calm and Passive)
SOCRATES (ca. 470–399 B.C.E.)
• Believed that “truth” lies in the mind and is highly dependent upon
our perceived, or subjective,
states.

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 • Socrates looked for concepts that are the “essence” of human nature
and searched for elements
that various concepts have in common.
• He tried, for example, to identify why something – anything is
beautiful and what essential factors an object must possess in order
to be beautiful.
• He believed in the care of the soul to be man’s most important task.
For him, soul was the
essential man.
• For him, soul was not any faculty, nor was it any special kind of
substance, but rather the capacity for intelligence and character. It
was man’s conscious personality.
PLATO (ca. 427-347 B.C.E)
• Believed that certain ideas and concepts are pure and signify an
ultimate reality.
• Plato believed that we could use reasoning to uncover these core
ideas deeply imbedded in every human soul.
• The ideas of these two philosophers represented early studies of
mental states and processes.
• He was the first person in history to produce a great all- embracing
system of philosophy.
• He not only developed the theory of knowledge, theory of conduct,
and a theory of state, but
also the theory of universe.
• Plato believed that thinking gives us knowledge of truth.
ARISTOTLE (ca. 384–322 B.C.E.)
• The most famous thinker of the Greek period, made key
contributions to the foundations of
psychology.
• His writings represent some of the first important theories about many
of the topics such as
sensations, dreams, sleep, and learning .

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 • Although, at the same time, he mistakenly believed that the brain was
an organ of minor
importance.
• Aristotle was one of the first to promote empirical, or testable,
investigations of the natural
world.
• He looked inward at sensory experiences and also scrutinized his
environment carefully, searching for the basic purpose of all objects
and creatures.
ALCAMEON: (500 BC)
• A physician, who performed the first dissection. He was interested in
philosophy and directed
his attention to understanding perception
• Origin of Physiological Psychology: He believed that sensations and
thoughts occur in the brain.
• He was known as “father of Greek medicine”
• Brain is the seat of all human intellectual faculties: He recognized the
importance of brain and distinguished between sensory perceiving
and thinking.
• He was the first to take anatomical dissection for research purposes
and also the firstvivisectionist.
RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650 Ad)
• His most important work was his attempt to resolve the mind- body
problem, an issue that had
been controversial for centuries.
• He saw human body as a piece of machinery; intricate and
complicated.
• He believed that body is a machine whose operation can be
adequately explained by the
mechanical laws of the movement of objects in space.
• Suggested that the mind and body are distinct entities and they
interact through pineal gland,
found deep in the brain- this view is known as Dualism.

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FRANZ JOSEPH GALL (1758-1828 Ad)
• Known for his work on phrenology
• He postulated the idea that particular psychic functions are
represented by particular areas of the brain.
• Intelligence, moral character and other personality characteristics can
be discerned by the shape of, and the number of bumps on, a
person’s skull.
JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704 Ad)
• His major contribution to psychology was an essay concerning
human understanding, which appeared
• in 1690 and was the culmination of some 20 years of study and
thought; it was later considered as the formal beginning of
English/British Empiricism..
• His primary question was how the mind acquires knowledge?
• Locke, first denied the existence of innate ideas, arguing that humans
are not equipped at birth with any knowledge .
• He admitted that certain ideas may seem to adults to be innate (such
as the idea of God) because adults have been constantly taught the
ideas since childhood and cannot remember any time when they
were unaware of them. So, he explained the innate ideas in terms of
habit and learning.
• He gave the concept of “Tabula Rasa”; People are born in this world
with empty minds i.e.”Tabula Rasa” or a blank slate.
• The ideas and memories are imprinted on our minds as a result of
experience.

EMERGENCE OF SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

Wilhelm Wundt, in Germany, established the foundations of modern
psychology in 1879. He wanted to study, experimentally, the conscious
experience of individuals. The different schools of thought gradually
emerged after psychology took this scientific turn. These schools were
basically different ways of observation, description, understanding, and

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prediction of psychological phenomena; in the present context, mental
processes and behavior. . He found the first laboratory of Psychology at the
University of Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

STRUCTURALISM
• An early view of Psychology suggesting that the field should focus on
identifying the basic Structures of the human mind.
• Emerged from the work of Wilhelm Wundt who set up the first
psychology laboratory at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 to study the
“building blocks of the mind”, and is generally known as The founder
of “scientific psychology”.
• Wundt’s ideas were carried to the United States by Edward B.
Titchener.
• Titchener called Wundt’s ideas structuralism because they dealt with
the structure of mental life.
• Essentially, the structuralists hoped to analyze experience into basic
“elements” or “building blocks”.
• However, he brought his own version of Wundt’s psychology to
America
• Structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is
to analyze Consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how
these elements are related.
• Just as physicists were studying how matter is made up of basic
particles, the structuralists Wanted to identify and examine the
fundamental components of conscious experience, such as
Sensations, feelings, and images.
• Although the structuralists explored many questions, most of their
work concerned Sensation and perception in vision, hearing, and
touch.
• To examine the contents of consciousness, the structuralists
depended on the method of Introspection, or the careful, systematic
self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.

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introspection : a method in which trained individuals report in detail on
their conscious Experiences in response to specific stimuli ,that are
presented to them under carefully controlled Conditions.

• Over time, psychologists challenged Wundt’s approach. They

became increasingly Dissatisfied with the assumption that
introspection could reveal the structure of the mind. Introspection
was not a truly scientific technique, because there were few ways an
outside Observer could confirm the accuracy of others’
introspections. Moreover, people had difficulty in describing some
kinds of inner experiences, such as emotional responses. Those
drawbacks led to the development of new approaches, which largely
replaced structuralism.
FUNCTIONALISM
• The perspective that replaced structuralism is known as
functionalism.
• Functionalism An early approach to psychology, led by William
James, that concentrated on What the mind does—the functions of
mental activity—and the role of behavior in allowing People to adapt
to their environments.
• Rather than focusing on the mind’s structure, functionalism
concentrated on what the mind Does and how behavior functions
• Functionalists, whose perspective became prominent in the early
1900s, asked what role Behavior plays in allowing people to adapt to
their environments.
• For example, a functionalist might examine the function of the
emotion of fear in Preparing us to deal with emergency situations.
• James’s brilliant first book, Principles of Psychology (1890), helped
establish the field as a Serious Discipline.
• The functionalists admired Charles Darwin, who deduced that
creatures evolve in ways That favor survival. According to Darwin’s
principle of natural selection, physical features that Help animals
adapt to their environments are retained in evolution.

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 • Similarly, the functionalists wanted to find out how the mind,
perception, habits, and Emotions help us adapt and survive.
• Functionalists examined how people satisfy their needs through their
behaviour
• The functionalists also discussed how our stream of consciousness—
the flow of thoughts in our Conscious minds—permits us to adapt to
our environment.
• The American educator John Dewey drew on functionalism to
develop the field of school Psychology, proposing ways to best meet
students’ educational needs.
• Other functionalists: John Dewey, James Rowland Angell, Harvey
A.Carr.
BEHAVIORISM
• John.B.Watson and B.F skinner were strong and influential
supporters of behaviorism .
• The view that only observable ,overt activities that can be measured
scientifically should be Studied by psychology.
• Behaviorism burst upon 1913.
• Watson argued for the view that psychology should focus not on
conscious or experience but on behaviour.
• Watson realized that he could study the behavior of animals even
though he couldn’t ask them questions or know what they were
thinking (Watson, 1913/1994).
• He simply observed the relationship between stimuli (events in the
environment) and an animal’s responses (any muscular action,
glandular activity, or other identifiable behavior).
• The gradual emergence of behaviorism was partly attributable to an
important discovery made around the turn of the century by Ivan
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.
• Watson (1925), for instance, embraced Pavlov’s model as a new way
of thinking about learning (Rilling, 2000a), and the behaviorists
eventually came to view psychology’s mission as an attempt to relate
overt behaviors (responses) to observable events in the environment
(stimuli).
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 • Because the behaviorists investigated stimulus-response
relationships, the behavioral approach is often referred to as stimulus
response (S-R) psychology.
• Another contributor was Skinner. The fundamental principle of
behavior documented by Skinner is deceptively simple: Organisms
tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, and they
tend not to repeat responses that lead to neutral or negative
outcomes.
• Despite its simplicity, this principle turns out to be quite powerful.
Working primarily with laboratory rats and pigeons, Skinner showed
that he could exert remarkable control over the behavior of animals
by manipulating the outcomes of their responses. He was even able
to train animals to perform unnatural behaviors.
• Despite all the controversy, however, behaviorism flourished as the
dominant school of thought in psychology during the 1950sand
1960s (Gilgen, 1982). And even today, when experts are asked to
nominate psychology’s most important contributors, Skinner’s name
is typically
found at the top of the list .
• B.F Skinner ,argued that because internal mental states cannot be
studied scientifically they should not be part of psychology.
• Along with its influence in the area of learning processes, this
perspective has made contributions in such diverse areas as treating
mental disorders, curbing aggression, resolving sexual problems, and
ending drug addiction (Silverman, Roll, & Higgins, 2008; Schlinger,
2011).
• the chief exponents of this approach are Pavlov,Thondrike,Skinner,
Hull etc.
PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY
• The psychoanalytic conception was developed by Sigmund Freud
• It is based on the belief that childhood experiences greatly influence
the development of later Personality traits and psychological
problems.

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• It also stresses the influence of the unconscious mind as revealed
through fears, desires, Motivation, etc. that regulate human thought
and behaviour.
• Psychoanalytic concepts have been developed from the case studies
of mental patients. Theories are based on the assumptions that
behavior is to be understood in terms of interaction And conflicts
arising out of needs and desires of an individual, some of which
operate at an Unconscious level
• Freud believed that mental life is like an iceberg: only a small part is
exposed to view.
• He called the area of the mind that lies outside of personal awareness
the unconscious.
• According to Freud ,the human mind has three levels of
consciousness : The conscious, The Pre-conscious and the
unconscious.
• He believed that the most important factor in psychic activity is the
unconscious. The Unsatisfied desires and painful experiences of the
individual are pushed down to the unconscious Layer of mind.
• Freud theorized that many unconscious thoughts are threatening;
hence, they are Repressed (held out of awareness). But sometimes,
he said, they are revealed by dreams, Emotions, or slips of the
tongue.
• (“Freudian slips” are often humorous, as when a student who is tardy
for class says, “I’m I couldn’t get here any later.”)
• He explained the structure of mind in terms of three fundamental
concepts namely the id, the Ego , and the superego.
• “Id” is the primitive impulse in man. It is guided by the pleasure
principle and follows no Rationality and morality.
• “Ego” is governed by the reality principle .it is considered as the
police force controlling human Behavior.it controls the unrealistic
urges of the id .
• “Super ego” is the ethical or moral force in man, it works according
to the ‘morality principle’
• Freud believed that all thoughts, emotions, and actions are
determined.
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 • In other words, nothing is an accident: If we probe deeply enough we
will find the causes
of every thought or action.
• Freud was also among the first to appreciate that childhood affects
adult personality (“The
child is father to the man”). Most of all, perhaps, Freud is known for
creating psychoanalysis, the first “talking therapy.”
• Freudian psychotherapy explores unconscious conflicts and
emotional problems
• It wasn’t very long before some of Freud’s students began to
promote their own theories.
Several who modified
• Freud’s ideas became known as neo-Freudians (neo means “new” or
“recent”).
• Neo-Freudians accept much of Freud’s theory but revise parts of it.
Many, for instance,
place less emphasis on sex and aggression and more on social
motives and relationships.
• Some well-known neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Anna Freud
(Freud’s daughter), Karen
Horney (HORN-eye), Carl Jung (yoong), Otto Rank (rahnk), and Erik
Erikson.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
• The humanistic view point rejects the concept of man as a
mechanism controlled by external stimuli or by unconscious instincts.
• Humanism is a view that focuses on subjective human experience.
• Humanistic psychologists are interested in human problems,
potentials, and ideals.
• The major exponents of this are Abraham Maslow ,Car Rogers
,Combs etc.
• They considered humans as purposeful being , capable of adapting
himself to his environment and choosing his own course of action in
order to achieve the goals which he has
selected for himself.
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 • It emphasis that each individual has great freedom as well as well
ability to direct his or her future.
• Human has the capacity for achieving personal growth, a
considerable amount of intrinsic
worth, and enormous potential for self fulfilment.
• Humanists accept man as a bio-psycho-social organism.
• humanists rejected the Freudian idea that we are ruled by
unconscious forces.
• They were also uncomfortable with the behaviorist emphasis on
conditioning.
• Both views have a strong undercurrent of determinism (the idea that
behavior is determined by forces beyond our control).
• Instead, the humanists stress our ability to make voluntary choices, or
free will. Of course, past experiences do affect us. Nevertheless,
humanists believe that people can freely choose to
live more creative, meaningful, and satisfying lives.
• Humanists helped stimulate interest in psychological needs for love,
self-esteem, Belonging, self expression, creativity, and spirituality.
Such needs, they believe, are as important As our biological urges
for food and water.
• They stressed subjective factors, such as one’s self-image, self-
evaluation, and frame of Reference. (Self-image is your perception of
your own body, personality, and capabilities.
• Self-evaluation refers to appraising yourself as good or bad. A frame
of reference is a Mental perspective used to interpret events.)
• Today, humanists still seek to understand how we perceive ourselves
and experience the World.
• Maslow’s concept of self-actualization is a special feature of
humanism. Self-actualization Refers to fully developing one’s
potential and becoming the best person possible. According to
Humanists everyone has this potential. Humanists seek ways to help
it emerge.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

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 • The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and
know about the world.
• Cognitive psychology which focuses on how people think, remember,
store and use Information, became a major force in the field in the
1960s.
• It is focuses on memory, intelligence, thought process, problem
solving, language and learning.
• Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring
knowledge.
• In other words, cognition involves thinking or conscious experience.
For many decades, the dominance of behaviorism discouraged
investigation of “unobservable” mental processes, and Most
psychologists showed little interest in cognition.
• In 1967, Ulric Neisser went on to define cognitive psychology as the
study of information Processing, the means by which information is
stored and operates internally.
• Cognitive psychologists compared the human mind to a computer,
likening mental processes To the mind’s software and the human
nervous system to the system’s hardware.
• Early cognitive psychologists reasoned that if modifying software can
control the “behavior” of Computers identifying and modifying mental
processes can control human behavior.
• Cognitive psychology soon became the dominant model of the
behaviour
• Many psychologists who adhere to the cognitive perspective
compare human thinking to the Workings of a computer, which takes
in information and transforms, stores, and retrieves it. In Their view,
thinking is information processing.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
• An approach that focuses on the organization of perception and
thinking in a ‘‘whole” sense rather than on the individual elements of
perception.
• The word gestalt means “Configuration”.

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 • Instead of considering the individual parts that make up thinking,
gestalt psychologists took the opposite track.
• They concentrated on how people consider individual elements as
units or wholes.
• Their contribution in understanding the perceptual phenomena is very
significant.
• Three German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and
Wolfgang Kohler were regarded as the founders of gestalt school as
each one of them had done significant work in his respective field.
• The main concept that the Gestaltists posed was that the “WHOLE” is
more than the sum of its parts, and it is different from it too.
• They concentrated on how people consider individual elements
together as units or wholes.
• The concept of Gestalt applies to everything, objects, ideas, thinking
processes and human relationships
• Any phenomenon in its entirety may be much greater than when it is
seen in a disintegrated form.
BIOLOGICAL ORIGINS IN PSYCHOLOGY (Genetics)
• The biological approach believes us to be a consequence of our
genetics and Physiology It is the only approach in psychology that
examines thoughts, feelings and behaviours from a biological and
thus physical point of view.
• All thoughts, feelings and behavior ultimately have a biological cause
A biological perspective is relevant to the study of psychology in
three ways:
1.Comparative method : Different species of animals can be studied and
compared. This can help in the search to understand human behavior
2. Physiology how the nervous system and hormones work, how the brain
functions how changes in structure and or function can effect behavior. For
example how prescribed drugs to treat depression effect behavior through
their interactions in our system

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3. Investigation of inheritance What an animal inherits from its parents,
mechanism of inheritance (genetics). For example we might want to know
whether high intelligence is inherited from one generation to next.
• Each of these biological aspects the comparative, the physiological
the brain and genetics, can help to explain human behaviour
EVOLUTIONARY (1980s–present)
• Principal Contributors were David
Buss,MartinDaly,MargoWilson,LedaCosmides, John Tooby.
• Focuses on Evolutionary bases of behavior in humans and animals.
Behavior patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems; natural
selection favours behaviors that enhance reproductive success.
• Mind is also seen as designed by the same process of natural
selection.
• Evolutionary psychology examines behavioral processes in terms of
their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of
many generation.
• The basic premise of evolutionary psychology is that natural selection
favors behaviors that enhance organisms’ reproductive success,that
is, passing on genes to the next generation .
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Developmental psychology
Looks at human development across the life span. Development
psychology once focused primarily on Child development but today
devotes a great deal of research to adolescence adulthood and old age.
• Social psychology
Focuses on interpersonal behavioural and role of social force in governing
behaviour.Typical Topics include attitude formation attitude change
prejudice conformity attraction aggression Intimate relationships and
behaviours in groups.
• Educational psychology

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studies how people learn the best ways to teach them. ExaminesCurriculum
designs, teacher training ,achievement testing, student motivation,
classroom diversity And other aspects of educational process.
• Health psychology
Focuses on how psychological factors relate to the promotion and
maintenance of physical Health and the causation, prevention and
treatment of illness.
• Physiological Psychology
Examines the influence of genetic factors on behaviour and the role of brain
nervous system Endocrine system and bodily chemicals in the regulation of
behaviour.
• Experimental psychology
Encompasses the traditional core of topics that psychology focused on
heavily in its first half century As science ,sensation, perception ,learning
,conditioning motivation and emotion. The name Experimental psychology
is somewhat misleading, as it is not the only area in which experiments Are
done. Psychologists working in all areas listed here conduct experiments.
• Cognitive psychology
Focuses on higher mental processes such as memory reasoning
information processing language Problem solving decision making and
creativity.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Observation (participant and non-participant observation, naturalistic
Observation)
• Interview methods (structured, semi structured and unstructured
interviews)
• Surveys
• Case study
• Questionnaires
• Correlational studies
• experimental method
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OBSERVATION: Describing the World around Us
• One basic technique for studying behavior—or any other aspect of
the world—involves carefully Observing it as it occurs.
• Such observation is not the kind of informal observation we all
practice from childhood on; rather, In science, it is observation
accompanied by careful, accurate measurement.
• For example, scientists studying the formation of tornadoes may drive
hundreds of miles in order To be present at spots where tornadoes
are likely to form. They don’t do this because they like to put
Themselves in danger, but rather because they wish to engage in
careful observation of the physical Events that unfold as tornadoes
actually form.
• The use of such systematic observation takes several different forms
in the study of behavior.
Naturalistic Observation
• Observing Behavior Where It Normally Occurs.
• Systematic study of behavior in natural settings
• In naturalistic observation a researcher engages in careful
observation of behavior without intervening Directly with the subjects
• A disadvantage of this type of research, however, is that naturalistic
observations can be subject once Again to researcher bias—
observers may notice only what they expect to see.
• Another potential problem is that the mere presence of a researcher
or even a video camera in an Otherwise natural environment can
change the behavior of the participants.
CASE STUDIES
• A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject. A
variety of data collection techniques Can be used in case studies.
• In normal circumstances, when the participants are not deceased,
typical techniques include Interviewing the subjects, interviewing
people who are close to the subjects, direct observation of The
participants, examination of records, and psychological testing.

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 • In case study detailed information is gathered on specific individuals.
Researchers then use this Information to formulate principles or reach
conclusions that presumably, apply to much larger Numbers of
persons—perhaps to all human beings.
• By far the most famous practitioner of the case method was Sigmund
Freud, who used a small number Of cases as the basis for his entire
theory of personality.
• The case method suffers from several important drawbacks. First, if
the persons are unique, it may be inappropriate to generalize from
them to other Human beings.
• Second, because researchers using the case method often have
repeated and prolonged Contact with the individuals they study, there
is the real risk that they will become emotionally Involved with these
persons and so lose their scientific objectivity, at least to a degree.
Because of Such dangers, the case method is not widely used by
psychologists
SURVEYS: The Science of Self-Report
• At the opposite end of the scale where systematic observation is
concerned is the survey method.
• Here, instead of focusing in detail upon a small number of individuals,
researchers obtain a very Limited sample of the behavior of large
numbers of persons, usually through their responses to
questionnaires.
• Surveys are used for many purposes—to measure attitudes toward
specific issues; to measure voting Preferences prior to elections, and
to assess consumer reactions to new products today.
• Surveys are sometimes repeated over long periods of time in order to
track shifts in public opinions or Actual behavior. For example, some
surveys of job satisfaction
• The survey method offers several advantages.
• Information can be gathered about thousands or even hundreds of
thousands of persons with Relative ease.
• Further, since surveys can be constructed quickly, public opinion on
new issues can be obtained Very quickly.
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 • In order to be useful as a research tool, however, surveys must meet
certain requirements.
• First, if the goal is to use the survey results to predict some event
special care must be devoted to the Issue of sampling—how the
persons who will participate in the survey are selected.
• Unless these persons are representative of the larger population
about which predictions are to be Made.
• The way in which surveys are worded can exert strong effects on the
outcomes obtained. (For example, When asked to indicate how
satisfied they are with their jobs, more than 85 percent of persons
indicate That they are “satisfied” or “very satisfied).
• In sum, the survey method can be a useful approach for studying
some aspects of human Behavior— especially positive and negative
reactions toward almost anything -but the results Obtained are
accurate only to the extent that issues relating to sampling and
wording are carefully Addressed.

CORRELATION: The Search for Relationships

• At various times, you have probably noticed that some events appear
to be related to each other: As one changes, the other appears to
change too
• When such relationships between events exist, it is known as a
correlation—a tendency for one aspect Of the world around us to
change with another aspect of the world around us.
• The discovery of correlations between variables allows us to make
such predictions. In fact, the Stronger such correlations are, the more
accurate the predictions that can be made. These basic facts
Constitute the foundation for another important method of research—
the correlational method. In this method, psychologists or other
scientists attempt to determine whether, and to what extent, Different
variables are related to each other.
• The fact that relationship is not perfect suggests that the correlation
between two variables —Negative correlations indicate that as one
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 variable increases, the other decreases. For example, if Personal
health declines as the level of stress to which individuals are related
increases, then a Negative correlation may exist between these two
variables.
• This involves making careful observation of each variable, and then
performing appropriate statistical Analyses to determine whether and
to what extent the variables are correlated—to what extent Changes
in one are related to changes in the other.
• Correlations range from –1.00 to +1.00, and the greater their
departure from zero, the stronger the Correlation in question. Thus, a
correlation of –.67 is stronger than one of –.18; similarly, a correlation
Of +.52 is stronger than one of +.29.
• Positive correlations indicate that as one variable increases the other
increases too. Studying And grades—will be less than 1.00.
• Zero correlation: Exist when there is no relationship between two
variables.
• A positive correlation (between 0 and +1.00) indicates a direct
relationship, meaning that two Things increase Together or decrease
together.
• A negative correlation (between 0 and -1.00) indicates an inverse
relationship: As one thing Increases, the other decreases.
• Association does not prove causation. Correlation indicates the
possibility of a cause-Effect relationship but does not prove such.
INTERVIEW METHODS
• It is a face-to-face verbal exchange between at least 2 individuals
• Interviewer – a person who takes interview • Interviewee – a person
who give interview
• It is a social process of mutual interaction.
• Its 3 types
1. Structured
2. Unstructured
3. Semi structured

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QUESTIONNAIRES
• It is the most popular method of conducting research. There will be a
set of questions may or may not Provide with response alternatives
which are to be answered by the subject, in written method.
Structured series of questions prepared by the researcher.
• There are closed questions and open Ended.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• The experiment is a research method in which the investigator
manipulates a variable under carefully Controlled conditions and
observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.
• The experiment is a relatively powerful procedure that allows
researchers to detect cause and- effect Relationships Psychologists
depend on this method more than any other
• The experiment is a powerful procedure for the purpose to find out
whether changes in one variable Cause changes in another variable
(for establishing cause-and-effect relationship).
• An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter
varies in order to see itsimpact On another variable The independent
variable is the variable that the experimenter controls or Manipulates.
• It is hypothesized to have some effect on the dependent variable, and
the experiment is Conducted to verify this effect.
• The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected
by manipulation of the
• Independent variable. In psychology studies, the dependent variable
is usually a measurement of some Aspect of the participants
’behavior.
• The independent variable is called independent because it is free To
be varied by the experimenter.
• The dependent variable is called dependent because it is thought to
Depend (at least in part) on manipulations of the independent
variable.
• The only way psychologists can Establish cause-and-effect
relationships through research is by carrying out an experiment. In a
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 formal experiment, the researcher investigates the relationship
between two (or more) Variables by deliberately changing one
variable in a controlled situation and observing the effects of That
change on other aspects of the situation.
• Several steps are involved in carrying out an experiment, but the
process typically begins with the Development of one or more
hypotheses for the experiment to test.
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS AND CONTROL GROUPS
• Experimental research requires, then, that the responses of at least
two groups be compared.
• One group will receive some special treatment —the manipulation
implemented by the Experimenter—and another group will receive
either no treatment or a different treatment. Any group that receives a
treatment is called an experimental group; a group that receives no
Treatment is called a control group.
• By employing both experimental and control groups in an experiment,
researchers are able to rule out The possibility that something other
than the experimental manipulation produced the results observed In
the experiment.
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by an
experimenter.
• Dependent variable: The variable that is measured in an experiment.
• It is expected to change as a result of the experimenter’s
manipulation of the independent variable.

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