4.

Radio Wave propagation (61)

Modes of Propagation (15)
Ground wave or surface wave propagation (2 types)

1. Used for broadcast/ lower frequencies i.e. for medium waves, long waves and
very long waves

2. Guided along the surface of the earth

3. Transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the surface of the earth,
supported at lower edge by the presence of the ground

4. When the surface wave glides over the surface of the earth, energy abstracted
from the surface wave to supply losses in the earth. While passing over the
surface of the earth, the surface wave looses some of its energy by absorption

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 1

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 2
 Types:

1. Low frequency (LF): 30 kHz to 300 kHz

2. Medium frequency (MF): 300 kHz to 3 MHz

At higher frequencies it becomes ineffective

Factors Ground wave/ surface wave propagation depends on? How can range of
transmission be increased in VLF? Why method not effective for MF band

1. Maximum range depends on Frequency and Power

2. Range of transmission increased by power in VLF band

3. Not effective at MF band (Higher side) as tilting due to diffraction is more

effective

Ground wave propagation subdivision?

1. Sky wave or ionospheric wave propagation (Between 2 to 30 MHz)

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 3

 2. Space wave propagation (30 MHz)

Sky wave or Ionospheric wave propagation/ Short wave propagation?

1. Frequency range 2 to 30 MHz

2. Practical significance at high frequencies (medium waves and short waves) for
radio communication

3. Transmitted waves reflected from ionosphere to reach receiver (between 50 to

400 km)

Fading in Sky wave or Ionospheric wave propagation/ Short wave propagation?

Signals received in sky wave propagation are, subject to fading in which signal
strength varies with time. Because large number of waves follow a different number
of paths

Space wave propagation/ Line of sight propagation?

1. Frequency range of 30 MHz to 300 MHz

2. Use in microwaves, communications like TV, radar, frequency modulations etc.

3. EM waves from transmitting antenna reach receiving antenna either directly or

after reflections from ground in earth’s troposphere region

4. Components:

a. Direct component: Transmitting to receiving antenna (direct)

b. Indirect component/ ground reflected components: Transmitting to receiving

antenna via reflections from the ground

Why is space wave propagation mainly in VHF?

1. Because at such high frequencies, sky wave and ground wave propagations
both fail

2. Sky Beyond 30 MHz, sky wave fails as the wavelength becomes too short to be
reflected from the ionosphere

3. Ground waves are propagating close to the antenna only

Why is space wave propagation also called line of sight propagation?

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 4

 Because propagation at VHF, UHF and microwave frequencies, this mode of
propagation

1. Limited to the LOS distance (Transmitting and receiving antennas can see each
other)

2. Limited by the curvature of earth

Factors Space wave propagation depends on? How can range of transmission be
increased in for LOS propagation?

Factors maximum range of communication dependent on:

1. Curvature of earth

2. Height of the transmitting and receiving antennas

Range of communication can also be increased by increasing the heights of

transmitting and receiving antennas

Tropospheric scatter propagation or forward scatter propagation?

1. Practical importance at VHF, UHF and microwaves

2. Used for long distance communication

3. UHF and microwave signals were found to be propagated beyond LOS through
forward scattering in the tropospheric irregularities

4. VHF/ UHF radio waves transmitted in a nearly horizontal direction, and interact
with irregularities in the tropospheric layers. Some of the radio waves are
scattered in different directions while others follow a straight path to the
receiver. This scattering allows for long-distance communication, typically over
distances of hundreds of kilometers.

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 5

 Two different theories to explain tropospheric scatter propagation/ forward scatter
propagation?

1. Ionospheric scatter propagation

a. Due to blobs or fine layers at the lower edge of the E layer or from the
ionized trails of myriads of small meteors which bombard the earth from the
outer space

b. Range of 1000 km to 2000 km at 25 MHz to 60 MHz

2. Tropospheric scatter propagation

a. Due to blobs or fine layers in the Troposphere

b. Effective from 100 MHz to 10 GHz i.e. 10,000 MHz

Explain tropospheric scatter propagation/ forward scatter propagation

1. Two directional (transmitting and receiving) antennas so pointed that their

beams intersect midway between them above horizon

2. Blobs of air masses or eddies in troposphere scatter radio waves due to

turbulence and this happens when they are situated in the common volume
facing transmitting and receiving antenna beams

3. When frequency lower than blobs/ eddies. scattering may occur in all direction
including back scattering

4. When frequency higher than blobs/ eddies, forward scattering dominates into
cone of angle alpha. This angle should be as small as possible

5. Frequency ranges of 900 MHz, 2000 MHz, 5000MHz best suited

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 6

 How can noise/ fading due to tropospheric scatter propagation/ forward scatter
propagation be reduced?
Minimized using Diversity Reception

Propagation in inversion layers of troposphere is called? Importance?

Called duct propagation or super refraction

Importance: Long distance communication with relatively less attenuation is
possible in range of 300 MHz to 30000 MHz i.e. UHF & SHF bands

Back scattering?
In this mode, signals propagate much beyond line of sight propagation, through the
forward scattering due to the tropospheric irregularities

Structure of Ionosphere (14)

What is the ionosphere? Explain ionization, ionizing agents & recombination
process. Give range for the Ionosphere

1. Definition: The ionosphere is a region of Earth's upper atmosphere that contains

a relatively high concentration of ions and free electrons (Electrons, +ve & -ve
ions)

2. Important ionizing agents: UV radiations, Alpha, Beta, Cosmic rays & meteors
(Ionize air particles)

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 7

 3. Ionization: Under low pressure, one or two electrons can be knocked out. When
molecule donates electron, we get a +ve ion & a -ve ion

4. Recombination: Of Knocked out electron with the +ve ions is possible. It

depends on factors like average distance between the particles of the gas

5. Range: extends from 50km above the Earth's surface to roughly 400km. The
ionosphere plays a crucial role in radio wave propagation and various
atmospheric and space-related phenomena. Here are some key points about
the ionosphere:

Why does the ionosphere have different layers?

As different gases in earth’s atmosphere are ionized at different pressures (i.e.
different heights) and there are different ionizing agents to do the ionization

Describe the structure of Ionosphere with a diagram (Range + Electron density

relation)

Different layers found:

1. Troposphere: 0-50 km (e- density of 10^14 to 10^16 cm^-3)

2. D-region: 50-90 km

3. E-region/ Kennelly Heaviside layer: 90-140 km

4. F region/ Appleton layer:

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 8

 a. F1 region: 140-250 km

b. F2 region: 250-400 km

5. G region > 400 km

Electron density increases as the height of the layer increases from the surface of
the earth

Explain the D region of the Ionosphere

1. Lower most region of ionosphere between 50-90 km

2. Present only during day light hours

3. Disappears at night. Reason: Recombination rate highest. Also farthest away

from the sun

4. No oxidation is observed

5. Ionization density max at 12 noon due to max sun radiation

Explain the E region of the Ionosphere

1. Above D region with range of 50-90 km

2. Occurs during day light hours

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 9

 3. During night time, it is weakly ionized

4. Critical frequency i.e. 3 MHz to 5 MHz at 12 noon

Give electron density values for E region

During day: 10^5 - 45 x 10^5 cm^-3

During night: 5 x 10^3 - 10^4 cm^-3

Explain the sporadic E-region of the Ionosphere

1. Anomalous ionization termed as sporadic E-region called Eg

2. It is irregular thus the name sporadic

3. Occurs as clouds of size of 1 km to 100 kms

4. Height of 5 km to 10 km within E-region with electron density 10x times of E-

region

5. Unpredictable occurrence during both day and night, any season of the year

Explain the F region of the Ionosphere. Specify reason for existence of F-region in
night hours only

1. F-region, subdivided between F1 & F2 region (Als known as the Appleton

region)

2. During day, F region splits into F1 & F2 region in low latitude areas & high
latitude only in summers

3. F-region in night hours only because:

a. The top most region is highly ionized. Thus some ionization remains even
after sunset

b. Because the ionization density is very high

Preferred layer of ionosphere for long distance communication: F-region

Preferred layer of ionosphere for night time communication: F-region

Show with diagram, M type reflection from Eg and F layers

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 10

 Give electron density values for F region

1. F1 region: 2 x 10^5 to 4.5 x 10^5 cm^-3

2. F2 region: 3 x 10^5 to 20 x 10^5 cm^-3

Critical Frequency values for F region

1. F1 region: 5 - 7 MHz

2. F2 region: 5 -12 MHz

Explain the G-region of the Ionosphere

1. Upper limit of the ionosphere beyond F-region is the G-region

2. Occupied by radiation belts and charged particles trapped by terrestrial

magnetic field

Sky wave propagation (7)

Need for sky wave propagation & ionospheric propagation?
Space and ground waves limited by the curvature of the earth leading to failure for
communication over lager distances (over 1000 kms)

Radio wave frequency 2 MHz to 30 MHz i.e. HF signals or short waves reflected
from Ionosphere in the day. Thus optimal frequency is 10 MHz to 30 MHz during
day

Radio frequency around 30 MHz not reflect back at night. Thus at night, lower
frequency is used

Show single and multiple-hops reflections for long distance communication

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 11

 Give formula for refractive index of ionosphere
Refractive index is a measure of the bent experienced by the radio waves used for
communication, due to the ionized particles present in it

N if in m^-3 then f in Hz
N if in cm^-3 then f in KHz

If refractive index becomes imaginary, indicates that attenuation taking place

Show with diagram successive refraction taking place in the layers of the
Ionosphere
Snell’s law:

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 12

 1. As μ < 1 for ionosphere, sin i, sin r i.e. angle of refraction will go on deviating
from the normal as the wave will encounter rarer medium. If successive layers
of the ionosphere are of higher electron density i.e. N6 > N5 > N4 > N3 > N2 >
N1 i.e. μ keeps decreasing i.e. μ1 < μ2 and so on

2. Thus a wave travelling will eventually become parallel to the earth due to
deviation at point Pm called point of reflection (refraction) and then get sent
back

3. Radio waves enter a P, become parallel to ground at Pm, leave at Q from the
ionosphere and reflected back to earth

Define critical frequency. Give formula and derivation

The highest frequency is called critical frequency which can be reflected by a
particular layer and it is different for different layers at vertical incidence i.e. at
angle of incidence of 90 degrees. Gives idea that radio waves of frequency equal
to or less than the critical frequency will be reflected back by the ionospheric layer
irrespective of the angle of incidence. If greater than critical frequency then radio
wave penetrates through the Ionosphere
Denoted by f0 or fc

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 13

 At vertical incidence
Angle of incidence i = 0, N = Nmax and f = fc

Definitions (7)
Virtual height (with figure & formula)

1. A reflected wave from the ionosphere is essential refracted. For simplicity

though, we consider a straight line reflection

2. Figure shows assumptions to calculate virtual height

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 14

 Defined as: Height to which a short pulse of energy sent vertically upward and
travelling with the speed of light would reach taking the same two ways travel time
as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer. (T = 1/f)

Maximum usable frequency?

1. MUF is a limiting frequency which can be reflected back to the earth but for
some specific angle of incidence rather than the vertical

2. MUF is the max frequency at which reflection takes place for that distance and
that ionospheric layer

3. MUF is frequency which makes a given receiving point correspond to a distance

from the transmitter equal to the skip distance (Distance between transmitter
and the point on the Earth's surface where radio wave, after being by the
ionosphere, returns to the Earth's surface)

4. MUF is max. possible frequency which can be used for sky wave
communication between two given points on earth

Formula for MUF?

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 15

 h = height of layer

D = Propagation distance AC

Difference between critical frequency and maximum usable frequency

1. Critical frequency is defined as the Maximum usable frequency for an angle

incident at the Ionospheric regions at the vertical i.e. 90 degrees

2. MUF is broader terms to not restricted to angle of incidence of 90 degrees

Skip zone and skip distance?

The distance at which surface wave becomes negligible and the distance at which
the first wave returns to earth from the ionospheric layer, there is a zone which is
not covered by any wave/ skipped by all waves (not ground nor sky). This is called
the skip zone and the distance across it is called the skip distance

Min. distance from transmitter at which a sky wave of a given frequency is

returned to earth by the atmosphere

Min. distance from transmitter to a point where sky wave of a given frequency is
first received

Min. distance within which a sky wave of given frequency fails to be reflected
back

Min. distance for which sky wave propagation just takes place and now sky
wave propagation is possible for nearer than this distance

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 16

 Skip distance formula?

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 17

 Higher the frequency, higher the skip distance. For a frequency lesser than the
critical frequency, skip distance is zero

Ionospheric abnormalities (13)

What are the 9 ionospheric abnormalities?

1. Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID) or Mongel-Dellinger Effect

2. Ionospheric storms

3. Sun spot cycle

4. Tides + winds in ionosphere

5. Fading

6. Whistlers

7. Ionospheric cross modulation

8. Static atmospheric noise

9. Man made noise

10. Polar cap absorption

Describe the following ionospheric abnormalities: a. SIDs/ Mongel-Dellinger Effect

1. Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SIDs) are rapid and temporary disruptions in

the Earth's ionosphere caused by solar flares or solar radiation storms from
which UV radiation occurs, penetrating & increasing ionization density right
down D-layer

2. Can affect radio wave propagation and disrupt communication and navigation
systems by causing fluctuations in ionospheric electron density and altering the
behavior of radio waves

Describe the following ionospheric abnormalities: b. Ionospheric storms

1. Ionospheric storms are nothing but the disturbances in the ionosphere which
are correlated with the rapid and excessive fluctuations associated with
magnetic storms in magnetic field of the earth

2. As a result radio wave propagation becomes erratic and frequency needs to be

lowered to maintain communication

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 18

 3. Lowers fc and virtual height of F2 region increases (H = cT/2 or c/2f). D-layer
ionization also increases

4. Short wave radio transmission (i.e. high frequency) range of frequencies is

narrowed down

Describe the following ionospheric abnormalities: c. Sun spot cycle

1. A sunspot cycle, also known as the solar cycle or sunspot solar cycle, is a
regularly recurring pattern of variation in the number of sunspots, as well as
solar activity, on the Sun over 11-year period

2. Sunspots are temporary dark areas on the Sun's surface caused by magnetic
activity, and their frequency and distribution change over the course of a solar
cycle

3. The UV rays, coronae, flares, particles radiation and sun spots may vary fifty
fold over that period

4. fc of ionosphere is highest during sun spot maxima and lowest during sun spot
minima. Thus prediction of ionospheric characteristics for suitable frequency
selection can be made on advance based on 11 year sunspot cycle

Describe the following ionospheric abnormalities: d. Tides and winds in the

Ionosphere

1. Atmosphere experiences, like oceans, tidal pull of Sun and Moon

2. In case of ionosphere, solar tidal effects get much more amplified

3. Due to resonance effect: Free period oscillation of atmosphere coincides with

sodar tidal period of 12 hours

4. Complicated by thermal heating of atmosphere by radiations of the sun, with 24

hours time period

5. The ionized particles of upper atmosphere, while exciting these tidal motions,
are following the earth’s magnetic field as the moving ions constitute of current
(which are affected by magnetic field)

F2 layer has highest speed of tidal motions because it is situated highest & has
lowest particle density (highest electron density which increases as we go higher up
in altitude)

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 19

 Describe the following ionospheric abnormalities: e. Fading

1. Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength/ intensity/ loudness or

some other random variation at the receiver

2. Caused by variation in height, density of ionization in different layers

3. Normal fading causes variation of few dB. Severe fading causes variation of
many dB

Total fading is called fade-out and occurs in S.I.D./ Ionospheric storms during sun
spot cycle

What are the types of fading?

1. Selective fading

2. Interference fading

3. Absorption fading

4. Polarization fading

5. Skip fading

Describe the following type of fading: a. Selective fading, b. Interference fading

1. Selective fading:

a. Produces distortion of modulated signal

b. It is frequency selective (adjacent portion of a certain frequency with diff. of

just few dozen hertz can get independently faded)

c. Problematic for AM signals with high % modulation

d. Reduced by Exalted Carrier reception/ Single Side Band SSB system

2. Interference fading

a. As path length of each wave is subject to continual small variations, the

relative phase of waves reaching at the receiver vary in a random way.
Hence amplitude of resultant varies continually. This effect is called
interference fading

b. Interference between upper and lower rays of skywave

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 20

 c. Due to fluctuations of height (or ionic density) in the ionospheric layer, if a
single sky wave frequency is in use

Describe the following type of fading: c. Absorption medium, d. Polarization fading,

e. Skip fading

3. Absorption fading

a. Occurs due to variations of signal strength with different amount of

absorption of waves absorbed by the transmission medium

4. Polarization fading

a. Due to constantly changing polarization of down coming sky waves.

Caused by superposition of ordinary and extraordinary waves (those with
random amplitude and phase) & are oppositely polarized i.e. polarization
w.r.t. antenna is constantly changing (changing amplitude, causing fading)

5. Skip fading:

a. Occurs at distances near the skip distance. Any variation in height or

density of ionized layer may move receiving point in/ out of the skip zone

Most common method to minimize fading is to use a automatic volume control (AVC
or AGC) in receiver. But not helpful in selective fading. Diversity reception system
can be used

Describe the following ionospheric abnormalities: f. Whistlers

1. Naturally occurring transient electromagnetic disturbances are called whistlers

2. Occur due to electromagnetic pulses of audio frequency radiation propagation

along the lines of earth’s magnetic field between conjugate points in the
northern & southern hemisphere

3. Lightening discharges generate pulses which may bounce back and forth
several times before disappearing

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 21

 Space wave propagation (5)
Useful at higher frequencies i.e. VHF, UHF and microwaves

Line of sight distance? (Diagram)

Distance between transmitter and receiver, in which if a direct ray passes from
transmitter and receiver without being intercepted by bulges from earth’s surface,
considering variation due to refractive index of atmosphere with height, the
receiving antenna must be visible from transmitting antenna

Range & Region of LOS propagation? (Imp)

Range: 16km

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 22

 Region: Troposphere

Factors causing variation in in space wave propagation?

1. LOS comm. range

2. Effective earth’s radius

3. Field strength

Range of space wave propagation or LOS formula?

h1 = height of transmitter (m)

h2 = height of receiver (m)
d = distance (km)

4. Radio Wave propagation (61) 23