THE ASTROLABE

This scientific instrument of the Middle Ages was used for both

astronomical and terrestrial observations. It also served as an

analogue computer, particularly for determining the local time

by J. D. North

he astrolabe was the most widely the horizon or from the zenith. It could

T
principal stars with respect to the merid­
used astronomical instrument of also be used for determiIting the height ian as well as the horizon, to find his
the Middle Ages. It originated in of mountains and towers or the depths of geographical latitude and the direction
antiquity and was still not uncommon in wells and for surveying in general. Far of true north (even by day, when the
the 17th century. One purpose of the more important, however, was the astro­ stars were not visible), and it allowed
instrument was observational: it was em­ labe's value as an auxiliary computing him to indulge in such prestigious and
ployed for finding the angle of the sun, device. It enabled the astronomer to lucrative duties as the casting of horo­
the moon, the planets or the stars above work out the position of the sun and scopes. Above all, in the days before re-

RETE

ALMUCANTARS

LINES OF EQUAL AZIM

HORIZON LINE

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

STAR POINTER
TROPIC OF CANCER

HOUR ANGLE LINES

PLATE WITH COORDINATE LINES NORTH CELESTIAL POLE

DIAGRAM OF THE FRONT OF AN ASTROLABE shows those sun through the sky. The rete pivots around a pin that holds it to
parts that were central to its function as an instrument for calcula· the plate behind it. The pin's position corresponded to the north
tion. The fretted network, known as the rete, is a reproduction of celestial pole. The lines on the plate represent coordinate lines that
the heavens. The tiny pointers indicate the positions of the stars. are fixed with respect to an observer on the earth. The turning of
The eccentric circle at the top is the ecliptic: the yearly path of the the rete showed the daily motions of stars in relation to observer.

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liable clocks were commonly available,
the astrolabe provided its owner with a
means of telling time by day or by night,
as long as the sun or some recognizable
star marked on the instrument was
visible.
A more precise name for the instru­
ment I am describing is the planispheric
astrolabe. There are three other types
of astrolabe: the linear astrolabe, the / ---- RETE

spherical astrolabe and the mariner's as­

trolabe. The linear astrolabe was an in­
strument that was difficult both to use
and to understand, and it was rarely
made. The spherical astrolabe was also
rare; it was in the form of a globe, al­
though it had much in common with the
lIat planispheric astrolabe. The mariner's
astrolabe was a relatively late instru­
ment; as far as is known it was first used
only a little before the time of Columbus.
It was a crude device, serving chiefly to
find the altitude of the sun, moon or
stars above the horizon, and it was used
for much the same purpose as the sex­
tant of later centuries. Basically it con­
sisted of an alidade, or straight rule,
pivoted centrally on a single pin on a
circular plate. On each end of the ali­
dade was a vane pierced with a hole.
The mariner hung the instrument from
his thumb and adjusted the alidade so
that he could sight the celestial object
through the holes in the vanes. He then
read the altitude of the object on the
scale of degrees around the edge. (In
working with the sun he would have al­
lowed one vane to cast a shadow on the
other .in order not to injure his eyes by
direct observation.) The mariner's astro­
labe was made of heavy brass so that it
would hang steadily from its ring and
shackle, and it was also pierced so that
the wind would affect it as little as pos­
sible.
The planispherie astrolabe I shall
henceforth call simply the astrolabe,
since it was by far the commonest type.
In order to fully understand even its
simple uses, it is necessary to examine
its outward form and trace how it ac­
quired that form. ALiDADE

B
oth sides of the astrolabe bore valu-
able information. Generally speak­
ing, the alidade was pivoted on the back.
The back was a repository for informa­
tion that could in principle have been
EXPLODED VIEW OF AN ASTROLABE shows the relationship of its various parts. The
stored elsewhere. It usually carried a
mater ("mother") is the main body of the astrolabe. The climates are plates engraved with
number of scales and tables whose pre­
('oordinate lines for different latitudes, usually those to \l'hich the observer might travel.
cise nature tended to change from cen­
The alidade is a straight rule that was used for sighting celestial objects and finding their
tury to century. altitude. It was held to the back of the astrolabe (see illustration. on page 105) and was free
A scale that is found on almost all to rotate like the rete. The rete fits over all the climates, which are contained within the
astrolabes is the calendar scale, which mater. The pin slides through the centers of all the plate, and is secured by the horse, a
represented the days and months and wedge whose thicker end was traditionally in the form of a horse's head. Some astrolabes
correlated the position of the sun with had no loose plates; in such instruments the mater was engraved as the one and only climate.

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PERSIAN ASTROLABE was made in the 12th century. It is 5)� MARINER'S ASTROLABE was a crude device used chiefly to find
inches across and is of fairly simple design, as are most early astro· the altitude of celestial bodies above the horizon. Alidade is Oil
labes. Rete is regular and star pointers are straight and unadorned. the front. This astrolabe is probably Spanish and is dated 1602.

MOORISH ASTROLABE of the 13th century has raised knobs on are shown to illustrate the placement of the rete and the alidade.
the rete to assist the observer in rotating it. Both the front (1)1.010, A \I astrolabes on this page are in the collection at the National
graph at left) and the back (photograph at right) of the instmment Museum of History and Technology of the Smithsonian Institution.

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 NORTH CELESTIAL POLE
the date within the year. If the stars were
visible by day, it would be easier to ap­
preciate the apparent movement of the
sun against the stellar background. This
movement is of course a consequence of
_---
:L�>\.
,, /' mo"c 0'
CANCER
the earth's motion around the sun; as the
earth proceeds along its orbit the sun ap­
pears to shift with respect to the stars. It
is therefore often convenient to speak as
though the earth were at rest in the cen­
ter of a vast sphere on which all the ce­
lestial objects are situated. The stars and
even the planets are at such immense
distances in comparison with the size of
the earth that the celestial sphere is a
reasonable convention, as long as one is
concerned only with the direction of the
celestial objects from the observer.
The path of the sun on the celestial
I TROPIC OF
sphere is the ecliptic, and the sun com­ \ I
,
/
.... \ ..-'; CAPRICORN
....... ... .;v� ......
1
pletes one circuit of the sky along this
path in a year. The planets appear to
travel in a band of sky several degrees on
each side of the ecliptic; this band is the SOUTH CELESTIAL POLE

zodiac. It is possible to give the approxi­

mate position of the sun on the ecliptic
(its place in the zodiac) for any date of TROPIC OF

the year. Leap years present a small

problem, but it is not a very difficult one,
since the accuracy required is only a
relatively large fraction of a degree.

he calendar scale of the astrolabe has

T engraved on it the days and the
months. There is also a zodiac scale, usu­
ally concentric with the scale of dates,
which correlates the dates with the sun's TROPIC OF CANCE
position on the ecliptic. The sun's posi­
tion can be given as a celestial longitude
from zero degrees to 360 degrees, reck­ NORTH CELESTIAL POLE
oned from some suitable point of origin.
In the Middle Ages a variant of this
system was used: the zodiac was divided
into 12 signs. Each sign was 30 degrees
in length and had been named after a
prominent constellation. In actuality
the constellations had long previously
moved into neighboring signs as a con­
sequence of the slow precession of the
equinoxes, which in turn is due to a coni­
cal movement of the earth's axis. Partly
because of precession, and partly be­
cause the time it takes the earth to go
around the sun once is not exactly 365J�
days, there are small shifts in the sun's
position for any particular date as the
years pass. These shifts can be taken care
of without much difficulty by the rules STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF EQUATOR AND TROPICS shows how these cir.
cles on the celestial sphere (top) are projected onto the astrolabe plate (that is, onto the
of the calendar. On an astrolabe, how­
mater or one of the climates) or onto the rete. On most astrolabes the plane of the equator
ever, it could not easily be done, and a
(or a plane parallel to it) is taken to be the plane of the projection. A line is extended from
medieval calendar scale is likely to be 10
the south celestial pole to the desired point on the celestial sphere (in this case one of the
or 11 days out of register with one of
tropics or the equator). The point where this line intersects the plane of the projection is
today. the location of that celestial point on the map. A series of such points is charted to yield
The front of the astrolabe is more im­ the coordinate lines. The equator and tropics are at right angles to the axis of the projeco
portant than the back. It has two princi­ tion. As a result they turn out to be circles that are concentric and centered on the point
pal parts. One, the rete, is a fretted plate, representing the north celestial pole (bottom). Pin goes through the north celestial pole.

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 NORTH CELESTIAL POLE which like the rest of the astrolabe is
usually made of brass. It overlies an un­
perforated circular plate. The rete (from
the Latin word meaning "net") is a rep­
resentation of the heavens. The tips of
small pointers mark the positions of the
brightest stars, an off-center circle rep­
resents the ecliptic, and there are also
parts of three circles represent ing the
celestial equator and the tropics of Can­
cer and Capricorn. Through the center
of the rete is a pin around which it can
rotate. The pin, which also holds the al i­
dade on the back, is kept in place bya
wedge passing through a hole in the
point of the pin. The thicker end of the
wedge was traditionally in the form of
a horse's head, and thus the wedge was
often called "the horse." If any durable
transparent material had been readily
available at the time, the rete would
probably have been made of it; anyone
today who wanted to build a simple
I astrolabe could use a sheet of plastic to
SOUTH
CELESTIAL make the star map.
POLE
The other principal part of the astro­
labe is the plate under the rete. It is
graduated with a series of circles and
straight lines representing coordinate
lines that are fixed with respect to a
given observer. The center of the astro­
labe, around which the rete turns, repre­
sents the north celestial pole, around
which the stars appear to turn. Concen­
tric with it are the Tropic of Cancer, the
celestial equator and the Tropic of Cap­
ricorn. These circles can be represented
hoth on the rete and on the plate below
it. On the plate there is a line represent­
ing the observer's horizon and a point
for his zenith. There is a set of almucan­
tars, or circles of constant altitude, above
the horizon and encircling the zenith.
There are also lines of constant azimuth,
which appear as arcs of circles radi­
ating from the zenith and running down
to the horizon.
Clearly the distance separating the
pole and the observer's zenith on the
astrolabe plate depends on the geo­
graphic latitude of the observer. If he
lived at the North Pole, the two points
EQUATOR
should coincide, whereas if he lived at
the Equator, the two should be sepa­

TROPIC OF / rated by whatever represents 90 degrees

CAPRICORN on the astrolabe plate. The necessity of
having a different plate for every lat i­
tude at which the instrument was to be
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF ALMUCANTARS, or circles of equal altitude con·
used was always a source of chagr in to
centric with the observer's zenith and parallel to the horizon, makes circles on the plane of
the astrolabist. He would have a plate
the projection. They do not, however, have a common center. In the illustration the ob.
server's zenith is 40 degrees north of the equator. His horizon and almucantars are first
for his own latitude, and he might have
shown as they appear on the celestial sphere (top). The stereographic projection has the as many others as he was likely to need
property that circles on a sphere remain circles when they are projected onto a flat plane. on his travels.
In projection all the centers of the almucantars lie on the line (NS) that runs through both Such plates were often called climates
north pole and observer's zenith (bottom). Line is the projection of observer's meridian. by an obvious extension of mean ing. An

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astrolabe might have as many as four, NORTH CELESTIAL POLE

five or even more climates, each plate

being engraved on both sides and all
being stacked in the mater, or main
OBSE R VE R S ZENITH
body, of the astrolabe. They fitted under
the rete and were secured by the pin and
horse [see illustration on page 97].
There were astrolabes that could be used
at any latitude with a single plate, but
they were not easy to use nor were they
ever common.

ow are the stars and the coordinate

H lines on the celestial sphere
mapped onto the rete and the climates?
Suppose the observer was at the center
of a large hemispherical dome on which
the almucantars and the coordinate lines ,
,
of constant azimuth were drawn at in­ \\ ,
\ \
tervals of five or 10 degrees. Through \\\\ ,"
this series of lines he would be able to \\ ,
see the stars of the night sky, which \'
would move with respect to the lines be­
cause of the daily rotation of the earth. SOUTH
If the observer were to take a long­ CELESTIAL
POLE
exposure photograph, the pinpoints of
starlight would trace out arcs of con­
centric circles rotating around the north
celestial pole. (In the true medieval
manner we shall overlook the needs and
prejudices of those living in the South­
ern Hemisphere.)
Just as it is possible to make a flat map
of a terrestrial globe, so it is possible to
map the two spheres introduced here:
the fixed network of coordinate lines and
the moving sphere of the sky. There are
certain necessary practical requirements
if the maps are going to be made of brass
and are to serve at all times. If the two
maps are to be arranged so that one piv­
ots around a fixed point of the other, as
with an astrolabe, then this point should
be one of the poles, preferably the north
pole if the instrument is to be used in
the Northern Hemisphere. Furthermore,
the projections of both maps should be
alike for all positions of the rete and the
plate with respect to each other; a map
projection would be no good at all if it
meant that the rete had to be distorted
as it rotated.
The stereographic projection was ad­
mirably suited to the needs of the as­
trolabist. It has the property that circles
on a sphere remain circles when they
are projected onto a flat plane, and that
the angles between intersecting circles
on the sphere remain unchanged when
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF LINES OF EQUAL AZIMUTH is a series of great
they are projected. Although there are
circles that stretch from the horizon to the zenith. Hence they cut the horizon circle, and
reasons for suspecting that other con­
the almucantars (not shown), at right angles (top). Angles between intersecting circles on
ventions were used in earlier times, the a sphere remain unchanged when they are stereographically projected onto a flat plane.
convention that was almost universally Therefore on the astrolabe plate the lines of equal azimuth will be arcs of circles that cut the
followed with small astrolabes was to lines of the horizon, and the almucantars (again not shown), at right angles. Most astrolabes
project stereographically from the south show only the lines of equal azimuth that would appear above observer's horizon (bottom).

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 NORTH CELESTIAL POLE
pole of the celestial sphere onto the
plane of the equator. A line was extend­
ed from the south pole to the desired ob­
ject on the celestial sphere; the point
where this line intersected the plane of
the projection was the location of the
celestial object on the map. A series of
such points was mapped to yield the
coordinate lines.
With this stereographic projection,
the closer a southern star is to the south
celestial pole, the farther it will be from
the north celestial pole on the plane of
the projection, that is, on the rete. The
projection of the entire celestial sphere
is infinite in extent. In practice the rete
is almost invariably made only a little
larger than is necessary to accommodate
the Tropic of Capricorn. Stars on the
rete are represented by the tips of brass
pointers. In principle these could be
bent after a time to allow for the preces­
sional movement of the earth's axis (al­
though such allowance is not worth
bothering with over periods of half a
century or less). The bending is more
likely to happen by accident than by de­
sign, however, and the pointers were
usually made as rigid as possible. On the
rete the circles of the tropics and the
equator are not much needed, since they
also appear on the plate below, and so
they simply serve largely as supports for
the star pointers.
The equator and the tropics are at
right angles to the axis of the projection.
As a result they turn out in projection to
be circles that are concentric with the
rete and centered on the north pole (rep­
resented by the pin). Moreover, if any
degree graduations were to be put on
\'1 'r----�r---+-+_---__4111..._-----J_--_+----_l
the equator of the celestial sphere, they
would lie uniformly on the projected
equator. Neither of these properties be­
longs to the most important circle on the
rete, namely the ring that represents the
ecliptic. The center of the ecliptic ring
differs from the center of the equator
and the tropics because the plane of the
earth's equator is inclined at an angle of
23Jf degrees with respect to the plane of
the earth's orbit. Longitudes are mea­
sured along the ecliptic from the vernal
equinox, one of the two points where the
ecliptic crosses the equator. This is the
beginning of the sign of Aries; when the
sun is at the "first point of Aries," day
and night are of equal duration.
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF HOUR ANGLES places the last set of coordinate
At the vernal equinox the sun is pass­
lines on the plate of the astrolabe. The entire cycle of one day is divided into 24 hours.
ing from south of the equator to the north
When the time was reckoned in unequal hours, as it is here, the period of daylight and the
and is heading through Aries into the
period of night, regardless of their duration, were both divided into 12 equal parts. Thus
the hours of the day were not equal in length to the hours of the night. The hour lines were sign of Taurus on its progression around
usually drawn only below the horizon line. Those portions of the concentric circles of the the ecliptic. When it reaches its most
equator and the tropics are divided into 12 equal parts, beginning with the points of inter· northerly point of the eclipt ic at the
section with the west horizon. Corresponding points are connected then with smooth curves. summer solstice, 23Jf degrees north of

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the equator, it leaves Gemini and passes NORTH CELESTIAL POLE
into Cancer, hence the name of the
tropic in the Northern Hemisphere at the
latitude of +23)f degrees. As the sun
continues its course along the ecliptic it
eventually enters Libra as it again cross­
es the equator, although this time it is
passing from north to south. This it does
at the autumnal equinox, when again
day and night are of equal duration. The
sun reaches the winter solstice as it en­
ters Capricorn 23)f degrees south of the
equator, hence the name of the tropic in
the Southern Hemisphere at a latitude of
-23)f degrees. The sun's annual path as
a whole is indicated by the outermost
rim of the ecliptic ring on the rete.

I-l oW is the ecliptic ring on the rete

constructed? All that is needed is
to plot the points of the summer and
winter solstices [see illustration at right].
Since in the stereographic projection cir­
cles remain circles on the map, these two
points define the diameter of the ecliptic
circle. The geometric center of the eclip­
tic will lie midway between the two
points. The ecliptic circle, when con­
structed, will cross the equator at the
points corresponding to the equinoxes.
(It so happens that the geometric center
of the ecliptic always falls at such a
point that the angle made at the equi­
noxes from the center of the ecliptic to
the center of the rete is twice 23)f de­
grees or, more precisely, twice whatever
value is accepted for the angle the eclip­
tic makes with respect to the equatorial
plane.)
The almucantars are drawn on the
astrolabe plate below the rete in much
the same way. The horizon of the ob­
server is inclined to the celestial equator
by 90 degrees minus the geographic lati­
tude of the observer [see illustration on
page 100]. To find the two points deter­
mining each of the almucantars, it must
be remembered that the almucantars are
no longer great circles in planes passing
through the center of the earth; they
are small circles parallel to the horizon.
When they are drawn, the result is a se­
ries of circles around, but not concen­
tric with, the observer's zenith. All their
centers lie on the meridian.
The lines of equal azimuth are much
STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF THE ECLIPTIC is used for the retS' instead of for
more difficult to construct. They are a
the astrolabe plate. The ecliptic is the apparent annual path of the sun on the celestial
series of great circles stretchin g from
sphere as seen from the earth. The Equator of the earth is tipped at an angle of 23)f degrees
the horizon to the zenith, and cutting
from the plane of the ecliptic, so that this angle is preserved on the astrolabe rete. All that
the horizon circle and the almucantars
is needed to draw the ecliptic is to plot the point of the summer solstice on the Tropic of
at right angles. Since the stereographic Cancer and the point of the winter solstice on the Tropic of Capricorn. These two points
projection leaves angles unchanged, the define the diameter of the ecliptic circle, whose center lies midway between. Ecliptic crosses
lines of equal azimuth on the astrolabe equator at points corresponding to vernal equinox (first day of spring) and autumnal equi.
plate will be arcs of circles that retain nox (first day of fall). Ecliptic is divided into 12 signs of zodiac starting at the point rep­
this property. In general, astrolabes resenting vernal equinox. The lines dividing ecliptic radiate from tbe north celestial pole.

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show only those parts of the lines of projection. It is known only from a Lat­ by none other than Geoffrey Chaucer.
equal azimuth that appear above the in translation by Hermann of Carinthia His work, titled A Treatise on the As­
observer's horizon [see illustration on (A.D. 1143). trolabe, is dated about 1392. It survives
page 101]. in more than two dozen early manu­
Before we tum to some uses of the
astrolabe, what of its history? The theory
O ther scholars besides Ptolemy refer
to the astrolabe, but many of the ref­
scripts. In some of them it has the sub­
title Bread and Milk for Children. The
of the stereographic projection can be erences are cryptic. The oldest surviving subtitle was probably provided by a
traced back to one of the greatest of account of the instrument's construction scribe who was surprised at Chaucer's
Greek astronomers, Hipparchus. He was and use was written in the sixth century opening remarks in a work that would
born about 180 B.C. in Nicaea, not far by John Philoponos of Alexandria. A have been generally regarded as hard­
from modern Istanbul, and he made ob­ century later Severus Sebokht wrote on tack for adults. In a modern rendering
servations from Rhodes and Alexandria. the subject in the Syriac language. After the work begins:
Unfortunately most of what we know this time the instrument became mod­ "Little Lewis my son, I well perceive
about him comes from secondary erately well known, judging from the signs of your ability to learn the sciences
sources. One of the most important of many different treatises devoted to it in of number and proportion, and I also
these sources is the Alexandrian astrono­ both the Islamic world and the Chris­ have in mind your earnest request es­
mer Ptolemy, who was writing some tian. Perhaps the first European treatise pecially to learn the contents of the
four centuries later. Ptolemy was per­ was one written by Hermann von treatise on the astrolabe." Chaucer goes
haps the greatest astronomer of the an­ Reichenau, or Hermann der Lahme (the on to outline the contents of the treatise,
cient world. His most important book, Lame), a monk of Reichenau who died which in fact seems never to have been
now known as the Almagest, makes no in 1054. completed. He explains the need for a
mention of the planispheric astrolabe. Much better known in medieval work in English, and he mentions his
There are, however, references in his Europe was a work originally written debt to earlier astronomers. It is un­
Planisphaerium to the "spider" of the in Arabic by Masha'allah, who is be­ fortunate that his English is about as
"horoscopic instrument," suggesting that lieved to have been an Egyptian Jew. It difficult for the ordinary modern reader
an instrument with something like the was translated into Latin by 1276, and as Latin was for Lewis.
later form of the astrolabe was known in it was the basis of the only good early By the 16th century the advent of
his day. The Planisphaerium is a treatise treatise on the astrolabe in English, printing and the steady improvement in
not on the astrolabe but on stereographic namely the one written a century later techniques of engraving for publication
had given rise to a number of magnifi­
cent new treatises on the astrolabe.
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN LINES OF These were in turn partly responsible for
EQUAL AZIMUTH some striking advances in the art of the
instrument maker. Astrolabes became
larger, more decorative and more finely
and accurately engraved. Nevertheless,
allowing for differences in the language
of the inscription, there was little or
nothing about the typical astrolabe of
the early 17th century that would not
have been immediately familiar to an
astrolabist of a thousand years earlier.
The oldest surviving dated instrument is
believed to date from A.D. 927/8. This
particular astrolabe also carries a signa­
ture that is difficult to decipher, but
which could be an Arabic form of a
Greek name (Bastulos or Nastulos).
Before the end of the 13th century
the planispheric astrolabe was known
and used from India in the east to Is­
lamic Spain in the west, and from the
Tropics to northern Britain and Scandi­
navia. Variations in the general style of
decoration are usually characteristic of
the country and period of origin. The
star pointers of the earliest retes, for in­
stance, are usually of a simple dagger
shape engraved only with the name of
the star. At the other extreme later Indo­
Persian astrolabists would often work
HOUR ANGLE LINES HORIZON
the rete into an intricate and highly sym­
COMPLETE ASTROLABE PLATE shows all the coordinate lines as they appear with re­
metrical foliate pattern, a difficult thing
spect to one another on a climate. This illustration is a composite of all the stereographic to do with what is essentially a star map
projections shown individually in the series of illustrations on pages 99, 100, 101 and 102. having an asymmetrical natural arrange-

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ment. Astrolabe makers throughout the
eastern world often damascened their in­
struments with silver and gold. It is in­
teresting to trace from their surviving
signed work successive generations of
the same family. The family might all,
for example, have worked at a center
such as Lahore, and thus perhaps have
had connections with the Mogul court.
Persian instruments tended to be ex­
tremely ornate, filled with fine orna­
mental engraving.

In the West the style of the rete is usu-

ally reminiscent of contemporaneous
styles of church architecture. The style
of written inscription is similar to the
style of Western manuscripts in general,
and is highly characteristic of the period
in which it was done. There is good evi­
dence that many astronomers the world
over made their own instruments, al­
though there was scarcely any important
center of learning that did not at one
time or another have its specialist work­
shops turning out instruments profes­
sionally. European instruments were
rarely signed with the maker's name dur­
ing the Middle Ages, a time when ano­
nymity was considered no vice. By the
16th century European astrolabes were
often signed.
The physical size of most astrolabes
is between three and 18 inches, al­
though much larger ones are found in a
number of rather different forms as the BACK OF THE ASTROLABE carries the alidade and other information necessary to the
dials of astronomical clocks. The use of observer. Around the rim of the example shown is a scale of degrees for measuring the al·
the astrolabe as a clock dial goes back to titude of a celestial body with the alidade. Immediately inside the rim the 12 signs of the
classical antiquity, when the rete was zodiac are listed and divided into 30 degrees each. The scale ot the months and the days
made to rotate once daily by waterpow­ inside the zodiac scale correlates the position of the sun on the ecliptic with the correct
er. After the invention of the purely date. It is not concentric with the other circles to allow for the sun's nonuniform motion

mechanical escapement at the end of the along the ecliptic. The design of the interior portion of the astrolabe back varies widely
with the individual instrument. Here the quadrant at upper left contains horizontal lines
13th century, astronomical clocks were
from the degree markings; their distances from the horizontal diameter of the astrolabe cor·
to be found in most large European ca­
respond to the sine of the altitude of an object above the horizon. The quadrant at upper
thedrals. In a typical arrangement the
right contains lines for computing the time in unequal hours directly, independently of the
star map and the map of coordinate lines front of the astrolabe. These lines are used in conjunction with the graduations on the ali.
of the conventional astrolabe change dade. The two quadrants at bottom contain the "shadow squares." These could have been
places, the coordinate lines being made used in conjunction with a gnomon to get the cotangent or the tangent of the altitude of an
into the rete and the stars being painted object above the horizon. If they were accurately and completely divided, which they rarely
on a plate behind it. Usually the stars were, they provided a means of measuring altitudes more precise than sighting with alidade.
were made to rotate and the rete was
fixed, but sometimes these roles were
reversed. A model of the sun is occa­ Then, assuming that the observer knew ecliptic for any day of the year is found
sionallyfound on the ecliptic of the star where the sun or the star was on the from the calendar scale on the back of
map; it is moved along the ecliptic man­ rete, the rete was revolved until that the astrolabe.
ually, or by a mechanism, so that it com­ point coincided with the almucantar for
pletes one circuit of the ecliptic in a
year. In order to judge the time from
the appropriate altitude. (It is assumed
that the observer knew which climate to O nce the rete is in the correct position,
the observer can find his local time
such a dial one must be familiar with at choose for his latitude and on which side according to anyone of several conven­
least the basic principles of the use of the of the meridian line the object fell.) The tions. If the circumference of the astro­
astrolabe. refraction of the atmosphere, which labe is marked in degrees, 15 degrees
The chief purpose of the astrolabe changes the apparent position of objects correspond to an hour. Noon will be
was for telling the time. First the alti­ in the sky, and which is greater the near­ when the sun is toward the top of the
tude of the sun or of a star was found by er theyare to the horizon, was ignored. instrument, midnight when it is toward
employing it as an observing instrument. The sun's approximate position on the the bottom, 6:00 A.M. when it is to the

105

© 1973 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

 left and 6:00 P.M. when it is to the right. in unequal hours. The ordinary man in
Imagine now a great circle joining some the Middle Ages divided the period of
object in the sky to the north celestial daylight into 12 equal parts and the pe­
pole. The angle that this great circle riod of night into 12 equal parts regard­
makes with the meridian is the hour less of the actual length of day and

& angle of the object. As a consequence of

the stereo graphic projection, a rule lying
night. The length of the day-hours would
obviously equal the length of the night­

PUZZLES on a line passing through the center of

the astrolabe and the point of the instru­
hours only when the sun was at one of
the equinoxes. Many astrolabe plates in­
THE UNIQUE ADULT
ment representing the object makes an clude unequal-hour lines. In order to
MONTHLY MAGAZINE FOR
angle with the vertical diameter (the avoid their being confused with the al­
PUZZLE ENTHUSIASTS AND
INDOOR GAMES PLAYERS meridian line) equal to the hour angle of mucantars, the unequal-hour lines were
Features include the object. The hour angle is so named drawn only below the horizon line [see
CHINESE CHESS because it can provide one with a mea­ illustration on page 102].
-Issue 19 (Nov. 73)
REVERSI sure of time through its change as the Time in the Middle Ages was often
-Issue 20 (Dec 73) earth rotates. It is usually quoted in reckoned from sunrise or sunset even
-An abstract Victorian game
hours, minutes and seconds rather than when measured in ordinary equal hours.
DIPLOMACY
-Issue 21 (Jan 74) in degrees of arc. Many astrolabe plates show lines similar
-An interaction game of international intrigue A number of different kinds of time in appearance to the lines of unequal
SHOGI
-Issue 22 (Feb 74) can be told from an astrolabe. The first hours but which are in fact for measur­
SCRABBLE, TWIXT, CHESS, GO, is sidereal time, or time by the stars, ing the time in equal hours from sunrise
CARDS, CHECKERS, PENTOMINOES,
which is defined as the hour angle of the or sunset.
MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS
Plus pages packed with PUZZLES first point of Aries. If the day is counted Although the astrolabe was primarily
�n�L G().IY1p.nlT.IQN� ................... from zero hours to 24 hours beginning at an instrument for determining the time,
Annual subscription $9,00 (U.S.A.! midnight, 12 hours will have to be add­ it was an extremely useful adjunct of the
Canada) Sendcheck/moneyorder to: ed to the count for sidereal time, be­ astrologer's art. To cast a horoscope for
GAMES & PUZZLES Disribution
cause at the vernal equinox the first a particular moment of time, an astrolo­
Department. P.O. Box 4
London N6 4DF. point of Aries (which is at that time the ger needs to know the degree of the
Sample copies and all back issues position of the sun) will cross the me­ ecliptic that is on the eastern horizon
available at $0.75 each. ridian at local noon. ("the ascendent"), the degree of the
Annual subscription in U.K. £ 2.40.
All other countries £ 3.00 ecliptic that is on the western horizon
(Individual copies £0.25) second kind of time is true solar ("the descendent"), the degree of the
A
Ili'i••iji,iilii.11
time: the hour angle of the sun re- ecliptic where it crosses the meridian
gardless of its position with respect to ("the degree of mid-heaven") and the
the stars. There is another and more fa­ degree of the ecliptic where it crosses
miliar type of solar time called mean the northward continuation of the me­
solar time, which postulates a "mean ridian, once called the midnight line
sun" moving around the equator (rather ("lower mid-heaven"). These degrees are
than the ecliptic) at a uniform rate easily read off the ecliptic ring once the
throughout the year, and making one rete is correctly positioned for the mo­
complete circuit in exactly a year like ment of time that is of interest: perhaps
the true sun. The earth moves around a moment of conception, of birth, of
the sun in an ellipse with the sun at one death or of some other important event
focus, and it travels faster in its orbit the such as a coronation. Once the four key
closer it is to the sun. Therefore from points of the horoscope have been
the earth the true sun seems to speed up found, the 12 astrological houses (which
and slow down in its course around the are not to be confused with the signs)
ecliptic. Thus the true sun and the mean can be ascertained and the planets can
sun move not only along different paths be assigned to them. There are, how­

Our 21st year of service to the World's

but also at different rates. In order to ever, many systems by which the divi­
convert from observed true solar time to sion can be made. These can be found
finest craftsmen and technicians.
the more useful mean solar time, one in Chaucer's treatise on the astrolabe.
� National Camera must apply a correction known as the
'" 2000 We" Union A,voe. Dept.JAC
I
equation of time. It is based on knowl­
B astrolabe in the Middle Ages was a
""" Eng/ewoorl, Co/oroclo,80nO e a modern electronic computer, the
.. --------- .. edge of the earth's motion in its orbit and
Send a FREE cop of the nc Flasher
y it can be found in reference books. The source of astonishment and amusement,
I I
correction for the equation of time was of annoyance and incomprehension. Im­
I�n�a�m�e--I--- scarcely ever applied before the 17th precise as the astrolabe may have been
I�----------------I century. In order to convert mean solar in practice, it was undoubtedly useful,
address above all in judging the time. The in­
time to the local time at some standard
I I
location such as Greenwich, the observer strument might have been used, more
I city I needs to know his geographic longitude, often than not, in the dark, but "dark"
I state zip I and again that adjustment was seldom is hardly the word to describe the age
� National Camera made. in which it was so widely known and so
'" I 2000 Well Union A.e. Dept. JAC
� En lewood, Co/oroclo,801l0 A third kind of time is time measured well understood.

106

© 1973 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC

AN EASY WAY m CHANGE JOBS!
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Now, I know this seems hard to be­ wealth! I know this sounds almost too easy
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Secondly , you can examine our sys­
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tem for 1 0 day s .
velop - b u t it works! and self-tailoring. You could start next
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To make more money wi t hout a hassle ,
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you'll have to be willing to c hange . You 'll P e rform a n c e D y na m ics I n c.
We knew more people than ever I I
also have to follow our sys t e m , have an Attn: M r . R o bert Jameson , President
owned p restige cars & yachts , summer I I
open mind & have faith in you rself. 1 7 G rove Avenu e
hbmes and international retreats , as well I I
However , do this and a b e t ter life will Verona, N ew Jersey 07 044
as having securities , real estate holdings I I
be yours !
and lots of cash in the bank . I Dear Mr. Jameso n : I
With our system , whatever you seek­
In short , many people in the U.S. are a better job , a new caree r , higher pay , I Y o u r offer s o u n d s great! Please rush me y o u r I
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At the same time , however , the great stop y our su ccess ! I but on o n e c o n diti o n . I u n d e rsta n d I may ex· I
maj ority have no excess cash , little job Not age , sex , education , or even low I a mi n e it f o r 1 0 d ays, & if at the e n d of that I
security, and are frequently restless, earnings or past workin g history . I time I retur n it, y o u will mail my full refu n d I
bored with their j ob s , commuting long Personnel Magazine sai d we have a I wit h i n 3 working days, a n d with no q ues. I
hou rs , and harrassed by inflation ! "break through. " I tions asked. On that basis, here's my ten d ol- I
Business Week d evot e d a full page I lars -- p l us fifty cents for p ostage a n d h a n d l i ng. I
We asked ourselves how do people get
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to live the "good life " ? 0 E n c l osed is my c h e c k or m o n e y o r der
The National Public Accountant even I I
Well, w e found that most successful 0 Ch g . B a n k A me r . 0 C h g . A m e r . Ex p r .
said it was "capable of ca tapU lting any I I
people were there because they never 0 Ch g . M a s t e r Ch g . 0 C h g . D i n ers Cl u b .
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Wh a t these people did was to make However, your best proof of our sys­ I A c c t . 11 Ex p . D a t e I
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Take a look at the economics ! Let ters like one from a ge ntleman in I I
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Do you realize that if you were to ��
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change jobs every 4 years , at an ave rage
I I
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I C i ty State Zi p I
the increases in the bank at 6%,-that in Another man from New York said "I P l e a se n o t e : S h i p m e n t is v i a p a r c e l p o st . F o r
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millio n dollars! and got 1 3 interv iews and 3 job offers! " I f o r fgn . a i r a d d $ 7 .00 SAl I

Mr. Jameson 's ideas have been the subject of more than five hu ndred articles, ranging from 600 words in Business We�k to 3,000 words in Chicago
Today. This ma terial has also been nationally adv ertised in leading media including The Wall Street Journal, Scientific A m erican, Nation 's Business,
Signature, The New York Times, Newsweek International, The Los A ngeles Times, A merican Scientist, Income Opportu nities, Time, Specialty
Salesman, Success Unlimited, Chemist, The Army Times, New York, The Chicago Tribune, True & others. © 1 9 73 Performance Dynamics Inc.

© 1973 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC