Unit – II

Rings: Let R is a non – empty set with binary operations +, . then (R +, .) is sad to be a ring if

(i) ( R, + ) is an abelian group

(ii) ( R, .) is semi group
(iii) R is satisfying distributive properties

Right distributive law: ( a+ b ) c=ac +bc ∀ a ,b ,c ∈ R

Left distributive law: a (b+c )=ab +ac ∀ a ,b , c ∈ R

Rings: Let R is a non – empty set with binary operations ¿ , ⊕. Then (R, ¿ , ⊕,) is sad to be a ring if

(i) ( R, ¿ ) is an abelian group

(ii) ( R, ⊕) is semi group
(iii) R is satisfying distribution properties

Left distribution law: a ⊕ ( b∗c )=a ⊕b∗a ⊕ c ∀ a , b , c ∈ R

Right distribution law: ( a∗b ) ⊕ c=a ⊕c∗b ⊕ c ∀ a , b , c ∈ R

Ex: ( {0} +, .) , (Z, +, .), (Q +, .) , (R, +, .), ( C +, .) …………………. Etc

Ex : (Q, ., +) is not ring because inverse of 0 does not exist with respect to multiplication.

Ring with unity: A ring R is said to be a ring with unity. If there exist an identity element in R with respect to .

i.e e ∈ R such that ae=ea=a ∀ a ∈ R

ex: (Z +, .), (Q +, .) , (R, +, .), ( C +, .) ……………… etc

Commutative ring: A ring R is said to be a commutative ring. If R is satisfying commutative with respect to .

i.e ab=ba ∀ a , b ∈ R

ex: (Z +, .), (Q +, .) , (R, +, .), ( C +, .) , (Zn +n, Xn )……………… etc

Unit element: Let R is commutative ring with unity, an element a ∈ R is said to be unit element. If there exist inverse of a

In R with respect to .i.e a−1 ∈ R such that a a−1 =a−1 a=e where e is an identity element in R

Question: Show that Z6 is commutative ring with unity.

Solution: Let Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Now have to prove that (Z6 +6, X6) is commutative ring with unity

To prove (Z6 +6) is an abelian group:

Composition table:
 +¿ 6 ¿ 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
From the composition table (Z6 +6) is an abelian group

To prove (Z6 X6) is semi group:

Composition table:

X6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
From the composition table (Z6 +6 X6) is satisfying closer and associative, identity, commutative properties

∴ (Z6 +6, X6) is commutative ring with unity

From the composition table 1, 5 are unit elements

Note : Let (Zn +n, Xn) commutative ring with unity. The Zn has ∅ (n) number of unit elements and a ∈ Z nis unit element

Iff gcd(a, n) = 1

Question: Find all unit elements in Z12

Solution: Let Z12 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}

Since 12 = 22.3

( 12 )( 1− 13 )=4
Since ∅ ( 12 )=12 1−

∴ Z12 has 4 number of unit elements

Since gcd (1, 12) = 1

Since gcd (2, 12) = 2

Since gcd (3, 12) = 3

Since gcd (4, 12) = 4

Since gcd (5, 12) = 1

Since gcd (6, 12) = 6

Since gcd (7, 12) = 1

Since gcd (8, 12) = 4

 Since gcd (9, 12) = 3

Since gcd (10, 12) = 2

Since gcd (11, 12) = 1

∴ { 1, 5, 7, 11} are unit elements in Z12

Boolean ring: A ring R is said to be a Boolean ring. If a 2=a ∀ a ∈ R

Ex: Z2 = {0, 1}

Properties of rings: Let R be a ring then

(i) 0 a=a 0=0 ∀ a ∈ R where 0 ∈ R

(ii) ( – a )=−a ∀ a∈ R
(iii) a+ (−b )=a−b , ∀ a , b ∈ R
(iv) xa=0 ∀ a∈ R then x=0
(v) x ( a+ (−b ) )=xa−xb ∀ x , a , b ∈ R

Boolean ring: A ring R is said to be a Boolean ring. If a 2=a ∀ a ∈ R

Ex: Z2 = {0, 1}

Theorem: Let R is a Boolean ring. Then show that

(i) a+ a=0 ∀ a ∈ R
(ii) a+ b=0then a=b ∀ a , b∈ R
(iii) Every Boolean is commutative i.e ab=ba ∀ a , b ∈ R

Proof: Let R be a Boolean ring

a 2=a ∀ a ∈ R−−−−−−−−−−−−−− (1 )

(i) To prove a+ a=0 ∀ a ∈ R :

Let a ∈ R ⇒ a+a ∈ R
⇒ (a+ a)2=a+ a
⇒ ( a+ a ) ( a+a )=a+ a
⇒ a ( a+ a ) +a ( a+a ) =a+ a
⇒ aa+ aa+aa+ aa=a+a
⇒ a 2+ a2 +a2 +a 2=a+ a
⇒a+ a+a+ a=a+a+ 0
⇒ a+ a=0
∴ a+a=0 ∀ a ∈ R
(ii) To prove a+ b=0then a=b ∀ a , b∈ R:
Let a+ b=0
⇒ a+b=a+a ( since by ( i ) )
⇒ b=a ( since by ¿ law )
∴ a+b=0 then a=b ∀ a , b ∈ R
(iii) To prove R is commutative ring:
Let a ,b ∈ R then a+b ∈ R
Since R is Boolean ring
 ⇒( a+ b )2=a+b
⇒( a+ b ) ( a+b )=a+ b
⇒ a ( a+ b ) +b ( a+b ) =a+b
⇒ aa+ ab+ba+ bb=a+b
⇒ a 2+ ab+ba+b 2=a+ b
⇒ a+ ab+ba+ b=a+b (since by (1))
⇒ ab+ ba=0
⇒ ab=ba ( since by ( ii ) )
∴ ab=ba ∀ a ,b ∈ R
∴ R is commutative ring

Zero divisors: Let R be a ring a, b are two non –zero elements in R. if ab =0 then a, b are called zero divisors

Where a is left zero divisors and b is right zero divisor

Ex: Z8 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

2 X 8 4=0∧6 X 8 4=0

∴ 2, 4 , 6 are zero divisors in Z8

Note: Let (Zn +n, Xn) commutative ring with unity. The Zn has n−∅ ( n )−1 number of zero divisors and a ∈ Z nis zero

Divisor iff gcd(a, n) ≠ 1

Question: Find all zero divisors of Z10

Solution : Let Z10 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Since 10 = 2.5

( 12 )(1− 15 )=4
Since ∅ ( 10 )=10 1−

∴ Z 10 has 10−∅ ( 10 )−1=10−4−1=5 number of zero divisors

a ∈ Z nis zero divisor iff gcd(a, n) ≠ 1

Since gcd(1, 10) = 1

Since gcd(2, 10) = 2

Since gcd(3, 10) = 1

Since gcd(4, 10) = 2

Since gcd(5, 10) = 5

Since gcd(6, 10) = 2

Since gcd(7, 10) = 1

Since gcd(8, 10) = 2

Since gcd(9, 10) = 1

 ∴ {2, 4, 5, 6, 8} are zero divisors in Z10

Note: If ab = 0 then ether a = 0 or b = 0 in the ring R. then R has no zero divisors

Integral domain: A commutative ring with unity R has no zero divisors. Then ring R is called an integral domain .

Ex: Since Z is commutative ring with unity and it has no zero divisors

∴ Z is an integral domain

Ex: Z2, Z3, Z5 ----- Zp where p is prim are integral domains

Note: The direct product of integral domains need not be an integral domain

Ex: ZXZ is not integral domain where Z is an integral domain.

Let ZXZ = { (a , b)|a , b ∈ Z } and Z is an integral domain

Since (0,1) and (1, 0) are non – zero elements in ZXZ

⇒ (0, 1)(1, 0) = (0, 0)

∴ (0, 1) and (1, 0) are zero divisors

∴ ZXZ is not an integral domain.

Question: Find all unite element in Z4XZ6

Theorem: Let R is commutative ring with unity. Then R is an integral domain iff the cancellation laws are hold in R.

(or)

Let R is commutative ring with unity. Then R has no divisors iff the cancellation laws are hold in R

(or)

Let R is e ring. Then R has no divisors iff the cancellation laws are hold in R

Solution: Let R is commutative ring with unity

i.e ab=ba ∀ a , b ∈ R∧1∈ R

Case(i) : Suppose R has no zero divisors

Now we have to prove that R is satisfying cancellation

Suppose ab=ac , for a≠ 0 , b , c ∈ R

⇒ ab−ac=0

⇒ a (b−c)=0

Since R has no zero divisors

& a≠0

⇒b – c = 0

⇒b=c
 ∴ ab=ac ⇒b=c is left cancellation law

Similarly suppose ba=ca for a ≠ 0 ,b , c ∈ R

⇒ ba−ca=0

⇒ (b−c ) a=0

Since R has no zero divisors

& a≠0

⇒b – c = 0

⇒b=c

∴ ba=ca ⇒b=c is right cancellation law

∴ R has no zero divisors then the cancellation laws are hold in R

Case(ii): Conversely suppose the cancellation laws are hold in R

Now we have to prove that R has no zero divisors

Suppose a ≠ 0 , b ∈ R∧ab=0

Since ab=0

⇒ ab=a 0

By left cancellation law

⇒b=0

∴ ab=0 ⇒b=0

Similarly suppose ba=0

⇒ ba=0 a

By right cancellation law

⇒b=0

∴ ba=0 ⇒ b=0

∴ R has no zero divisors

∴ R has no zero divisors iff the cancellation laws are hold in R

Skew field: A ring with unity R is said to be a skew field. If every non – zero element has inverse with respect to

Multiplication.

Ex: Set of all 2X2 non – singular matrices whose entries are real numbers forms a skew field with respect to addition

and Multiplication of matrices.

Field: A commutative ring with unity R is said to be a field. If every non – zero element has multiple inverse in R and
 It is denoted by F

Ex: Q, R, C, Z5, Z2, Z3, Z7……………….. etc

Home works

1. Let Q ( √ 2 )={ a+ b √ 2|a , b ∈Q } then show that Q ( √ 2 ) is a field with respect to addition and multiplication.
2. Show that Z ( i )= { a+ib|a , b ∈ Z }is an integral domain with respect to addition and multiplication.
3. Show that set all 2X2 matrices whose entries are real numbers forms a ring with respect to addition and
multiplication.
4. Show that set of all real valued functions forms a ring with respect to addition of functions and composition
Of functions
5. Show that set of all complex numbers forms a field with respect to addition and multiplication.

Characteristic of a ring: Let R is a ring, If there exist a least positive integer n such that na=0 ∀ a ∈ R . Then the least

Positive integer n is called characteristic of a ring R

Otherwise the characteristic of a ring R is 0 or undefined

Ex: Z4 = {0,1,2,3}

Let 1∈ Z 4

⇒ 1(1) = 1≠ 0

⇒ 2(1) = 2≠ 0

⇒ 3(1) = 3≠ 0

⇒ 4(1) = 0

Let 2∈ Z 4

⇒ 1(2) = 2≠ 0

⇒ 2(2) = 0

⇒ 3(2) = 2≠ 0

⇒ 4(2) = 0

Let 3∈ Z 4

⇒ 1(3) = 3≠ 0

⇒ 2(3) = 2≠ 0

⇒ 3(3) = 1≠ 0

⇒ 4(3) = 0

∴ 4 is the least positive integer such that 4a = 0 ∀ a ∈ Z 4

∴ 4 is the characteristic of Z4

Note: The characteristic of the ring Zn is n

Question: Find the characteristic of Z3XZ4

Solution: Let Z3XZ4 = {(a, b)/ a∈ Z 3 ,b ∈ Z 4 }

Let (1, 1) ∈ Z 3 X Z 4

⇒2(1,1) = (2, 2) ≠(0,0)

⇒3(1,1) = (0, 3) ≠(0,0)

⇒4(1,1) = (1, 0) ≠(0,0)

⇒5(1,1) = (2, 1) ≠(0,0)

⇒6(1,1) = (0, 2) ≠(0,0)

⇒7(1,1) = (1, 3) ≠(0,0)

⇒8(1,1) = (2, 0) ≠(0,0)

⇒9(1,1) = (0, 1) ≠(0,0)

⇒10(1,1) = (1, 2) ≠(0,0)

⇒11(1,1) = (2, 3) ≠(0,0)

⇒12(1,1) = (0, 0)

∴ 12 is the least positive integer such that 12(a, b) = (0, 0) for all (a, b)∈ Z 3 X Z 4

∴ The characteristic of Z3 X Z 4 is 12

Note : The characteristic of ZnXZm = lcm{n, m}

Ex: the characteristic of Z3 X Z 4 is 12

Ex: The characteristic of Z6 X Z 4 is 12

Note : The characteristic of field or an integral domain is ether zero or a prim integer.

Note : Every finite integral domain is a field.

Theorem: Let R be ring. Then R is commutative iff (a+ b)2=a2 +2 ab+ b2 ∀ a , b ∈ R

Proof: Case(i): Suppose R is commutative ring

i.e ab=ba ∀ a , b ∈ R−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Now we prove that (a+ b)2=a2 +2 ab+ b2 ∀ a , b ∈ R

Now consider (a+ b)2=( a+ b ) (a+ b)

= a ( a+ b ) +b ( a+b )

= a 2+ ab+ba+b 2

= a 2+ ab+ab+ b2 ( since by (1))

 = a 2+2 ab+ b2

∴ (a+ b)2=a2 +2 ab+ b2 ∀ a , b ∈ R

Case(ii): Conversely suppose (a+ b)2=a2 +2 ab+ b2 ∀ a , b ∈ R

Now we have to prove that R is commutative

Since (a+ b)2=a2 +2 ab+ b2 ∀ a , b ∈ R

⇒ ( a+ b ) (a+ b)=a 2+ 2ab +b2 ∀ a , b∈ R

⇒ a ( a+ b ) +b ( a+b ) =a2 +2 ab+b 2

⇒ a 2+ ab+ba+b 2=a 2+ ab+ab+ b2

⇒ ab+ ba=ab+ab

⇒ ba=ab

∴ ab=ba ∀ a ,b ∈ R

∴ R is commutative ring

Theorem: Let R is a Boolean ring. Then show that the characteristic of R is 2

(or)

Show that the characteristic of Boolean ring is 2

Proof: Let R is Boolean ring

⇒ a 2=a ∀ a ∈ R−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

Let a ∈ R ⇒ a+a ∈ R
2
⇒ (a+ a) =a+ a
⇒ ( a+ a ) ( a+a )=a+ a
⇒ a ( a+ a ) +a ( a+a ) =a+ a
⇒ aa+ aa+aa+ aa=a+a
⇒ a 2+ a2 +a2 +a 2=a+ a
⇒a+ a+a+ a=a+a+ 0 ( since my (1))
⇒ a+ a=0
∴ 2 a=0 ∀ a ∈ R
∴ The characteristic the Boolean is 2
Sub rings

Sub ring: Let R be a ring and S is any non – empty subset of R. Then S is said to be a sub ring of R if S is itself is a ring with

Respect to same binary operations in R .

Ex: 3Z is a sub ring of Z

Trivial sub rings and non trivial sub ring: Every ring R has at least two sub rings say {0}, R it self. Then these two sub rings

Are called trivial sub rings .if there exist any sub ring S of R other than these two sub rings are called non- trivial sub
 Rings

Sub ring test: Let R be a ring and S is any non – empty subset of R. S sub ring of R iff a−b ∈ S∧ab ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S .

Proof: Let R is ring and S is any non –empty subset of R

Case(i): Suppose S is sub ring of R

⇒ ( S, +, .) is itself is a ring

⇒ (S,+) is an abelian group and (S, .) is semi group

Since (S, +) is an abelian group

⇒ a−b ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S

Since (S, .) is semi group

⇒ ab ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S

∴ S is sub ring of R the a−b ∈ S∧ab ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S

Case(ii): Conversely suppose a−b ∈ S∧ab ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S

Now we have to prove that S is sub ring of R

It is sufficient to prove that S is itself is a ring with respect to the same binary operations in R

(i) To prove (S, +) is an abelian group:

Since a−b ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S
⇒ (S, +) is subgroup of (R, +) (since H <G iff a b−1 ∈ H ∀ a , b ∈ H )
Since every subgroup of abelian group is abelian
∴ (S, +) is an abelian group
(ii) To prove (s, .) is semi group:

Since ab ∈ S ∀ a , b ∈ S

∴ (S, .) is satisfying closer property

Let a , b , c ∈ S

⇒ S is any non empty subset of R

⇒a , b , c ∈ R

Since R is a ring

⇒ a ( bc )= ( ab ) c

∴ a ( bc )=( ab ) c ∀ a , b , c ∈ S

∴ (S, .) is satisfying associative property

(iii) To prove distributive laws:

Let a , b , c ∈ S
⇒ a , b , c ∈ R ( s ince S ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆ R )
Since R is a ring
 ⇒ a ( b+ c )=ab+ ac
∴ a ( b+c ) =ab+ ac ∀ a , b , c ∈ S
∴ S is satisfying left distributive law
Similarly we can show the right distribution law
∴ (S, + , .) is a ring
∴ S is itself is ring with respect to the same binary operations in R
∴ S is a sub ring of R

Note: Let F be a field and S is any non- empty subset of F. then S is sub field of F iff a−b ∈ S∧a b−1 ∈ S , ∀ a , b ∈ S

Ex: Show that nZ is a sub ring of Z where n is +ve integer

Solution: Let (Z, +,.) is a ring

Since nZ = { nx|x ∈ Z }

Since o ∈ Z

⇒ n 0=0 ∈nZ

∴ nZ (≠ ∅)⊆Z

Let a , b ∈ nZ

⇒ a=nx , b=ny where x , y ∈ Z

Now consider a−b=nx−ny =n ( x− y )−−−−−−−−( 1 )

Since x , y ∈ Z then x− y ∈ Z

⇒ n ( x− y ) ∈nZ

∴ a−b ∈nZ (since my (1) )

Now consider ab=( nx ) ( ny )=n ( xny )−−−−−−−−−−−(2)

Since x , y , n ∈ Z then( xny )∈ Z

⇒n(xny ) ∈nZ

ab ∈ nZ

∴ a−b ∈nZ∧ab ∈nZ ∀ a ,b ∈ nZ

∴ nZ is a sub ring of Z

Question: Let M2(Z) be the ring of 2 X 2 matrices over the integers. Which of the following are sub rings

(i) Let R = {[a

a−b b]
a−b
suchthata ,b ∈ Z
}
(ii) Let R = {[a
a+ b]a+b
b
suchthata , b∈ Z
}
(iii) Let R = {[ ]
a 0
0 b
suchthata , b ∈ Z }
 (iv) Let R = { A ∈ M 2( Z)| AT = A }
(v) Let R = { A ∈ M 2( Z)| AT =− A }
(vi) Let R = { A ∈ M 2( Z)| A2 =A }

(vii) Let R = {[ ]
a b
0 0
suchthata , b ∈ Z
}
(viii) Let R = {[ ]
a 0
b 0
suchthata , b∈ Z
}
Theorem: Intersection of two sub rings is again a sub ring of ring of R
Proof: Let R be a ring
Suppose S1 and S2 are two sub rings of ring R
Now we have to prove that S1 ∩S 2 is a sub ring of R
Since S1 is a sub ring of R
⇒ 0∈ S 1
Since S2 is a sub ring of R
⇒ 0 ∈ S2
∴ 0 ∈S 1 ∩ S 2
∴ S 1 ∩ S2 ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆ R
Let a , b ∈ S 1 ∩ S2
⇒ a , b ∈ S 1∧a , b ∈ S2
Since a , b ∈ S 1 and S1 is sub ring of R
⇒ a−b ∈ S 1∧ab ∈ S1 −−−−−−−−−−−−−− (1 )
Since a , b ∈ S 2 and S2 is sub ring of R
⇒ a−b ∈ S 2∧ab ∈ S 2−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2 )
From (1) and (2) a−b ∈ S 1 ∩ S2∧ab ∈ S1 ∩S 2
∴ a−b ∈ S1 ∩ S 2∧ab ∈ S 1 ∩ S2 ∀ a , b ∈ S1 ∩ S 2
∴ S1 ∩S 2 is a sub ring of ring R
∴ Intersection of two sub rings is again a sub ring
Note: Union of two sub rings need not be a sub ring of a ring R
Ex: Let 3Z and 2Z are two sub ring of Z
Let 3∈3 Z∧2 ∈2 Z
⇒ 2, 3 ∈2 Z ∪ 3 Z
But 2 +3 = 5∉2 Z ∪3 Z
∴ 2 Z ∪3 Z is not a sub ring of Z
Theorem: Let R be a ring and S1, S2 are two sub rings of R. Then S1 ∪ S 2 is a sub ring of R iff S1 ⊆S 2∨S 2 ⊆ S1
Ideals
Left ideal: Let R is a ring and I is any non – empty sub set of R. If x− y ∈ I ∧rx ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I , r ∈ R then I is said to
Be a left ideal of R
Right ideal: Let R is a ring and I is any non – empty sub set of R. If x− y ∈ I ∧xr ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I , r ∈ R then I is said to
Be a right ideal of R
Ideal of ring: Let R is a ring and I is any non – empty sub set of R. If x− y ∈ I ∧rx , xr ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I , r ∈ R then I is said
To be an ideal of R
Ex: Z is ring and nZ where n is +ve integer
nZ= { nx|x ∈ Z }
Since 0∈ Z ⇒ n ( 0 )=0∈ nZ
∴ nZ (≠ ∅) ⊆Z
Let a , b ∈ nZ
 ⇒ a=nx , b=ny where x , y ∈ Z
Now consider a−b=nx−ny
= n( x − y)
Since x , y ∈ Z ⇒ x − y ∈ Z ⇒ n( x− y)∈nZ
∴ a−b ∈nZ ∀ a ,b ∈ nZ
Now consider ra=r ( nx ) where r ∈ Z
= ( rn ) x
= ( nr ) x ( since Z is commutative ring )
= n( rx)
Since r , x ∈ Z ⇒ rx ∈ Z ⇒n(rx) ∈nZ
∴ ra ∈nZ ∀ a∈ nZ , r ∈ Z
Similarly consider ar =( nx ) r where r ∈ Z
= n( xr )
Since r , x ∈ Z ⇒ xr ∈ Z ⇒ n( xr ) ∈nZ
∴ ar ∈nZ ∀ a∈ nZ ,r ∈ Z
∴ a−b ∈nZ∧ra , ar ∈ nZ ∀ a , b ∈ nZ , r ∈ Z
∴ nZ is an ideal of Z
Ex: Z is not an ideal of ring real number set R, Q and C

Let 2∈
Z∧3
5
∈ R=2() 3 6
5 5
= ∉Z

∴ Z is not an ideal of R
Note: Let R is ring and I is any non – empty sub set of R. then I is an ideal of R iff I is Left ideal as well as right ideal
Of R
Trivial and non – trivial ideal: Every ring R has at least two ideals namely {0}, R itself. These two ideals are called
Trivial or proper ideals of R . If there exist any ideal I of R other than these two ideals are called non – trivial
Or improper ideals of R
Theorem: Show that every ideal of ring R is a sub ring.
Proof: Let R is a ring and I is an ideal of R
⇒ x− y ∈ I ,rx , xr ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I ∧r ∈ R
Now we have to prove that I is a sub ring of R
Since I is an ideal of R
I (≠ ∅ ) ⊆R
Since I is an ideal of R
⇒ x− y ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I
Let x , y ∈ I ⇒ y ∈ R
Since I is an ideal of R & x ∈ I , y ∈ R
⇒ xy ∈ I
∴ x− y ∈ I , xy ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I
∴ I is sub ring of R
Note: Converse of above theorem is need not be true i.e S is sub ring of R but S is need not be an ideal of R
Ex: Z is sub ring of ring real number set R

Let 2∈
Z∧3
5
∈ R=2() 3 6
5 5
= ∉Z

∴ Z is not an ideal of R
Question: Let R is a ring and S = { x ∈ R|ax=0 } where a∈ R .then S is an ideal of R ?
Solution: Let R is a ring
S = { x ∈ R|ax=0 } where a∈ R
Since 0 ∈ R ⇒ a ( 0 )=0
 ⇒ 0∈S
∴ S ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆R
Let x , y ∈ S
⇒ ax=0∧ay=0
Now consider a ( x− y ) =ax−ay=0−0=0
∴ x− y ∈ S ∀ x , y ∈ S
Let x ∈ S∧r ∈ R
⇒ ax=0
Now consider a ( xr ) =( ax ) r=( 0 ) r =0
∴ xr ∈ S ∀ x ∈ S∧r ∈ R
Since a ( rx ) ≠ 0 ⇒rx ∉ S
∴ S is right ideal but not Left ideal of R

Theorem: Let R is a ring with unity and I is an ideal of R such that 1∈ I. then show that I = R.
Proof: Let R is a ring
I is an ideal of R
⇒ x− y ∈ I ,rx , xr ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I ∧r ∈ R
Since 1 ∈ I
Now we have to prove that I = R
Since I is an ideal of R
⇒ I ⊆ R ------------------------------------------------- (1)
Since 1 ∈ I and I is an ideal of R
⇒ 1r∈ I ∀ r ∈R
⇒ r∈I ∀r∈R
∴r∈ R⇒r ∈ I ∀ r ∈ R
∴ R ⊆ I ----------------------------------------------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
I=R
Theorem: Every field F has only two ideals
(or)
Every field F has only trivial ideals
Proof: Let F be a field
Suppose I≠ {0} is an ideal of F
x− y ∈ I ∧xr , rx ∈ I ∀ x , y ∈ I ∧r ∈ F
Let x ∈ I ⇒ x ∈ F ( since I ⊆ F )
Since x ∈ F and F be a field
⇒ there exist x−1 ∈ F such that x x−1=x−1 x=1
Let x ∈ I ∧¿ x−1 ∈ F
⇒ x x −1 ∈ I ( sin ce I is an ideal )
⇒ 1∈I
We know that 1 ∈ I and I is an ideal of ring R then I = R
∴I=F
∴ I is an ideal of F such that I = F for all ideal I of F
∴ F has only trivial ideals they are {0} and F itself
Theorem: Sum of two ideals is again is an ideal of Ring R
(or)
Let R is a ring and A, B are two ideals of R. then A+ B is an ideal of R
Proof: Let R be a ring
 A, B are two ideals of R
A + B = { x + y|x ∈ A , y ∈ B }
Now we have to prove that A + B is an ideal
Since A is an ideal of R
⇒0∈ A
Since B is an ideal of R
⇒ 0∈B
∴ 0+0=0 ∈ A+ B
∴ A +B ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆R
Let a , b ∈ A +B
⇒ a=x 1+ y 1∧b=x 2+ y 2 where x1 x 2 ∈ A∧ y 1 y 2 ∈ B
Now consider a−b=x 1+ y 1 −( x 2+ y 2 )
∴ a−b= x 1−x 2+ y 1− y 2−−−−−−−−(1)
Since x 1 x 2 ∈ A∧ A is an ideal of R
⇒ x 1−x 2 ∈ A−−−−−−−−−(2)
Since y 1 , y 2 ∈ B∧B is an ideal of R
⇒ y 1− y 2 ∈ B−−−−−−−−−(3)
From (2) , (3) ⇒ x 1−x 2+ y 1− y 2 ∈ A +B
⇒ a−b ∈ A+ B ∀ a , b ∈ A+ B
Now consider ar =( x 1+ y 1) r where r ∈ R
∴ ar = x 1 r + y 1 r
Since x 1 ∈ A ,r ∈ R∧ A is an ideal of R
⇒ x1 r ∈ A
Since y 1 ∈ B ,r ∈ R∧Bis an ideal of R
⇒ y1 r ∈ B
∴ ar = x 1 r + y 1 r ∈ A+ B
Now consider ra=r ( x 1+ y 1) wherer ∈ R
∴ ra= rx 1 +ry 1
Since x 1 ∈ A ,r ∈ R∧ A is an ideal of R
⇒ rx 1 ∈ A
Since y 1 ∈ B ,r ∈ R∧Bis an ideal of R
⇒ry 1 ∈ B
∴ ra= r x 1+ r y 1 ∈ A+ B
∴ a−b ∈ A+ B∧ar ,ra ∈ A + B ∀ a ,b ∈ A + B∧r ∈ R
∴ A+ B is an ideal of R
∴ Sum of two ideals is again an ideal of R
Question: Find all ideals of Z6
Solution: Let Z6 = {0,1,2, 3, 4, 5}

Since ¿ 0>¿ I 1= {0 }

Let 1 ∈ Z6 ⇒< 1> ¿<5≥I 2= { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 }=Z6

Let 2 ∈ Z6 ⇒ <2>¿< 4>¿ {0 ,2 , 4 }

Let 3 ∈ Z 6 ⇒ <3>¿ {0 ,3 }

∴ { 0 }∧Z 6 aretrivial ideals of Z 6

 ∴ {0,2, 4} and {0, 3} are proper ideals of Z6
Theorem: Let R is commutative then show that aR={ ax|x ∈ R } where a ∈ R is an ideal of R
Proof: Let R is commutative ring
ab=ba ∀ a , b ∈ R−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)
Let aR={ ax|x ∈ R } where a ∈ R
Now we have to prove that aR is an ideal of R
Since 0 ∈ R ⇒ a 0=0 ∈ aR
∴ aR(≠ ∅)⊆ R
Let ax , ay ∈ aR where x , y ∈ R
⇒ ax−ay=a ( x− y )
Since x , y ∈ R ⇒ x− y ∈ R
⇒a ( x− y ) ∈ aR
⇒ ax−ay ∈ aR
∴ ax−ay ∈ aR ∀ ax , ay ∈aR
Let ax , ∈aR∧r ∈ R
Now consider ( ax ) r=a( xr )
Since x ,r ∈ R then xr ∈ R
⇒a ( xr ) ∈ aR
∴ ( ax ) r ∈ aR ∀ ax ∈ aR∧r ∈ R
Let ax , ∈aR∧r ∈ R
Now consider r ( ax )=( ra ) x
= ( ar ) x ( since R iscommutative ring )
= a (rx)
Since r , x ∈ R then rx ∈ R
⇒ a ( rx ) ∈ aR
r ( ax ) ∈aR ∀ ax ∈aR , r ∈ R
∴ ax−ay ∈ aR ,∧r ( ax ) , ( ax ) r ∈ aR ∀ ax , ay ∈aR ,r ∈ R
∴ aR={ ax| x ∈ R } where a ∈ R is an ideal
Note: Let R is not commutative ring then aR={ ax|x ∈ R } where a ∈ R is right ideal but not left ideal of R
Co– sets: Let R be a ring and I is an ideal of R, a ∈ R . a+ I = { a+i|i ∈ I } =¿ a>¿ is called left co-set of I in R

And I + a= { i+ a|i∈ I } =¿ a>¿ is called right co –set of I in R

Since (R, + ) is commutative then I + a=a+ I ∀ a ∈ R

R R
Quotient ring: Let R be a ring and I is an ideal then the quotient set is defined as ={ x+ I |x ∈ R } and forms a ring
I I

With respect to co – sets addition and multiplication is defined

( x + I )+ ( y + I ) = ( x + y ) + I

R
( x + I )( y + I )=xy + I ∀ x+ I , y+ I ∈
I

Note: If R is commutative ring then R/I is also commutative ring.

Principal ideal: Let R is a ring an ideal I of R is said to be principal ideal if it is generated by an element in I

i.e I = ¿ a> where a∈ I

Principal ideal ring: A ring R is said to be principal ideal ring. If every ideal of R is principal ideal .

Ex: Let Z6 = {0,1,2, 3, 4, 5}

Since ¿ 0>¿ I 1= {0 }

Let 1 ∈ Z6 ⇒< 1> ¿<5≥I 2= { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 ,5 }=Z6

Let 2 ∈ Z6 ⇒ <2>¿< 4>¿ {0 ,2 , 4 }

Let 3 ∈ Z 6 ⇒ <3>¿ {0 ,3 }

∴ Every ideal of Z6 are principal ideal

∴ Z6 is principal ring

Theorem: Every Field is principal ideal ring .

Proof: Let F be a field

We know that every field has only two ideals

i..e {0} and F itself are only ideals of F

Since {o } = < 0 >

∴ {0} is principal ideal

Since F = < 1 >

∴ F is principal ideal of F

∴ Every ideal of F is principal ideal

∴ F is principal ideal ring

Maximal ideal: Let R is a ring an ideal M of R is said to be maximal ideal of R. If there exist U is an ideal of R such that

M ⊆ U ⊆R then either M =U or U =R <Z6>

Ex: Let Z6 = {0,1,2, 3, 4, 5}

Since ¿ 0>¿ I 1= {0 } <2 > <3 >

Let 1 ∈ Z6 ⇒< 1> ¿<5>¿ I 2={ 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 }=Z 6

Let 2 ∈ Z6 ⇒ <2>¿< 4>¿ {0 ,2 , 4 } <0>

Let 3 ∈ Z 6 ⇒ <3>¿ {0 ,3 }

∴ {0, 2, 4} and {0, 3} are maximal ideals of Z6

Ex: Since 2Z, 3Z, 5Z, 7Z ---- nZ where n is prim integer are maximum ideals of Z

Ex: 4Z is not maximum ideal of Z because 4Z⊆ 2Z ⊆ Z

Theorem: The ring of integers Z is principal ideal ring.

Proof: Let Z be a ring of integer

Now we have to prove that Z is principal ideal ring

It is sufficient to prove that every ideal of Z is principal ideal.

Since {0} is an ideal of Z and which is generated by 0

∴ {0} is principal ideal

Suppose I is an ideal of Z

Now we have to prove that I is principal ideal

Since I is an ideal of Z ⇒ I ( ≠ ∅ ) ⊆Z

By well order principle every non – empty sub set of Z+ has a least positive integer

Suppose n ∈ I is the least positive integer

Let d ∈ I ⇒ n ,d ∈ Z ( since I is an ideal of Z)

Since n , d ∈ Z by division there exist unique positive integers q, r such that

d=nq+r where 0 ≤ r <n ---------------------------- (1)

Since n ∈ I , q ∈ Z and I is an ideal of Z

⇒ nq ∈ I

∴ d ∈ I ∧nq ∈ I , since I is an ideal of Z

⇒ d−nq ∈ I

⇒ r ∈ I ( since by ( 1 ) )

Since r <n but n is the least positive integer in I

∴ This contradiction

⇒r=0

Substitute r = 0 in (1)

⇒ d = nq = <n > where q∈ Z

∴ d ∈ I such that d =nq=¿ n> ∀ d ∈ I

∴ I ={ nq|q ∈ Z }=¿ n> ∀ ideals I of Z

Every ideal of Z is principal ideal

∴ Z is principal ideal ring

Theorem: Let R is commutative ring with unity and M is an ideal of R. then M is maximum ideal of R iff R/M be a field.

Proof: Let R is commutative ring with unity and M is an ideal of R

 R
= { x + M |x ∈ R }
M

( x + M )+ ( y+ M )=( x+ y )+ M −−−−−−−−−−(1)

R
( x + M )( y + M )=xy + M −−−−−−( 2 ) ∀ x+ M , y+ M ∈
M

Since R is commutative ring with unity then R/M is also commutative ring with unity

R
1+ M ∈ is multiple identity element
M

Now we have to prove that M is maximum ideal of R iff R/M is a field

Case(i) : Suppose M is maximum ideal of R

Now we have to prove that R/M is a field

It is sufficient to prove that every non – zero element in R/M has multiple inverse

R
Let x + M ∈ where x ∈ R is non – zero element in R/M
M

Since x ∈ R∧x ∉ M then < x > is an ideal of R

< x > and M is an ideal of R

⇒ < x > + M is an ideal of R such that M ⊆ < x > + M ⊆ R

Since M is maximum ideal of R

⇒<x>+M=R

⇒ < x > + < a> = < 1 > where a ∈ M

⇒ ¿ x >+¿ a>+ M =1+ M

⇒( xy +a )+ M =1+ M ∃ y ∈ R

⇒ xy + M +a+ M =1+ M ( since by ( 1 ) )

⇒ xy + M + M =1+ M ( since a ∈ M iff a+ M =M )

⇒ xy + M =1+ M ( since by ( 1 ) )

⇒ ( x + M )( y + M )=1+ M

Since R/M is commutative ring

∴ ( x+ M ) ( y + M )=( y + M ) ( x + M )=1+ M

R R
∴ x+ M ∈ ∃ y + M ∈ such that
M M

R
( x + M )( y + M )= ( y+ M ) ( x+ M )=1+ M ∀ x+ M ∈
M
 ∴ Every non – zero element in R/M has multiple inverse

∴ R/M is a field

Case(ii) : Conversely suppose R/M is field

Now we have to prove that M is maximum ideal of R

Suppose U is an ideal of R such that M ⊆ U ⊆ R

Now we have to prove that either M = U or U = R

Let x ∈ U∧x ∉ M

⇒ x ∈ R(since U ⊆ R)

R
⇒ x+M ∈ is non – zero element
M

Since R/M is a field

R
⇒ there exist y + M ∈ such that ( x + M )( y + M )= ( y+ M ) ( x+ M )=1+ M
M

⇒ ( x + M )( y + M )=1+ M

⇒ xy + M =1+ M ( since by ( 2 ) )

⇒ xy−1 ∈ M ( since a+ M =b+ M iff a−b ∈ M )

⇒ xy−1 ∈U

Since x ∈ U and U is an ideal of R & y ∈ R

⇒ xy ∈U

Since xy ∈U , xy−1 ∈U and U is an ideal of R

⇒ xy− ( xy −1 ) ∈ U

⇒ 1 ∈U

Since U is an ideal of R such that 1 ∈U then U = R

∴ M ⊆ U ⊆R then U = R

∴ M is maximum ideal of R

Prim ideal: Let R be a ring and I is an ideal of R. then I is said to be prim ideal if ab ∈ I where either a ∈ I ∨b ∈ I where

a,b∈R

Ex: Let R is any ring {0} is an ideal of R

Since ab=0 ⇒ either a=0∨b=0

{0} is a prim ideal

 Ex: 3Z is a prim ideal of Z

Let 5, 7∈ Z ⇒ 5.7 = 35

Since 35∉3Z then 5∉3Z and 7∉3Z

Note : Let R is any ring I is an ideal of R. then I is prim ideal iff a , b ∈ R such that ab ∉ I ⇒ a ∉ I ∧b ∉ I

Theorem: Let R is a commutative ring and I is an ideal of R. then I is prim ideal of R iff R/ I is an integral domain.

Proof: Let R is commutative ring

I is an ideal of R i.e a−b ∈ I , ar∧ra ∈ I ∀ a , b ∈ I ,r ∈ R

R
∴ = { x + I| x ∈ R }
I

( x + I )+ ( y + I ) = ( x + y ) + I

R
( x + I )( y + I )=xy + I ∀ x+ I , y + I ∈
I

Now we have to prove that I prim ideal of R iff R/I is an integral domain

Case(i): Suppose I is prim ideal of R

⇒ x , y ∈ R ∋ xy ∈ I ⇒ x ∈ I ∨ y ∈ I

Now we have to prove that R/I is an integral domain

It is sufficient to prove that R/ I no zero divisors

R
Suppose x + I , y + I ∈ ∋ ( x+ I ) ( y + I )=0+ I
I

⇒ xy + I =I

⇒ xy ∈ I ( a+ H =H iff a∈ H ¿

⇒ x ∈ I ∨ y ∈ I ( since I is prim ideal of R )

⇒ x + I =0+ I ∨ y + I =0+ I ( since a+ H=H iff a ∈ H ¿

∴ ( x+ I ) ( y+ I ) =0+ I ⇒ x + I =0+ I ∨ y + I=0+ I

R
∀ x+ I , y+ I ∈
I

R
∴ has no zero divisors
I

∴ R/I is an integral domain

Case(ii); Conversely suppose R/ I is an integral domain

Now we have to prove that I is prim ideal of R

Suppose x , y ∈ R such that xy ∈ I

 ⇒ xy + I =0+ I (since a+ H =H iff a∈ H ¿

⇒ ( x + I )( y + I )=0+ I

Since R/I is an integral domain i.e R/I has no zero divisors

⇒ x + I =0+ I ∨ y + I =0+ I

⇒ x ∈ I ∨ y ∈ I (since a+ H =H iff a ∈ H)

∴ xy ∈ I ⇒ x ∈ I ∨ y ∈ I

∴ I is prim ideal of R

∴ I is prim ideal of R iff R/I is an integral domain

Theorem: Show that every maximum ideal of commutative ring with unity is prim ideal

Proof: Let R is commutative ring with unity

Suppose M is maximum ideal of R

Since M is maximum ideal of R iff R/M is a field

⇒ R/M is an integral domain ( Every field is an integral domain )

⇒ R/M is an integral domain iff M is prim ideal of R

∴ M is maximum ideal of R then M is a prim ideal of R

∴ Every maximum ideal is a prim ideal

Theorem: Z be a ring of integers and M is an ideal of Z. If M generated by a prim integer then M is maximum ideal of Z

Proof: Le Z is a ring of integers and M is an ideal of Z

Suppose M is generated my prim integer

⇒ M = < n > where n is prim number

Now we have to prove that M is maximum ideal of Z

Suppose I is an ideal of Z such that M⊆I⊆Z

Now we have to prove that either M = I or I = Z

Since every ideal of Z is principal ideal

⇒ I = < m > where m is a positive integer

Since < n > ⊆ < m > ⊆ <1>

Let < n> ⊆ < m>

⇒ n ∈<m> ¿

⇒ n=mr ∃ r ∈ Z

Since n is prim
 ∴ It is contradiction to n is prime number

⇒ m =1

⇒ < m > = <1>

⇒I=Z

∴M⊆I⊆Z

⇒ I=Z

∴ M is maximum ideal of Z

Theorem: Let M is maximum ideal of ring of integers Z. Then M is generated by a prim integer.

Proof : Let Z be a ring of integers and M is maximum ideal of Z

⇒ U is an ideal of Z such that M ⊆ U ⊆ Z then either M = U or U = Z

Since Every ideal of Z is principal ideal

⇒M=<n>

Now we have to prove that n is a prim number n is prim number

If possible assume that n is not a prim number

⇒ n = xy where x, y belongs to Z

⇒ ¿ n>⊆< x> ¿<n>⊆< y> ¿

⇒< n>⊆< x >⊆ Z∧¿ n>⊆< y>⊆ Z

⇒ M ⊆ < x> ⊆Z andM ⊆< y> ⊆Z

∴ This contradiction to M is maximum ideal of Z

∴ Our assumption is wrong i.e n is not prim is wrong

∴ n is a prim number

∴ The maximum ideal M of Z is generated by a prim number

Theorem: Let Z be a ring of integers. Then an ideal generated by a prim number iff it is a maximum ideal of Z

Prim element: A non – zero element p of an integral domain R with unity is called prim if (i) it is not a unit and

(ii) if p/ab , then p/a or p/b where a , b ∈ R

Ex: Every integer is prim element in an integral domain Z

Irreducible element: A non – zero element a of an integral domain R with unity is called irreducible if (i) it is not a unit

Element (ii) every divisor is improper i.e a = bc where either b or c is unit element in R

Unique factorization domain (UFD): A commutative integral domain R with unity is said to be unique factorization domain

If (i) Every non unit of R is a product of irreducible factors

 (ii) Every irreducible element is prime.

Ex; Z is UFD

Note: Every field is UFD

Theorem: Unique factorization domain theorem

Statement: If R is a unique factorization domain. Then the factorization of any element in R as a finite product of irreducible

Factors is unique to within order and unit factors. Moreover a= p1 p2 … … .. p n=q 1 q 2 … … .. qm such that n = m

And each pi is associate with each q iwhere pi, q iare irreducible and where a ∈ R .

Proof: Let R is unique factorization domain

Now we have to prove that a ∈ R such that a= p1 p2 … … .. p n=q 1 q 2 … … .. qm such that n = m

And each pi is associate with each q iwhere pi, q iare irreducible and units

Let a= p1 p2 … … .. p n=q 1 q 2 … … .. qm

Since p1 p 2 … … .. p n=q 1 q 2 … … .. q m−−−−−−−−−−−−−−(1)

⇒ p1 d=q 1 q 2 … … .. q m where p2 … … .. pn=d

⇒ p1 /q1 q 2 … … .. qm

Since each q i is unit elements

∴ p1 is associate with some q i where i = 1, 2, 3……..m

From (1) p2 d=q 1 q 2 … … .. q m where p1 p3 … … .. p n=d

⇒ p2 /q1 q 2 … … .. qm

Since each q i is unit elements

∴ p2 is associate with some q i where i = 1, 2, 3……..m

Similarly we can prove each pi is associate with some q i where i = 1, 2, 3……..m

∴ m≤ n−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2)

Since p1 p 2 … … .. p n=q 1 q 2 … … .. q m

⇒ q 1 d =p 1 p2 … … .. pn where q 2 … … .. q m=d

⇒ q 1 / p1 p2 … ….. pn

Since each pi is irreducible elements

∴ q 1 is associate with some pi where i = 1, 2, 3……..n

From (1) q 2 d =p 1 p2 … … .. pn where q 1 q 3 … ….. q m=d

⇒ q 2 / p1 p2 … ….. pn
 Since each pi is irreducible elements

∴ q 2 is associate with some pi where i = 1, 2, 3……..n

Similarly we can prove each q i is associate with some pi where i = 1, 2, 3……..n

∴ n ≤m−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 3)

From (2) and (3) ⇒ n = m

And each q i is associate with some pi where i = 1, 2, 3……..n and conversely

Hence the theorem

Question: Show that Z ( √−5 ) ={ a+b √−5|a , b ∈ Z } is not unique factorization domain.

Solution: Since Z ( √−5 ) is

Let 21∈ Z ( √−5 )

⇒ 21= 3.7 where 3, 7 ∈ Z ( √−5 )

Now consider ( 1+2 √−5 ) ( 1−2 √−5 )=1−4 (−5 )=1+20=21

∴ 21=( 1+2 √−5 )( 1−2 √−5 ) where ( 1+2 √−5 ) , ( 1−2 √−5 ) ∈ Z ( √−5 )

∴ 21 can not factorize in irreducible factors in unique way

∴ Z ( √−5 ) is not unique factorization domain.

Euclidean domain: A commutative integral domain E with unity is said to be a Euclidean domain if there exist a function

∅ : E → Z such that

(i) ∅ ( a) ≥ 0 ∀ a ∈ E
(ii) For every pair of elements a , b ∈ E ,b ≠ 0 ,there exist unique q and r in E such that a=bq+ r
Where either r = 0 are ∅ ( r ) <∅ ( b )

Question: Show that the ring of integers Z is an Euclidean domain.

Solution: Let Z is commutative integral domain with unity

Now define a function ∅ :Z → Zsuch that ∅ ( a )=|a| ∀ a ∈ Z

(i) Since |a|≥0 i . e ∅ ( a ) ≥0 ∀ a ∈ Z

(ii) Let a , b ∈ Z by division algorithm there exist unique +ve integers q, r such that a=bq+ r where
0 ≤ r <b
Suppose r = 0 then ∅ ( r )=|r|=0
Suppose r <b ⇒ |r|<|b|i . e ∅ ( r ) <∅ ( b )
∴ Z is an Euclidian domain.
Polynomial rings

Polynomial over ring: Let R be ring , f(x) = a 0+ a1 x + a2 x 2 +a3 x 3+−−−−−−−∓an xn where

a 0 , a 1 , a2 ,−−−−−−a n ∈ R .then f(x) is called a polynomial over the ring R

Degree of the polynomial ring: Let R be ring and f(x) = a 0+ a1 x + a2 x 2 +a3 x 3+−−−−−−−∓an xn where

a 0 , a 1 , a2 ,−−−−−−a n ∈ R be a polynomial over R. If a n ≠ 0∧am =0 ∀ m>n then degree of the

Polynomial f(x) is n and it is denoted by deg{f(x)} i.e deg{f(x)} = n

Ex: Let f(x) = 4 +3 x+ x2 +2 x 4 be polynomial in Z5

Deg{f(x)} = 4

Sum of two polynomials: Let f(x) = a 0+ a1 x + a2 x 2 +a3 x 3+−−−−−−−∓an xn and

g(x) = b 0+ b1 x +b 2 x 2+ b3 x3 +−−−−−−−∓bm x m are two polynomials in the ring R, sun of two

Polynomials are defined as

2 3
f(x) + g(x) = a 0+ b0 + ( a1+ b1 ) x+ ( a2 +b2 ) x +(a 3+ b3 )x +−−−−−−−−¿

Product of two polynomials: Let f(x) = a 0+ a1 x + a2 x 2 +a3 x 3+−−−−−−−∓an xn and

g(x) = b 0+ b1 x +b 2 x 2+ b3 x3 +−−−−−−−∓bm x m are two polynomials in the ring R, product of two

Polynomials are defined as

2 3 n+m
f(x)g(x) = a 0 b 0+ ( a1 b0 + a0 b1 ) x + ( a2 b0 +a1 b1 +a 0 b 2 ) x + ( a 3 b 0+ a2 b1 +a1 b2 +a 0 b 3 ) x +−−an b x
m

Ex: Let f(x) = 2x3+x2+2x+2 and g(x) = 2x2+2x+1 are two polynomials in Z3[x] .Then find f(x) + g(x)
and f(x).g(x)

solution: Let Z3 = {0, 1, 2}

Let f(x) = 2x3+x2+2x+2 and g(x) = 2x2+2x+1

⇒ f(x) + g(x) = 0 + x + 0x2+ 2x3 = x + 2x3

And f(x)g(x) = 2+ (2 +4)x + (1+4+ 4)x2 + (2+ 4+ 2)x3+ (2+4)x4+4x5

= 2 + 0x + 0x2+2x3+0x4+1x5 (since 6 ≡ 0 ( mod 3 ) ,9 ≡ 0 ( mod 3 ) , 8≡ 2 ( mod 3 ) , 4 ≡1(mod 3) )

= 2 + 2x3+x5

Zero polynomial: Let R be a ring and 0 ∈ R such that 0(x) = 0+0x+0x2 + ---------- = 0

Note: degree of zero polynomial is undefined.

Note: Let f(x) = k is a constant polynomial and degree of the constant polynomial is zero.

Inverse of the polynomial: Let R be ring and f(x) = a 0+ a1 x + a2 x 2 +a3 x 3+−−−−−−−∓an xn where

a 0 , a 1 , a2 ,−−−−−−a n ∈ R be a polynomial over R. and since R is a ring then there exist

−a 0 ,−a1 ,−a 2 ,−−−−−−−an ∈ R ⇒ -f(x) = −( a0 +a1 x+ a2 x2 +a 3 x 3 +−−−−−−−∓a n x n )

-f(x) is called inverse of f(x).

Polynomial ring: Let R be a ring, then the set of all polynomials over R forms a ring with respect to addition of polynomials
 And product of polynomials and it is denoted by R[x]

Note: Let F be a field then the polynomial ring over F is f[x] is an integral domain.

Note: Let R is an integral domain then the polynomial ring over R is R[x] is an integral domain.

Note: Let F[x] be an integral domain and f(x), g(x) are two non – zero polynomials in F[x] then

(i) Deg{f(x) + g(x)} = max{deg{f(x)} , deg{g(x)}}

(ii) Deg{f(x).g(x)} = deg{f(x)} + deg{g(x)}
Ex: Let f(x) = 2x3+x2+2x+2 and g(x) = 2x2+2x+1 are two polynomials in Z[x] .Then find f(x) + g(x)
and f(x).g(x) . hence find deg{f(x)+g(x)} and deg{f(x).g(x)}

solution: Z[x] integral domain

Let f(x) = 2x3+x2+2x+2 and g(x) = 2x2+2x+1 are polynomials in Z[x]

Deg{f(x)} = 3 and deg{g(x)} = 2

⇒ f(x) + g(x) = 3 + 4x + 3x2+ 2x3

∴ deg{ f(x) +g(x)} = max{ deg{f(x)}, deg{g(x)}} = 3

And f(x)g(x) = 2+ (2 +4)x + (1+4+ 4)x2 + (2+ 4+ 2)x3+ (2+4)x4+4x5

= 2 + 6x + 6x2+8x3+6x4+4x5

∴ deg{f(x).g(x)} = 5 = deg{f(x)} + deg{g(x)}

Note: Let F[x] be a polynomial ring and f(x), g(x) are two non – zero polynomials in F[x] then

(i) Deg{f(x) + g(x)} ≤max{deg{f(x)} , deg{g(x)}}

(ii) Deg{f(x).g(x)} ≤ deg{f(x)} + deg{g(x)}

Division algorithm: Let F[x] is a polynomial ring f(x), g(x) are two non – zero polynomials in F[x]. there exist unique

Polynomials q(x) , r(x) such that f(x) = g(x). q(x) + r(x) where either r(x) = 0 are deg{r(x)}< deg{g(x)}.

Question: Let f(x) = 5x4 + 3x3 + 1 and g(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 in Z7[x]. Determine the quotient and remainder

upon dividing f(x) by g(x).

Solution: Let f(x) = 5x4 + 3x3 + 1 and g(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 are two polynomials in Z7[x]

Factor theorem: Let f(x) is any non zero polynomial in F[x]. then x = x0 is root of polynomial f(x) iff x – x0 is a factor of f(x)

Proof: Let F[x] be a polynomial ring and f(x) be a non – zero element in F[x]

Now we have to prove that x = x0 is a root of f(x) iff x – x0 is factor of f(x)

Case(i) : Suppose x = x0 is root of the polynomial f(x)

⇒ f(x0) = 0

Now we have to prove that x – x0 is factor of f(x)

Since f(x) be a non – zero polynomial in F[x] and also x – x0 be polynomial in F[x]
 By division algorithm

⇒ f(x) = (x – x0)q(x) + r(x)---------------------(1) there exist a unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) in F[x]

such that either r(x) = 0 or deg{r(x)} < deg {(x – x0)}

Substitute x = x0 in (1)

⇒ f(x0) = (x0- x0 )q(x0) + r(x0)

⇒ r(x0) = 0 i.e r(x) = 0 (since f(x0) = 0)

Substitute r(x) = 0 in (1)

⇒ f(x) = (x – x0 )q(x)

∴ x – x0 is factor of f(x)

Case(ii): conversely suppose x – x0 is factor of f(x)

Now we have to prove that x = x0 is a zero of the polynomial f(x)

Since x – x0 be a factor of the polynomial f(x)

⇒ f(x) = (x – x0)h(x) there exist unique polynomial h(x) in F[x]

Now substitute x = x0

⇒ f(x0) = (x0 – x0)h(x)

⇒ f(x0) = 0.h(x)

⇒ f(x0) = 0

∴ x = x0 is a root of f(x)

Question: Find all roots of f(x) = x2 + x + 1 in Z5[x]

Solution: Let Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

Since f(x) = x2 + x + 1

Since f(0) = 1

Since f(1) = 3

Since f(2) = 4+ 2 + 1= 2

Since f(3) = 9 +3+1= 3

Since f(4) = 16 +4 + 1 = 1

∴ f(x) = x2 + x + 1 has no roots in Z5[x]

Question: Find all root of f(x) = x2 + 1 in Z2[x]

Solution: Let Z2 = {0, 1} and f(x)= x2 + 1 is a polynomial in Z2[x]

Since f(0) = 0 + 1 = 1
 Since f(1) = 1 + 1 = 0

∴ x = 1 is a zero of f(x) = x2 + 1 in Z2[x]

i.e f(x) = x2 + 1 = (x+1)(x + 1)

Irreducible polynomial: A polynomial f(x) in a polynomial ring R[x] is irreducible polynomial. If f(x) = g(x)h(x) there exist

g(x) , h(x) in R[x] such that either deg{g(x)} = 0 or deg{h(x)} = 0.

Reducible polynomial: A polynomial f(x) in a polynomial ring R[x] is reducible polynomial. If f(x) = g(x)h(x) there exist

g(x) , h(x) in R[x] such that deg{g(x)} ≥ 1 & deg{h(x)} ≥ 1.

Ex: Show that x2 + 1 is irreducible over R[x] and reducible in C[x].

Solution: Let x2 + 1 be a polynomial in R[x]

⇒ x2 + 1 = 1.(x2 + 1)

⇒ deg{1} = 0

∴ x2 + 1 cannot be split into factorization

∴ x2 + 1 is irreducible polynomial in R[x]

Since x2 + 1 be polynomial in C[x]

⇒ x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x – i)

∴deg{(x +i)} = 1 and deg{(x - i)} = 1

∴ x2 + 1 reducible polynomial over C[x]

Note: Let f(x) be a reducible polynomial over F[x]. If f(x) has a root inF[x]

Question: Show that x2 + 1 is not irreducible polynomial in Z2[x].

Solution: Let Z2= {0,1} and f(x) = x2 + 1

F(0) = 0 + 1 and f(1) = 1+1 = 0

∴ f(x) in reducible

Einstein’s criterion: A polynomial f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3+ ------------------ anxn be a polynomial Z[x] there exist a

Prim p such that p/ a0, p/ a1, p/ a2 ----------- p/ an-1 , p does not divides an and p2 does not divides a0 then f(x) is

irreducible polynomial over Z and hence it irreducible polynomial in Q

Note: A polynomial f(x) is irreducible then kf(x) is also an irreducible polynomial.

Question: Determine whether the following polynomials are irreducible

5
( i ) 9 x 3 + x 4 +12 x 2+6 (ii)x 4 +3 x 2 +3(iii) 5 x + 9 x 4 +15 x3 + 3 x 2 +6 x + 3
2 2 7 14
Solution:
3 4 2
(i) f ( x )=9 x + x +12 x +6
 Let the prim p = 3 such that 3/6, 3/12/ 3/9 and 3 does not divides 1 , 32 does not divides 6
∴ f(x) is irreducible polynomial

Note: Let f(x) is irreducible polynomial in R[x] then R[x]/< f(x) > be a field.

Question: Let Q ( √ 2 )={ a+ b √ 2|a , b ∈Q } then show that Q ( √ 2 ) is a field with respect to addition and multiplication.

Solution: Let Q ( √ 2 )={ a+ b √ 2|a , b ∈Q }

Define addition and multiplications are defined as

( a1+ b1 √2 ) + ( a2 +b 2 √ 2 ) =a1 +a 2+ ( b1 +b2 ) √ 2−−−−−−−−−−( 1 )

( a1+ b1 √2 ) . ( a2+ b2 √2 ) =a 1 a 2+2 b1 b2 + ( a1 b 2+ a2 b1 ) √2−−−−−−−−( 2 )
∀ ( a 1+b 1 √ 2 ) , ( a 2+ b2 √ 2 ) ∈Q ( √ 2 )

To prove ¿ is an commutative group:

1. Closer property: let ( a1+ b1 √2 ) . ( a2+ b2 √2 ) ∈ Q ( √ 2 ) where a1 , a2 ,b 1 , b 2 ∈Q

Since by (1) ( a1+ b1 √2 ) + ( a2 +b 2 √ 2 ) =a1 +a 2+ ( b1 +b2 ) √ 2
Since a 1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ∈ Q ⇒ a 1+ a2 ,b 1+ b2 ∈ Q
∴ ( a1 +b 1 √ 2 ) + ( a2 +b2 √ 2 )=a1+ a2 + ( b1 +b 2 ) √2 ∈Q ( √ 2 )
∀ ( a 1+b 1 √ 2 ) . ( a 2+b 2 √ 2 ) ∈Q ( √ 2 )
∴ ¿ is satisfying closer property
2. Associative property: Since every element in Q ( √ 2 ) is an element in Q and (Q, +) is satisfying associative property

Then ¿is also satisfying associative property

3. Identity property: Let a+ b √ 2 ∈Q ( √ 2 ) where a , b ∈Q

Since 0∈Q then 0 = 0 + 0√ 2∈ Q ( √ 2 )

∴ a+b √ 2+0=0+a+ b √ 2=a+b √ 2 ∀ a+b √ 2∈ Q ( √2 ) ∃0 ∈ Q ( √ 2 )

∴ ¿is satisfying identity property

4. Inverse property: Let a+ b √ 2 ∈Q ( √ 2 ) where a , b ∈Q

Since a , b ∈Q ⇒ there exist −a ,−b ∈Q
⇒ −a−b √ 2∈ Q ( √2 )
∴ a+b √ 2+ (−a−b √ 2 )=( −a−b √ 2 )+ a+b √ 2=0 ∀ a+ b √2 ∈Q ( √ 2 ) there exist
−a−b √ 2∈ Q( √ 2)
∴ ¿ is satisfying inverse property
5. Commutative property : Let ( a1+ b1 √ 2 ) . ( a2+ b2 √ 2 ) ∈ Q ( √2 )

Now consider ( a1+ b1 √2 ) + ( a2 +b 2 √ 2 ) =a1 +a 2+ ( b1 +b2 ) √ 2

= a 2+ a1+ ( b2 +b 1) √ 2

= ( a2+ b2 √2 ) + ( a1 +b 1 √ 2 )
 ∴ ( a1 +b 1 √ 2 ) + ( a2 +b2 √ 2 )=( a2 +b2 √ 2 ) + ( a 1+ b1 √ 2 ) ,

∀ ( a 1+b 1 √ 2 ) . ( a 2+b 2 √ 2 ) ∈Q ( √ 2 )

∴ ¿ is satisfying commutative property

∴ ¿is an abilean group

To prove ( Q ( √ 2 ) , . )is an abilean group:

1. Closer property: let ( a1+ b1 √ 2 ) . ( a2+ b2 √ 2 ) ∈ Q ( √ 2 ) where a 1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ∈ Q

Since by (2) ( a1+ b1 √2 ) . ( a2+ b2 √ 2 ) =a 1 a 2+2 b1 b2 + ( a1 b 2+ a2 b1 ) √2

Since a 1 , a2 , b1 , b2 ∈ Qthen a 1 a 2 , b1 b2 , a1 b2 ,a 2 b 1 ∈Q

⇒ a 1 a 2+2 b1 b2 + ( a1 b 2+ a2 b1 ) √2 ∈Q ( √ 2 )

⇒ ( a1+ b1 √ 2 ) . ( a2+ b2 √ 2 ) ∈ Q ( √2 )

∴ ( a1 +b 1 √ 2 ) . ( a2 +b 2 √ 2 ) ∈Q ( √ 2 ) , ∀ ( a1+ b1 √2 ) , ( a2+ b2 √ 2 ) ∈ Q ( √2 )

∴(Q ( √ 2 ) ,.) is satisfying closer property

2. Associative property: Since (Q, .) is satisfying associative property. Then ( Q ( √ 2 ) , . )is also satisfying associative
property
3. Identity property: Let a+ b √ 2 ∈Q ( √ 2 ) where a , b ∈Q

Since 1∈Q then 1 = 1 + 0√ 2∈ Q ( √ 2 )

∴ ( a+b √ 2 ) .1=1.(a+b √ 2)=a+b √ 2 ∀ a+b √ 2∈ Q ( √2 ) ∃1 ∈Q ( √ 2 )

∴ ( Q ( √ 2 ) , . )is satisfying identity property

4. Inverse property: Let a+ b √ 2 ∈Q ( √ 2 ) where a , b ∈Q be a non zero element

1
Since multiple inverse of a+ b √2 is
a+ b √ 2

1 1 ( a−b √ 2 )
Now consider = X
a+b √ 2 a+b √ 2 a−b √ 2

a−b √2 a b
= = 2 − 2 √2
a −2 b a −2 b a −2 b2
2 2 2

a b
Since a , b ∈Q then 22
, 2 2
∈Q
a −2 b a −2 b

⇒ ( a −2b
2
a
−
b
2
a −2 b
√ 2) ∈Q ( √ 2 )
2 2

∴ ( a+b √ 2 )
( a −2a b − a −2b b √ 2)=( a −2a b − a −2b b √2)( a+b √ 2)=1 ∀ (a+b √2) ∈Q (√ 2)∃
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 ( a −2b
2
a
−2
b
2
a −2 b
√ 2) ∈Q ( √ 2 )
2

∴(Q ( √ 2 ) ,.) is satisfying inverse property

5. Commutative property: Since every element Q ( √ 2 ) is an element in Q and (Q, .) is satisfying commutative property
Then (Q ( √ 2 ) ,.) is also satisfying commutative property
∴(Q ( √ 2 ) ,.) is satisfying commutative property

∴(Q ( √ 2 ) ,.) is an abilean group

Since every element Q ( √ 2 ) is an element in Q and Q is satisfying distribution properties Then Q ( √ 2 ) is also
Satisfying distribution properties
∴(Q ( √ 2 ) ,+ , .) is field .