10 1002@marc 202000415

Review
www.mrc-journal.de
Mechanical Recycling of Packaging Plastics: A Review
Zoé O. G. Schyns and Michael P. Shaver*
rates of the collected post-consumer

The current global plastics economy is highly linear, with the exceptional waste in Europe, 42% is recycled, 40% is
performance and low carbon footprint of polymeric materials at odds with sent for energy recovery and 19% is sent
to landfill.[2] The stability of plastics, a key
dramatic increases in plastic waste. Transitioning to a circular economy that
performance feature that has promoted
retains plastic in its highest value condition is essential to reduce environ- their use, also reduces their ability to
mental impacts, promoting reduction, reuse, and recycling. Mechanical recy- degrade. As a result landfill sites become
cling is an essential tool in an environmentally and economically sustainable saturated and excess waste is disposed of
economy of plastics, but current mechanical recycling processes are limited into the environment.[3] The ubiquity of
by cost, degradation of mechanical properties, and inconsistent quality the material and variability of its disposal
has also led to physical fragmentation,
products. This review covers the current methods and challenges for the
introducing micro and nanoplastics into
mechanical recycling of the five main packaging plastics: poly(ethylene tere- bodies of water, urban environments,
phthalate), polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and poly(vinyl chloride) conservation areas, and our food chain.[3]
through the lens of a circular economy. Their reprocessing induced degrada- The EU Waste Directives imposed land-
tion mechanisms are introduced and strategies to improve their recycling are fill taxes that have stemmed some of this
tide, increasing recycling rates, although
discussed. Additionally, this review briefly examines approaches to improve
much of landfill avoidance is through
polymer blending in mixed plastic waste streams and applications of lower questionable energy-from-waste strat-
quality recyclate. egies.[4,5] The severity of tax imposed
depends on the country in question:
24 out of 27 EU countries have landfill
1. Introduction taxes in place while 18 have landfill bans implemented.[2,4,5]
In addition to this, the use of non-recyclable packaging will
The global demand for plastics continues to rise. The amount be taxted according to the European Council conclusion
of plastics in circulation is projected to increase from 236 to 417 dated the 17–21 July 2020.[6] The UK currently charges £94.15
million ton per year by 2030.[1] Recycling or reuse of plastics in ton−1 for land-filling of plastic waste, a 1345% increase to the
circulation is essential to prevent increased accidental or pur- landfill tax in 1996.[7] According to a report published by The
poseful release of polymeric materials into the environment, Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) in 2018, the
and thus curb environmental pollution. In 2016, only 16% of United Kingdom collects 47% of its plastic packaging waste
polymers in flow were collected for recycling while 40% were for recycling, although only 43% is converted into valuable
sent to landfill and 25% were incinerated (Figure 1).[1] Recently, feedstock.[2,8]
European countries have increased efforts to improve recycling Using the UK as an exemplar, 40% of the waste collected
rates. In 2018, 29.1 million tons of post-consumer plastic waste in 2015–16 was poly(ethylene terephthalate), (PET), followed
were collected in Europe. While less than a third of this was by 22% polyethylene, (PE), 10.2% polypropylene, (PP), with
recycled, it represented a doubling of the quantity recycled poly(vinyl chloride), (PVC), and polystyrene, (PS), making
and reduced plastic waste exports outside the European Union up 2% (Figure 1).[9] These five polymers are those primarily
(EU) by 39% compared to 2006 levels. Much of this plastic flow used in packaging (Table 1). High-density polyethylene
(39.9%) was for packaging.[2] (HDPE) and PET are used to produce bottles to package toi-
Packaging recycling is often more economically feasible letries, food and household cleaning products. Packaging
than other sectors of the plastic market due to high turnover films are primarily made out of linear low-density polyeth-
ylene (LLDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), and PVC.[10]
Plastic beverage bottles are made out of PET, HDPE, and
Z. O. G. Schyns, Prof. M. P. Shaver PVC, although the latter is under legislative pressure to
Department of Materials ban its use.[10] Single use plastic bags are usually made out
The University of Manchester of LDPE and LLDPE.[10] In its solid or expanded form, PS is
Manchester M1 7DN, UK primarily used for packaging purposes in the food and con-
E-mail: michael.shaver@manchester.ac.uk
sumer goods industries.
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.202000415.
The global plastics economy is largely linear. Plastics are pro-
duced, used and more than half of them are disposed with no
DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000415 recovery.[8] With this disposal necessitating more production,
Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2020, 2000415 2000415 (1 of 27) © 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.mrc-journal.de
Figure 1. The main packaging polymers: poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC) and current global and EU plastic waste management rates.[1,2]
the dependence on petroleum feedstock and resultant pollution The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for single
of the planet grows. To preserve the environment while use plastics. Potential health risks and societal fears concerning
meeting consumption demands, a global effort to shift the virus-contaminated products increase plastic consumption,
linear economy into a circular model must be made. introduce consumer fears of reuse and decrease recycling
Much of the focus on sustainable polymers has focused on rates.[14] Personal protective equipment (PPE), previously con-
the development of new feedstocks for the plastics industry, trolled through dedicated medical waste, is now appearing in
although many of these new polymers struggle to meet the municipal and institutional waste streams.[15,16] Increases in
challenging requirements of low cost, production at scale, and PPE waste are often unavoidable with mask use either pro-
exceptional properties. A circular economy model suggests moted or enforced, creating new challenges for recycling and
judicious use of the resources we have, including petroleum plastic production. The increased prevalence of PPE, paired
feedstocks, as it promotes re-valorizing plastics already in cir- with near record low crude oil prices, favors virgin plastic over
culation. While reduction and reuse economies must be pro- more costly recyclate.[17] Uncertainties surrounding second
moted, and biosourced feedstocks that avoid impacting our spikes and long term behavior change complicates predic-
agricultural industry will continue to grow, the recycling of tions on the lasting impact COVID-19 will have on our plastics
plastics is a lynchpin to reducing plastic waste.[11–13] With zero economy. Nevertheless, these socio-material challenges neces-
land-filling of collected waste as a target for full circularity, recy- sitate a systems approach to plastic waste management. It
cling must improve.[2] is imperative to maintain the polymers in their highest value
state, ensuring the materials we depend upon can stay in circu-
Table 1. The five main packaging polymers by collection proportion and lation. Thus, contamination of plastics, sorting and degradation
their main uses.[9] remain the major barriers to efficient recycling.[2,18]
There are four main types of recycling process: primary recy-
Polymer Proportion of total waste Applications in packaging cling, secondary recycling, tertiary recycling and quaternary
collected from kerbside [%] recycling (Table 2).[19] Primary recycling involves extruding pre-
PET 40 Beverage bottles, trays, jam jars consumer polymer or pure polymer streams. Secondary recy-
cling requires sorting of polymer waste streams, reduction of
HDPE and LDPE 22 Bottles, bags, bin liners, food
wrapping material, squeeze
polymer waste size, followed by extrusion. With proper con-
bottles trol over processing conditions, many polymers can undergo
several cycles of primary and secondary mechanical recycling
PP 10.2 Bottles, straws, bottle caps
without concern for loss of performance (Sections 3 and 4.1.1).
PVC <2 Films, trays
Tertiary recycling is used on polymers no longer suitable for
PS <2 Fast-food packaging, food these straightforward mechanical recycling methods. This
packaging, disposable cutlery, chemical recycling is often complementary to traditional recy-
consumer goods
cling methods, and can retain significant value if this process
Table 2. Common definitions of plastic recycling. As a foundation for future efforts, this review explores
common mechanical recycling challenges and solutions for
ASTM D7209 definitions ISO 15270:2008 standard Example the main packaging polymers. Their degradation mechanisms
(withdrawn 2015)[22] definitions[23] will be discussed alongside details of current and past research
Primary recycling Mechanical recycling Bottle to bottle closed efforts to improve their recycling, both from a process perspec-
loop recycling tive and through compatibilising polymer blends and incorpo-
Secondary recycling Mechanical recycling Recycling into lower rating fillers. Efforts to understand the reprocessability of indi-
value plastic vidual packaging polymers explores these themes with more
Tertiary recycling Chemical recycling Depolymerization specificity. This review will demonstrate that mechanical recy-
of polyesters cling is key in improving our plastics use by highlighting the
Quaternary recycling Energy recovery Pyrolysis incredible progress made in the last 30 years.
2. Plastic Waste Recycling

is selective (by returning the polymer to its monomeric feed-
stocks) instead of non-selective (as in pyrolytic or hydrocracking 2.1. Melt Blending
strategies). Quaternary recycling is applied to plastics that are
unsuitable for any other type of recycling and are used for Extrusion is the foremost method used in mechanical recycling
energy recovery via pyrolysis.[20] Quaternary recycling, while industries to produce regranulated material from the common
retaining little value, may also have unintended consequences waste plastics. It is cheap, large-scale, solvent-free, and appli-
from societal consequences and greenhouse gas production.[21] cable to many polymers.[21] An extruder uses heat and rotating
The need for improved plastic circularity is clear, and chem- screws to induce thermal softening or plasticization,[40] after
ists, materials scientists and engineers have been responding which it is fed through temperature-controlled barrel sections
to this challenge for several decades. The most concerted effort to produce fixed cross-section extrudate (Figure 2).[40–43]
to improve the sustainability of plastics is evidenced by the The thermal conduction and viscous shearing applied to pol-
growth of biodegradable and bio-based plastics.[24] Biodegrad- ymers within an extruder leads to thermo-oxidative and shear-
able plastics aim to degrade due to natural processes (enzy- induced chain scission, chain branching or crosslinking of
matic or hydrolytic degradation) while bio-based plastics are the material.[44–46] This chain degradation reduces the polymer
often drop-in replacements produced using renewable carbon chain length and in turn lowers its mechanical properties and
sources.[24–26] Selective chemical recycling of polymers has more processability.[44] The impact of the extrusion process depends
recently gained popularity in recent years, as depolymerisation on the chemical characteristics of the polymer and the chosen
to form the original monomers offers the potential, if not the extrusion conditions. The main degradation mechanism is the
reality, of infinite recyclability.[27,28] Biological recycling has also formation of radicals along the polymer chain due to oxygen-
grown, using fermentation and enzymatic degradation to pro- induced peroxy radical and thermally induced abstraction
duce downcycle feedstocks.[29–32] Although both chemical and of hydrogen atoms (Scheme 1).[46] These radicals can cause
biological recycling are regarded as “green” recycling methods, β-scissions of chains, exacerbated by the shear forces applied,
full and objective life-cycle assessments are needed to evaluate decreasing chain length, and as a result viscosity.
their sustainability. Our rudiementary analysis suggests that Degradation can be controlled to some degree by choice
mechanical recycling will remain the most effective method to of extrusion conditions. Temperature and screw speed
recycle plastics – in terms of time, economic cost, carbon foot- have direct impacts on the process stability as well as the
print and environmental impact. product quality.[43] Extruding at excessive temperatures and
Reprocessing of polymers has been further improved with screw speeds accelerates chain scission and forms unpro-
innovation in extrusion technologies. Extruders can be built cessable polymers.[44,47] Polymer chain lengths also impact
to include sections to degas, soften, dry and filter extrudate
in order to improve polymer melt quality.[33,34] Degassing sec-
tions are vacuumed or open vents from the barrel which allow
release of a number of volatile compounds within polymer
melts. Removal of such volatiles minimizes hydrolysis, acid-
olysis, and improves polymer melt odor to increase the value
of recyclate.[33,34,35] Polymer melts can also be filtered to remove
larger, non-volatile, contaminants such as dust or gel parti-
cles and improve blend homogeneity, mechanical and optical
properties.[33,36,37] Melt filters are chosen according to specific
extrusion contamination and can include screen-changers
such as slide plates, woven screens, or filter cartridges.[38,39]
Lengthening extruders must be balanced against the increase
in system dwell times that can exacerbate chain scission. Recy-
cling systems must be designed with consideration to specific Figure 2. Schematic representation of a single screw extruder. Repro-
degradation mechanisms.[39] duced with permission.[43] Copyright 2009, Elsevier.
Scheme 1. Common radicals produced during extrusion-induced hydrogen abstraction in absence of oxygen.[46] Consequent reactions are detailed in
Schemes 2,5,7,8
degradation behavior: Liu et al. investigated the processing of this is more acutely impacted by the lack of proper polymer
starch through an extruder to model typical polymer behavior sorting. Contamination of recycled material contributes to the
inside the machine.[48] Starch exists in two forms: high decrease in quality and increase in variability of the regener-
branch density amylopectin and linear-style amylose, with ated polymer (Section 2.2).[52] While often thought of as being
the two used to model LDPE and HDPE respectively.[48,49] extraneous polymers, these contaminants are often associated
Starch is chemically inert during extrusion and undergoes with the polymers themselves. Pigments used to color plas-
simple shear scission, which allows the study of thermo- tics can accelerate degradation reactions within extruders.
mechanical chain scission in isolation. The authors suggest Printing inks and plastic or paper labels can introduce vola-
that the susceptibility of a polymer to shear-induced degrada- tile ink components within the final recyclate pellet. Fatty-
tion is directly proportional to its chain length and degree acid based plastic lubricants, often used to facilitate the easy
of chain branching, a phenomenon confirmed by Gooenie opening of plastic bags in shops, can be oxidized to produce
et al. and La Mantia et al. for PET.[47,48,50] Thus, the length of unwanted odors in the recyclate.[54,55,56] Extraneous plastics
polymer chain controls degradation kinetics (suggesting that from incorrect sorting can exacerbate these issues or even
it can autoaccelerate through repeated extrusion) whereas lead to process failure. Trace amounts of PVC in PET streams
thermo-oxidative processes are dictated by the both struc- induces hydrodechlorination at PET processing temperatures.
ture of and oxygen diffusion through the polymer matrix.[51] The resultant release of HCl in turn accelerates PET degra-
Environmental oxygen reacts with shear-induced radicals and dation (Figure 3) and damages processing equipment.[57,55]
subsequent reactions produce peroxy radicals which propa-
gate radical decomposition.[46] Thus, high oxygen perme-
ability leads to increased thermo-oxidation rates within the
material.
Due to the chemical and physical forces at play during
extrusion, mechanical recycling often decreases the tensile
strength and elongation at break of rPP, tensile strength for
rHDPE, elongation at break for rLLDPE, impact strength of
rPP, and a multitude of issues for rPET.[46,52,53] To combat the
degradation of material properties, many industrial recycling
plants opt for an “open-loop or semi-closed-loop” recycling
system where virgin polymer (v-polymer) is fed in during the
recycling process. For example, in PET bottle recycling, the
virgin to recyclate ratio is often 70/30 by weight.[52] While in- Figure 3. Processing ranges for the six most common packaging
extruder degradation reactions can decrease recyclate quality, polymers.[60]
The presence of polyamides can also catalyze the aminolysis

of PET which increases chain scission.[27] If a polymer blends
is produced, due to accidental processing of mixed polymer
waste streams, both the food-grade safety standards and
mechanical properties are compromised., such as polyolefin
and PET blends.[58] Effective plastic sorting is key to efficient
recycling.[59]
2.2. Waste Sorting for Recycling
Plastics are currently sorted using a combination of automated

and manual processes. Near infrared (NIR) technologies are
used to determine the polymer type, with optical color recog-
nition sorting plastics into clear and colored fractions.[19,60]
There are numerous other complementary sorting technologies
including X-rays, density, electrostatics, melting point, hydro-
cyclons, selective dissolution, and manual sorting.[19,60–62] Plas-
tics may then be flaked by grinding. These flakes can then be
further separated using sink/float methods, air elutriation and
heat discoloration for further optical separation.[19,28]
Each of these methods depends upon the chemical nature of
the bulk polymer. This has limitations on the value of mechan- Figure 4. Profluorescent nitroxide compounds used by 1) Lussini
ical recycling, as sorting methods are not yet available at scale et al. and 2) Micallef et al. to monitor radical based aging in polymeric
to differentiate food-grade plastics, which command higher materials.[70,71]
prices, from other recyclates.[63] Accurate polymer marking sys-
tems would allow waste sorting facilities to retain value in food
versus non-food plastics and aid with sorting of multi-layered unanswered. While they hold the potential to improve sorting
materials.[48] While potential general marking systems have accuracy, and thus minimize contamination, a marking and
been reported in patents,[64–66] they remain commercially elu- tracing system with secondary anti-degradation (Section 2.3)
sive. Several patents describe the use of fluorescent dye systems effects would be most beneficial in realising a circular economy
containing rare-earth and organic dyes to separate classes of of plastics.
polymer using spectroscopic techniques.[64–66] Maris et al. and
Bezati et al. report the use of other rare earth based compounds
for marking uses.[67,68] The former report that their tracing 2.3. Stabilizer Use in Plastic Recycling
methods function at low concentrations and allow detection
in the presence of carbon black, a common filler preventing Free radical reactions, including those occurring during extru-
polymer detection by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy sion, can be inhibited through both thermal and light stabi-
(FT-IR).[67] Papers discussing the use of heavy metallic elements lizers.[72] For this reason, polymers are generally extruded with
for fluorescent detection do not mention potential migration of stabilizers, such as antioxidants, to prevent oxidation during
markers from polymers into their surrounding environments both mechanical recycling and product use. Antioxidants can
nor their potential role as catalysts during extrusion. The use of be classified as primary or secondary. Primary antioxidant stabi-
perylene esters, perylene carboxylic bisimides, and terylene car- lizers act as radical scavengers and form stable peroxy radicals
boxylic bisimides as fluorescent tracers is reported by Langhals with oxygen and protect chains during the polymers’ lifetime,
et al. but no mention of the method of tracer incorporation is acting as “chain breaking” antioxidants.[73] Secondary antioxi-
made.[69] Using a multidisciplinary approach, Lussini et al.[70] dants, usually sulfur- or phosphorus-based chemicals, protect
and Micallef et al.[71] synthesized profluorescent nitroxides to chains during melt processing of polymers by decomposing
monitor photodegradation in cyclic olefin copolymers and PP hydroperoxide accelerants into alcohols, acting as “preventa-
respectively during natural aging. The profluorescent nitroxides tive” antioxidants.[74] Stabilizers may also absorb and dissipate
are composed of a stable nitroxide free radical linked to a fluo- energy from light to protect chains from UV based degrada-
rophore that fluoresces when radicals are released during the tion.[73] Polymers are generally only stabilized for their first life-
degradation process of the polymer and detected using fluores- cycle as packaging is designed to be short lived, highlighting
cence measurements and UV-vis spectroscopy (Figure 4).[70,71] the need for polymer design to incorporate consideration of
Although research has not focused on using these reactive end-of-life recycling.[75,76] Some of the main antioxidant types
molecules in extrusion, these marking methods have the poten- and corresponding compounds are detailed in Table 3 and
tial to act as molecular tags due to the susceptibility of poly- Figure 5.
mers to radical attack during processing. While the incorpora- UV vulnerability can be triggered by both the chemical com-
tion of dyes is a key opportunity to improve sorting, questions position of the polymer or the additives incorporated during
surround the viability of these dyes in melt extrusion remain processing. For example, HDPE and PP are more affected by
Table 3. Common antioxidants and their corresponding stabilization mechanisms.
Antioxidant type Chemical example Stabilization mechanism

Hindered amines (HALS) Tetramethylpiperidine, Tinuvin 770 Continuous cyclisation[50,51,77] (primary)
Phenol based compounds Irganox 1010, Curcumin, Vitamin E Hydrogen donors[78–80] (primary)
Phosphorous based compounds Irgafos, PEP 36 Decomposing hydroperoxides[79,80] (secondary)
Carbon black – Decomposes hydroperoxides and acts as reinforcing filler[81]
UV exposure than LDPE and high impact polystyrene (HIPS) doubling as a reinforcing filler and a UV protector.[80] Again,
due to additives incorporated to promote polymer matrix sta- the benefits for polymer use creates issues with waste sorting
bilization.[51] PET is less susceptible to UV and thus is usually due to high absorption rates of IR radiation. Carbon black also
processed without these protective additives.[76] poses aesthetic issues, discoloring, and devaluing recyclate.
While additives offer benefits by mitigating an immediate Recent developments in stabilizing systems for food products
challenge in reprocessing, they further complicate the recycling include the incorporation of active antioxidants in packaging.
process. Antioxidants cause issues in waste sorting, migration The active antioxidants stabilize the polymer matrix and have a
and aesthetics. Carbon black is widely used to color polymers, secondary antioxidant function as they migrate into food. This
Figure 5. Structures of common polymer antioxidants including 1) phenolic-based compounds, 2) phosphate-based compounds, and 3) hindered
amine systems.
eliminates the need for antioxidant incorporation inside food systems, the number of entanglements between phases
products.[81] Stabilizers can also migrate to phase boundaries increases and can then interlock. Increased interlocks across
present in contaminated polymeric materials and cause areas the blend interphases improves toughness and adhesion
of degradation where the stabilizer is not properly dispersed.[81] within blends.[92]
Most, if not all, of these additive mitigations understand their Reactive extrusion processes, which combine chemical reac-
response to continuous recycling, and the potential unintended tions such as polymer modifications with melt reprocessing,
consequences of thermal and oxidative degradation products. can also be used to improve the miscibility of immiscible
Antioxidants primarily protect polymers for their first pro- polymer blends. There are four different reactive processes to
cessing cycle and research rarely explores antioxidant stability produce copolymers or blends in extruders:[21,93] Redistribu-
during repeated extrusion cycles. tion reactions, in which the end group of one polymer attacks
the chain of the other to produce graft or block copolymers;
crosslinking polymers by reactions between pendant groups
2.4. Polymer Blends in Recycling present in both polymer chains; ionic bond formation through
ionic linking agents or by protonation of a basic polymer by an
If sorting challenges are not overcome in the plastics industry, acidic polymer; dynamic vulcanization which occurs when one
value must be found from this impure feedstock. Mixed phase is immobilized in situ dispersed in a mobile thermo-
polymer streams, though prevalent in mechanical recycling, plastic phase.[21,93]
usually form weakened materials due to the immiscibility of Examples of successful blends of recycled and virgin poly-
the polymer phases. These melt incompatibilities create frac- mers will be discussed in further detail in subsequent sec-
ture points in the extrudate.[82,83] Flory-Huggins theory predicts tions of this review article and a more thorough discussion
that, when large enough, the Gibbs free energy of mixing for of polymer blending in recycling processes was published by
two polymers will disfavor their blending and lead to phase Maris et al.[21] Present blending research and development
separation.[81,84] Demixed polymers can form an array of phase predominantly focuses on the initial production of blends,
separated morphologies, including, spheres, cylinder, lamellae without consideration for their applicability in continuous
and continuous segments.[84–86] Phase separation in blends recycling. We suggest it is essential to consider the conse-
results in poor mechanical properties due to ineffective stress quences of blending strategies on future reprocessing life-
and strain transfer across phase boundaries. Stress transfer cycles. Incorporating an end-of-life recycling as a design prin-
across boundaries can be improved by increasing the number ciple for blends, where due consideration of the impact of fur-
of interactions between phases.[87,88,21] Improved compatibi- ther extrusion on polymer melt temperature, degradation and
lization of polymer blends would increase value of recyclate stabilization is key.
through better processability, plant flexibility, product tailoring,
and upgraded mixed recyclate performance.[89] Compatibilizers
prevent severe demixing of two polymer phases and promote 3. Mechanical Recycling of Poly(ethylene
stability of blends when the dispersed phase is larger than
terephthalate)
10% through reducing the interfacial tension between the two
phases to promote dispersion, stabilize the morphology of Virgin PET (vPET) has excellent mechanical properties, pro-
the two phases and enhance phase adhesion. Enhancing this cessability and barrier properties.[42] PET is thus widely used for
adhesion enables proper stress and strain transfer within the packaging, with a large proportion of this being food grade.[46]
blend.[89] Compatibilizers can also prevent damage from con- Virgin PET is ductile and boasts high elongation at break values
taminants migrating to interphases during the extrusion pro- of >80% which have been found to rapidly reduce by a factor of
cess. This aids blending of household wastes which have higher 4 when mechanically recycled (Figure 6).[28] The sharp reduc-
levels of contamination. tion in the properties of the material is due to deterioration
Polymer blending usually requires very similar chemical thermo-oxidative and thermo-mechanical degradation of the
polarities due to energetic compatibilities. Copolymer com- chains as well as hydrolytic scission.[47,53]
patibilizers are used to aid in blending polymers of dissim-
ilar chemical polarities.[90,91] These copolymers usually com-
prise a non-polar backbone with polar functionalities spaced 3.1. Degradation Mechanisms of Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
along the chain to promote interactions between both polar
and non-polar chains. Common stabilizers include styrenes Chain scission lowers polymer molecular weights and forms
grafted with maleic anhydride or different polyolefins grafted potential side products including carbon dioxide, water and car-
with maleic anhydride.[90,91] These common stabilizers are boxylic acid or aldehyde end groups.[94] Shorter chain lengths
known to be expensive and so used in small proportions to reduce polymer elasticity, embrittle the polymer, and decrease
minimize costs.[90] Copolymers used as compatibilizers show viscosity. Melt viscosity reductions thus require recalibration
varying degrees of efficiency which are largely based on their of processing equipment. Moreover, contaminants introduced
structural features. Di-block copolymers are much more effi- during the life-cycle of the PET promote chain scission reac-
cient at reducing the interfacial tension between polymers tions in post-consumer polymer melts. In particular, traces
than their random counterparts. However, longer, random of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), or poly(lactic acid) (PLA), and
chains outperform shorter di-block polymers in terms of sur- PVC can leach acids and promote acidolysis or hydrolysis of
factant behavior.[21] Moreover, in multi-block compatibiliser PET during extrusion (Scheme 2).[53] PET can also undergo
Figure 6. Left: Tensile strength and elongation at break versus number of recycles for PET. Right: Young’s modulus and impact strength versus number
of recycles for PET. Reproduced with permission.[47] Copyright 1994, Elsevier.
crosslinking of its chains that adversely impacts recyclate increased cycles of mechanical recycling will cause faster
quality.[50] Large increases in viscosity due to crosslinking reac- rates of chain scission due to thermo-oxidation. As well as
tions pose a problem for large scale recycling, as increased tor- this free radical degradation, PET undergoes crosslinking,
ques can damage processing equipment. Once PET has been esterification, transesterification, and hydrolysis reac-
subjected to irreversible damage due to mechanical recycling, it tions (Scheme 3).[47,50,53] In the absence of oxygen, radical
is usually destined for landfill due to potential damage to reac- crosslinking can also occur.[50,53] These degradation reac-
tors during pyrolysis.[95,96] tions impact the polymer’s microstructure. The microstruc-
PET chains degrade by free radical attack or by carbon to ture of PET has three fractions: mobile amorphous, crystal-
hydrogen transfers (Scheme 3). The stress and heat of the line and rigid amorphous fractions.[97] The partially ordered
extruder produce a macroradical to react with oxygen and rigid amorphous fraction lies between the ordered crystal-
form a peroxy-based radical. Radical hydrogen abstraction line and mobile amorphous fractions.[98] The mobile amor-
can reform the macroradical and produce hydroperoxide that phous phase is most readily attacked,[99] releasing of short
decomposes to form two new radical species that can ini- chains which fold into intercrystalline domains and nucleate
tiate more macroradical chains. High concentrations of car- crystallization. Thickening and rearrangement of the crystal-
boxylic acid end groups promote thermo-oxidation.[90] Thus, line domains is observed, with new crystalline domains with
Scheme 2. Reaction pathways PLA, PVC and PVA can undergo during extrusion which can induce acidolysis or hydrolysis of PET.
Scheme 3. Reaction pathways PET undergoes during mechanical recycling.
smaller average sizes formed with increased recycling,[99] 3.3. Chain Extender Use in Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
causing increased embrittlement and Young’s modulus.[42]
The uses of chain extenders that reverse some of the damage
caused by PET chain degradation are inexpensive and con-
3.2. Improvements to Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Recycling venient, promoting reactions inside processing equipment.
These oligomers target reactive chain ends to fuse chains back
Improvements to PET mechanical recycling are well resear together and increase molecular weight. The extenders can
ched.[50,53,99–102] Much of the modern research builds from ini- have two or more reactive groups to maximize the number of
tial efforts by La Mantia and Vinci[47] Their article investigates reactions between chains, leading to both branched and linear
the maximum number of extrusions PET can undergo before topologies.[99,101–103] Chain extenders can also help to compatibi-
it is unsuitable for (re)manufacturing. Beyond three recycling lize two different grades (i.e., PETs with significantly different
cycles changes in the material properties are less pronounced structures or molecular weight) by reacting the chains together
(Figure 6), as degradation reactions are slow due to polymer and reverse the chain scission induced by thermo-oxidative
size.[47] This result confirms the molecular weight dependence processes.[84] Common chain extenders include oxazolines,
on degradation kinetics where the larger the polymer chain, the isocyanates, epoxides, lactams, hydroxyls, carboxylic acids, and
faster the degradation kinetics.[47,48] To promote chain extension, organic phosphites and phosphates.[99,101–103] Examples of com-
protect chains, improve mechanical properties and add value to monly used multifunctional extenders are shown in Scheme 4
the recyclate, additives are often incorporated during PET recy- and their functionalities are present in commercial extenders
cling.[43,99] To circumvent the effects of the thermal oxidation, such as Joncryl derivatives.
metal-based stabilizers such as tin mercaptide or lead phthalate Increases in chain length can be dynamically measured in-
have been reported, as has extrusion in inert atmospheres.[50,53] situ by monitoring increases in torque values as chains extend.
Solid state polymerization (SSP) can also be used to react Cavalcanti et al. report using triphenyl phosphite (TPP) to suc-
hydroxyl and carboxyl end groups of existing and broken chains cessfully extend the chains through their carboxyl and hydroxyl
to reverse scission. To prevent the radical attack on chains, rad- terminal groups.[99] Incarnato et al. describe using pyromellitic
ical scavengers such as organic phosphates are used. Gooneie dianhydride (PMDA) as a chain extender in reactive extrusion
et al. reported the efficacy of ((1-oxido-2,6,7-trioxa-1-phosphabi- in an attempt to induce long chain branching of PET (Figure 7).
cyclo[2.2.2]octan-4-yl)methoxy)dibenzo[c,e][1,2]oxaphosphinine The presence of entangled networks from PMDA branching
6-oxide (DP), an additive that additionally imparts flame promotes increased intrinsic viscosity (ƞ*), decrease in melting
retardant properties. The decomposition products of DP act as temperature and increase in cold crystallization tempera-
radical quenchers and delay the on-set of PET crosslinking;[50] ture.[100] The use of PDMA increases the torque of virgin PET
the authors do not discuss the potential impact on β-scission quicker than TPP, by similar factors (≈2–3) and at lower weight
due to radical attack. Of these methods, reactive chain extension percentages (Figure 7). This difference is somewhat surprising
shows the largest promise in improving PET recyclate quality. as multifunctional extenders usually outperform bifunctional
Scheme 4. Common reactions between chain extenders: bis-oxazolines, di-isocyanates, di-epoxides, pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA), triphenyl phos-
phite (TPP) and PET.
extenders, suggesting that both the extrusion conditions and of the multifunctional chain extenders such as PDMA, TPP,
extender reactivity play significant roles. PMDA has also been and Joncryl additives is owed to increased reaction site num-
used to chain extend PET, polyurethanes, PLA, and other spe- bers between end groups.[96] The type of reactive site also
cialty polymers.[104–108] affects chain extension: di-isocyanates are more reactive than
Chain extenders are now commonplace in industrial set- di-epoxides with PET terminal groups for chain extension.[101]
tings.[101,109–111] Tavares et al. report that incorporation of Joncryl Benvenuta Tapia et al. report the use of reversible addition-
PR 002, a multifunctional epoxide oligomer, is more effective fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization to produce
in recycled PET than in virgin streams.[109] They report that poly(styrene-co-glycidyl methacrylate-b-styrene-co-acrylonitrile
less than 1% of the Joncryl additive is required to reverse the triblock copolymers, where the epoxide based chain extender
decrease in molecular weight due to extrusion induced chain increases the molecular weight and viscosity of rPET in reac-
scission.[95] In contrast, Duarte et al. report that a blend of Jon- tive extrusion and matching similar thermal properties to vPET,
cryl 4368 and 4370 increases the molecular weight of vPET more with a direct correlation between the concentration of glycidyl
effectively than post-consumer recycled PET, although they methacrylate (GMA) and mechanical properties (Figure 8).[102]
agree that 1% of the additive is required to reverse the effects of While promising, it is important to note that these chain
process induced degradation.[109,112] The increased effectiveness extenders may not be suitable for food-grade PET production
Figure 8. Elongation at break and Izod impact versus GMA content

during chain extension of rPET. Reproduced by permission.[101] Copyright
2018, Springer Nature.
4. Mechanical Recycling of Polyolefins

Degradation during the mechanical processing of polyolefins
can form a variety of carbon based molecules such as alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, acids and cyclic ethers and esters and short-
chain hydrocarbons.[113] Constructed solely with carbon and
hydrogen bonds, each of the three main polyolefins used in
packaging (HDPE, LDPE, and PP) have different degradation
mechanisms to each other, and are significantly different than
other packaging polymers (Scheme 5). Radical attack does gen-
erate macroradicals along the polymer backbone, but following
initial attack β-scission of the polymer chain forms other mac-
roradicals. Intramolecular radical transfer can occur to form a
variety of other radical species, with recombination or dissocia-
Figure 7. Top: The effect of TPP on the torque of PET processed at 260 °C tion of these radicals forming shorter, branched, or crosslinked
and 60 rpm. Bottom: The effect of PDMA at 0.5% and 1% on torque for
polymer chains. Reaction of polymer macroradicals with any
PET processed at 280 °C at 100 rpm. Reproduced with permission.[99]
Copyright 2007, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission.[100] oxygen-based radicals will introduce carboxylic acid, carbonyl
Copyright 2000, Elsevier. and hydroxyl end groups which may in turn promote further
degradation.[114–121] HDPE and LDPE show higher crosslinking
due to potential migration and regulatory issues. Unreacted
small oligomers, phosphites, or other molecules may leach
through materials into packaged products and induce cyto-
toxicity. They may also disrupt crystallinity or crystallization
rates.[102] Many chain extenders have poor thermal stability,
creating more risk from multiple extrusions.[101] In some cases
chain extension can produce excess acid groups during the
extension process, which then increases degradation rates, as
most acutely observed in TPP-extended PET.[99,102]
The dominance of PET in packaging research efforts focus
on improving the mechanical recycling process.[53,102] While
inclusion of additives can improve the properties of the recy-
cled PET, their exact effects, especially at end-of-life, are not well
understood and thus can further complicate recycling. Despite
these risks, commercial use of chain extenders is growing and
indeed upgrading deteriorated recyclate.[109,112] Future research
should focus on the applicability and mechanism of action of
extenders over larger numbers of extrusion cycles to under-
stand the impact on a circular plastics economy. Continual
reprocessing of chain-extended PET is under-investigated and
may impact degradation mechanisms or recyclate variability. Scheme 5. General reaction scheme of polyolefins undergoing extrusion.
rates whereas PP is more prone to chain scission (Section 4.1.1,

4.1.2, and 4.2).[122] Attack of polyolefin chains occurs primarily
in the amorphous phase of the polymer as oxygen struggles to
diffuse through highly crystalline domains.[51]
4.1. Polyethylenes
PEs are structurally simple polymers with remarkably high

strengths that have promoted widespread use in packaging.
HDPE (0.952 g cm−3) has a high degree of crystallinity and is
stronger yet less elastic than the more loosely packed LDPE
(0.924 g cm−3). The less crystalline LDPE is more transparent
and elastic than HDPE and so is widely used for film pro-
duction. The difference between the two polymers’ densities
can alter their degradation mechanisms during extrusion, as
described below.[123]
4.1.1. High-Density Polyethylene
HDPE shows competing mechanisms of chain scission and

chain branching during extrusion, depending on extrusion
conditions. Pinheiro et al. report that in oxygen rich environ-
ments, the carbonyl concentration in HDPE increases due to
thermo-oxidative chain scission of the polymer backbones
via the creation of stable carbonyl end groups.[117] In low
oxygen environments, the shear-induced degradation instead
causes chain scission and double bond production to domi-
nate over chain branching.[114,117] During continuous extrusion Figure 9. Complex viscosity versus number of extrusion cycles for top:
HDPE and bottom: LDPE. Reproduced with permission.[44] Copyright
the polymer chains progressively decrease in length, short-
2015, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission.[131] Copyright 2012,
ening the chains and making them less susceptible to shear Elsevier. Trend lines are reproduced from original sources.
forces.[48,117] However, the short chains are still susceptible to
attack from the longer chain macroradicals at double bonds.
The reaction between shorter polymer chains containing maintain mechanical properties.[124–126] Kim and Kim employed
double bonds and longer macroradicals produces long chain trimethylol propane triacrylate (TMPTA) to minimize the chain
branching.[117] Researchers have also confirmed simultaneous scission and disproportionation side reactions induced by per-
chain scission and branching using less direct experimental oxides (Scheme 6),[124,127] although the melt flow index (MFI)
methods.[44,117,118] Oblak et al. performed 100 consecutive extru- reduced by more than a factor of 10 on inclusion of TMPTA,
sions on HDPE (Figure 9). They note that there are significant
structural changes in the material during the first 30 cycles but
an oscillatory plateau in properties is then observed. They spec-
ulate that chain branching is the dominant chain chemistry
occurring during the first 30 cycles, chain scission between
30 and 60 extrusion cycles whereas above 60 extrusion cycles
chain crosslinking predominates, resulting in up to a five-
fold increase in viscosity.[44] This crosslinking is overcome by
reducing screw speeds whereas chain scission reactions can be
enhanced by changes in screw speed, meaning that the chal-
lenges of continued recycling of HDPE are easier to mitigate
than for PET.
While degradation of HDPE extrudate can be minimized
through extruder control, the inclusion of stabilizing addi-
tives is also commonplace (Section 4.1.3). Reactive extrusion
of HDPE includes direct post-polymerization functionaliza-
tion, grafting or crosslinking.[116] Control over crosslinking
is realized using radiation, moisture and thermo-chem-
ical methods.[116,124,125] Peroxides have been used to induce Scheme 6. Reaction scheme for controlled degradation of PE using per-
crosslinking between chains to minimize chain scission and oxides and trimethylol propane triacrylate (TMPTA).[127]
suggesting decreased crosslinking yet Su and Huang report mitigate an immediate problem propagate during subsequent
increased branching with TMPTA use in PP.[124,127] Chain use; the aforementioned use of carbon black prevents sorting
linking to other polyolefins in blended systems, and using and darkens recyclate, decreasing both quality and price during
epoxides, diamines, acrylates, phosphates and silanes is also subsequent processing cycles.
reported.[128,129] Other efforts to improve HDPE include grafting Due to the migration of antioxidants and potential carcino-
with initiators or polymerizable monomers such as parabenzo- genicity, research efforts have focused on the development of
quinone, vinyl silanes, maleic anhydrides, styrenics, oxazolines, safer, sustainable or natural antioxidant alternatives or the inhi-
and acrylics, although the target in these instances is often spe- bition of migration through covalent bonding to the polymer
cialist PEs rather than packaging polymers.[116,124] chain.[73] Many of these risks are unknown, with limited cyto-
toxicity data known for antioxidants or metal-based catalysts
often used in their synthesis. Natural antioxidants include bio-
4.1.2. Low-Density Polyethylene derived phenols such as caffeic acid, ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol
(vitamin E), curcumin, quercetin, and β-carotenes.[74,132] Inclu-
LDPE has a highly branched structure, inhibiting packing sion of 0.2 wt% vitamin E provides a higher level of protection
and reducing density. Branched structures are more sus- than the same weight percentage loading of synthetic counter-
ceptible to crosslinking or chain branching reactions during parts Irganox 1010 and 1076.[74,132] Similarly, studies by Tatraaljai
extrusion, with more end groups and lower thermal stability. et al. and Zia et al. on the inclusion of curcumin during PE
Increases in LDPE molecular weights during recycling is processing showed improved chain protection compared to
observed using rheology, thermo-rheology, GPC and FT-IR Irganox with improved water barrier properties.[74,133,134] In
studies (Figure 9).[120,130,131] While degradation mechanisms that an attempt to promote the use of bio-derived antioxidants,
increase molecular weight predominate during LDPE repro- Iyer et al. discuss the inclusion of very low cost antioxidants
cessing, an underlying competition between chain scission and stemming from natural agro-wastes (Figure 10). The agro-waste
chain branching remains. As LDPE is extruded, it shows initial stabilisers are not as effective as the commercial alternative
chain cleavage followed by recombination and chain branching. Irganox 1010 but still protect against embrittlement of LDPE
In the presence of oxygen, radical chain reactions will enhance (Figure 10).[74] The use of stabilizers can increase the lifetime
scission rates. In inert atmospheres and low oxygen conditions of plastic products and can provide protection against thermo-
macroradicals will cross-react to induce higher rates of chain oxidation during mechanical recycling. As is now a common
branching. The affinity of LDPE for chain scission decreases as feature in this review, there is little understanding of the impact
it branches due to a decrease in the radius of gyration.[120] This of these stabilizers over multiple processing cycles.[79]
accounts for differences observed by Dostá et al. for LDPE and
Oblak et al. (Figure 9) for HDPE.[120,131] As it is predominantly
found in packaging with short circulation times, LDPE is not 4.2. Polypropylene
usually stabilized against reprocessing degradation posing
problems for circular recovery and recycling systems.[51] PP has a high volume to weight ratio, a challenge for land-
fills[135,136] even as it has glossy appearance, good optical proper-
ties, and high tensile strength make it an essential packaging
4.1.3. Stabilizer Use in Polyethylenes polymer.[125] The presence of tertiary carbons along the PP back-
bone[122,137] are more prone to shear degradation, introduces a
PEs often require stabilizers to limit thermo-oxidative degrada- more reactive methine functional group and increases flam-
tion during melt reprocessing and maintain recyclate quality. mability.[91,122,138] Repeated recycling of PP reduces molecular
These additives also improve UV radiation stability.[74] Combina- weights owing to thermo-mechanical and thermo-oxidative
tions of UV inhibitors, thermal stabilizers and anti-oxidants are chain scission, increasing the degree of crystallinity to afford
vital as the ketones and peracids that can form as degradation higher elastic moduli and reduced elongation at break.[139,140]
products form at different rates under UV and thermo-oxidative PP radical degradation is very similar to that of PE with
stresses.[72] Additives are chosen for their solubility, dispersion hydroperoxides abstracting hydrogen atoms from the polymer
and stabilization in the host matrix, and to minimize their evap- chains.[122,137] The spherulitic structure focuses degradation at
oration and volatization during processing. Phenols such as these spherulite boundaries, segregating catalyst residue and
Irganox 1010 (Figure 5) are common antioxidants, functioning additives in the amorphous phase (Figure 11).[137,141] Macroradi-
as both hydrogen bonding stabilizers and alkyl peroxy radical cals produced combine or undergo β-scission.[91,119,122] As the
traps.[74] The combination of phenolic and phosphate-based methine proton is more reactive, the formation of peroxyradi-
antioxidants is often more effective than a phenolic compound cals is enhanced but the resultant radical is stabilized versus
alone.[77] Antagonistic effects can also occur between stabilizing PE.[138,142] At lower temperatures, PP is stable to processing for
systems. In systems stabilized with hindered amine light stabi- up to five extrusion cycles. Beyond five cycles and/or at higher
lizers (HALS) and hindered phenols, nitroxyl radicals produced temperatures, significant chain scission limits performance,
from photooxidation react with the phenolic groups, disrupting contrasting with the chain branching and crosslinking observed
the redox system responsible for stabilization. Peña et al. report in PEs.[140]
that a three-additive system overcomes the majority of antago- To counter the radical attack on the polymer chains during
nistic effects and suggest carbon black as a third additive due extrusion, PP also requires stabilization. Both phenolic and hin-
to its adsorption-desorption properties.[80] Again, decisions that dered amine systems are common.[143] PPs spherulitic structure
Figure 10. Elongation at break values for LDPE extruded with antioxidant agro-wastes. Reproduced with permission.[75] Copyright 2015, American
Chemical Society.
impacts the distribution of stabilizers and antioxidants mobile amorphous regions. To prevent antioxidant loss through
(Figure 11).[141,143] Smaller spherulites allow a uniform distribu- volatization and migration, Gao et al. describe the grafting
tion of stabilizers throughout the polymer matrix, improving of antioxidants onto nanosilica particles.[142] Reduced loss of
radical capture reactions and thus efficacy.[141,143] Taniike et al. antioxidant increased the stabilisation effects after accelerated
reported that the distribution of the stabilizer within the PP thermal aging (Figure 12).[142] The migration of antioxidants
polymer matrix is independent of the type of antioxidant or from the polymeric material can also be purposefully exploited.
stabilizer.[141] Bio-derived agro-wastes include tannin wine seed Controlled release of antioxidants from PP matrices can provide
extracts, seed polyphenol extracts and virgin wine wastes can both antioxidant protection of the polymer matrix and to con-
stabilize the product and delay the onset of MFI oxidation deg- tained food products. Thymol and carvacrol were incorporated
radation for up to 100 h.[144] Lignin, a natural phenolic polymer, at 8 wt% in PP, with both active antioxidants released into food-
can also successfully stabilize PP and recycled PP (rPP) at like simulants and remained in the polymer over 15 days.[146]
concentrations between to 2–5 wt%. The lignin acts as both
an anti-oxidant and as a filler to increase the rigidity of the
polymer matrix. Synergistic effects are reported when lignin is 4.3. Polyolefin Blends
combined with Irganox 1010 due to increased diffusion of the
commercial antioxidant throughout the polymer matrix.[145] Polyolefin blending has been an active area of research for
These stabilisation methods have not been tested under extru- several years due to the mixed polyolefin (MPO) waste frac-
sion conditions, so their applicability to protect over several rey- tion separated using flotation sorting of plastic wastes.[77,131]
cling life-cycles is unkown.
The migration of stabilisers in PP is also under-investigated,
raising potential human and environmental health concerns,
compounded by the localisation of these chemicals in more
Figure 12. Effect of thermal aging on tensile strength of PP samples

Figure 11. Optical image showing the spherulitic structure of PP. Repro- stabilized with AO and coupled to silica using AEAPS. Reproduced with
duced with permission.[142] Copyright 2012, John Wiley and Sons. permission.[142] Copyright 2008, Elsevier.
Figure 13. Synthesis of PE/iPP copolymers using an isoselective pyridylamidohafnium catalyst. Tensile testing of PE/PP blends stabilized with different
wt% of PE:iPP copolymer.[151]
Recycled MPOs require minimal sorting, are easily pro- blending agents for PP and PE with similar compatibilising
duced and much cheaper than pure PP and PE recyclates. effects as multi-block copolymers.[153] The grafted compatibi-
Yet the produced recyclates have significantly diminished lisers are formed by copolymerising macromonomers in the
mechanical properties due to poor adhesion between polymer presence of a hafnium pyridylamido catalyst rather than by
phases.[131,147,148] These adhesion issues prevent the use of living polymerisation. These new copolymer compatibilisers
these blends for manufacturing purposes due to lower Young’s Thus, providing an economically favourable method to com-
moduli and reduced elasticity (iPP:PE blends shown in patibilised MPO wastes.[153] Successful compatibilization of
Figure 13).[89,149–151] Poor adhesion can be explained by pres- polyolefins is of great interest to the recycling industry. The
ence of noncrystallizable oligomers at the interphases gener- qualities of one polyolefin can be used to enhance that of
ated during synthesis.[148] Appropriate choice of catalyst during another. HDPE, though of lower cost and of higher mechan-
polyolefin synthesis can minimize the presence of these oli- ical properties than LDPE, produces poor quality films with
gomers and promote adhesion across MPO interphases.[148] increased haziness and lower toughness. Wu and Wang report
The mechanical behavior of polyolefin blends can be altered by that blends of PP/LLDPE/HDPE (10:30:60) show improved
modifying the majority phase as shown by research conducted toughness and decreased haze compared to pure HDPE films
by Van Belle et al. [150] Blends of LDPE/HDPE, LDPE/PP and due to partial compatibility and crosslinking between the
LLDPE/HDPE have transitional tensile behavior in which ten- three polymers.[154] A polyolefin-wide blending technology
sile behavior will transfer to the majority phase. Blends of PP/ that is independent of composition remains a challenge, with
HDPE cause brittle behavior, unlike the shear yielding seen research requiring testing of many different blend composi-
for the mono-polymers.[150] tions to find optimum ratios, highlighting the need for sys-
Recently, Eagan et al. report synthesizing a novel polyeth- tematic solutions for improved polymer waste stream sorting
ylene-block-isotactic polypropylene (PE-b-iPP) copolymer to processes.
successfully “stitch” two polyolefin polymer phases together
(Figure 13). The resulting copolymer stabilized blend showed
large tensile property improvements when compared to con- 5. Mechanical Recycling of Poly(vinyl chloride)
ventional unstabilized PE-iPP blends due to aforementioned
interlocking entanglements between the two phases.[92,151,152] PVC is ubiquitous in food and construction industries as it is
More recently, this research group has presented polyethylene robust, light, flexible and has excellent oxygen and water bar-
grafted with isotactic polypropylene copolymers (PE-g-iPP) as rier properties.[155–157] However, at end-of-life PVC degradation
Scheme 7. Common degradation mechanisms PVC undergoes during extrusion.
causes release of chlorinated products into the surrounding 5.2. Stabilization of Poly(vinyl chloride)
environment.[143] Mechanisms of degradation during recycling
include thermo-oxidation, crosslinking, functionalization of PVC is generally extruded with stabilizers that neutralize HCl
chains and hydrodechlorination (Scheme 7).[53,158,159] Pyrolytic released and thus prevent attack on polymer chains. Some
treatment of PVC is generally not advised due to the possible stabilizers have the added ability to replace chlorine atoms
release of highly toxic and corrosive HCl gas, with impact on lost from the polymer backbone.[159] Stabilizers are consumed
both the environment (i.e., acid rain) and plant (i.e., reactor during processing of the polymer during its first life, neces-
corrosion).[158,159] PVC is unstable to both thermal and photo- sitating further stabilization when recycled. Stabilizers can be
induced stress. PVC waste streams must be pure and highly metal based such as lead, calcium-zinc, sulfur organotins, and
stabilized against unwanted degradation to enable useful metal soaps.[159,163] Although no longer in used (as of 2015), the
mechanical recycling. presence of both lead-based and sulfur-based stabilizing sys-
tems react to form lead-sulfide which appears as dark sports
in the material and have potential human and environmental
5.1. Degradation Mechanisms of Poly(vinyl chloride) toxicity concerns, especially as much of this legacy material
remains in use.[159,163,164] Inclusion of inexpensive bases such
Thermal and optical degradation promotes hydrodechlorina- as CaCO3 can also prevent the release of HCl during pro-
tion to form internal double bonds (Scheme 7), significantly cessing. As it also acts as a filler, inclusion of CaCO3 improves
decreasing mechanical strength. The initial double bond for- the mechanical properties of the material (i.e., elastic modulus,
mation promotes subsequent reactions, leading to polyene elongation at break, and impact strength by up to 20%), and
sequences along the chain. These polyene sections absorb indeed is retained over multiple life cycles.[159,164] However, high
light, discoloring the polymer.[158–162] High degradation levels amounts of these fillers leads to embrittlement, necessitating
and a lack of oxygen both induce reactions whereby double increase addition of plasticizers that further complicate the
bonds facilitate PVC chain crosslinking.[53] Secondary reac- chemical composition of PVC and necessitating filler inclusion
tions, especially in the presence of oxygen, can introduce at low loadings.
many other chain structures and functionalities.[158,160] Radi-
cals are generated by the cleavage of the C-Cl bond or from
the abstraction of hydrogens, with environmental oxygen 5.3. Plasticizer Use in Poly(vinyl chloride)
reacting to produce oxygenated species that eventually form
carboxylic acid end-groups. Oxygen can also react with the pol- This PVC embrittlement occurs even in the absence of fillers
yene sections of the chain.[160] However, PVC polyene forma- and stabilizers, necessitating plasticizers in nearly all appli-
tion occurs under both N2 and O2, so control of degradation cations.[165] Plasticizers weaken intermolecular interactions
is challenging and elimination of all substantive degradation within materials by increasing free volume (Figure 14), thus
is unfeasible.[161] As with other packaging polymers, contami- lowering the glass transition temperature (Tg), decreasing stress
nants can catalyze the hydrodechlorination and mechanical at break and increasing elongation at break.[166,167] Nearly nine
performance losses.[158] times more plasticizer than stabilizer was used in PVC in 2006
Figure 14. Schematic representation of internal and external plasticizers in PVC.[167]
(5.8 million vs 0.67 million tons). As plasticizers are rarely used observed.[166] Self-plasticizing PVC was also explored by Jia
in PET and HDPE, PVC accounts for 80–90% of plasticizer use et al.[167,176–180] The use of phosphorous containing castor oil
up to 2005.[165] As the most common phthalate plasticizers are derivatives (EAMR-DOPO),[167] dehydroabietic acid deriva-
a threat to human health, this has increased calls for the exclu- tives,[178] cardanol based groups,[177,179] mannich bases of waste
sion of PVC from packaging polymers and many other appli- cooking oil,[178] and aminated tung oil methyl esters[180] have all
cations.[165,168–170] Phthalate plasticizer concentration increases been used in self-plasticization of PVC. Self-plasticized plastics
with each recycling cycle, exacerbating these issues,[170] espe- can reduce both plasticizer migration and toxicity, although this
cially as phthalates migrate to external surfaces during thermal second has not been conclusively evidenced in real-world sys-
aging, reducing its efficiency and increasing environmental tems.[176] Further research must be conducted into the robust-
exposure over time.[171] ness of self-plasticized materials, as substituted PVCs are
These concerns have understandably led to tough restric- expected to be less stable during mechanical recycling.[178] Nev-
tions on phthalate use, creating real challenges for PVC ertheless, self-plasticizing PVC is a promising route to upgrade
mechanical recycling, including through the European PVC recyclate and minimize unintended consequences.
recycling scheme VinylPlus.[172] New, non-toxic, plasticizers It bears mention that the recycling process is not the only
include citrates, carboxylates, phosphates, sebacates, and epoxi- contributor to negative environmental impact for PVC; origi-
dized oils.[167,173] One of the most commonly used and commer- nally, PVC synthesis was energetically expensive and required
cially available alternatives to phthalates for use in food-related exceeding toxic chemicals like Hg(l) and Cl2(g).[165] Greener
packaging is Hexamoll DINCH, a 1,2-cyclohexane dicarbox- methods to produce vinyl chloride monomers are emerging.[181]
ylic acid diisononyl ester, which complies with global regula- However, the real solution may be in alternatives to PVC,
tions in medical device, toy and food contact industries.[174,175] although the financial challenges of infrastructure invest-
Investigation into other phthalate-free plasticizers is ongoing. ment, legacy polymers in long-term use, and the lack of under-
US patent US2017/0096543 A1 describes the invention of an standing of the ecotoxicology and recyclability of alternatives
ester-based plasticizer, through the reaction of pentaerythritol means that the recycling of PVC remains an essential area of
and a monocarboxylic acid, that can achieve similar effects at research.
lower concentrations, but to our knowledge these results have
not been peer reviewed.[174] The use of epoxidized oils as a
replacement to phthalates is another promising development, 6. Mechanical Recycling of Polystyrene
although issues with flammability and migration have limited
commercial development to date.[167] Many alternative plasti- PS exists in three forms: solid, expanded foam and a polybuta-
cizers are under-explored, with toxicity and migration issues diene reinforced form (HIPS), all of which are used in pack-
key unknowns that need resolution prior to incorporation into aging. Polystyrenes are challenging to collect and recycled due
plastics in circulation. to their low densities.[182] Solid PS can be mechanically recycled
Internal plasticity, through substitution of the PVC chlorine into other useful products whereas expanded polystyrene (EPS)
atoms, can be used in place of external plasticity (Figure 14). usually requires a solvent-based or mechanically based method
Lu et al. report the chemical modification of PVC by reacting to de-foam and reduce its volume before reprocessing.[183,184]
the common plasticizer diisononyl phthalate with the polymer Solvents used to de-foam EPS do not cause degradation of the
chain to produce a self-plasticizing polymer with decreased chains but care must be taken to minimize the environmental
phthalate migration. Nucleophilic substitution of the chlorine and carbon impact of the solvent of choice.[184] Noguchi et al.
atoms with thiophenol groups with K2CO3 or N,N-diisopropy- report the use of the bio-derived solvent, d-limonene a natural
lethylamine also plasticizes the system, with lower Tg values vegetable oil from citrus fruits, to de-foam and shrink EPS.[185]
This technique reduces the volume of the EPS foam by twenty polystyrene is primarily downcycled into disposable cutlery
times and is promising for recycling because the residual oil acts and products.[191] Remili et al. report that by the tenth repro-
as an antioxidant that protects chains from radical induced scis- cessing cycle the molecular weight of PS decreased by nearly
sion. While an expensive process, d-limonene is food-derived 50%.[192] Chain scission dominates during reprocessing, as
and potentially more environmentally friendly than other sol- confirmed both by molecular weight and rheological measure-
vents such as toluene (although the carbon footprint may be ments. Both chain scission and crosslinking compete in HIPS
significant higher), but most significantly it selectively dissolves reprocessing.[189,190] At higher temperatures or cycles, chain
EPS while leaving expanded polyolefins and labels intact.[182,185] scission begins to dominate over crosslinking and the elonga-
As an alternative to d-limonene, other natural oils such as star tion at break of HIPS decreases.[189] Vilaplana et al. report that
anise oil, eucalyptus oil, thyme oil and chamomile oil can be after nine reprocessing cycles the elongation at break of HIPS
used to successfully reduce EPS foam volume without lowering decreases by 38%, a smaller decrease than seen in PET but still
molecular weights.[182] To eliminate solvent cost and impact, significant for product manufacture.[190]
Trezek et al. describe the use of an apparatus to mechanically Mechanical recycling is not the primary method used to
reduce the size of the foamed polystyrene.[186,187] Recycled EPS recycle EPS as foam density differences and additives impact
(rEPS) can be re-gassed to enhance its foamed characteristics, the process and prevent true circularity. Dissolution/precipita-
although the added cost compared to virgin polymer continues tion techniques are widely applied to PS due to their ability to
to depress recycling rates.[183,188] reduce EPS volume and provide a high quality rPS comparable
to the virgin material.[193]
6.1. Degradation Mechanisms of Polystyrene

6.2. Filler Use in Polystyrene
PS is susceptible to radical attack; thermal scission causes
the formation of a macroradical species (Scheme 8). The rad- While understudied compared to other packaging poly-
ical reaction continues by intramolecular radical transfers mers, fillers can reinforce the PS polymer matrix. Nagalak-
before β-scission of the chain through an unbuttoning reac- shmaiah et al. recently report the production of a cellulose
tion forming small dimers and trimers.[126,174,175] As with other nanocrystal (CNC)-PS composite material using twin screw
polymers, PS chains can crosslink under certain, usually low extrusion and avoiding the time and resource intensive sol-
oxygen, reaction conditions.[176] The degradation of HIPS differs vent casting methods.[194] Mini-emulsion polymerization was
due to the presence of the polybutadiene chains, with degrada- used to modify the CNC and minimize thermal and dispersion
tion starting in the unsaturated double bond of the polybuta- instabilities. The compatibilizing copolymer poly(styrene-co-
diene and then propagating through the PS chains.[51,189,190] 2-ethylhexyl acrylate) was used to plasticize the polymer, low-
Although not directly used to produce electric components, ering the Tg and mechanical performance.[194] Incorporation
PS is used in electrical and electronic equipment packaging. of montmorillonite clay increases the viscosity of HIPS and
As the waste associated with electronics is rising, efficient counteracts chain scission reactions during degradation.[189]
recycling of polymers for electronics and their packaging is However, inclusion of clay again decreases the mechanical
imperative.[183,190] properties due to poor dispersion of the clay. However, extru-
A decrease in molecular weight, viscosity, and elongation sion shears clay agglomerates, which reduce in size, disperse
at break is observed as PS is mechanically recycled. Recycled better in the polymer matrix, and recover the mechanical
properties.[189,195] Similarly, Remili et al. report that the inclu-
sion of Cloisite 15A clay in PS (5 wt%) protects the chains
from degradation and maintain polymer mechanical proper-
ties after recycling (Figure 15).[192] The observed increase in
PS molecular weight is attributed to crosslinking from radical
recombination reactions; the clay prevents chain mobility and
thus limits the movement of radical fragments produced by
chain scission.[192,196] Unlike the nanoclay used in HIPS, the
Cloisite 15A clay in PS leads to improved properties such as
the Young’s modulus and hardness of the recycled compos-
ites.[192] This may be due to the difference in the clay structures
present in the polymer matrix, as montmorillonite clay forms
random agglomerates while the layered Cloisite 15A can better
trap radical fragments. Gutiérrez and Alvarez investigate the
reactive extrusion of PS and native/oxidized corn starch using
zinc octanoate to catalyze the crosslinking reaction. Com-
posite films showed higher elasticity due to their compact
structure, although this has not been explored in mechanical
recycling.[197]
As with PVC, PS recycling is less prevalent than other poly-
Scheme 8. General reaction scheme for mechanical recycling of PS. mers – both due to inherent challenges in its operation and the
with multiple polymers. A high number of entanglements and

increased polymer block size positively affects the mechanical
properties of the material.[141,152]
Co-monomers such as those described by Eagan et al.
can be used to compatibilize other blends.[151] For example,
poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) and poly(styrene-b-ethylene/
butadiene-b-styrene) are used to compatibilize blends of HDPE,
PVC and PS, with gamma radiation then used to induce
crosslinking reactions.[198] Though the radiation improved
the uniformity of blends, the elasticity and tensile strength of
the blends suffers,[198] making it difficult to justify the use of
energetically costly radiation as a recycling solution, although
important research in this field is continuing.
PET-polyolefin blends are often compatibilized by grafting
polyolefins with functional groups that can interact with PET
end groups such as maleic anhydride, acrylic acid, ethylene-
Figure 15. Young’s modulus versus number of reprocessing cycles for
vinyl acetate copolymers, maleimides, or glycidyl meth-
PS compounded with and without 5%w/w Cloisite 15A. Reproduced with
permission.[192] Copyright 2011, Elsevier. acrylate.[199] Mi et al. report blending PP and PET using in
situ microfibrillation and multi-flow vibrate injection molding
paired with polyolefin grafted maleic anhydride (POE-g-MA)
potential that regulations may minimize the material in circula- to control the blend morphology of PP and PET.[91] Two dif-
tion in the future. ferent morphologies of each polymer were used; PP spherulites
and orientated structures denoted as “shish-kebabs” and PET
spherules and fibers (Figure 16). Blending the PP spherulites
7. Applications of Complex Polymer Blends in with the orientated microfibrillar PET led to improved mechan-
ical properties whereas blending the orientated PP with the
Mechanical Recycling
PET spherules gives improved impact strength. Both the PET
As discussed, blending technologies may recover value in sys- fibers and PP “shish-kebabs” cannot coexist as the PET fibers
tems where polymer waste sorting is not feasible and can mini- disrupt the flow of PP.[91] Bottle grade PET can be improved
mize problems of contamination in polymer waste streams. through incorporation of GMA grafted onto PP with styrene as
Blending of polymers with dissimilar chemical polarities is chal- a co-monomer, increasing the materials impact strength due
lenging and especially difficult when systems are contaminated to enhanced interactions between chains.[199,200] PET present
Figure 16. Experimental set-up used to produce a) blends b) microfibrillar composites c) blends, and d) microfibrillar composites via a,c) CIM and
b,d) MFVIM. (a–d) Reproduced with permission.[91] Copyright 2019, MDPI.
as the minor phase in PP, compatibilized by poly(styrene-co- results and the modulus of both PE and co-mingled plastic
(ethylene-butylene)-styrene) grafted with maleic anhydride increases.[83]
(SEBS-g-MA), is encapsulated by the hydrophobic PP pro- While polymer blends can offer enhanced mechanical prop-
tecting the PET chains from degradation. The PP-PET blend is erties and retain value in poorly sorted polymer waste, repro-
said to be stable up for three extrusion cycles which is similar cessing is rarely considered. The behavior and degradation
to reports of mechanical recycling of pure PET streams,[47,140] mechanisms of the blended materials is an essential area for
although this has not yet been explored for real-world systems further study, both in how the polymer blend behaves with
and the lack of food-grade PP is an additional challenge for multiple degradation temperatures and mechanisms and the
retaining material value. influence on broader waste management systems in propa-
Compatibilized blends cannot always be used to produce gating this contamination.
high quality products. Ragaert et al. report a secondary use
for the product of the sink fraction of waste sorting destined
for incineration which also uses SEBS-g-MA as a compati- 7.1. Complex Polymer/Filler Blends
bilizer. They sort this discarded fraction using IR to remove
the majority of PVC, resulting in a broadly PET (73%) and PP As discussed for specific polymers above, fillers can be used
(17.6%) based mix. The authors report the properties of the to reduce the effects of damage caused by chain degrada-
blended material with and without SEBS-g-MA compatibilizer tion during mechanical recycling. Incorporation of fillers can
while also developing a new roofing tile with the moniker improve the Young’s modulus, elongation at break and impact
“greentile,”[90] recovering value of a waste fraction destined for strength of recyclates but reduce polymer processability.[83,137,203]
incineration or landfill. Fillers in polymer blends migrate to the interfaces between the
PLA and PET are problematic packaging partners, as they fractions, dictated by both filler structure and thermodynamics.
are difficult to separate due to their similar density (≈1.25 g This decreases the interfacial tension between the two polymers
cm−3 PLA and ≈1.35 g cm−3 PET), physical appearance and by minimizing the energetic difference between particles in
IR signature from similar polyester backbones. Thus con- the bulk and at the interface.[21,93] Fillers must be chosen with
tamination of PLA in PET waste streams is common due to the chemical polarity of the polymer matrix in mind. Incorrect
imperfect waste sorting. PLA degrades into the parent lactic matching of filler to polymer leads to poor adhesion and poor
acid at PET processing temperatures, with the acids catalyzing transfer of stress and strain across the polymer, thus decreasing
the degradation and esterification of PET. As PLA is also one the mechanical properties of the resulting material. Coupling
of the most popular “biodegradable” plastics, it is rarely col- agents, such as silanes or titanates, can be added to improve
lected for mechanical recycling.[95] Gere and Czigany report adhesion between the filler and the polymer.[83,134,204]
using an ethylene-butyl acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate (E-BA- The use of fillers within recycling must be carefully planned
GMA) terpolymer to produce a compatibilized blend of PET- with processing in mind. Changes to processing properties,
PLA.[201] The blends show increased toughness but a decrease such as viscosity, can damage processing equipment due to
in their elastic moduli. The authors also incorporated the excessive torques or require recalibration of large industrial
chain extender Joncryl ADR 4368 which may be a true source processes. Incorporation of fillers in recyclates changes the rhe-
of mechanical improvements observed. The compatibilized ological behavior of the final extrudate.[127,203,205] Low viscosity
blends have higher thermal stability compared to their non values are obtained at low shear rates due to brittle regions
compatibilized counterparts, although reprocessing was not with high filler concentration.[203] Processing of viscous poly-
explored. mers, such as those with high filler content, requires increased
Blending technologies can also exploit the degradation energy which in turn drives up processing costs.[203] The bal-
mechanisms of different polymers. Li et al. report compatibi- ance between improved recyclate properties, filler quantity and
lizing PP and PS by inhibiting degradation reactions within the financial costs remains challenging.
extruder, using tetraethyl thiuram disulphide (TETD) to form Naturally derived fiber fillers are growing in popularity due
dithiocarbamate radicals to react with the macroradicals formed to their renewable nature and potentially lower environmental
by polymer degradation.[202] The authors combine the TETD impact.[206,207] Fiber fillers, such as starch, cellulose, chitin, chi-
with di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP), which abstracts hydrogen tosan, soya, wheat gluten, gelatine, and lignin, reinforce poly-
atoms from the PP backbone and accelerates β-scission of mers by acting as physical compatibilizers in blends.[208] Augier
the polymer, to effectively control the degree of degradation et al. and Petchwattana et al. both report on successful inclu-
of the polymer. The reaction produces a PP-g-PS copolymer sion of wood fibers to improve recyclate quality over multiple
in situ which then acts as a compatibilizer between the PS processing cycles. Petchwattana et al. note that wood fiber filler
and PP fractions.[202] Another additive, dicumyl peroxide, in combined with recycled PVC (rPVC) is stable for up to 5–7
combination with a low molecular weight unnamed polyester cycles while Augier et al. note improvement in the strength
(molecular weight of 3000 with 30 mol% double bonds), was of the material above 10–20 extrusion cycles without compro-
used to improve the stiffness of co-mingled plastic waste (65% mising other mechanical properties (Figure 17).[209,210] Natu-
PE, 11% PS, 10% PP, 7% PET, 9% other plastics) by inducing rally derived fiber fillers also work on PP and HDPE.[206,207,208]
crosslinking of the polymer chains. Schadler et al. suggest that Unfortunately, these naturally derived fiber fillers are prone to
inclusion of the unsaturated polyester acts as a higher modulus degradation, can disrupt the polymer matrix and suffer from
filler to improve the flexural modulus of PE and the co-mingled adhesion issues which then require yet another additive in
plastics. When the crosslinking agent is added, gel formation coupling agents.[138,208,212] Detailed accounts of natural fiber
that it may enhance other degradation reactions through side

reactions caused by surfactants, contaminants, metals pres-
ence in the clay, or collapse and re-aggregation of the clay into
agglomerates.[189,192]
The environmental impact of the additional use of compati-
bilizers and fillers in conjunction with other additives must
also be considered (Figure 18). The recyclability of the fillers
themselves may differ from the host polymer matrix and
may require costly separation before recycling of the polymer.
The extensive filler research has facilitated quick and low-
cost upgrades to mechanically recycled polymers (r-polymer),
allowing polymers that may have been destined for landfill to
Figure 17. Flexural strength versus number of reprocessing cycles for be repurposed into secondary uses where impact strength is
PVC reinforced with wood fibers (C) and without fibers (P). Reproduced prioritized over flexibility.
with permission.[209] Copyright 2007, Elsevier.
8. Secondary Uses for Recyclate

composites and treatments to improve them can be found in
previous published reviews.[213,214] If circular systems are not possible, where mechanical recy-
Particle fillers such as glass fiber, talc, CaCO3, and wollas- cling can return waste plastic back into the original product,
tonite produce cheap composites with enhanced stiffness, minimizing the fraction sent to landfill remains essential.
creep-resistance and heat-deflection.[215] Stiff composites can A common strategy is downcycling of plastic waste into sec-
be used in specific applications such as heavy-loaded bridges, ondary products, reusing the resource in other products such
replacement of automotive parts and fire-retardant materials.[ as building materials, lubricating greases, textiles or other pack-
215] aging (Figure 19).[90,183,222–227]
Glass fibers can even interact synergistically with a second
filler to enhance mechanical properties further and produce Recycled LDPE, HDPE, and PP in blended or pure form
high strength materials. Although theoretically advantageous, has been used in lithium semi-solid colloidal dispersions as a
glass-fiber enforced polymers are very challenging to pro- thickening agent in a liquid lubricant.[222–224] Recycled polyole-
cess.[215] Glass-fiber stiffened polymers suffer from rapid deg- fins have been used in multi-layer food packaging (including
radation within polymer processing equipment due to their with alternative materials such as paper), however these r-pol-
higher viscosities.[204,215] ymer are more prone to small molecule diffusion suggesting
Fillers can often be tailored to fit specific product require- a regulatory challenge for use in food packaging.[228,229] To
ments. Fire retardants, while not essential in most pack- combat this, recycled polymers have been used as central
aging applications, are highly relevant to protecting elec- layers between virgin polymers in multilayer films. Multi-layer
tronic equipment. Inorganic fillers such as metal hydroxides, polymer film production is challenging and requires careful
carbonates or phosphates can be used as flame retardants, viscosity matching in order to produce defined layers.[230]
although high percentages cause adhesion problems within Radusin et al. report using rPE between layers of virgin PE
the polymer.[216] Use of ammonium polyphosphate as a fire- in food packaging with minor aesthetic issues such as a
retardant filler in flammable PP reduces the flammability of loss of transparency and a mild color change.[229] Previously,
the polymer but the filler migrates out of the polymer matrix researchers also incorporated rLDPE between layers of virgin
with time and degrades within the extruder.[196] Other fire- polymer and used gamma radiation to induce crosslinking
retardant additives include aluminum trihydrate, zinc borate, between the layers. They found no negative effect on the per-
melamine, graphite, titanium dioxide, flax and magnesium meability of the packaging however, the food-safe 5–10 kGy
hydroxide.[217,218] (according to the Codex Alimentarius Commission) dose
In more recent developments, nanoparticle fillers have been used to irradiate the packaging was found to produce harmful
incorporated to improve the stability of polymer blends. Unlike radiolysis products within the packaging layers.[228,231] Recy-
polymeric compatibilizers, nanoparticle fillers are unspecific. cled PET has also been incorporated in multilayer packaging
Taguet et al. propose that the effectiveness of a nanoparticle between layers of virgin food-grade polymer.[19] However,
for stabilization is optimized when the particle radius is sig- multi-layer packaging is challenging to recycle; the recy-
nificantly larger than the radius of gyration of the polymers to cling process is not always economically or environmentally
be blended. Minimizing interparticle interactions and having favorable due to sorting and separation challenges.[232,233]
equal adsorption-affinities for both polymers increases nano- Solid plastic wastes, such as PE, MPOs, PS, and HIPS have
filler efficacy.[93] A variety of different organically coated nano- also been used as replacements for wood or other building
fillers have been used to stabilize blends of recycled and virgin materials to produce outdoor furnishings.[90,183,225] PS can be
polymers. The most advanced of these is organic modified reprocessed into TV backsets or as bitumen replacement in
montmorillonite clay, which has been used to improve blends asphalt mixtures to alleviate the increase of electronic equip-
of rPET/HDPE, rPET/PP/HDPE, and rPET/rPP.[219–221] Mont- ment waste.[211,212] Composites or reinforced recyclate can be
morillonite clay has also been reported to improve the proper- used in part to aid in construction of load-bearing structures
ties of PP and PS (Sections 4.2 and 6.2). Studies also suggest such as bridges.
Figure 18. Common polymer additives used to improve polymer recyclates.
Due to growing concern regarding “fast fashion” (clothing

designed to be worn a low number of times before disposal),[234]
clothing brands have developed methods to use recycled
polymers as a route to reducing environmental impact,[234–238]
although it is clear that social practice also needs to change.
Large multinationals such as Nike, Adidas, The North Face,
Timberland, Speedo, Patagonia and Levi Strauss & Co., have
devised and/or sponsored development of new fabrics with
recycled content, principally PET bottles and black plastic
trays.[234,239] New fabrics are produced by a mechanical pro-
cess involving grinding and melting of polymer waste to draw
fibers that can be woven.[235–237,239] Emerging companies such
as TALA, Rothy’s and Looptworks use only recycled material
to produce both their clothes and packaging.[240–242] Efforts to
ensure these new processes are robust, including proper life-
cycle assessment and tracking of potential formation of micro
and nanoplastics is essential to assess the potential impact of
Figure 19. Schematic representation of downcycling routes for recyclate. this new market for mechanical recycling.
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Zoé O. G. Schyns graduated from the University of Edinburgh with a Masters in Chemical Physics
with Industrial Experience (2019). She is currently undertaking a Ph.D. from the University of
Manchester within the Sustainable Materials Innovation Hub. Her research focuses on improving
recycling technologies by developing new methods to monitor and mark thermo-mechanical and
thermo-oxidative degradation during mechanical recycling.
Michael P. Shaver is a professor of polymer science in the School of Natural Sciences at the
University of Manchester where he leads initiatives in sustainable polymers, plastics, and
materials for the school and for the Henry Royce Institute, the UK’s national advanced materials
science center since 2019. He is a director of the Sustainable Materials Innovation Hub at
the University of Manchester, working on both fundamental projects in monomer design and
functional polymers and industrial projects in plastic packaging, medical diagnostics, and
sustainable materials.

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Review

Mechanical Recycling of Packaging Plastics: A Review

Zoé O. G. Schyns and Michael P. Shaver*

rates of the collected post-consumer

2. Plastic Waste Recycling

The presence of polyamides can also catalyze the aminolysis

2.2. Waste Sorting for Recycling

Plastics are currently sorted using a combination of automated

Table 3. Common antioxidants and their corresponding stabilization mechanisms.

Antioxidant type Chemical example Stabilization mechanism

Scheme 3. Reaction pathways PET undergoes during mechanical recycling.

Figure 8. Elongation at break and Izod impact versus GMA content

4. Mechanical Recycling of Polyolefins

rates whereas PP is more prone to chain scission (Section 4.1.1,

PEs are structurally simple polymers with remarkably high

4.1.1. High-Density Polyethylene

HDPE shows competing mechanisms of chain scission and

Figure 12. Effect of thermal aging on tensile strength of PP samples

Scheme 7. Common degradation mechanisms PVC undergoes during extrusion.

Figure 14. Schematic representation of internal and external plasticizers in PVC.[167]

6.1. Degradation Mechanisms of Polystyrene

with multiple polymers. A high number of entanglements and

that it may enhance other degradation reactions through side

8. Secondary Uses for Recyclate

Figure 18. Common polymer additives used to improve polymer recyclates.

Due to growing concern regarding “fast fashion” (clothing

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