Hindawi

Journal of Energy
Volume 2023, Article ID 1821129, 25 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1821129

Review Article
Review and Design Overview of Plastic Waste-to-Pyrolysis Oil
Conversion with Implications on the Energy Transition

Moses Jeremiah Barasa Kabeyi and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju

Industrial Engineering Department, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa

Correspondence should be addressed to Moses Jeremiah Barasa Kabeyi; moseskabeyi@yahoo.com

Received 16 December 2022; Revised 13 February 2023; Accepted 31 March 2023; Published 22 May 2023

Academic Editor: Johan E. Hustad

Copyright © 2023 Moses Jeremiah Barasa Kabeyi and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju. This is an open access article distributed
under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Plastics are cheap, lightweight, and durable and can be easily molded into many different products, shapes, and sizes, hence their
wide applications globally, leading to increased production and use. Plastic consumption and production have been growing since
its first production in the 1950s. About 4% of global oil and gas production is being used as feedstock for plastics, and 3–4% is used
to provide energy for their manufacture. Plastics have a wide range of applications because they are versatile and relatively cheap.
This study presents an in-depth analysis of plastic solid waste (PSW). Plastic wastes can be technically used for oil production
because the calorific value of the plastics is quite comparable to that of oil, making this option an attractive alternative. Oil can
be produced from plastic wastes via thermal degradation and catalytic degradation, while gasification can be used to produce
syngas. Plastic pyrolysis can be used to address the twin problem of plastic waste disposal and depletion of fossil fuel reserves.
The demand for plastics has continued to rise since their first production in the 1950s due to their multipurpose, lightness,
inexpensiveness, and durable nature. There are four main avenues available for plastic solid waste treatment, namely,
reextrusion as a primary treatment, mechanical treatment as secondary measures, chemical treatment as a tertiary measure,
and energy recovery as a quaternary measure. The pyrolysis oil has properties that are close to clean fuel and is, therefore, a
substitute to fresh fossil fuel for power generation, transport, and other applications. The study showed that plastic wastes
pyrolysis offers an alternative avenue for plastic waste disposal and an alternative source of fossil fuel to reduce the total
demand of virgin oil. Through plastic pyrolysis, plastic wastes are thermally converted to fuel by degrading long-chain
polymers into small complex molecules in the absence of oxygen, making it a technically and economically feasible process for
waste plastic recycling. The process is advantageous because presorting is not required, and the plastic waste can be directly fed
without pretreatment prior to the process. Products of plastic pyrolysis are pyrolysis oil, a hydrocarbon-rich gas, with a heating
value of 25–45 MJ/kg, which makes it ideal for process energy recovery. Hence, the pyrolysis gas can be fed back to the process
to extract the energy for the process-heating purpose, which substantially reduces the reliance on external heating sources.

1. Introduction despite the fact that recycling rates are comparatively low,
with just about 15% of the 400 million tonnes of plastic cur-
The world is currently faced with the twin challenge of fossil rently produced annually being recycled. The rate of global
fuel depletion and strict emission requirements because of plastic production and use has been growing faster than
global concern over emissions and global warming, leading recycling rates over the last 30 years, which implies that
to the emission targets set at the Paris Agreement [1]. more and more plastic wastes are released to the environ-
Extraction of oil from waste plastics has attracted the atten- ment. The global production of plastics is forecast to triple
tion of industry and academia as a feasible measure to miti- by 2050 and is expected to account for a fifth of global oil
gate the challenge of fossil fuel depletion, clean environment, consumption [5]. Through pyrolysis, a combustible liquid
global warming, and growing demand for fossil fuels [2–4]. fuel can be produced from waste plastics [6]. These plastic
The global plastic production has continuously grown wastes are expected to increase to around 12 billion tonnes
2 Journal of Energy

by the year 2050 [7]. The industrial-scale production of plas- tics are undesirable because they are nonbiodegradable [17].
tics started in the 1940s and 1950s, with demand and pro- The main advantage of plastics, hence their increasing usage,
duction growing steadily over time. In 2013, about 299 is that they are cheap, quick to produce, easy to design and
million tonnes of plastics was produced globally [8]. The fabricate, durable, nonperishable, and recyclable [17, 18].
production increased to more than 322 million tonnes per Synthetic plastic production is about 400 million tonnes, of
annum in 2015 [9]. The global production of plastics is cur- which about 50% ends up in landfills, while about 15 million
rently over 400 million tonnes per annum [10, 11]. tonnes of the plastics ends up in oceans and seas annually
The use of plastics generates significant quantities of [11]. Global plastic production accounts for about 8% of
waste plastics that currently contaminate the waterways world oil production [19]. Over one trillion plastic bags are
and aquifers and limit the landfill areas. Over 14 million produced annually, making them an important end user
tonnes of plastics is annually dumped, and as a result, they plastic product globally [20, 21]. Other common forms of
cause the death of 1,000,000 species of aquatic life [12]. plastic wastes include single-use plastics in the form of drink
Common options for plastic waste disposal include feed- bottles, wet wipes, cotton bud sticks, sanitary items, which
stock recycling, mechanical recycling, energy recovery, and are often disposed of via incineration and landfilling [11].
incineration as municipal solid waste. Incineration of plas- The European strategy recommends a hierarchy of mea-
tics releases noxious odors, harmful gases, dioxins, HBr, sures in waste prevention and management, beginning with
polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and other hydrocarbons prevention, preparation for reuse, recycling, recovery, and
based on composition [10]. About 15 million tonnes of these waste disposal [22]. There are four main avenues available
plastics reach seas and oceans annually. US emissions from for plastic solid waste treatment, namely, reextrusion as a
plastic incineration reached 5.9 million tonnes of carbon primary treatment, mechanical treatment as secondary mea-
dioxide in 2015 and will reach about 49 million tonnes by sures, chemical treatment as a tertiary measure, and energy
2030 and 91 million tonnes by 2050. In the past, the United recovery as a quaternary measure [23]. Waste recycling is
States and other Western countries used to send contami- the process of recovering and processing used plastics into
nated waste to China, thus moving responsibility of waste useful products. With recycling of plastics, the demand on
management to China [11]. However, in 2018, China landfills is reduced, leading to environmental protection,
stopped importation of the wastes from Western coun- reduced emissions from incineration, and additional socio-
tries [1]. economic benefits [21, 24]. Waste plastics can be processed
The global market is dominated by thermoplastic types via catalytic conversion and thermal conversion, which
of polypropylene (PP) at about 21%, low-density polyethyl- effectively reduce waste pollution, and reduce dependence
ene (LDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) on fresh or virgin oil for several applications by using pyrol-
at about 18%, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) with a market share ysis oil instead [25]. Waste oil pyrolysis is proving to be one
of 17%, and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) at 15%. of the energy conversion techniques that yield sustainable
Others with high demand are polystyrene (PS) and expand- energy and a feasible solution to plastic waste disposal for
able PS at 8% and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) at 7%, a clean environment [26]. Plastic pyrolysis is a better option
excluding PET fibre and the thermosetting plastic polyure- to incineration as it allows for energy recovery alongside
thane. The main challenge with plastic products is that about waste disposal [27, 28].
40% have a short service life of less than one month [8]. There is massive growth of plastic production and con-
Plastics have a wide range of applications like for making sumption as a result of urbanization, industrialization, and
synthetic fibres, foams, adhesives, coatings, and sealants. In a cheap supply of plastic materials. Waste plastics have
Europe, 38% of plastics are used in packaging, 21% are used become a nuisance to the land and marine environments,
in building industry, automotive industry uses about 7%, posing significant risks to human and aquatic life [1]. Plastic
and electrical and electronic applications account for 6%, pollution is a result of limited recycling, yet plastics are gen-
while other sectors account for 28% of plastic consumption erally nonbiodegradable. As an example, out of about
like in medicine and leisure [8, 13]. 280,000 tonnes of plastics produced in the year 2018, just
It has been concluded that waste plastic fuel has similar about 15.3% were recycled, with the rest ending up in land-
properties to diesel fuel and can be used instead of diesel fills, open spaces, and drainages, hence the need for more
[11, 14]. The removal and disposal of huge plastic wastes is recycling to reduce plastic waste disposal to the environment
a global concern with economic and environmental implica- [29, 30]. About 50% of plastics produced are disposable and
tions mainly because of population growth, industrializa- can be dumped, reused, or recycled [31]. The impact of plas-
tion, and attractive properties of plastic materials [15]. The tics to aquatic life includes the increased presence of micro-
current rate of economic development and growth will not plastics in aquatic ecosystems in the form of spheres, pellets,
be sustainable without sustainable and controlled consump- and fragments. Plastics contain hazardous chemicals like
tion rates of fossil fuel sources of energy [16]. The demand phthalates, polyfluorinated chemicals, and antimitroxide
for fossil fuels in power generation, transport, industrial, and brominated flame retardants [32]. Brominated flame
and domestic applications continues to grow globally while retardants e.g. PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers)
fossil fuel reserves face imminent depletion [17]. The grow- can cause neurotoxic effects in aquatic microorganisms
ing population and demand for industrial products and, [25]. Waste Plastics can be used to manufacture oil through
hence, packing materials have also seen increased use and the pyrolysis process via a recycling technique which
disposal of plastics as solid wastes [18]. As solid wastes, plas- involves degradation of polymeric materials to produce
Journal of Energy 3

pyrolysis fuel oil that can be used in internal combustion of plastics via incineration is a major source of emissions
engines and boiler furnaces. However, due to the production globally. In the US alone, incineration of plastic wastes
of low-yield oil with high acidic content, plastics like polyvi- accounted for 59 million tonnes of carbon dioxide in 2015
nylchloride (PVC) and polyethylene are not ideal for pyrol- and will rise to 49 million tonnes by 2030 and 91 million
ysis oil production. tonnes by 2050 [11]. This makes plastic waste incineration
The objective of this study is to establish the feasibility of a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions [40].
waste plastic pyrolysis to produce fuel from a wide range of Plastic incineration releases tonnes of pollutants to the
plastic materials, e.g., high-density polyethylene (HDPE), surrounding, while landfilling leads to soil and water con-
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and tamination of the dumpsite and surrounding areas [11].
polypropylene (PP). Available recyclable wastes are esti- Land filling is a challenge for many cities like Nairobi in
mated, and a preliminary design specification for a pyrolysis Kenya, where the only dumpsite facility for landfilling
plant is proposed in this research. The study focuses on esti- located at Dandora is filled and has no space left for more
mating the plant and process cost as well as final product dumping [41].
price development of fuel using the existing pyrolysis There are, however, several challenges related to plastic-
technology. to-fuel production via pyrolysis which need to be consid-
ered. There are some concerns around health risks due to
1.1. Problem Definition. New solutions and technologies are energy recovery from the waste. This is because burning
needed to address the current challenges facing the plastic waste plastics emits nitrous oxides, sulphur dioxides, some
industry, i.e., rapid growth in demand and production of particulate matter, and other harmful pollutants that are
plastics and low levels of recycling of used or waste plastics dangerous [1, 30]. However, continuous regulation and pol-
[33–35]. The population growth, economic growth, and lution control technologies can ensure that emissions are
global industrialization have led to the generation of huge well managed and controlled. Some countries like Sweden
quantities of wastes, including plastic wastes. Plastic wastes, which rely so heavily on imported garbage to sustain their
in particular, plastic bags, bottles, and packaging materials, industries will be left with a deficit in supplies if wider recy-
are visibly littered all over, including in water bodies [36]. cling via the pyrolysis process is adopted. Plastic recycling,
Waste combustion generates thousands of pollutants that like other recycling systems, needs careful planning and
are harmful to people, especially those living near the incin- adherence to various environmental and industrial regula-
eration facilities. Although landfilling has a lower climate tions and must balance the needs of existing recycling pro-
impact compared to incineration, many landfills are full or cesses [37, 39].
are getting full. Landfilling also causes soil contamination,
water pollution, and may harm to wildlife, flora and 1.2. Rationale of the Study. Plastic waste pollution is a serious
fauna[11]. Modern offices, homes, and industries generate problem facing the world today, while at the same time, the
huge amounts of plastic wastes that range from packaging production and use of plastics continue to accelerate, yet
materials, electronic parts and equipment, plastic containers, plastic recycling rates are relatively low, as only close to
and other forms which are often difficult to isolate and recy- 15% of the close to 400 million tonnes of plastic are being
cle [37]. Plastic wastes are a serious challenge because of the recycled globally [6]. Plastic production has been growing
huge quantities being produced and the fact that plastics do over the last half century, thus creating a global environmen-
not biodegrade for very many years. Plastic products that are tal crisis with most of the over 4.9 billion tonnes of plastics
heavily produced are the polyolefins, such as polyethylene ever produced ending up in landfills [8]. With the looming
and polypropylene, which have many applications, like depletion of fossil fuel sources of energy like gas, diesel,
packaging, building, electricity and electronics manufacture, and petrol, it has become increasingly necessary to identify
agriculture applications, and health care. The resulting huge and develop alternative sources of energy to fossil fuels
wastes are disposed of mainly via land filling [16]. About [26]. Plastic recycling offers the lowest environmental
one-quarter of all plastics produced is made of polypropyl- impact in terms of Global Warming Potential (GWP) and
ene while less than 5% of all plastics are recycled annually. Total Energy Use (TEU) [42]. Chemical recycling of plastic
Significant quantities of waste plastics end up in landfills wastes is simple and cheap and requires little or no sorting
and oceans where they cause pollution and require over where high temperatures are involved [39]. Waste plastic
450 years to biodegrade. Conversion of plastics to fuel would pyrolysis will strongly benefit the fossil fuel industry through
create over 39,000 direct jobs, increase the gross domestic improved process sustainability, leading to a cleaner envi-
product by over $9 billion, and create a cleaner and safer ronment and reduced fossil fuel demand via the production
avenue of plastic waste disposal. The quantity and range of of alternative oil. Therefore, research and development in
plastic products are so huge and continue to grow for vari- pyrolysis oil production and use is immensely important
ous applications. For example, about 1.5 billion tires are for a sustainable energy transition involving the controlled
manufactured annually around the world. This not only is consumption of fossil fuels. The various advantages of con-
economically important but also comes with serious chal- verting plastic waste into useful fuel coversion includes
lenges of waste disposal and recycling [38]. It costs over reduction in carbon emissions by switching from incinera-
$4000 to recycle one tonne of plastic waste, making it attrac- tion to recycling, recovery of exhaustible or nonrenewable
tive to dispose of plastics via burning and landfilling as natural resources like resins and rare metals, a lower or
opposed to recycling which is more expensive [39]. Disposal reduced carbon footprint of the produced pyrolysis oil
4 Journal of Energy

compared with the original fossil fuels, development of alter- plastics has led to waste disposal challenges as more than
native fuels for transport and other thermal applications, 300 tonnes are currently produced per year. In the European
and reduction of landfilling and related pollution [39]. Union, about 25% of plastic wastes are recycled as recycling
Plastic pyrolysis has created extraordinary attention faces challenges like low quality of the recovered and
globally with a number of processing plants currently in recycled material and products [45]. Between the year 1950
operation. A typical example is the recycling plant located and 2015, some 8300 million tonnes (Mt) of plastics was
at Swindon in the UK operated by Recycling Technologies. manufactured globally, of which 6300 million tonnes repre-
The RT7000 plant has the capacity to recycle 7,000 tonnes senting 9% was recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was
of plastic wastes, including polystyrene and flexible packag- landfilled [6]. The annual global production of plastics has
ing, to produce 5,250 tonnes of oil for export and local use. reached 400 million tonnes in the year 2020 [9, 10]. The pro-
The plant employs 130 workers, and the main products are duction grew by 3.4% between 2014 and 2015. Analysis of
oil, of which 70% is exported for use as sustainable fuel annual plastic demand shows a compound annual growth
and feedstock for plastic manufacture while the remaining rate (CAGR) of 8.6% between 1950 and 2015 [42, 46].
30% of the products is a wax equivalent product for candle A significant portion of these plastics ends up in oceans
and paint manufacture. Leftover gas and char provide and seas where they disintegrate into microplastics and
energy for the recycling process. Therefore, production of nanoplastics. These chemical products are consumed by
pyrolysis oil has the potential to displace the use of virgin aquatic animals causing a negative impact on zooplankton
oil in plastic and lubricant manufacture [5]. in terms of population and mortality [6]. Table 1 shows
Economically, the fuel produced from waste plastics can the growth in global plastic production between 1950 and
reduce the import bill and consumption of primary oil, as 2020.
the oil produced can be used to power transport and for From Table 1, it is noted that global plastic production
power generation which are the main consumers of fossil was about 1.5 million tonnes in 1950 and about 400 million
fuels. Again economically, these reduces the import bill of tonnes in 2020. This represents a growth of about 266% in
non-oil-producing countries, thus saving on foreign global plastic production between the year 1950 and 2020.
reserves, further strengthening local currencies of oil-
importing countries leading to a more consumption-
sustainable global oil reserve [17]. 3. Plastic Disposal and Recycling
Plastic pollution is a serious health issue because the var-
ious harmful additives used in the manufacture of plastics 3.1. Plastic Waste Recycling. To attain the best environmen-
end up in human and animal body systems. Additives used tal outcome, a hierarchy of measures is proposed in waste
with health implications are the plasticizers, fire retardants, prevention and management [41]. The measures are waste
antioxidants, lubricants, antistatic agents, stabilizers, thermal prevention, waste reuse, and waste recycling. Plastic waste
stabilizers, and pigments. A specific health concern is that recycling can be mechanical or feedstock recycling, energy
these additive substances can mimic, block, and interfere recovery, and final waste disposal. End-of-life treatments
with hormones in the body’s endocrine system. As a result, for plastic wastes include mechanical recycling, like repro-
they are classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) cessing for the production of new products. Plastic recycling
[18]. Other additives are known to be persistent organic pol- transforms the materials to smaller molecules which can be
lutants (POPs) [6]. used for the manufacture of new petrochemicals and poly-
As a result of the failure of conventional approaches to mers [42, 47]. Energy recovery techniques include combus-
control plastic pollution, globally, a number of authorities tion of plastic waste for the production of heat, steam, and
have intensified the call for the banning of some categories electricity. Combustion of plastics is a convenient energy
of plastics from the market. Recycling of plastics is one of source because of their high energy content. Landfilling is
the most widely accepted solutions to the growing concern the end-of-life treatments in the hierarchy of plastic waste
over huge volumes of plastic waste in land and water bodies. management [14, 42].
Pyrolysis and other thermochemical recycling techniques Environmental challenges of plastic wastes can be best
are, however, associated with challenges associated with addressed through recycling. There are four major types of
need for separation, sorting and cleaning, and high electric- recycling that can be applied to plastic wastes. These are pri-
ity and transport costs, as well as the fear by environmental- mary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary recycling.
ists and conservationists that recycling instead of banning Through chemical recycling, plastics can be used as feed-
will only delay the transition from fossil fuels whose use stock or fuel which reduces the net cost of disposal aside
should be abolished [6, 43, 44]. from producing useful energy. Plastics can also be converted
into basic petrochemicals which take the form of a hydrocar-
2. Plastic Production bon for several process and energy applications [28, 48]. Oil
can be processed from waste plastics through thermal degra-
Plastics are synthetic organic polymers, manufactured from dation, gasification, and catalytic cracking [16]. The main
petrochemical materials. The first plastic was invented in challenge facing plastic recycling is lack of incentives and
the early 1900s, with the type and quantities drastically proper systems for waste collection and separation [14, 49].
increasing later for different applications. Plastic manage- Recycling reduces the quantity of waste left available for
ment is a serious concern today because increased use of landfilling and indiscriminate disposal in the environment.
Journal of Energy 5

Table 1: Global plastic production between 1950 and 2020 [42, 46]. 3.2. Types of Recycling
Year Production (million tonnes) 3.2.1. Primary Recycling. Primary recycling is also called
2020 400 mechanical reprocessing, and it involves taking the plastic
2015 322 through the original forming process. The product of pri-
mary recycling has the same specification as the original
2014 311
material. The process requires the primary material to be
2013 299 as clean as possible, which makes it relatively expensive
2011 280 and unpopular since a lot of cleaning is required, yet getting
1
2009 250 clean waste may be a challenge. It is the preferred choice
2002 200 where the waste is easier to sort by resin [16]. The key steps
1989 100 in the primary recycling process are waste separation based
1977 50 on resin and colors, washing or cleaning, and reextrusion
into pellets for addition to the original resin [16, 52].
1950 1.5
3.2.2. Secondary Recycling. In secondary recycling, the solid
plastic waste is mechanically processed into other products.
Socially, plastic recycling creates jobs and adds value to the
The main benefit of secondary recycling is the conservation
gross domestic product of a country [50].
of energy needed in the manufacture of plastics to realize some
Many countries globally have made effort to address the
financial advantages [52]. The process can handle contami-
challenges of waste plastic besides the ban on production
nated or less separated plastic waste upon cleaning. Secondary
and use of some plastics. Waste plastics are significant, and
recycling uses different products and is not the same as the
due to a high and growing demand, the waste menace
original production process [16]. Secondary recycling can
should be sustainably addressed. In Japan, some 2.75 million
effectively process unsorted or contaminated waste with less
tonnes of plastic wastes, mainly PET and PVC, was land-
separation, although they should generally be cleaned. The
filled or incinerated in 2014 as a result of insufficient recy-
inputs and outputs of secondary recycling range multiple
cling options and facilities. The Sapporo Plastic Recycling
products with outputs being different from the material feed-
(SPR) plant was established in the year 2000 for commercial
stock. Secondary recycling can be applied for contaminated
liquefaction in Japan through plastic pyrolysis with a recy-
or less separated waste unlike the primary recycling [30].
cling capacity of 50 tonnes/day [51]. Through its cascade
facility, the plant mixes plastics from the municipal solid 3.2.3. Tertiary Recycling/Cracking Process. In the tertiary or
waste stream with waste from other recycling processes in cracking recycling process, the plastic waste is broken down
the ratio 40% to 50% of the total feedstock material. Another at high temperatures in a process broadly referred to as ther-
important innovation from the recycling is that they have mal degradation. Thermal degradation can also occur at
learnt to deal with the benzoic acid by converting it to ben- lower temperatures when suitable catalysts are used in a pro-
zene with little or no effect to the fuel potential. Lessons cess referred to as catalytic degradation. The process of ter-
from this plant show that pyrolysis can be done for residues tiary recycling or cracking leads to relative loss in the value
with high PET and PVC content that can be blended with of the original plastic material, and the process is more
the municipal solid waste plastic stream at up to 40 wt.% appropriate in cases of high levels of plastic waste contami-
with little or no effect to the reactor as well as the product nation. Cracking can be used to recover the monomers of
quality [16, 51]. condensation polymers. The processes and mechanisms in
The main products of plastic pyrolysis are light oil, tertiary plastic recycling include hydrolysis, methanolysis,
medium oil, heavy oil, and sludge. The common applications or glycolysis [16, 33].
of pyrolysis products are solid duel, cogeneration oil, engine
fuel, and raw material for further processing to produce 3.2.4. Quaternary Recycling. The quaternary recycling pro-
plastics and other products. cess is preferred for plastic waste with high energy content,
The six essential steps in waste plastic recycling are as hence ideal for incineration. Quaternary recycling involves
follows: the recovery of energy, which is the primary objective of
the process, and volume reduction. The product of quater-
(i) Plastic waste collection nary recycling or incineration usually has significant weight
(ii) Categorization of plastic wastes via sorting reduction to about 20 wt.% of the original weight and to
about 10 vol% of the original plastic waste. The product of
(iii) Cleaning to remove impurities via processes like quaternary recycling is usually landfilled. The limitations of
washing quaternary recycling are the generation of solid waste and
air pollution from plastic combustion [16, 33].
(iv) Waste shredding and resizing of cleaned plastic
waste
4. Methods of Plastic-to-Oil Conversion
(v) Identification and separation of the wastes
There is growing importance of plastic-to-fuel conversion
(vi) Compounding of plastic wastes [33] due to increasing awareness and evidence of environmental
6 Journal of Energy

degradation caused by plastic wastes, especially the single- 4.2. Plastic to Diesel. In this conversion, plastics are broken
use plastics amidst people’s limited recycling habits [53]. It down with heat and/or reactive, toxic chemicals, which
is estimated that less than 5% of manufactured plastics are results into the breaking of the plastic material bonds. This
recycled, yet production is projected to increase 3.8% annu- process can produce a liquid fuel that can be used to run
ally until the year 2030, with about 6.3 billion tonnes having engines for transport and industrial applications. The cata-
been produced since plastic production started over 60 years lysts selected have to be compatible with various types of
ago. A significant fraction of these plastics ends up in seas polyolefin additives so that plastic wastes can be processed
and oceans, causing disruption of the marine environment. without pretreatment, making it easier and cheaper [39].
It is estimated that these plastics can take a minimum of
450 years to biodegrade. Economically, it is estimated that 4.3. Plastic to Crude Oil. Plastics have successfully ben con-
plastic-to-fuel investment will create about 39,000 jobs and verted to crude oil via pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene
about $9bn in economic output [53]. Plastics can be con- bags. The plastic crude oil produced can be refined via frac-
verted to fuel in the form of hydrogen, crude oil, diesel, tional distillation to produce gasoline and two different types
and sulphur. of diesel [39]. By adding antioxidants, the oil product made
is superior to conventional diesel fuels in terms of parame-
4.1. Plastic to Hydrogen Fuel. Hydrogen is normally pro- ters like lubricity and derived cetane number, which is a
duced commercially via catalytic steam reforming of natural measure of combustion quality of a diesel fuel [53].
gas, naphtha, and hydrocarbons. There is growing interest in
alternative feedstock for hydrogen production mainly
because of concerns over the security of supply and price 4.4. Plastic to Sulphur. Waste plastics can be converted to
instability. Hydrogen can be produced from plastics, espe- sulphur fuel by using the discarded material as feedstock
cially the polyolefins [54]. As a major development in the [39]. This technique is, however, still under research and
waste plastic to fuel, researchers from Swansea University development with the main concern being the application
were able to convert plastic waste into hydrogen fuel via of sulphur as a fuel when the main environmental concern
addition of a light-absorbing photocatalyst to the plastic is to limit sulphur dioxide emissions [1].
material for the absorption of sunlight that then transforms
it to chemical energy in the process of “photoreforming.” In 5. Plastic Pyrolysis
this process, the plastic and catalyst mixture is put into an
alkaline solution and exposed to sunlight, which leads to a One of the feasible processes in converting plastic waste into
chemical breakdown and production of hydrogen gas [53]. fuel is through pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a complex series of
At Oxford’s Department of Chemistry, particles of mechan- reactions that are both chemical and thermal that depoly-
ically pulverised plastic were mixed with a microwave- merize an organic material in the absence of oxygen [56].
susceptor catalyst of iron oxide and aluminium oxide and The process requires the heating of plastics to a high temper-
subjected to microwave treatment that produced a large vol- ature, and then, the volatile material is distilled or separated
ume of hydrogen while a carbonaceous residue material that for reuse as an energy material [39]. In waste plastic pyroly-
formed was mainly of carbon nanotubes. This proved that sis, the plastic waste material is subjected to high tempera-
97% of hydrogen in plastic can be recovered in a short time tures in the absence of oxygen and the presence of a
period directly with no carbon dioxide emission [7]. catalyst to help in the gentle cracking of long chains. The
In the study by [55], hydrogen gas was produced from gases produced are condensed in the condenser to yield
polyethylene waste via a two-stage pyrolysis–low- low sulphur content-distilled waste plastic oil [17, 18]. The
temperature plasma catalytic steam-reforming process car- use of catalysts prevents the formation of dioxins and furans
ried out at about 250°C. This produced pyrolysis gas that (benzene ring) during the process [17]. Thermal degradation
was catalytically steam-reformed in the presence of low- of plastics decomposes plastics’ three main fractions,
temperature nonthermal plasma in the form of a dielectric namely, gas, crude oil, and solid residue. The crude oil con-
barrier discharge to produce hydrogen gas. The hydrogen sists of the higher boiling point hydrocarbons from the non-
yield was increased in the absence of a catalyst by increasing catalytic pyrolysis process. Efficient production of gasoline
the plasma power. Various catalysts that can be used in and diesel from plastic wastes requires optimization of
hydrogen production include Ni/Al2O3, Fe/Al2O3, Co/ parameters like catalysts used, pyrolysis temperature, and
Al2O3, and Cu/Al2O3. Tests showed that the Ni/Al2O3 cata- plastic-to-catalyst ratios. The quality of crude oil can be
lyst resulted in the highest yield of hydrogen at 1.5 mmol/g improved by copyrolysis of plastics with coal or shale oil
of plastic used. Investigation on the impact of steam addition which reduces the viscosity of the crude oil produced [25].
to the plasma catalytic process at different steam weight Processes used in the conversion of plastics to fuels include
hourly space velocities (WHSVs) with Ni/Al2O3 as the cata- gasification, pyrolysis, plasma process and incineration. In
lyst showed that steam promotes catalytic steam-reforming pyrolysis, plastic wastes are converted into solid, liquid, or
reactions leading to more hydrogen production. The highest gaseous fuels via the thermal degradation of long-chain
yield realized was 4.56 mmol/gram of plastic at a WHSV of polymers into shorter and simple molecules in the absence
4 g h−1 g−1 catalyst [55]. Therefore, plastic-to-hydrogen fuel of oxygen. The main products of pyrolysis are combustible
conversion is a feasible process and, hence, a promising plas- gas with high calorific value, combustible oils, and carbon-
tic-to-green-energy pathway. ized char [20].
Journal of Energy 7

Pyrolysis refers to the process of converting plastics into uid oil, which can be used as sustainable fuel and plastic
solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels through thermal degradation of manufacture feedstock. The remaining 25% can be used as
long-chain polymers into less complex molecules in the a wax equivalent for the manufacture of candles and paint,
absence of oxygen. The products of pyrolysis include high while the produced gas and char can be used as energy
calorific gas, high quality oils, and carbonized char. Pyrolysis sources for the plant [5]. The most common technology
can produce as high as 80 wt.% at moderate conditions and used in plastic waste disposal is the thermal treatment that
requires temperatures of 300–900°C [57, 58]. The main pro- generates heat for either process-heating applications or
cesses are slow, fast, flash, and catalytic plastic pyrolysis [14, steam generation and power production [22]. The process
59]. The various types of pyrolysis are conventional pyrolysis starts by feeding a cylindrical chamber where heating is
(slow pyrolysis), which proceeds under a low heating rate done. In thermal pyrolysis, plastics are heated in inert condi-
with solid, liquid, and gaseous products in significant por- tions to decompose organic parts into liquid and gaseous
tions. It is an ancient process used mainly for charcoal pro- fuels. However, thermal pyrolysis results in lower-quality
duction [14, 59]. Vapors can be continuously removed as fuels due to high temperatures as the products have a lower
they are formed. Fast pyrolysis, which is associated with molecular weight [62].The generated pyrolytic gases are con-
tar, can proceed at lower temperature (850–1250 K) or at densed in a condenser system, to produce a hydrocarbon
high temperatures with a gas (1050–1300 K). Others are distillate. The distillate is comprised of straight- and
thermal pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis [20, 60]. Fast or branched-chain aliphatic, cyclic aliphatic, and aromatic
flash pyrolysis is the most preferred technology, and it takes hydrocarbons. These products are separated by means of
place at high temperatures and short residence time. Fast fractional distillation to produce liquid fuel products. Plastic
pyrolysis is also called thermolysis and involves rapid heat- pyrolysis takes place at 300°C–9000°C. The plastic is first
ing of a carbonaceous material to high temperatures in the evenly heated to a narrow temperature range without exces-
absence of oxygen. sive temperature variations, followed by purging oxygen
Pyrolysis technology has been improved over the years from the plastic pyrolysis chamber. The third step involves
to produce valuable liquid oils via valorization of organic managing the carbonaceous char byproduct before it acts
materials. The process still faces challenges that arise from as a thermal insulator and lowers the heat transfer to the
the use of the different feedstock types. Critical to the success plastic. The final stage involves condensation and fractiona-
of pyrolysis is the design of new reactor types to optimize tion vapors to produce a distillate of good quality and con-
product yields while, at the same time, minimizing energy sistency [16].
consumption and process costs. Pyrolysis is a mature tech- The pyrolysis process can occur under varying operating
nology with a number of commercial plants in operation conditions, which can be used as the basis of classification
for biomass and plastic feedstock. Pyrolysis can be effectively [59]. They can be distinguished on the basis of the residence
used to treat various plastic wastes ranging from packaging time requirement for the pyrolyzed material in the reactor,
waste to more complex plastic materials like rubber and feedstock particle size, pyrolysis process temperature, and
WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment), ELV process heat rate among others. Four mechanisms are
(end-of-life vehicle), and hospital waste that are often con- involved in the thermal degradation of plastics. These mech-
taminated with toxic and hazardous substances. Products anisms are the end-chain scission or unzipping mechanism,
of plastic pyrolysis are pyrolysis oil, a hydrocarbon-rich random-chain scission/fragmentation mechanism, chain
gas, with a heating value of 25–45 MJ/kg that makes it ideal stripping/elimination of side-chain mechanism, and cross-
for process energy recovery and char. Hence, the pyrolysis linking mechanism. The mode of decomposition is a func-
gas can be fed back to the process to extract the energy for tion of the type of polymer, i.e., the molecular structure;
the process-heating purpose that substantially reduces the for example, cross-linking is common in thermosetting plas-
reliance on external heating sources [33]. Figure 1 below tics when heated to a high temperature that causes two adja-
demonstrates a pyrolysis process with inputs and product cent “stripped” polymer chains to form a bond resulting in a
outputs. chain network like in char formation [1, 16].
Figure 1 above shows the main elements of the plastic
pyrolysis process, namely, the feed preparation chamber, 5.1. Catalytic Pyrolysis. In catalytic pyrolysis, a suitable cata-
reactor, char collector, fuel storage tank, and cyclone. lyst is used to facilitate the cracking reaction by lowering the
The waste plastics are mixed and heated in the absence reaction temperature and process time [1]. Catalytic pyroly-
of oxygen in a process called cracking, which leads to pro- sis is cheaper and, hence, economically attractive [63]. The
duction of a gas. The gas or vapor is distilled into products optimization strategy in catalytic pyrolysis is to minimize
ranging from heavy wax and oils to light oils and gas. Most the use of the catalyst through reuse and the use of low
of these products have a potential to provide new building quantities of catalysts. The benefits of catalytic pyrolysis
blocks for new polymers or can instead be used as fuel [5]. include cost-effectiveness, less pollution from plastic wastes,
Figure 2 demonstrates the plastic pyrolysis process. and less solid residues [1].
From Figure 2, it is noted that the main elements of a The process of catalytic-cracking pyrolysis involves heat-
plastic pyrolysis process plant are the reactor, condenser, ing the plastic material in an inert environment in the pres-
fractionating tower, and condenser. ence of catalysts. The temperature range for catalytic
A pyrolysis plant can recycle even the hard-to-recycle cracking is between 350°C and 550°C. This process can be
plastics like polystyrene and flexible packaging into 75% liq- applied for the recycling of either pure or mixed plastics. It
8 Journal of Energy

Pyrolysis process

Demand high Remove Impurities in

Thermal pyrolysis Catalytic pyrolysis
energy liquid fuel

Demand high Impurities in Demand less energy Demand less temperature

temperature liquid fuel
(i) Produce high liquid yield Decrease the liquid yield Liquid
Liquid with heavy oil Contains low chain compounds fuel
fuel (ii) Contains impurities in gasoline range with high octane number
(iii) Low octane number

Gases (i) Produces gases in less quantity Increases the production of gases
Gases
(ii) Contains CO and CO2 in high Gases contains C3 and C4 compounds
concentration
Char
(i) High quantity of Char is (1) Decreases the Char production especially Char
produced at low temperature catalyst having high BET surface area

Factors affecting pyrolysis

Temperature Retention time Feedstock composition Heating rate Use of catalyst Condensation

Figure 1: Industrial waste plastic-to-oil pyrolysis plant [2, 61].

Waste plastics

Catalyst
Gas
Condensor
Fuel gas

Gasoline
Plastic hopper

Diesel oil
Pyrolysis reactor Mixed oil
Fractionating tower

Figure 2: Plastic pyrolysis process description [5].

yields higher quality fuel oils as compared to thermal pyrol- cleavage, yielding approximately C30–C80. Further, cleavage
ysis. The catalyst promotes decomposition reactions at low of the oligomer fraction, like through direct β-emission of
temperatures with low energy consumption, reduced costs, end-chain carbonium ions, produces a gas and a liquid frac-
faster cracking reactions, increased process selectivity, and tion (approximately C10–C25).
increased yield of products with high added value [21]. In
this process, a cracking vessel is used for the storage of the (2) Isomerization. In the isomerization mechanism, the car-
melted waste plastic in which the primary heating compo- bonium ion intermediates are rearranged via hydrogen- or
nent for heating the waste plastic is done from a surface at carbon-atom shifts, which then leads to a double-bond
the base of the cracking vessel with a second-level heating isomerization of an olefin. Some other isomerization reac-
being done at the upper surface of the cracking vessel. A tions include the methyl-group shift and isomerization of
cooling vessel is used for cooling the cracked gas vaporized saturated hydrocarbons.
in the cracking vessel, which results in a cracked oil bypro-
duct [37]. (3) Aromatization. The intermediates of the carbonium ion
can undergo cyclization reactions, for hydride ion abstrac-
5.1.1. Mechanism of Catalytic Degradation tion may first take place on an olefin at a position removing
several carbons from the double bond that results in the for-
(1) Depropagation. This is achieved via the reduction in the mation of an olefinic carbonium ion. Then, the carbonium
molecular weight of the main polymer chains through suc- ion may undergo an intramolecular attack on the double
cessive attacks by acidic sites or carbonium ions and chain bond.
Journal of Energy 9

5.1.2. Process/Steps. The steps involved in catalytic cracking that of conventional gasoline, kerosene, and commercial
are initiation, propagation, and termination. grade diesel. The conventional diesel has about 0.15% sul-
phur, while gasoline contains about 0.014% sulphur making
(1) Initiation. This stage involves random breakage of the C– them claener than the waste plastic pyrolysis oil (WPPO)
C bond on the main chain, which occurs upon heating to [6]. Figure 3 below shows the sulphur content of waste plas-
produce hydrocarbon radicals. tic pyrolysis oil (WPPO), heavy fuel oil, furnace oil, diesel,
kerosene, light fuel oil, and gasoline.
(2) Propagation. In the propagation stage, the hydrocarbon From Figure 3, it is noted that the pyrolysis oil of waste
radical is decomposed into lower hydrocarbons such as pro- plastic has a higher sulphur content compared with conven-
pylene, followed by β-scission and abstraction of H-radicals tional diesel, kerosene, light fuel oil, and gasoline. However,
from the other hydrocarbons resulting in a new hydrocar- its sulphur content is lower compared to that of heavy fuel
bon radical. oil and furnace oil which are widely used for power genera-
tion and industrial heat generation, which makes waste
(3) Termination. This stage involves the disproportionation pyrolysis oil a cleaner substitute for heavy fuel oil (HFO)
or recombination of two radicals: this involves the catalytic and furnace oil.
degradation with iron-activated charcoal in the presence of The flash point for pyrolysis oil from plastic waste is <40
hydrogen. The hydrogenation olefin, i.e., hydrocarbon ion degrees Celsius, but the exact value varies based on the type
and the abstraction of the H-radical in the HC (hydrocar- of plastic used as feedstock, for example, a single feed plastic
bon) or HC radical, would produce a radically improved or like polyethylene yields oils with flash point as low as 10
enhanced degradation rate. For reactions that occur below degrees compared to the flash point of conventional diesel
400°C as well as fast reactions taking less than 1 hr, the exis- being about 50 degrees. The low flash point is an indication
tence of hydrocarbon radicals in the reactor is high, which of high volatility which is a safety concern in transporta-
readily causes recombination of these radicals as they do tion [6].
not move fast. As for iron- (Fe-) activated carbon in the The oil from tire pyrolysis yields a better engine perfor-
presence of hydrogen, the radicals are hydrogenated, which mance while the heating value of the plastic pyrolysis oil is
suppresses recombination. Therefore, the decomposition of higher than that of the tire pyrolysis oil. Economically, the
the solid products is promoted. The same applies for the pyrolysis oil can replace the conventional diesel oil in terms
low polymers whose molecular diameter is larger than the of engine performance and energy output as long as the
catalysts’ pore size [16, 64]. price of the pyrolysis oil is less than 85% of the price of con-
ventional diesel [56, 65]. According to [5], crude oil prices
5.2. Characteristics and Application of Pyrolysis Oil. Pyrolysis above $65 per barrel are necessary to justify commercial
oil has similar characteristics with light fuel or gas oil and investment in waste plastic to fuel without a premium, but
has proven to be a good furnace and engine oil but requires with a green premium, recycling waste plastic to fuel is still
property modifications [38]. Modification can be achieved viable at prices below $65 per barrel. A diesel engine was
by the use of alcohols to modify corrosiveness, acidity, igni- noted to give better performance when using fuel containig
tion temperature, calorific value, and volatility, as well as pyrolysis oil of up to 30%, and it may perform well with a
energy density. Blending with alcohols also reduces the neg- maximum of up to 50% of the waste plastic oil blended into
ative environmental impact caused by pyrolysis oils. For use conventional diesel fuel. In another study by [16, 66], it was
as an engine fuel, blending with up to 20% alcohol can be observed that an engine has a stable performance with the
done with no engine modifications. The higher latent heat brake thermal efficiency being comparable to that of conven-
of vaporization of methanol and ethanol compared to diesel tional diesel, and the value of the brake thermal efficiency is
initiates a longer ignition delay period of combustion with higher with the pyrolysis oil by up to about 80% of the
pyrolysis oil. engine load. However, the engine emissions were notably
Pyrolysis oil from tires and plastics has been tested and higher with pyrolysis oil compared to conventional diesel
proven to be a feasible diesel engine fuel and has comparable [56]. In a study on a petrol engine fueled by waste pyrolysis
properties to conventional diesel oil. The oil is a complex oil, the engine had a higher brake thermal efficiency of up to
mixture of C5–C20 organic compounds. However, oil from 50% of the petrol engine rated load. The higher calorific
tire pyrolysis contains a higher proportion of aromatics value and more oxygen content of the waste pyrolysis oil
and a sulphur content as high as 1.4%. Unsorted plastics leads to higher heat release rates [17, 67, 68]. In another
may also lead to higher chlorine content. There is, however, study by [17, 69], it was observed that the high viscosity with
need for more research on the costs of substituting fossil fuel blends is the reason for poor atomization, which leads to a
with pyrolysis oil [56]. longer ignition delay and a longer combustion duration
Oil from plastic wastes has a higher sulphur content compared to conventional diesel when tested at full load.
compared to the conventional fuel, making it unattractive In other studies, by [17, 70–72], it was noted that the use
as an automobile fuel, and increases sulphur dioxide emis- of the waste plastic pyrolysis oil increases the ignition delay
sions that are a major contributor to acid rain. In a study by about 2.50 CA. The study also noted an increase in emis-
on oil from the pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene, the sions with NOx increasing by 25%, CO increasing by 5%,
waste plastic pyrolysis oil (WPPO) was found to have a sul- and unburned hydrocarbon increasing by about 15%, and
phur content of 0.246%, which is significantly higher than smoke, although smoke was reduced by 40% to 50%. In yet
10 Journal of Energy

3
3

Sulphur content (% of wt.)

2.5

1.5
0.75
1
0.246
0.5 0.15 0.125 0.1 0.014

Furnace oil

HFO

WPPO

Diesel

Kerosene

LFO

Gasoline
Figure 3: Sulphur content for various oils [6].

another study by [73], the waste plastic pyrolysis oil yielded the pyrolysis of HDPE, PP, and LDPE plastic wastes were
a brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of 27.75% compared to close to those of commercial diesel and gasoline. For PS,
28% for diesel, brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of PVC, and PET, low calorific values were attributed to an
0.292 kg/kWh compared with 0.276 kg/kWh for diesel, aromatic ring within the PS chemical structure, chlorine in
unburned hydrocarbon emission (uHC) of 91 ppm com- PVC, and benzoic acid in PET. The kinematic viscosity, den-
pared with 57 ppm for diesel, and NOx emission of sity, and flash point of the pyrolysis oil showed values near
904 ppm compared with 855 ppm for conventional diesel. those of commercial diesel and gasoline [58]. According to
An important parameter in the combustion performance [78], pyrolysis oil can be used as a good transport fuel when
is the injection timing for all compression ignition engines. blended with diesel in ratios of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% that
In the study by [6], the injection timing varied for an engine. produced various engine performance characteristics.
The study showed that by changing the injection timing Table 2 compares liquid oil properties with those of com-
from 230 bTDC (before top dead center) to 140 bTDC mercial grade diesel and gasoline.
(before top dead center), the emissions for NOx, CO, and From Table 2 above, it is noted that different plastics
unburnt CO were reduced. In the study by [74], it was exper- produce different outputs in terms of composition of the
imentally established that the brake thermal efficiency of main products, i.e., oil, gas, and char. In terms of calorific
blends is lower than that of conventional diesel, but at 25% value, polystyrene (P) produces oil with the same calorific
blending, there was a similar performance between the blend value as conventional diesel, but it has a significantly lower
and pure diesel as a fuel for the engine [67]. Therefore, the flash point; hence, it is more flammable and more viscous
plastic pyrolysis oil could improve the engine performance and has a higher density than diesel. Oil from PVC has the
through modification like injection timing. Economically, lowest calorific value. The pyrolysis oil is more viscous and
the pyrolysis oil can replace diesel in terms of the engine per- has a lower flash point than conventional diesel. Compared
formance and energy output on the condition that the cost to petrol, the pyrolysis oil has a higher density, but its flash
or price at the point of usage is not more than 85% of con- point may be less or higher than the pyrolysis oil depending
ventional diesel oil [75] if crude oil prices are more than on the oil source or plastic used [30].
US$65 per barrel [5]. The quality of the pyrolysis oil is a function of both the
type of plastic and the process used. Table 3 below is a sum-
5.3. Oil Yield of Different Plastics. There are three major mary of the process, type of plastic, and product quality
products of pyrolysis of plastic waste, namely, liquid oil, realized.
gas, and solid residue or char. Liquid oil results from con- Table 3 above shows the various plastics, oil yield poten-
densation of vapors released from the reactor, whereas gas tial, and optimum conditions for pyrolysis and solid waste
is obtained from the noncondensable vapors and solid resi- generation. The pyrolysis temperature used is between 350
due remains in the reactor [58, 76, 77]. In studies by and 740°C. The highest oil yield is 97% of the oil yield from
[78–80], the liquid oil, gas, and solid residue were analyzed polystyrene processed in a batch reactor at 425°C.
for their composition, yield percentages, and potential appli- Fuel can be produced from plastics through gasification,
cations. Liquid oil is the dominant of the products, followed thermal pyrolysis, and catalytic pyrolysis. Catalytic pyrolysis
by gas and finally the solid residue. However, the process of homogenous waste plastics generates better oil in terms of
conditions, such as temperature, use of catalysts, feedstock both quantity and quality. The main product of gasification
type, and retention time, could be altered to favor produc- is syngas at a higher temperature than those realized in the
tion of either liquid or gas. Additionally, Reference [79] pyrolysis process. Syngas can be used as a feedstock for the
showed that calorific values for the liquid oil produced from Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process for the production of diesel
Journal of Energy 11

Table 2: Physical properties of pyrolysis oil from different plastic wastes [81].

Property PET HDPE PVC LDPE PP PS Gasoline Diesel

Calorific value (MJ/kg) 28.2 40.5 21.1 39.5 40.8 43.0 42.5 43.0
Density (g/cm3 @ 15°C) 0.9 0.89 0.84 0.78 0.86 0.85 0.78 0.807
Viscosity (mm2/s) — 5.08 6.36 5.56 4.09 1.4 1.17 1.9–4.1
Flash point (°C) — 48 40 41 30 26.1 42 52

Table 3: Summary of plastic pyrolysis studies [46].

Process parameters Yield

Plastic type Reactor ° Heat. rate Time
Temp. ( C) Pressure Oil Gas Solid Others
(°C/min) (min)
PET Fixed bed 500 — 10 — 23.1 76.9 0
PET — 500 1 atm 6 — 38.9 52.1 8.98
HDPE Horizontal bed 350 — 20 30 80.9 17.2 1.88
Stirring rate 200 rpm,
HDPE Semibatch 400 1 atm 7 — 82 16 2
FCC catalyst, 10 wt.%
HDPE Batch 450 — — 60 74.5 5.8 19.7
Stirring rate 50 rpm,
HDPE Semibatch 450 1 atm 25 — 91.2 4.1 4.7 FCC catalyst 20 wt.%,
silica-alumina catalyst
HDPE Fluidized bed 500 — — 60 85 10 5
HDPE Batch 550 — 5 — 84.7 16.3 0
HDPE Fluidized bed 650 — — 20-25 68.5 31.5 0
PVC Fixed bed 500 — 10 — 12.3 87.7 0
PVC Vacuum batch 520 2 kPa 10 — 12.79 0.34 28.13 HCL, 58.2 wt.%
LDPE Pressurized batch 425 0.8-4.3 MPa 10 60 89.5 10 0.5
LDPE Batch 430 — 3 — 75.6 82 75 Wax =8.7 wt.%
LDPE — 500 1 atm 6 — 80.4 19.43 0.16
LDPE Fixed bed 500 — 10 20 95 5 0
LDPE Batch 550 — 15 — 93.1 14.6 0
LDPE Fluidized bed 600 1 atm — — 51.0 24.2 0 Wax =24.8 wt.%
PP Horizontal steel 300 — 20 30 69.82 28.84 1.34
PP Batch 380 1 atm 3 — 80.1 6.6 1.33
Stirring rate 200 rpm,
PP Semibatch 400 1 atm 7 — 85 13 2
used FCC catalyst 10 wt.%
Stirring 50 rpm,
PP Semibatch 450 1 atm 25 — 92.3 4.1 3.6
used FCC catalyst 10 wt.%
PP — 500 1 atm 6 — 82.12 17.76 0.12
PP Batch 740 — — — 48.8 49.6 1.6
Stirring 20 rpm, used
PS Semibatch 400 1 atm 7 — 90 6 4 FCC catalyst, cat/poly = 10 w/w
0.3–
PS Pressurized batch 425 10 60 97 2.50 0.5
1.6 MPa
Used Zn catalyst,
PS Batch 500 — — 150 96.7 3.27 0 cat/poly = 5 w/w
64.9 wt.% of
PS Batch 581 — — — 89.5 9.9 0.6
Liquid- compressed styrene

and other chemical products. The formation of tar during 5.4. Char and Gaseous Products. The pyrolysis gas produced
gasification can be reduced via application of olivine as the mainly consists of methane, hydrogen, ethane, propene, pro-
bed material [73, 82, 83]. pane, and butane. The gas produced is a function of the
12 Journal of Energy

feedstock material used and the process parameters. Carbon 6.2. Mass and Energy Balances. The amount of output
dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) are produced expected from a specific input of the raw material and
when the feedstock contains PET material while the hydro- throughput for the plant was estimated using the general
gen chloride gas is produced as an additional gas if PVC is standard assumptions that have been developed and applied
part of the feedstock [84]. The composition of the gas influ- in several functional pyrolysis plants and from pyrolysis of
ences the calorific value of pyrolysis gas and, hence, its appli- plastic waste experiments that have given close results. The
cation [6, 16]. The pyrolysis gas has a potential internal use assumptions include the percentages of the reactor products
as a source of energy for the pyrolysis plant process. Addi- at specified conditions of an average temperature of 470°C.
tionally, during production of polyolefin, the pyrolysis gas Similar reactor conditions were selected for this design, so
is feasible after extracting ethene and propane gas compo- the mass and energy balance assumptions were directly
nents [81, 85]. Research by Reference [6] provided a sum- applied. Table 4 gives the thermal and catalytic pyrolysis
mary of pyrolysis studies using various feedstock materials, yields that were adopted in the design.
process parameters, and product yields. From Table 4, it is noted that thermal pyrolysis yields
Solid residue or char produced during pyrolysis majorly more char compared to catalytic pyrolysis. On the other
consisted of volatile matter and carbon with low levels of hand, catalytic pyrolysis yields more liquid fuel than thermal
moisture and ash. Its calorific value was estimated to be pyrolysis. The average gas production is slightly higher in
18.84 MJ/kg, thus suitable for use as a fuel, e.g., in combus- thermal pyrolysis compared to catalytic pyrolysis.
tion with coal. Upgraded chars are used in heavy metal For thermal pyrolysis, the reactor products from the
adsorption from industrial wastewater and toxic gases. input are as follows: some small percentage of the raw mate-
Other uses include the energy source for boilers and feed- rial, i.e., about 0.053%, is lost at the reactor mainly as mois-
stock for activated carbon [81]. ture content which can be recovered as water. For the
catalyst to be used, an estimated mass fraction of 0.023 of
the raw material masses at the reactor is used for efficient
6. Design and Construction of Plastic functioning. At the reactor, 1 kg requires 844 W for complete
Pyrolysis Plants thermal decomposition per hour. Though the required
power input is high, more power is produced at the end of
This study examined the plastic industry and plastic waste the reaction, which is estimated at 9500 W/kg/h. Upon
management globally and recommends the development of application of the above mass and energy balance assump-
the waste-to-oil pyrolysis plant as a solution to the plastic tions, the heating value of the gas produced is 50 MJ/h, and
waste disposal challenges. This study involved data collec- the heating value of the crude liquid is expected to be
tion through document analysis and review, interviews, 46 MJ/h [54].
and questionnaires. The quantity of plastics available was
estimated for the market using data on production, importa- 6.3. Reactor Design. The value of plastic pyrolysis products is
tion, usage, and recycling. The specification of the pyrolysis influenced by the feedstock composition and the reactor
plant equipment was done through design analysis with technologies applied. All pyrolysis reactors have their pros
mass balance and energy balance. and cons too, but the choice is guided by the required prod-
The design was realized via the application of techniques uct and desired flexibility for handling feedstock variations.
like mass and energy balances, financial and economic anal- The two very important factors in reactor design and selec-
yses, and use of design software. The energy and mass bal- tion are heat and mass transfer efficiency [33].
ance equations were used to determine the amount of The different types of reactors are batch, semibatch, fixed
input, throughput, and output per unit cycle of production. bed, and fluidized bed reactors, hence the need to do analysis
to identify the best reactor choice from the many different
6.1. Design Overview. The main raw material for the pyroly- types of reactors. The batch reactor is a closed system with
sis plant is a mixture of plastic wastes that are consumed in no entry or exit of reactants and products during the pro-
different products. These include PVC, HDPE, LDPE, PS, cessing time. With time, this reactor can achieve a high yield
PP, PET, and PE that are appropriate for liquid oil produc- and has been proven to be the most reliable, but the system
tion due to their high volatile matter content. The condition is labor intensive; hence, the labor cost is high and the whole
parameters (catalysts, pressure, residence time, temperature, process is expensive. The semibatch reactor provides flexibil-
and the heat transfer from heat source) determine the qual- ity in the addition of reactants and the removal of process
ity and quantity of the oil produced. The order of the steps is products [16]. The products can be removed and the reac-
as follows: crushing of the plastic waste in the crushing tants added simultaneously while using this kind of reactor.
machine, heating in the reactor, condensation in the con- Even though it provides flexibility, this reactor has a high
denser, acid removal, and, finally, distillation in the fraction- operation cost, making it unfriendly especially for large-
ating column to separate the oil mixtures. Figure 4 below scale applications. The fixed bed reactor has catalysts broken
shows the overall process flow diagram. down into pellets and packed into the bed. The main limita-
Figure 4 is a flow diagram showing the main elements of tion of this reactor is that it does not provide enough surface
a proposed pyrolysis plant. These parts are the crushing unit area for the reactants to assess the catalyst; thus, it is usually
and area, reactor, char remover, condenser, fractionating not preferred. This method is rarely used. The fluidized bed
column, and fuel storage vessels. reactor, on the other hand, provides for solutions to all the
Journal of Energy 13

Catalyst

Non-condensable gases

Condenser Fractionating
Crushing machine Reactor column

Heat

Heat
Char removed

Diesel fuel

Figure 4: Overall process flow diagram.

Table 4: Thermal and catalytic pyrolysis yields [86]. involved in the production process with expected profits.
The capital costs included equipment, piping, electrical,
Thermal pyrolysis Catalytic pyrolysis direct installation cost, instrumentation and controls, site
Char 2–13% Char 5–10% preparation, setup, and engineering costs. The net present
Liquid 77–90% Liquid 80–90% value (NPV) method was used to evaluate the feasibility of
Gas 8–10% Gas 5–10% the project. Positive NPV will prove profitability while a neg-
ative one means that the project will only lead to losses. The
formula for calculating NPV is as follows: NPV = ∑Tt=1 ðCt /
shortcomings of the other reactors. In this reactor, the cata- ð1 + rÞt Þ − C 0 , where Ct is the net cash flow during period t
lyst is shred into pellets and packed in the reactor bed. A flu- , C0 is the total initial investment cost, r is the discount ratio,
idizing gas is passed through the bed carrying the catalyst and t is the number of time periods.
particles in a fluid state. This provides better access to the
catalyst, as it is well mixed with the fluid, and there is a large
surface area for the reaction to take place, hence a higher 6.5. Limiting Conditions. It was not possible to access all
efficiency and output rate. This is the most preferred reactor plastic manufacturers and dealers for the generation of accu-
because less heat is required, and the addition of feedstock is rate and detailed data. Data used for the evaluation, like for
frequently minimized keeping the labor cost and, therefore, the economic analysis, was the estimated value and not
the operation cost low [16]. exact. The exact value keeps varying, and thus, average
The most common reactors for plastic pyrolysis are fixed values were used; hence, the obtained results may not be
bed/bath reactors, screw kilns, rotary kilns, vacuum bed, and quite accurate. However, available and accessible accurate
fluidized bed reactors. The type of the reactor selected influ- values were used to improve on the accuracy and reliability.
ences the selection of the heating temperature and heat rates Some information was treated as confidential in some facil-
which effectively influence the product yield, composition of ities visited.
the pyrolysis oil, and composition of the pyrolysis gas pro-
duced [38]. Important parameters in the design of a plastic 6.6. Design Principles and Considerations. The pyrolysis sys-
pyrolysis plant are the operating temperature based on the tem design must take into account four main steps or stages
material and process, the heat rate, the residence time of of the process of pyrolysis. These critical steps are (1) even
materials in the reactors, and the products produced which heating of the plastic to reduce the thermal gradient; (2)
influence their properties [16, 27]. removal of oxygen from the pyrolysis reactor or chamber;
(3) effective control of the char to avoid solidification which
6.4. Cost-Benefit Analysis. The economic and financial feasi- converts it to an insulator, thus reducing the heat transfer to
bility was done through comparison of the total costs the plastic feedstock; and (4) controlled condensation and
14 Journal of Energy

Alkaline
tank
Pyrolysis gases

Reactor Condenser
Plastic
waste Melting of Oil
Water
plastic waste tank
cooling
Mixed
Char residue fractions of
fuel and

Non-condensable gases
water
Heat Cooled Neutralized
pyrolysis pyrolysis
liquid liquid

Fractionating
tower
Burner

Water Diesel oil Other oil

fractions

Figure 5: Plastic pyrolysis design flow diagram (authors’ conceptualization).

fractionation of the pyrolysis to produce a good quality in 6.9. Safety Considerations. The best material for boiler and
terms of composition and consistency [16]. pressure vessels is carbon steel (material 516 gr 70) as they
can withstand high temperatures and pressures without
cracking. This material has high tensile and yield strengths
6.7. Pyrolysis Process Design. The comprehensive conversion
that are suitable for the reactor design. Tensile strength = ð
process of the plastic waste to fuel is demonstrated in the
process flow diagram in Figure 5. The most fundamental ele- 510 – 610Þ N/mm2 , and yield stress per min = 335 N/mm2 .
ments in the process of pyrolysis are the source of heat, reac- Reactors have huge differences in terms of design and
tor condenser, and distillation unit. The input and output manufacturing but more so on safety. Table 5 shows the
vary according to the capacity of the plant selected. To max- batch reactor design comparison. The dish-end batch design
imize on the plant capacities, several units could be used was selected due to its ability to withstand higher pressures,
within the same production line. up to 7 bars, thus reducing chances of accidents.
From Figure 5, it is noted that water, diesel, and other From Table 5, it is noted that batch reactors available in
oils are the main products of the fractionating chamber. the market have capacities ranging from 5 tonnes to 15
The main parts of the system are the heat source, the reactor, tonnes per batch. To achieve higher input-output capacities,
the condenser, the oil storage tank, and the fractionating a parallel arrangement of four batch reactors was used. Four
chamber. reactors were used for the design due to constraints of the
initial cost of the plant, or else, more units would have been
used. The plant layout with the reactors shown in Figure 7 is
6.8. Choice of Reactor. The reactor chamber is heated indi- used in the design.
rectly by the flow of hot air from the burner. Its temperature Figure 7 shows the batch process option with 4 reactors,
is regulated via the controller which operates a valve to allow one fractionating column, and two condensers.
more hot air or less, depending on the operating tempera-
ture. Uniform heating is, thus, achieved at the reactor. The 6.10. Reactor Mass Balance. The mass balance in the reactor
rotating mixer ensures that all of the plastic material is is demonstrated in Figure 8. The mass entering the reactor
heated evenly. The reactor is illustrated in Figure 6. and total mass leaving the reactor should be balanced.
Figure 6 shows the reactor and its accessories, which mpw is the mass of plastic waste, in tonnes;mf is the mass
include the controller and mixer. The reactor is connected of pyrolysis oil, in tonnes; mc is the mass of char, in tonnes;
to the condenser in the assembly. andmg is the mass of pyrolysis gas, in tonnes.
The two types of pyrolysis-processing methods are con- From Figure 8, the mass balance expression is shown as
tinuous and discontinuous cycles. The discontinuous pro- follows:
cessing uses a batch reactor while the continuous reactors
are used for the continuous processing. mass in = mass out, mpw = mf + mc + mg ð1Þ
Journal of Energy 15

Mixer

Condenser
Water out

Reactor

Water in

Plastic waste
Controller
Container

Figure 6: Internal view of pyrolysis reactor.

Table 5: Comparison of reactor designs. Figure 9 shows the main elements of the pyrolysis plant
condenser, i.e., the vapor inlet, the cooling water inlet and
Dish-end batch pyrolysis outlet, and the condensate outlet.
Flat-end batch pyrolysis reactor
reactor
Withstands 1–2 bars of pressure Withstands close to 7 bars 6.13. Acid Removal. The pyrolysis oil formed may contain
Leaks faster, less reactor life More reactor life acidic contaminants, such as hydrochloric acid and benzoic
Cheaper More expensive
acid from atomic constituents of PVC and PET, respectively.
This is undesirable as the acid corrodes the plant parts and
reduces the quality of oil; hence, a neutralizing mechanism
The assumptions made in the mass balance are that there was provided. An alkaline solution plastic tank was installed
are no leakages and that measurements are done accurately. from which a dosing pump delivers the alkaline solution into
the pyrolysis oil line. The pump is turned on once the oil
flow to the distiller is initiated [1].
60 mf + mc + mg ð2Þ
6.14. Oil Distiller. The pyrolysis oil has a wide range of boil-
ing points. It is passed through the fractionating column in
6.11. Comparison of Thermal and Catalytic Pyrolysis the oil distiller to obtain useful liquid and gas fractions such
Processes. From the calculations of the mass balance for both as diesel and gasoline. Main control variables are the tem-
thermal and catalytic depolymerization processes, the two perature change in the distillation column, pressure, and
can be compared according to the outputs expected and by reflux ratio of the product oil. The distillation column is
using the lower limits of the expected outputs. A further demonstrated in Figure 10.
comparison of thermal and catalytic processes is provided From Figure 10, it is noted that the main parts of a dis-
in Table 6 below. tiller are the distillation column, the condenser, the reflux
From Table 6, it is noted that catalytic pyrolysis gives a drum, and the reboiler.
higher oil yield than thermal pyrolysis. Thermal pyrolysis 6.15. Cooling Tower. The hot water from the condensers and
has a higher yield of noncondensable gases compared to cat- the oil distiller is cooled down in the cooling tower. The
alytic pyrolysis. The solid deposit in the form of char is main design parameters for the cooling tower are the cooling
almost the same for the catalytic and thermal pyrolysis range, wet bulb temperature, mass flow rate of the water, dry
processes. bulb temperature, air velocity through the tower, atmo-
spheric pressure, and packing mechanism. Since there are
6.12. Condenser. The condenser serves mainly to cool down losses due to evaporation, drift, and blowdown, makeup
the vapors from the pyrolysis reactor. Two condenser con- water may be required to maintain the water level in the
figurations, i.e. vertical and horizontal, are considered. The cooling tower basin [1].
main design parameters are the pipe length, pipe diameter,
the number of tubes, cooling area, and cooling method 6.16. Plant-Processing Method. The research considered both
applied. Figure 9 shows the side and front views of the con- thermal and catalytic polymerizations to identify the best
denser [87]. option. From the thermal- and catalytic-processing
16 Journal of Energy

Schematic diagram of the pyrolysis plant

Feedstock

Reactor 1 Reactor 2 Reactor 3 Reactor 4

at

Cha
He

ar
Ch

r Light ga
gas
Burner Burner
Vapour

Fractionating tower
Gas
Ga
Gas Diesel

Vapour
Condenser Condenser Heavy ffuel

Acid remo
oval
removal

Liquid oil
Liquid

Figure 7: Four reactors arranged in parallel.

mf a heavy fraction of oil from the fractionating tower, char,

mpw and gases (all products produced from the same process),
Reactor mc thus minimizing costs that would be incurred from using
entirely continuous energy to run the plant. The specifica-
mg tions of the reactors, condensers, fractionating tower, cool-
ing tower, tanks, pumps, valves, and pipes were done
Figure 8: Mass balance for the reactor. through a simple calculation of flow rates and mass and
energy balances. The equipment that had specifications close
comparison, the catalytic process was found to produce to those required for the design was selected from manufac-
more oil than the thermal process by about 3% [88, 89], turers [28, 48].
but high expenses have to be incurred on the catalyst. Ther-
mal pyrolyzing yields more gas and char compared to cata- 6.17. Safety Considerations. Safety is a very important aspect
lytic pyrolysis. In the literature review, it is evident that for of plant design. Carbon steel (material 516 gr 70) that has
the same amount of input, catalytic pyrolysis consumes high tensile strength and high yield stress was selected for
40% less power than thermal pyrolysis at the reaction stage, the pipes, reactor, and valves of the plant to avoid accidents
but the catalysts used are very expensive, accounting for caused due to cracking of the material under high pressures.
about 65% of total operating costs [86, 88]. The dish-end reactor design was selected over the flat-end
Due to the factors considered, thermal polymerization reactor due to its ability to withstand pressures up to 7 bars,
was selected for this design. With thermal polymerization, thus eliminating the possibility of explosions in the reactors
the oil product was expected to range from 46.2 to 54 tonnes in cases of pressure rise.
per day, gases were expected to range from 4.8 to 6 tonnes Noncondensable gases from the condenser (methane, eth-
per day, and the char produced was expected to range from ane, propane, butane, and hydrogen) can be a serious fire risk
1.2 to 7.8 tonnes per day. The design provided for the and should never be allowed to leak to the environment via
channeling back of the char and gases produced to the proper sealing and selection of the right materials and fittings.
burner for combustion to provide energy that is consumed In the proposed design, the gases were channeled back to the
during the process of pyrolysis. The burner was used to pro- reactor and burned to release energy while the noncombusti-
vide heat for melting the material in the reactor that utilized ble gases were flared to release carbon dioxide and water,
Journal of Energy 17

Table 6: Thermal depolymerization vs. catalytic depolymerization.

Thermal depolymerization Catalytic depolymerization

Less liquid fuel produced More liquid fuel produced
Higher yield of gases and char Lower yield of gases and char
Generally requires more energy Less energy required
Gases produced are channeled back to the reactor to boost energy Catalysts used are very expensive, accounts for 65% of production cost

Cooling water inlet

Vapour inlet

Cooling water outlet Condensate

Figure 9: The condenser.

Condenser
Light component

Reflux drum

Inlet mixture
Distillation
column

Heavy component

Reboiler

Figure 10: Oil distiller.

which are not toxic substances [59]. Measures applied to guar- (iii) Neutralization of the acidic content in the oil is
antee safety of the installation include the following: done immediately after the condensation of the
pyrolysis liquid, thus avoiding acids when workers
(i) Lagging was provided for the burner, reactor, and handle the final products directly
pipes that carried hot content to avoid burning the
workers in case of contact
7. Challenges and Opportunities of
(ii) The design provided a closed system where no con- Plastic Recycling
tent was released till the end of the processing line
after distillation ensuring workers were not exposed Plastics are cheap, lightweight, and durable and can be easily
to any contaminants throughout the process molded into many different products, shapes, and sizes,
18 Journal of Energy

hence their wide applications globally, leading to increased Rationalizing the diversity of materials to a subset of cur-
production and use. The high level of plastic consumption rent usage could dramatically increase the effectiveness of
and related disposal has created serious environmental con- postconsumer packaging recycling. If rigid plastic containers
cerns with about 4% of global oil and gas production being ranging from jars and bottles to trays were all PET, HDPE,
used as a feedstock for plastics and 3–4% being used to pro- and PP, without clear PVC or PS, which are difficult to sort
vide energy for their manufacture. A significant proportion from comingled recyclables, all rigid plastic packaging could
of plastics is used to make disposable items of packaging be collected and sorted to make recycled resins with very lit-
and short-lived products that are soon discarded to the envi- tle cross-contamination. Labels and adhesive materials
ronment that is an indication that the current use of plastics should be collected and used to maximize recycling perfor-
is not sustainable [1, 30, 90]. mance. Sorting/separation within recycling plants should
Recycling is one of the most appropriate measures avail- be improved to increase the potential for recycling and bet-
able to minimize the environmental impacts in the plastic ter eco-efficiency by reducing waste fractions, water, and
industry today. Recycling reduces oil usage, CO2 emissions, energy use with the recycling objective being to maximize
and waste disposal. Other measures include downgauging the volume and quality of recycled products [91].
or product reuse, use of biodegradable materials, and fuel
recovery. The quantities of plastics recycled vary widely geo- 8. Results and Discussion
graphically according to the type of plastic and applications,
with plastic recycling being done since the 1970s. More Plastics are popular and have found a wide range of applica-
opportunities for recycling are being created via advances tions because of the lightweight; they do not rust, do not rot,
in technologies and systems that are applied for the collec- are cheap, are reusable, and have significant socioeconomic
tion, sorting, and processing of used plastics aided by the positive impact. However, plastics are nonbiodegradable,
combined effort of the public, environmental authorities, and huge quantities of plastic wastes have become a nuisance
industry, and governments to ensure that majority of plastic to the environment. Sustainable use of plastic wastes should
wastes are recycled [91]. encourage reuse and recycling [92, 93].
A leading challenge in plastic recycling is the recycling Plastics are important, widely used materials used to
of mixed plastic wastes. The main advantage is the ability make products having a wide range of mechanical and
to recycle a significant proportion of the waste stream chemical properties suitable for application in many indus-
through the postconsumer collection of plastics to include tries like packaging, automotive, and electronics. However,
a wider variety of materials and pack types. Product use of plastics is a danger to the environment mainly because
design should consider recycling to increase the ease and they are generally nondegradable leading to accumulation in
potential of recycling of plastic products in terms of com- waste landfills and natural habitats including seas. Recycling,
position, shape, and size. Studies in the UK in 2007 including use in the production of pyrolysis oil, will lead to
showed that the amount of packaging in a regular shop- reduced CO2 emissions, reduced energy consumption, and
ping basket cannot be effectively recycled in the range of waste disposal with the main challenge being waste collec-
21 to 40% even if it is collected. This calls for implemen- tion and transport to recycling facilities that requires policy
tation of policies that promote the application of environ- interventions. Research and technology into new recycling
mentally friendly design principles by plastic industries to solutions should be undertaken to increase the level of
increase recycling performance by increasing the propor- recycling.
tion of materials that can be technically and economically Huge quantities of plastic wastes can be can be used as
collected and recycled [1, 91]. feedstock to produce fossil fuel substitutes. Plastic pyrolysis
Light plastics like packaging materials are quite problem- plants have been set up in a number of countries globally
atic during collection and sorting, which is the main reason to convert waste plastic to hydrocarbon fuel, which may be
for most postconsumer recycling schemes targeting rigid a cheaper partial substitute of the petroleum oil. Production
packaging. A significant number of recovery facilities cannot of the pyrolysis oil from plastic wastes is ecologically and
handle flexible plastic packaging due to different handling economically superior to many other options since it
characteristics of rigid packaging. Additionally, the low addresses the environmental pollution and partially
weight-to-volume ratio of films and plastic bags makes them addresses the challenge of fossil fuel reserve depletion by
less economical to invest in in collection and sorting facili- reducing demand of primary oil by acting as a substitute
ties, except for plastic films recycled from sources like sec- feedstock in the production of lubricants and other oil prod-
ondary packaging, e.g., the shrink-wrap of pallets and ucts [34, 94]. The overall effect of waste plastic pyrolysis is
boxes and some agricultural films, which is feasible under the reduction in hazardous plastic waste as well as reduction
correct conditions. The solutions to the economical recy- in the import bill for oil-importing countries.
cling of films and flexible packaging include investment in The challenges facing plastic pyrolysis as a process for oil
separate collection, sorting, and processing facilities at production are the existence of limited standards for the reg-
recovery facilities that can handle mixed plastic wastes. Suc- ulation of the process and products of recycled plastics and
cessful recycling of mixed plastics requires high- the development more efficient and cheaper pyrolysis tech-
performance sorting to ensure that plastic types are sepa- nologies. The economic viability of plastic pyrolysis is
rated to high levels of purity in addition to the development dependent on the design and development of suitable reac-
of end markets for each polymer-recycling stream [91]. tors to suit the wide range of plastic waste feedstock with
Journal of Energy 19

varying process requirements and product output, and a These will increase the levels of recycling that is below the
reduction in the capital investment and cost of operation global average of 15%.
and maintenance [1, 90]. Pyrolysis is an important process due to the increasing
Plastic production has been growing steadily since the quantities of plastic waste and the increasing percentage
first production in the 1950s to date. Due to their short life composition of thermosetting plastics that need to be
cycle, there is a high rate of waste generation, hence the need recycled. However, pyrolysis also produces toxic byproducts
to recycle. All the more as only about 15% of plastic wastes from the pyrolysis of some plastics like polyvinyl chloride
are recycled globally. The total amount of plastic waste that (PVC). Additionally, the pyrolysis oil produced from plastic
is disposed to the environment each year in Kenya was esti- pyrolysis has inferior properties like a high sulphur content
mated at 221,000 tonnes with a low recycling rate of 15% of which is undesirable as it is harmful to the environment.
the total plastic material consumed yearly [25]. The low rates The oil has a relatively lower flash point generally ranging
of recycling indicated a gap in the plastic market that has not from 10 to 40°C compared to about 50°C for commercial-
yet been fully ventured into, thus the massive pollution grade diesel, which is an indicator of high volatility and,
caused by the waste plastic material. Development of the hence, is risky compared to conventional fossil fuels. This
pyrolysis plant for the Kenya plastic market was therefore can, however, be improved by blending with commercial-
a viable solution due to its ability to process a large amount grade fuels and the installation of sulphur systems, especially
of waste. Large amounts of the waste and high plastic con- for industrial applications. Since the waste plastic pyrolysis
sumption were also an indicator of availability and reliability oil has a higher sulphur content compared to conventional
of the raw material (plastic waste) for the pyrolysis plant. diesel, kerosene, light fuel, oil and gasoline, it may not be
Studies have shown that thermal pyrolysis yields more char the best direct substitute where these fuels are used. How-
compared to catalytic pyrolysis. On the other hand, catalytic ever, its sulphur content is lower compared to that of heavy
pyrolysis yields more liquid fuel than thermal pyrolysis. The fuel oil and furnace oil. This implies that, as far as emission
average gas production is slightly higher in thermal pyrolysis and environmental pollution is concerned, the waste plastic
compared to catalytic pyrolysis. Overall, the difference in the pyrolysis oil can be a better substitute for diesel engine
output is close enough in terms of the product output, and power plants running on HFO and industrial processes
the process plant designer would rather analyze other factors using furnace oil. According to [95], proposed improve-
like the cost in the process selection, although catalytic ments to improve the quality of the pyrolysis oil include
pyrolysis is superior in terms of solid remnants that should the inclusion of hydrogen chloride and sulphur dioxide
be landfilled [1, 30, 89]. scrubbers, for the removal of significant impurities like the
Not all stakeholders are positive about the rationale of HCl vapor and sulphur dioxide from the recovered oil.
converting plastics to fuel. Some environmentalists have Blending is also recommended in varying proportions with
argued that widespread adoption of plastics to fuel could renewable fuels like biodiesel, ethanol, and, to limited pro-
slow down efforts to develop sustainable alternatives to fossil portions, conventional fossil fuels to improve properties as
fuel which will work against the effort to realize zero emis- well as reduce the carbon footprint of the fuels.
sions by 2050 [53]. Further analysis shows that pyrolysis as Economically, the pyrolysis oil can replace the conven-
a recycling measure has a lower carbon footprint incinera- tional diesel oil in terms of the engine performance and
tion even though it has a significant energy potential [5]. A energy output if the price of the pyrolysis oil is less than
well-established plastic waste collection system is necessary 85% of the price of conventional diesel [49]. According to
for the proper success of plastic waste recycling. Through [50], crude oil prices above $65 per barrel are necessary to
continues awareness, the public will support the recycling justify commercial investment in waste plastic to fuel with-
effort as contributors and users of the plastic wastes and out a premium, but with a green premium, recycling waste
pyrolysis oil. The government should provide a conducive plastic to fuel is still viable at prices below $65 per barrel.
environment for plastic waste recycling through policy and A diesel engine was noted to give better performance when
legal measures as well as provision of economic and financial using a fuel that contains pyrolysis oil of up to 30%, and it
incentives. may perform well with a maximum of up to 50% of the
For developing countries like Kenya, Nairobi City has waste plastic oil blended into conventional diesel. In another
the highest amount of plastic generation, collection, and study by [51], it was observed that an engine has stable per-
recovery, with just 45% of plastics recovered. Kisumu City formance with the brake thermal efficiency being compara-
has the lowest waste collection and recovery rates at 20% ble to that of conventional diesel, and the value of the
and 8%, respectively, making it the most plastic-littered city brake thermal efficiency is higher with the pyrolysis oil by
in Kenya. Nairobi and other cities face the challenge of plas- up to about 80% of the engine load. However, the engine
tic waste disposal because of weak policies and the failure to emissions were notably higher with the pyrolysis oil com-
adhere to the guidelines on solid waste management by the pared to the conventional diesel [51]. To improve the effi-
stakeholders. There is the need to develop a policy frame- ciency and further reduce the cost of the plastic waste
work that promotes plastic waste recycling through educa- pyrolysis process, a proposal is made with regard to the pro-
tion and sensitization, creating a market for recycled cess improvement to reduce energy use and generate power
products, and changing people’s attitudes to embrace recy- from the pyrolysis gas and other combustible products for
cling. The government should promote the recycling indus- plant use and to export the excess power to the grid to earn
try through legislation, funding, and other forms of support. extra revenue for the recycling facility and substitute
20 Journal of Energy

generation from other fossil fuels. Melting plastics at higher globally, the plastic waste is increasing and mismanaged.
pressure zones may reduce the fuel-burning temperature The impacts of plastic production, use, and disposal on the
and, hence, energy consumption through a high-pressure environment and people create risks and opportunities for
zone so that the fuel-burning temperature can be decreased investors through different sectors and companies that are
and the efficiency improved, as it leads to a reduced boiling a part of the plastic value chain. This report highlights the
point. Increased applications and adoption of pyrolysis global challenge for plastics, as well as some potential
products will lead to increased investment and, hence, econ- solutions.
omies of scale leading to further process efficiencies and cost Global plastic production and consumption have grown
reduction, making pyrolysis a more profitable and attractive by over 20 times since the 1960s. About 40% of plastics pro-
venture. Pyrolysis liquids can be used as feedstock to substi- duced are for packaging with 95% of them for single-use.
tute the fresh oil in the manufacture of plastics, lubricants, The production and consumption of plastics continue to
industrial fuels, power plant oil, and industrial fuel. This grow amid an inefficient global waste management system,
calls for policy incentives and research into efficient pyroly- with less than a fifth of plastic wastes being recycled. The
sis technologies [1, 5, 42, 95]. various stages of the plastic value chain create significant
The oil produced from plastic wastes generally has a greenhouse gas emissions. It is estimated that greenhouse
higher sulphur content compared to the conventional fuel gas emissions from plastics may account for 10–13% of the
oil. This requires the users of the pyrolysis oil to be equipped entire remaining carbon budget by 2050 within the context
with environment protection devices to scrub the flue gases of the 1.5°C target of the United Nations Framework Con-
produced, which raises concerns from users and environ- vention on Climate Change Paris Agreement [97].
mentalists. Sulphur causes emissions of oxides to the envi-
ronment that can increase cases of acid rain. The pyrolysis 9. Conclusions
oil has a higher sulphur content compared to conventional
gasoline, kerosene, and commercial-grade diesel. In a typical Plastics are cheap, lightweight, and durable and can be easily
case, the sulphur content of the waste pyrolysis oil (WPPO) molded to many different products, shapes, and sizes, hence
was 0.246% compared to the 0.15% content for diesel oil and their wide applications globally leading to increased produc-
0.014% for gasoline. When mixed plastics are used, typical tion and use. Plastic consumption and production have been
studies showed a 4.8% sulphur content for thermal pyrolysis growing since first production in the 1950s. About 4% of the
and 4.36% for the catalytic pyrolysis liquid fuel from mixed global oil and gas production is being used as feedstock for
waste plastics [6, 96]. plastics, and 3–4% is used to provide energy for their manu-
The main products of plastic pyrolysis are the pyrolysis facture. The short life cycle of many plastics and their wide
oil, a hydrocarbon-rich gas, with a heating value of 25– use in domestic and industrial applications have led to sig-
45 MJ/kg that makes it ideal for process energy recovery nificant quantities of plastic wastes globally. Plastic demand
and char. Hence, the pyrolysis gas can be fed back to the is high globally, and it continues to grow mainly because of
process to extract the energy for the process-heating purpose its flexibility and affordability for a wide range of industrial
which substantially reduces the reliance on external heating and commercial applications. Many countries and regula-
sources. tory authorities are calling for the ban of certain categories
From the literature review, it was deduced that the fuel of plastics while others like Kenya have already banned the
produced from this process is of high quality with properties manufacture, sale, and use of single-use carrier bags. This
like diesel oil (heating value of about 45 MJ/kg, density of has serious socioeconomic impacts like loss of jobs, business
0.77–0.86 g/cm3, and cetane number 40–60) and needs little opportunities, and livelihoods, although it brings environ-
modifications like fuel injection timing in diesel engines. The mental benefits related to reduced plastic waste pollution.
pyrolysis oil can be used as the transport fuel. Other feasible Plastic waste recycling can be used as a feasible solution to
applications are gas turbine fuels, diesel generators, aviation the huge plastic waste pollution. There are many strategies
industry fuel, and jet propulsion. When blended with diesel and options for plastic recycling classified as primary, sec-
in suitable ratios, the pyrolysis oil can be suitable for various ondary, tertiary, and quaternary recycling techniques. There
applications like fuel for boiler furnaces, lubrication oil pro- are four main avenues available for plastic solid waste treat-
duction, waxes, and plastic feedstock production. Waste ment, namely, reextrusion as a primary treatment, mechan-
plastic pyrolysis offers a more sustainable solution to plastic ical treatment as secondary measures, chemical treatment as
waste pollution and reduced use of virgin oil. The economic a tertiary measure, and energy recovery as a quaternary mea-
analysis of this project has proven it to be highly profitable, sure. Various operations involved in plastic recycling include
returning the investment cost after a period of five years. The the separation, sorting, and cleaning of the wastes. The main
increased investment and use of the waste plastic pyrolysis challenges facing plastic recycling include high collection
oil will reduce the demand for fresh fossil fuels, while blend- and transport costs, high electricity bills, and feedstock with
ing with renewable fuels for use in power generation will a wide variation of quality and properties due to different
make plastic waste pyrolysis a significant player in the plastic types.
energy transition to low-carbon power generation and The common methods used in plastic disposal are incin-
energy consumption [30]. eration and landfilling, while plastic pyrolysis can be applied
With an increase in the global production and consump- to produce useful oil and other products from plastic wastes.
tion of plastics, and less than 20 percent of plastics recycled Although some countries have banned the production and
Journal of Energy 21

sale of some plastics like single-use plastic bags, the quanti- ommends plastic waste liquefaction as another recycling
ties of waste plastics remain high, hence the need to promote pathway for the enhanced application of plastic wastes in
alternative methods of plastic recycling. This study proved the production of products like naphtha by converting poly-
the significance of plastic waste recycling as a means of com- mers to liquid chemical products. Research into the eco-
bating greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector by nomic and technical feasibilities of bioplastics is
using waste plastic as a source of an alternative high-value recommended as a strategy of improving plastic recycling.
fossil fuel. The study showed that plastic pyrolysis is a
cleaner, efficient, technical, and commercial way of plastic
waste disposal, which besides solving the environmental cri- Abbreviations
sis from solid waste disposal will also generate fuel revenue CAGR: Compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
and savings by producing an alternative fossil fuel which will ELV: End-of-life vehicle
reduce the demand for primary fossil fuels and, hence, the GWP: Global warming potential
related environmental costs and resource depletion. The best HFO: Heavy fuel oil
and most sustainable solution to plastic pollution is recy- PET: Polyethylene
cling. There are various methods of plastic recycling like pri- POPs: Persistent organic pollutants
mary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary recycling. PSW: Plastic solid waste
Plastic pyrolysis is an attractive option for the plastic TEU: Total energy use
waste as many authorities and countries globally call for a WEEE: Waste electrical and electronic equipment
ban of several plastic categories from the market due to fail- WPPO: Waste plastic pyrolysis oil.
ure of the conventional methods of plastic waste control to
address environmental pollution due to plastic wastes. The
process, however, still faces a number of limitations particu- Data Availability
larly with respect to the collection, separation, sorting, and
cleaning operations and the high cost of power and The authors will provide any data used upon a written
transportation. request to the corresponding author.
Pyrolysis generally produces fewer toxic products as long
the process is well designed and the process conditions con- Additional Points
trolled appropriately. However, the process has notable
issues surrounding some toxic byproducts from plastics like Article Highlights. (i) Plastics are cheap, lightweight, and
polyvinyl chloride, which requires proper feedstock selec- durable and can be easily molded into many different prod-
tion. Another challenge is that the liquid fuel from plastic ucts, shapes, and sizes, hence their wide applications glob-
pyrolysis is not a perfect fit for many engineered applications ally, leading to increased production and use. (ii) The
mainly because of the relatively high sulphur content, which global plastic production has tripled since the 1950s causing
can be addressed though further treatment and blending challenges in waste plastic disposal. (iii) About 4% of global
with commercial-grade oil products. Other than liquid oil and gas production is being used as feedstock for plastics,
pyrolysis oil, a hydrocarbon-rich gas, is produced, having a and 3–4% is used to provide energy for their manufacture.
heating value of 25–45 MJ/kg, which makes it ideal for pro- (iv) Incineration and landfilling are the most prevalent
cess energy recovery. Hence, the pyrolysis gas can be fed forms of plastic disposal. (v) Through plastic pyrolysis, alter-
back to the process to extract the energy for the process- native fuel can be produced which can reduce demand on
heating purpose that substantially reduces the reliance on virgin oil and create a sustainable disposal pathway for waste
external heating sources. A leading challenge in plastic recy- plastics.
cling is the recycling of mixed plastic wastes. The main
advantage is the ability to recycle a significant proportion
of the waste stream through the postconsumer collection of Disclosure
plastics to include a wider variety of materials and pack The authors have the authority to publish the research work
types. More opportunities for recycling are being created in any publication.
via advances in technologies and systems that are applied
for the collection, sorting, and processing of used plastics
aided by the combined effort of the public, environmental Conflicts of Interest
authorities, industry, and governments to ensure that the
majority of plastic wastes are recycled. The authors declare that they have no potential conflict of
interest in this research.
10. Recommendations
Authors’ Contributions
Furthermore, this study recommends investigation into the
best waste-to-energy conversion process for a cost-effective It was the responsibility of the first author to conceptualize
waste plastic recycling and performance of various biodiesels and draft the manuscript. The second author provided guid-
and waste plastic pyrolysis oils to increase the green value of ance, proof reading, and editorial services in addition to fur-
plastic pyrolysis oil production. Additionally, the study rec- ther theoretical and technical input.
22 Journal of Energy

Acknowledgments Electricity Generation,” in Proceedings of the 2nd African

International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Opera-
The authors acknowledge the support they received from tions Management, Harare, Zimbabwe, 2020.
their employers in terms of stipends and publishing-related [14] M. J. K. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Hydrogen and Carbon
expenses. No external funding was provided for this Nanotubes from Pyrolysis-Catalysis of Waste Plastics: A
research, and the whole exercise was fully funded by the Review,” Waste and Biomass Valorization, vol. 12, no. 1,
researchers through Durban University of Technology. pp. 1–28, 2021.
[15] M. Labaki and M. Jeguirim, “Thermochemical conversion of
waste tyres—a review,” Environmental Science and Pollution
References Research, vol. 24, no. 11, pp. 9962–9992, 2017.
[16] N. Patni, P. Shah, S. Agarwal, and P. Singhal, “Alternate strat-
[1] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Fuel from plastic egies for conversion of waste plastic to fuels,” ISRN Renewable
wastes for sustainable energy transition,” in Proceedings of Energy, vol. 2013, Article ID 902053, 7 pages, 2013.
the 11th Annual International Conference on Industrial Engi-
[17] M. Kabeyi and O. Olanrewaju, “Diesel to gas engine power
neering and Operations Management, Singapore, 2021.
plant conversion: a review and preliminary design for an
[2] M. Ruban, S. Ramasubramanian, R. Pugazhenthi, and Sivaga- operting power plant,” Journal of Energy Management and
nesan, “Investigation of performance analysis and emission Technology, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 103–115, 2013.
characteristics of waste plastic fuel,” IOP Conference Series:
[18] W. Bekele, W. Amedie, and Z. Salehudres, “Design of Pyrolysis
Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 183, article 012037,
Reactor for Waste Plastic Recycling,” Engineering and Applied
2017.
Sciences, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 92–97, 2020.
[3] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Performance analysis
[19] L. Oyake-Ombis, “Managing plastic waste in urban Kenya:
of an open cycle gas turbine power plant in grid electricity gen-
eration,” in 2020 IEEE International Conference on Industrial niche innovations in production and recycling, [Ph.D. thesis],”
Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 524– in Graduate School of Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of
529, Singapore, Singapore, 2020. the Environment (SENSE), Wageningen University, Wagenin-
gen, Germany, 2012.
[4] M. J. B. Kabeyi, A. O. Oludolapo, and H. Teresa, “Performance
analysis of diesel engine power plants for grid electricity sup- [20] Agency, Waste Plastics to Fuel Oil, EE Publishers, South Africa,
ply,” in 31st annual Southern African institute for Industrial 2018.
Engineering conference, South Africa, 2020. [21] S. M. Al-Salem, A. Antelava, A. Constantinou, G. Manos, and
[5] C. Middlehurst, “Plastics-to-oil recyclers face a double strug- A. Dutta, “A review on thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plas-
gle,” Financial Times, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/ tic solid waste (PSW),” Journal of environmental management,
0ce84a6c-77b4-4403-a8db-af296fcfff2c. vol. 197, pp. 177–198, 2017.
[6] W. U. Eze, R. Umunakwe, H. C. Obasi, M. I. Ugbaja, C. C. [22] L. Lombardi, E. Carnevale, and A. Corti, “A review of technol-
Uche, and I. C. Madufor, “Plastics waste management: a ogies and performances of thermal treatment systems for
review of pyrolysis technology,” Clean Technologies and Recy- energy recovery from waste,” Waste Management, vol. 37,
cling, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 50–69, 2021. pp. 26–44, 2015.
[7] University of Oxford, “Turning plastic waste into hydrogen [23] S. M. Al-Salem, P. Lettieri, and J. Baeyens, “Recycling and
and high-value carbons,” University of Oxford, 2021, https:// recovery routes of plastic solid waste (PSW): a review,” Waste
www.ox.ac.uk/news/2020-10-13-turning-plastic-waste- Management, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 2625–2643, 2009.
hydrogen-and-high-value-carbons. [24] J. A. Olalo, “Characterization of pyrolytic oil produced from
[8] J. N. Hahladakis, C. A. Velis, R. Weber, E. Iacovidou, and waste plastic in Quezon City, Philippines using non-catalytic
P. Purnell, “An overview of chemical additives present in plas- pyrolysis method,” Chemical Engineering Transactions,
tics: migration, release, fate and environmental impact during vol. 86, pp. 1495–1500, 2021.
their use, disposal and recycling,” Journal of Hazardous Mate- [25] B. Kunwar, H. N. Cheng, S. R. Chandrashekaran, and B. K.
rials, vol. 344, pp. 179–199, 2018. Sharma, “Plastics to fuel: a review,” Renewable and Sustainable
[9] A. Antelava, S. Damilos, S. Hafeez et al., “Plastic solid waste Energy Reviews, vol. 54, pp. 421–428, 2016.
(PSW) in the context of life cycle assessment (LCA) and sus- [26] K. Murthy, R. J. Shetty, and K. Shiva, “Plastic waste conversion
tainable management,” Environmental Management, vol. 64, to fuel: a review on pyrolysis process and influence of operat-
no. 2, pp. 230–244, 2019. ing parameters,” Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization,
[10] S. Devasahayam, G. Bhaskar Raju, and C. Mustansar Hussain, and Environmental Effects, vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 1–21, 2020.
“Utilization and recycling of end of life plastics for sustainable [27] D. Chen, L. Yin, H. Wang, and P. He, “Reprint of: pyrolysis
and clean industrial processes including the iron and steel technologies for municipal solid waste: a review,” Waste Man-
industry,” Materials Science for Energy Technologies, vol. 2, agement, vol. 37, pp. 116–136, 2015.
no. 3, pp. 634–646, 2019. [28] M. J. B. Kabeyi, “Challenges of implementing thermal power-
[11] I. Fahim, O. Mohsen, and D. ElKayaly, “Production of fuel plant projects in Kenya, the case of Kipevu III 120MW power
from plastic waste: a feasible business,” Polymers, vol. 13, station, Mombasa Kenya, [Ph.D. thesis],” University of Nai-
no. 6, p. 915, 2021. robi: Masters, Department of Education Management, Nai-
[12] A. Raja and A. Murali, “Conversion of plastic wastes into robi, 2012.
fuels,” Journal of Materials Science and Engineering B, vol. 1, [29] M. J. B. Kabeyi, “Investigating the challenges of bagasse cogen-
pp. 86–89, 2011. eration in the Kenyan sugar industry,” International Journal of
[13] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Oludolapo, “Viability of Wellhead Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, vol. 9, no. 5,
Power Plants as substitutes of Permanent Power plants in Grid pp. 7–64, 2020.
Journal of Energy 23

[30] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanweraju, “Sustainability Assess- files/live/sites/tc61/files/The%20Plastic%20Industry%

ment for Non-Combustible Renewable Power Generation,” 20Berlin%20Aug%202016%20-%20Copy.pdf.
in Paper presented at the 12th Annual Istanbul International [47] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Dual cycle cogene-
Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Manage- ration plant for an operating diesel powerplant,” in Proceed-
ment, pp. 2232–2244, IEOM Society International, Istanbul, ings of the 11th Annual International Conference on
Turkey, 2022. Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Singa-
[31] R. U. Halden, “Plastics and Health Risks,” Annual Review of pore, 2021.
Public Health, vol. 31, pp. 179–194, 2010. [48] M. J. B. Kabeyi, “Potential and challenges of bagasse cogen-
[32] G. Andrews, Plastics in the Ocean Affecting Human Health, eration in the Kenyan sugar industry,” International Journal
Teach the Earth the Portal for Earth Education, 2012. of Creative Research Thoughts, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 379–526,
[33] M. S. Qureshi, A. Oasmaa, H. Pihkola et al., “Pyrolysis of plas- 2022.
tic waste: opportunities and challenges,” Journal of Analytical [49] B. Sharma, Y. Goswami, S. Sharma, and S. Shekhar, “Inherent
and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 152, article 104804, 2020. roadmap of conversion of plastic waste into energy and its life
[34] M. J. B. Kabeyi, “Organizational strategic diversification with cycle assessment: a frontrunner compendium,” Renewable and
case studies of successful and unsuccessful diversification,” Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 146, article 111070, 2021.
International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, [50] E. B. A. V. Pacheco, L. M. Ronchetti, and E. Masanet, “An
vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 871–886, 2018. overview of plastic recycling in Rio de Janeiro,” Resources,
[35] M. J. B. Kabeyi, “Michael Porter’s five competitive forces and Conservation and Recycling, vol. 60, pp. 140–146, 2012.
generetic strategies, market segmentation strategy and case [51] SPR Japan, “Pioneering The Largest Waste Plastic To Oil
study of competition in global smartphone manufacturing Recovery & Chp Plant Worldwide,” Klean Industries Inc,
industry,” International Journal of Applied Research, vol. 4, 2015.
no. 10, pp. 39–45, 2018. [52] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Technologies for biogas
[36] D. O. Ambuchi, “Plastic waste management in Kenya an eval- to electricity conversion,” Energy Reports, vol. 8, Supplement
uation of policies and regulations on plastic bags and plastic 16, pp. 774–786, 2022.
bottles waste in Nairobi, [Ph.D. thesis],” in Master of Arts in [53] Power Technology, “Turning waste into power: the plastic to
Environmental Planning and Management, University of Nai- fuel projects,” Power Technology, 2021, https://www.power-
robi, Nairobi, Kenya, 2006. technology.com/comment/plastic-to-fuel/.
[37] WIPO GREEN, “Converting plastic waste into fuel,” World [54] S. Czernik, R. French, C. Feik, and E. Chornet, “Production of
Intellectual Property Organization, 2021, https://www3.wipo Hydrogen from Post-Consumer Wastes,” National Bioenergy
.int/wipogreen/en/news/2020/news_0018.html. Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Col-
[38] P. T. Williams, “Pyrolysis of waste tyres: a review,” Waste orado, USA, 2002, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/
Management, vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1714–1728, 2013. 32405a9.pdf.
[39] C. Pahl, “Converting plastic waste to fuel,” Plug and Play, [55] I. Aminu, M. A. Nahil, and P. T. Williams, “Hydrogen from
2021, https://www.plugandplaytechcenter.com/resources/ waste plastics by two-stage pyrolysis/low-temperature plasma
converting-plastic-waste-fuel/. catalytic processing,” Energy & Fuels, vol. 34, no. 9,
[40] M. Rivier, A. Collignan, J. M. Meot, M. Madoumier, and pp. 11679–11689, 2020.
P. Sebastian, “Modeling a process combining a cereal dryer [56] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Oludolapo, “Design and Modelling of
with a bioenergy unit for equipment design in developing a Waste Heat Recovery System for a 250KW Diesel Engine for
countries,” Journal of Food Process Engineering, vol. 41, no. 6, Cereals Drying,” in 2nd African International Conference on
article e12836, 2018. Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Harare,
[41] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Oludolapo, “The potential of grid Zimbabwe, December 2020, http://www.ieomsociety.org/
power generation from municipal solid waste for Nairobi city,” harare2020/papers/78.pdf.
in Proceedings of the 2nd African International Conference on [57] S. M. Fakhr Hoseini and M. Dastanian, “Predicting pyrolysis
Industrial Engineering and OperationsManagement, Harare, products of PE, PP, and PET using NRTL activity coefficient
Zimbabwe, 2020. model,” Journal of Chemistry, vol. 2013, Article ID 487676, 5
[42] C. A. Bernardo, C. L. Simões, and L. M. P. Costa, “Environ- pages, 2013.
mental and economic life cycle analysis of plastic waste man- [58] R. Miandad, M. Rehan, M. A. Barakat et al., “Catalytic pyroly-
agement options,” in AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1779, sis of plastic waste: moving toward pyrolysis based biorefi-
Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2016no. 1, Article ID 140001. neries,” Frontiers in Energy Research, vol. 7, 2019.
[43] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Performance evalua- [59] J. Singh, “A review paper on pyrolysis process of waste Tyre,”
tion of Kipevu-III 120 MW power station and conversion to International Journal of Applied Research, vol. 1, no. 13,
dual-fuel power plant,” Energy Reports, vol. 8, pp. 800–814, pp. 258–262, 2017.
2022. [60] D. M. Riley, J. Tian, G. Güngör-Demirci, P. Phelan, J. R. Villa-
[44] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Cogeneration potential lobos, and R. J. Milcarek, “Techno-economic assessment of
of an operating diesel engine power plant,” Energy Reports, CHP systems in wastewater treatment plants,” Environments,
vol. 8, pp. 744–754, 2022. vol. 7, no. 10, p. 74, 2020.
[45] L. Shen and E. Worrell, “Chapter 13 - plastic recycling,” in [61] E. R. Larson, “2 - Why Use Plastic?,” in Thermoplastic Material
Handbook of Recycling, E. Worrell and M. A. Reuter, Eds., Selection, pp. 19–56, William Andrew Publishing, 2015.
pp. 179–190, Elsevier, Boston, 2014. [62] D. Almeida, “Thermal and Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic
[46] Association of plastics manufacturers, “World plastics produc- Waste,” in Thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastic waste,
tion 1950 – 2015,” August 2016 https://committee.iso.org/ pp. 133–154, Apple Academic Press, 2016.
24 Journal of Energy

[63] G. G. N. Thushari and J. D. M. Senevirathna, “Plastic pollution ical Engineering National Institute of Technology, Rourkela,
in the marine environment,” Heliyon, vol. 6, no. 8, article India, 2007, https://core.ac.uk/reader/53188820.
e04709, 2020. [78] R. Miandad, M. A. Barakat, A. S. Aburiazaiza, M. Rehan, and
[64] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “The role of electrifica- A. S. Nizami, “Catalytic pyrolysis of plastic waste: a review,”
tion of transport in the energy transition,” in Proceedings of the Process Safety and Environmental Protection, vol. 102,
5th European International Conference on Industrial Engineer- pp. 822–838, 2016.
ing and Operations Management, Rome, Italy, 2022. [79] L. Kyong-Hwan, Pyrolysis of Waste Polystyrene and High-
[65] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Diesel powerplants: Density Polyethene, InterTech Open, South Korea, 2012.
design and operation and performance enhancements,” in [80] M. Syamsiro, H. Saptoadi, T. Norsujianto et al., “Fuel oil pro-
Proceedings of the 5th European International Conference on duction from municipal plastic wastes in sequential pyrolysis
Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Rome, and catalytic reforming reactors,” Energy Procedia, vol. 47,
Italy, 2022. pp. 180–188, 2014.
[66] A. Verma, A. Raghuvansi, M. A. Quraishi, J. V. Tirkey, and [81] S. D. Anuar Sharuddin, F. Abnisa, W. M. A. Wan Daud, and
C. Verma, “Engine fuel production from waste plastic pyroly- M. K. Aroua, “A review on pyrolysis of plastic wastes,” Energy
sis (WPO) and performance evaluation in a CI engine with Conversion and Management, vol. 115, pp. 308–326, 2016.
diesel blend,” Journal of Materials and Environmental Sciences, [82] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Oludolapo, “Development of a biogas
vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 1712–1721, 2018. plant with electricity generation, heating and fertilizer recov-
[67] C. Güngör, H. Serin, M. Özcanlı, S. Serin, and K. Aydın, ery systems,” in Proceedings of the 2nd African International
“Engine performance and emission characteristics of plastic Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Manage-
oil produced from waste polyethylene and its blends with die- ment, Harare, Zimbabwe, 2020.
sel fuel,” International Journal of Green Energy, vol. 12, no. 1, [83] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Biogas production and
pp. 98–105, 2015. applications in the sustainable energy transition,” Journal of
[68] V. K. Kaimal and P. Vijayabalan, “An investigation on the Energy, vol. 2022, Article ID 8750221, 43 pages, 2022.
effects of using DEE additive in a DI diesel engine fuelled with [84] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Energy and environ-
waste plastic oil,” Fuel, vol. 180, pp. 90–96, 2016. ment: opportunities and challenges for the energy transition,”
[69] S. Bhat and R. S. Lather, “Production of oil from waste plastics in Proceedings of the 5th European International Conference on
and polythene using pyrolysis and its utilization in compres- Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Rome,
sion ignition (C.I.) engine,” Indian Journal of Science and Italy, 2022.
Technology, vol. 9, no. 48, 2016. [85] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. Olanrewaju, “Optimum biodigestor
[70] A. Janyalertadun, C. Santaweesuk, and S. Sanongraj, “Fuel pro- design and operations,” in Proceedings of the 5th European
duction, performance, and emission of a CI engine using waste International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Opera-
plastics oil,” World Journal of Engineering, vol. 14, no. 2, tions Management, Rome, Italy, 2022.
pp. 114–120, 2017. [86] S. Haig, L. Morrish, R. Morton, U. Onwuamaegbu, P. Speller,
[71] R. Kumar, M. K. Mishra, S. K. Singh, and A. Kumar, “Experi- and S. Wilkinson, “Plastics to oil products final report,” Axion
mental evaluation of waste plastic oil and its blends on a single Consulting, Scotland, 2014.
cylinder diesel engine,” Journal of Mechanical Science and [87] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Olanrewaju, “Application of geother-
Technology, vol. 30, no. 10, pp. 4781–4789, 2016. mal wellhead generators in sustainable power generation,”
[72] P. S. Kumar and G. Sankaranarayanan, “Investigation on envi- Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, vol. 46, no. 2022,
ronmental factors of waste plastics into oil and its emulsion to article 1034703, pp. 1692–1718, 2022.
control the emission in DI diesel engine,” Ecotoxicology and [88] T. Elliott, S. Kibara, S. Ettlinger, E. Ndirangu, K. Blacklaws,
Environmental Safety, vol. 134, Part 2, pp. 440–444, 2016. and W. Chege, Plastic Packaging Waste Flows in Kenya Final
[73] M. A. Hazrata, M. G. Rasul, and M. M. K. Khan, “Study of Report for the Danish Environmental Protection Agency, euno-
combustion and emission characteristics of fuel derived from mia, Nairobi, 2018.
waste plastics by various waste to energy (W-t-E) conversion [89] M. Kabeyi and O. Olanrewaju, “Performance analysis of a sug-
processes,” in AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 1754, Dhaka , arcane bagasse cogeneration power plant in grid electricity
Bangladesh, 2016no. 1, Article ID 050038. generation,” in Proceedings of the 11th Annual International
[74] A. K. Panda, S. Murugan, and R. K. Singh, “Performance and Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Manage-
emission characteristics of diesel fuel produced from waste ment, Singapore, 2021.
plastic oil obtained by catalytic pyrolysis of waste polypropyl- [90] M. Kabeyi and O. Olanrewaju, “Development of a cereal grain
ene,” Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Envi- drying system using internal combustion engine waste heat,”
ronmental Effects, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 568–576, 2016. in Proceedings of the 11th Annual International Conference
[75] C. Wongkhors and N. Chindaprasert, “A comparison of the on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Singa-
use of pyrolysis oils in diesel engine,” Energy and Power Engi- pore, 2021.
neering, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 350–355, 2013. [91] J. Hopewell, R. Dvorak, and E. Kosior, “Plastics recycling: chal-
[76] C. Areeprasert, J. Asingsamanunt, S. Srisawat et al., “Municipal lenges and opportunities,” Philosophical Transactions of the
plastic waste composition study at transfer station of Bangkok Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 364, no. 1526,
and possibility of its energy recovery by pyrolysis,” Energy Pro- pp. 2115–2126, 2009.
cedia, vol. 107, pp. 222–226, 2017. [92] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Olanrewaju, “Managing sustainability
[77] S. Das and S. Pandey, Pyrolysis and Catalytic Cracking of in electricity generation,” in 2020 IEEE International Conference
Municipal Plastic Waste for Recovery of Gasoline Range on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management
Hydrocarbons, Bachelor of Technology, Department of Chem- (IEEM), pp. 530–536, Singapore, Singapore, 2020.
Journal of Energy 25

[93] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Sustainable energy

transition for renewable and low carbon grid electricity gener-
ation and supply,” Frontiers in Energy research, vol. 9, pp. 1–
45, 2022.
[94] M. J. B. Kabeyi and O. A. Olanrewaju, “Relationship between
electricity consumption and economic development,” in 2021
International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Energy
Technologies (ICECET),, Cape Town, South Africa, 2021.
[95] T. Poddar and N. De, “Recent trends and technological
advancements in enhanced oil recovery techniques (EOR) by
the catalytic pyrolysis of waste plastics: “cash (fuel) from trash
(wastes)”,” Academia Letters, vol. 917, p. 3, 2021.
[96] M. J. B. Kabeyi and A. O. Olanrewaju, “Performance analysis
and evaluation of Muhoroni 60MW gas turbine power plant,”
in 2021 International Conference on Electrical, Computer,
Communications and Mechatronics Engineering (ICECCME),
pp. 1–8, Mauritius, Mauritius, 2021.
[97] PRI, “Plastics: the challenges and possible solutions,” PRI,
2023, https://www.unpri.org/plastics/plastics-the-challenges-
and-possible-solutions/4773.article.