Wave Propagation

By:
Radio Waves
• A form of electromagnetic wave that
propagates in free space or Earth’s
atmosphere.
• To propagate radio waves through

Earth’s atmosphere, it is necessary that
the energy be radiated from the source.
• Then the energy must be captured at the

receiver end.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Field Intensity
• The intensity of the electric and
magnetic fields of an electromagnetic
wave propagating in free space.
• Electric Field Intensity is usually given in

V/m
• Magnetic Field Intensity is usually given

in At/m
Power Density
• The rate at which energy passes

through a given surface area in free
space.
A good analogy for power density:
Electric Field Intensity is to voltage.
Magnetic Field Intensity is to current.

Power Density
Where:
PD = Power Density (W/m2)
𝓔 = rms electric field intensity (V/m)
𝓗 = rms magnetic field intensity (At/m)

Characteristic Impedance
of Free Space
• The characteristic
impedance of a
lossless transmission
medium is equal to
the square root of the Where:
ratio of its magnetic μo = magnetic permeability

of free space (H/m) –const.33
permeability to its
electric permittivity. εo = electric permittivity of
free space (F/m) –const.32
Spherical Wavefront
Spherical Wavefront
Where:
Prad = total radiated power
R = distance from any point

on the surface of the sphere
to the source
Question #01
• For an isotropic antenna radiating
100W of power, determine the power
density 1000m from the source.
A. 7.96uW/m2
B. 7.96mW/m2
C. 796.8mW/m2
D. 796.8uW/m2
Attenuation
• As waves propagate through free

space, they spread out, resulting in a
reduction in power density. This is
called attenuation.
Absorption
• Since Earth’s atmosphere is not a

vacuum, it contains particles that can
absorb electromagnetic energy. This
type of reduction of power is called
absorption.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
OF RADIO WAVES
Refraction
• Sometimes referred to as the bending
of the radio-wave path. However, the
ray does not actually bend.
• Electromagnetic refraction is the

changing of direction of an
electromagnetic ray as it passes from
one medium into another with
different velocities of propagation.
Refraction
Whenever a ray passes from a Whenever a ray passes from a
more dense to a less dense less dense to a more dense
medium, it is effectively bent medium, it is effectively bent
away from the normal. towards the normal.
Angle of Incidence is
the angle formed
between the incident
wave and the normal.
Angle of Refraction is
the angle formed
between the refracted
wave and the normal.
Reflection
• Reflect means to cast or turn back
and reflection is the act of reflecting.
The angle of reflection is

equal to the angle of
incidence.
Diffraction
• The redistribution of energy within a
wavefront when it passes near the
edge of an opaque object.
TERRESTRIAL PROPAGATION
OF EM WAVES
Ground Wave or Surface
Wave Propagation
• Are radio waves that travel or progress
along the surface of the earth.
• The ground wave must be vertically

polarized to prevent short-circuiting the
electric component.
Space Wave or LOS
Propagation
• Are radio waves that leave the

transmitting antenna and travel in a
straight line toward the receiving
antenna.
Space Wave or LOS
Propagation
• LOS propagation is limited by the
Earth’s curvature.
• The curvature of the Earth presents a

horizon to space wave propagation
called “radio horizon”.
• The radio horizon is approximately four-

thirds of the optical horizon.
Maximum
Radio Range
Question #02
• A taxi company uses a central
dispatcher, with an antenna top of 10m
tower, to communicate with taxi cabs.
The taxi antennas are on the roofs of the
cars, approximately 1m above ground.
What is the maximum communications
distance?
A. 17.16km
B. 5.89km
C. 17.16mi
D. 5.89mi
Sky Wave or
Ionospheric Propagation
• Are radio waves that are radiated

form the transmitting antenna in a
direction that produces a large angle
with reference to the earth
Atmospheric Layers
Ionospheric Layers
• D Layer
• E Layer
• F Layer
D Layer
• Lowest layer of the ionosphere located
approximately between 50 to 100 km
above Earth’s surface
• Reflects VLF and LF waves and absorbs

MF and HF waves
• The ionization in the D layer depends on

the altitude of the sun above the horizon.
Therefore, it disappears at night.
E Layer
• Located approximately 100 to 140 km above
Earth’s surface
• Also known as the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer
• Aids the MF surface wave propagation and

reflects some of the HF waves in daytime.
• The upper portion is called the sporadic E

layer because of its unpredictability caused
by solar flares and sunspot activity
F Layer
• Made up of two layers: F1 and F2 Layers
• F1 is located 140km to 250km; the F2 is

located 250km to 350km.
• During the night, the F1 layer combines with

the F2 layer to form a single F layer.
• F1 layer absorbs and attenuates HF waves,

although most of the wave pass through to
the F2 layer, where they are refracted back to
Earth.
Ionospheric Propagation
Parameters
• Critical Frequency
• Critical Angle
• Virtual Height
• Maximum Usable Frequency
• Optimum Working Frequency
• Skip Zone
• Skip Distance
Critical Frequency
• It is the highest frequency at a given
ionization density that will be returned
down to earth when beamed
vertically upward.
Where:
MUF = maximum usable frequency
θi = angle of incidence
Nmax = max. # of electrons per

cubic meter
Critical Angle
• It is the highest angle of radiation that

will return the wave to the earth at a
given density of ionization in the layer
for the frequency or wavelength.
Virtual Height
• It is the apparent height of the ionized
layer and is measured by sending a
wave vertically to the layer.
where:
d = distance b/w antennas

c = speed of light
T = round-trip propagation time
Maximum Usable
Frequency
• It is the highest frequency that will be

returned down to the earth at a given
distance when beamed at a specific
angle other than the normal
Question #03
• A transmitter has a critical frequency
of 25MHz beam upward at an angle of
34degrees. What is the maximum
usable frequency?
A. 44.71MHz
B. 56.14MHz
C. 30.16MHz
D. 20.72MHz
Optimum Working
Frequency
• It is the frequency that provides most

consistent communication.
• It is the frequency chosen to avoid the

irregularities of the atmosphere.
Skip Zone
• It is the area that lies between the

outer limit of the ground-wave range
and the inner edge of energy return
from the ionosphere.
Skip Distance
• It is the distance between the

originating site and the beginning of
the ionospheric return.
Skip Zone &
Skip Distance
END OF DISCUSSION.

Wave Propagation

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By:

• To propagate radio waves through

• Then the energy must be captured at the

• Electric Field Intensity is usually given in

• Magnetic Field Intensity is usually given

• The rate at which energy passes

Electric Field Intensity is to voltage.

Magnetic Field Intensity is to current.

PD = Power Density (W/m2)

𝓔 = rms electric field intensity (V/m)

𝓗 = rms magnetic field intensity (At/m)

ratio of its magnetic μo = magnetic permeability

Prad = total radiated power

R = distance from any point

• As waves propagate through free

• Since Earth’s atmosphere is not a

• Electromagnetic refraction is the

The angle of reflection is

• The ground wave must be vertically

• Are radio waves that leave the

• The curvature of the Earth presents a

• The radio horizon is approximately four-

• Are radio waves that are radiated

• Reflects VLF and LF waves and absorbs

• The ionization in the D layer depends on

• Also known as the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer

• Aids the MF surface wave propagation and

• The upper portion is called the sporadic E

• F1 is located 140km to 250km; the F2 is

• During the night, the F1 layer combines with

• F1 layer absorbs and attenuates HF waves,

MUF = maximum usable frequency

Nmax = max. # of electrons per

• It is the highest angle of radiation that

d = distance b/w antennas

• It is the highest frequency that will be

• It is the frequency that provides most

• It is the frequency chosen to avoid the

• It is the area that lies between the

• It is the distance between the

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