4B - Types of OS

TYPES OF OS
Many of the first operating systems were device dependent and proprietary. A device-dependent program is
one that runs only on a specific type or make of computer or mobile device. Proprietary software is privately
owned and limited to a specific vendor or computer or device model. Some operating systems still are device
dependent. The trend today, however, is toward device-independent OS that run on computers and mobile
devices provided by a variety of manufacturers. The advantage of device-independent operating systems is you
can retain existing applications and data files even if you change computer or mobile device models or vendors.
When you purchase a new computer or mobile device, it typically has an operating system preinstalled. As new
versions of the operating system are released, users often upgrade their existing computers and mobile devices
to incorporate features of the new versions. Some upgrades are free; some offer an upgrade price that is less
than the cost of purchasing the entire operating system.
New versions of an operating system usually are backward compatible, which means they recognize and work
with applications written for an earlier version of the operating system (or platform). The application, by
contrast, may or may not be upward compatible, meaning it may or may not run on new versions of the
operating system.
The three basic categories of operating systems on computers and mobile devices are desktop, server, and
mobile. Table 4-2 lists examples in each of these categories, which are discussed on the next sections.

Desktop Operating Systems

A desktop OS, sometimes called a stand-alone OS, is a complete operating system that works on desktops,
laptops, and some tablets. Desktop operating systems sometimes are called client operating systems because
they also work in conjunction with a server OS. Client operating systems can operate with or without a network.
Examples of the more widely used desktop operating systems are Windows, Mac OS, UNIX, Linux, and
Chrome OS.

WINDOWS
In the mid-1980s, Microsoft developed its first version of Windows, which provided a graphical user interface.
Since then, Microsoft continually has updated its Windows operating system, incorporating innovative features
and functions with each subsequent version. In addition to basic capabilities, the latest versions of Windows
offer these features:

 Uses tiles to access apps

 Includes the desktop interface
 Support for input via touch, mouse, and keyboard
 Email app, calendar app, and browser (Internet Explorer) included
 Photos, files, and settings can sync with OneDrive, Microsoft’s cloud server
 Enhanced security through an antivirus program, firewall, and automatic updates
 Windows Store offers additional applications for purchase

Windows User Interface

The following screens show the components of the Windows interface. The Windows operating system
simplifies the process of working with documents and apps by organizing the manner in which you interact with
the computer.
The Windows interface includes tiles and icons, as shown in the figure below. You tap or click tiles to run apps,
and double-tap or double-click icons to run apps. When you run an app in Windows, it may appear in an on-
screen work area app, called the desktop, shown in the second figure in this mini feature. Many Office and
Windows programs, such as Paint, contain common elements.

Mac OS

Since it was released in 1984 with Macintosh computers, Apple’s Macintosh operating system
(Mac OS) has earned a reputation for its ease of use and has been the model for most of the new
GUIs developed for non-Macintosh systems. The latest version, OS X, is a multitasking operating
system available for computers manufactured by Apple. Features of the latest version of OS X
include the following:

 Mail, calendars, contacts, and other items sync with iCloud, Apple’s cloud server
 Communicate and play games with users of mobile devices running Apple’s mobile operating
system (iOS)
 Built-in Facebook and Twitter support allows you to post a status, comments, or files from any app
 Browser (Safari)
 Open multiple desktops at once
 Dictated words convert to text
 Support for Braille displays
 Mac App Store provides access to additional apps and software updates

Mac OS User Interface

The following screens show the components of the OS X user interface. Mac OS is installed on
Apple computers, such as iMacs, MacBook Pros, MacBook Airs, Mac Pros, and Mac minis. The
user interface contains components such as the Dock, icons, and windows.
The OS X user interface begins with the desktop. Many OS X programs and apps contain common elements, as
shown in the desktop figure below. You can use the Launchpad to view, organize, and run apps, as shown in the
second figure below.

UNIX
UNIX (pronounced YOU-nix) is a multitasking operating system developed in the early 1970s by scientists at
Bell Laboratories. Bell Labs (a subsidiary of AT&T) was prohibited from actively promoting UNIX in the
commercial marketplace because of federal regulations. Bell Labs instead licensed UNIX for a low fee to
numerous colleges and universities, where UNIX obtained a wide following. UNIX was implemented on many
different types of computers. In the 1980s, the source code for UNIX was licensed to many hardware and
software companies to customize for their devices and applications. As a result, several versions of this
operating system
exist, each with slightly different features or capabilities.
Today, a version of UNIX is available for most computers of all sizes. Although some versions of UNIX have a
command-line interface, most versions of UNIX offer a graphical user interface .
Power users often work with UNIX because of its flexibility and capabilities. An
industry standards organization, The Open Group, now owns UNIX as a trademark.

LINUX
Linux (pronounced LINN-uks), introduced in 1991, is a popular, multitasking UNIX-based operating system
that runs on a variety of personal computers, servers, and devices. In addition to the basic operating system,
Linux also includes many free tools and programming languages.
Linux is not proprietary software like the operating systems discussed thus far. Instead, Linux is open source
software, which means its code is provided for use, modification, and redistribution. Many programmers have
donated time to modify and redistribute Linux to make it the most popular UNIX-based operating system.
Linux is available in a variety of forms, known as distributions. Some distributions of Linux are command line.
Others are GUI (Figure 9-15). Some companies market software that runs on their own distribution of Linux.
Many application programs,
tools, and plug-ins have Linux distributions.
Users obtain versions of Linux in a variety of ways. Some download it free from a provider’s website and create
media to install it on a computer, or they create a Live CD or Live USB from which to preview it. Others
purchase optical discs from vendors who may bundle their own software with the operating system or download
it from their websites. Some retailers will preinstall Linux on a new computer on request.
CHROME OS
Chrome OS, introduced by Google, is a Linux-based operating system designed to work primarily with web
apps. Apps are available through the Chrome Web Store,
and data is stored on Google Drive. The only apps typically installed on the computer are the Chrome browser,
a media player, and a file manager. A specialized laptop that runs Chrome OS is called a Chromebook, and a
specialized desktop that runs Chrome OS is called a Chromebox. Chromebooks and Chromeboxes typically use
SSDs for internal storage. Users also can run Chrome OS as a virtual machine (which is discussed in the next
section).
Because computers running Chrome OS work mostly with web apps, they do not require as much internal
storage capacity as other desktop operating systems discussed in this section. Their start-up and shutdown time
also is considerably less than other desktop operating systems because Chrome OS uses a streamlined start-up
procedure.
Running Multiple Desktop Operating Systems
If you want to run multiple operating systems on the same computer, you could partition the hard drive or you
could create a virtual machine. Partitioning divides a hard drive in separate logical storage areas (partitions) that
appear as distinct drives. When you partition a drive, you can install a separate operating system in each
partition, sometimes called a dual boot. Because partitioning requires advanced skills, users often opt to create a
virtual machine instead. A virtual
machine (VM) is an environment on a computer in which you can install and run an operating system and
programs. VMs enable you to install a second operating system on a computer.
Another option for Mac users who want to run Windows programs is a program called Boot Camp.

Server Operating Systems

A server operating system is a multi-user operating system that organizes and coordinates how multiple users
access and share resources on a network. Client computers on a network rely on server(s) for access to
resources.
Many of the desktop operating systems discussed in the previous section function as clients and work in
conjunction with a server operating system. Although desktop operating systems may include networking
capability, server operating systems are designed specifically to support all sizes of networks, including
medium- to large-sized businesses and web servers. Server operating systems can handle high numbers of
transactions, support large-scale messaging and communications, and have enhanced security and backup
capabilities.
Many also support virtualization. Recall that virtualization is the practice of sharing or pooling computing
resources, such as servers or storage devices. Through virtualization, for example, server operating systems can
separate a physical server into several virtual servers. Each virtual server then can perform independent,
separate functions.
Examples of server operating systems include the following:

 Windows Server: Developed by Microsoft, Windows Server enables organizations to

manage applications and websites on-site and/or on the cloud.
 OS X Server: Developed by Apple, OS X Server enables organizations to collaborate, sharefiles,
host websites and mail servers, and more on Mac computers and iOS devices.
 UNIX: Capable of handling a high volume of transactions in a multiuser environment andworking
with multiple processors, UNIX often is used on web servers.
 Linux: Because it provides a secure, stable multiuser environment, Linux often is used on
webservers and on supercomputers.
Mobile Operating Systems
The operating system on mobile devices and many consumer electronics is called a mobile operating system
and resides on firmware. Mobile operating systems typically include or support the following: calendar and
contact management, text messaging, email, touch screens, accelerometer (so that you can rotate the display),
digital cameras, media players, speech recognition, GPS navigation, a variety of third-party apps, a browser,
and wireless connectivity, such as cellular, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
Popular mobile operating systems include Android, iOS, and Windows Phone. The following sections discuss
each of these operating systems.

ANDROID
Android is an open source, Linux-based mobile operating system designed by Google for smartphones and
tablets. A variety of manufacturers produce devices that run the Android operating system, adding their own
interface elements and bundled software. As a result, an Android smartphone manufactured by Samsung may
have different user interface features from one manufactured by Google.
Features unique to recent versions of the Android operating system
include the following:

 Google Play app store provides access to apps, songs, books, and
movies.
 Google Drive provides access to email, contacts, calendar, photos,
files, and more.
 Face recognition or fingerprint scanner can unlock the device.
 Share contacts and other information by touching two devices together (using NFC technology).
 Speech output assists users with vision impairments.
 Voice recognition capability enables users to speak instructions.
 Built-in heart rate monitor works with phone apps.

IOS
iOS (originally called iPhone OS), developed by Apple, is a proprietary mobile operating system specifically
made for Apple’s mobile devices. Supported devices include the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad.
Features unique to recent versions of the iOS operating system include the following:

 Siri, a voice recognition app, enables you to speak instructions or questions to which it takes actions
or responds with speech output.
 Apple Pay provides a centralized, secure location for credit and debit cards, coupons, boarding
passes, loyalty cards, and mobile payment accounts.
 iCloud enables you to sync mail, calendars, contacts, and other items.
 iTunes Store provides access to music, books, podcasts, ringtones, and movies.
 Integrates with iPod to play music, video, and other media.
 Improves connectivity with other devices running the Mac operating system.
 Mac App Store provides access to additional apps and software updates.

WINDOWS PHONE
Windows Phone, developed by Microsoft, is a proprietary mobile operating system that runs on some
smartphones.
Features unique to recent versions of the Windows Phone operating system include the following:

 Sync photos, files, and settings with OneDrive.

 Use your phone as a remote control for your television.
 Access a global catalog of music, videos, or podcasts, or listen to iTunes music.
  Geofencing enables your phone to send or receive notification when you enter or exit a geographic
location.
 Windows Phone Store provides access to additional apps and software updates.
 Wallet app provides a centralized location for coupons, credit cards, loyalty cards, and memberships
in a single, easily accessible location.

Mobile OS versus Desktop OS

While mobile and desktop operating systems share many similarities, they also have differences designed for
their operating environment.
An operating system has the same role, whether for a desktop or mobile device. It manages operations and
provides a user interface. Because of this shared role, many similarities exist between the functions of desktop
and mobile operating systems. From a user’s perspective, operating systems enable you to work with apps and
to monitor and maintain the functions of the computer or device.
Typical functions included in mobile operating systems include the following:

 Main areas, such as a desktop or home screen, enable you to access and organize apps
 Methods to return to the main area quickly
 The ability to organize the app icons or tiles in the main areas easily by moving them to pages or
folders or by adding them to menus
 System tools, such as to manage battery power and Internet connections
 Options for security settings

Whether you are purchasing a computer or mobile device, the choice of an OS plays plays an important role.
Historically, the two types of operating systems have had different uses and capabilities. The differences are due
in part to the disparity in screen size, keyboards, and processing power. Because of convergence, as well as the
increased reliance on mobile devices for communications and productivity, the use and function of mobile and
desktop operating systems are becoming more similar. The prevalence of web apps and cloud storage services
enables users to access the same programs and files they work with on their desktop from a mobile
device. Some developers now create operating systems that share code and have common features, regardless
of whether they are installed on a computer or mobile device. Features, such as tiles and icons (typically used in
mobile devices), make the transition between using a mobile device and computer easier. For example, mobile
device operating systems include capabilities that allow users to take advantage of the touch screen displays. As
more computer desktop monitors today are touch enabled, computer users can take advantage of this feature.
Many differences exist in the way a user interacts with a mobile operating system.

 A desktop operating system may use menus, windows, and bars to run apps and to access features
within apps. On a desktop, you can run multiple programs simultaneously and seamlessly due to the
large screen and the use of pointing devices. This feature makes desktops more relevant than mobile
operating systems to productivity and multitasking.
 A mobile operating system typically has one program running at a time, although others may be
running in the background. Quick movements and gestures are often all that you need to perform
tasks on a mobile device. Mobile operating systems use technologies such as cellular, Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, GPS, and NFC to communicate with other devices and to connect to the Internet. Mobile
devices also typically include cameras, video cameras, voice recorders, and sometimes speech
recognition.

4C - File Storage Concepts

File Storage Concepts
One of the vital functions of the OS is to manage files in the storage devices. File management is one of the
basic and important features of operating system. Operating system is used to manage files of computer system.
All the files with different extensions are managed by operating system.
In this topic, let us focus on the important concepts about file storage and storage devices.
Choosing Appropriate Storage Devices
When a computer processes data, RAM (Random Access Memory) holds that data temporarily. RAM is known
as primary storage because it’s where the data must be in order to interact with the CPU. Data waits for the
CPU’s attention in memory, and then it waits again in memory when the CPU has finished processing it.
For data to be safely and permanently stored, however, it must be placed in secondary storage. Secondary
storage devices are nonvolatile, so they don’t lose their contents when the computer’s power is turned off.
Secondary storage can include hard disk drives, solid state drives, CDs, DVDs, and network and cloud-based
storage.
Storage devices are evaluated in these ways:

 Capacity: How much can it hold?

 Cost: How much does the storage cost per megabyte or gigabyte?
 Access speed: How quickly can the data be written and retrieved?
 Interface: How does it connect to the computer, and how fast is that connection?
 Media type: Is it magnetic, optical, or solid state?
 Portability: Is the storage inside the system unit, or connected to it externally?
 Removability: Is the disc removable from the drive that reads and writes it, or are they one
inseparable unit?

The next sections provide information about storage in general, including the several types of storage devices
and their characteristics.

Data Storage Basics

A file is a named collection of bits that work together to represent a single object, such as an executable
program, a spreadsheet, a picture, or a system file. Folders are logical organizing units for files. For example, a
Windows based computer has a Windows folder containing the system files needed to run Windows, a Users
folder containing the data files and settings for each user account, and a Program Files folder containing the
files needed for each installed application. A folder within a folder is called a subfolder; each of the
aforementioned folders contains multiple subfolders. Files and folders are stored on volumes. Each volume has
a letter followed by a colon, such as C: or D:.

Some people use the terms disk (or disc), drive, and volume interchangeably, but they have different meanings.
The term disk refers to a platter or set of platters on which data is stored. Examples include a hard disk drive
(HDD) and a DVD. When referring to a CD, DVD, or Blu-ray, it is customary to spell the term disc. The
term drive refers to the mechanical components that read and write the data on a disk. In some cases, such as
with an HDD, the drive and its platters are physically inseparable, so the terms disk and drive have come to be
synonymous; hard disk and hard drive refer to the same thing. When the disc is removable from the drive,
however, as with a CD or DVD, the terms are separate.

Solid-state storage devices such as USB flash drives are technically neither discs nor drives, because they have
no platters and no moving parts. However, they are commonly referred to as drives anyway, as in the
term solid-state drive (SSD).
Most commonly, each physical storage device acts as a single volume. For example, your DVD drive might
have a volume letter of E: assigned to it. However, some high-capacity storage devices such as hard disk drives
can be partitioned into multiple volumes, each of which appears in the OS to be a separate storage device with
its own letter.

Hard Disk Drives

A hard disk drive (HDD) is the most popular type of secondary storage for personal computers. Although
newer technologies are emerging, HDDs remain the standard because of their high capacity and low cost.
An HDD consists of a stack of metal platters (usually four to six) that are coated with iron dust. These platters
spin on a common spindle inside a sealed metal casing. A set of read/write heads inside the HDD casing reads
and writes data on the platters; there are heads on each side of each platter. The arms move in and out to reach
different spots on the platters, and the disks move past the heads as they spin. The most common platter sizes
are 3.5” in diameter on HDDs for desktop systems and 2.5” on HDDs for notebooks.

A precise system exists for describing the physical locations on an HDD. The platters are divided into
concentric circles, like the rings on a tree trunk cross-section, called tracks. Each platter’s first track is track 0,
the next one track 1, and so on. The track number tells the drive where to position the actuator arm that controls
the position of the read/write heads. All the heads move together, so if one head is reading track 1 on one side of
one platter, all the other heads are also reading track 1 on their side of their platter too. For this reason, tracks
are not referred to individually, but as cylinders. A cylinder is the group of all the tracks at a single arm
position.

Each track is divided into segments called sectors. A sector holds exactly 512 bytes. Because there are so many
sectors, and because almost every file is much larger than 512 bytes, sectors are grouped together into clusters,
and the drive’s controller addresses clusters rather than individual sectors. The number of sectors per cluster is
determined by the drive’s size and formatting, but most modern HDDs have 32 sectors per cluster.
An HDD can be internal or external, but most are internal, installed inside the system unit. An internal HDD
connects to the motherboard using either a parallel ATA (PATA) or serial ATA (SATA) cable. An external
HDD connects to a port on the outside of the system unit, and depending on the model may use a USB port, a
FireWire (IEEE 1394a) port, or an external SATA (eSATA) port. You can buy enclosures that will convert an
internal HDD to an external one.

Optical Drives
An optical drive uses a light beam and sensor to read the data. The surface of a blank optical disc is shiny and
reflects light strongly. When data is written to an optical disc, certain areas are burned with a laser so they are
less reflective. The shiny areas are called land, and the less-shiny areas are called pits. Recall from the
preceding section that on an HDD, transitions between positive and negative magnetic polarity indicate a 1 bit,
and lack of transition indicates a 0 bit. On an optical disc, transitions between areas of greater and lesser
reflectivity indicate a 1, and a consistent level of reflectivity indicates a 0.

There are several types of optical drives and discs. The oldest and most basic type is a compact disc (CD),
which holds up to 900MB of data. CDs are used for small amounts of data and also for audio recordings.
A digital versatile disc (DVD) can store up to 4.7GB per disc (single-sided, single layer). DVDs can also be
double-sided, with recordings on both sides rather than recording on one and a label on the other. DVDs can
also be dual-layer, where the top layer is semitransparent and
read using a laser and sensor at a different angle than the lower layer. A double-sided, dual-layer DVD can hold
up to 17GB of data. DVDs are used to distribute large applications, large amounts of data, and standard
definition movies. Blu-ray discs (BD) can store up to 128GB in up to four layers. They are used to distribute
even larger amounts of data, or high-definition movies.
All three types of discs can be read-only (ROM), recordable once (R), or rewriteable (RW). To record or rewrite
a disc, you must have a drive with that capability that supports the type of disc you are using.
DVDs come in two competing recordable and rewriteable standards, abbreviated as plus and minus signs, like
this: DVD+R and DVD-R. Some older home stereo systems do not support reading from +R and +RW discs,
but otherwise the differences are unnoticeable to most consumers.

Solid-State Drives
A solid-state drive (SSD) uses a type of EEPROM to store data in tiny transistors. Electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is a type of memory that stores its contents permanently; it is
nonvolatile. Because it is electrically erasable, the computer can erase what’s written there and rewrite it. The
type of EEPROM used in solid-state drives can be erased and rewritten in small blocks, making it suitable for
use as a storage device.
When a solid-state drive is a large-capacity replacement for an HDD, it’s sometimes called a solid-state hard
drive (SSHD) to distinguish it from lower-capacity portable solid-state storage, such as USB flash drives.

Solid-state drives are silent because they don’t have any moving parts, and the access time is very fast because
there are no read/write heads that have to move anywhere to get to the data. SSDs are more expensive than
HDDs, though; you get much less capacity for the money. For this reason, SSHDs are found mostly in high-end
desktop and notebook computers. Solid-state storage is common in tablets and smartphones, where high-
capacity storage is not needed and being lightweight is a primary concern.
To balance between performance and cost, some systems have both a small SSD and a larger HDD. The SSD
contains the start-up files and the operating system, and the HDD holds everything else. Hybrid drives are also
available that combine the two technologies in a single physical unit.

Network Volumes
As you’ve seen so far in this chapter, most computer storage is directly attached to the individual computer.
This is known as local storage, or direct-attached storage (DAS). However, computers can also use a network
to access storage that’s not physically nearby.
Network storage can enable multiple users to access the same up-tothe-minute information simultaneously. For
example, in a retail business with multiple checkout areas, all the checkout computers access a common
database containing the item prices so that when the price of an item changes, all cashiers immediately have that
information available. On a smaller scale, a family could store its movie and music collection on one computer,
which then can share the collection with all the other computers in the household via the family’s wireless
network. Storage that is available via a network is called network-attached storage (NAS).
Generically speaking, network-attached storage can be a volume on a file server in a business network or a
shared folder on an individual’s personal computer. However, the term is most often applied to a NAS
appliance, which is a specialized computing device built specifically for network file sharing. The appliance
connects directly into the network, and can be
remotely configured from any computer, so it doesn’t need its own input or output devices. NAS appliances are
available for consumers as well as businesses; for example, you could connect an inexpensive NAS appliance to
your home network to provide everyone in your family with always-on access to shared files.
Some large companies employ storage-area networks (SANs) to make central access to large amounts of data
simple. A SAN logically combines the contents of multiple remote storage devices so that each individual
computer connected to the SAN sees that storage pool as a single local drive.
When it is essential that data be kept safe and readily available, some companies store that data on a redundant
array of inexpensive disks (RAID). There are several types of RAID systems, and each type offers
improvements over a single disk drive in performance, in data safety, or in both. Usually, when you store data
on a disk you write to one disk at a time. RAID systems have the capability to spread the data across multiple
drives so each physical disk contains part of the data; this is called striping. For example, RAID0 stripes data
across multiple physical disks to improve the speed at which data is accessed, and RAID1 mirrors the contents
of a physical disk on another identical disk so that the data is always available even if the original disk fails.
RAID5 combines the striping from RAID0 with a data storage method that enables the RAID unit to reconstruct
lost data on any of the physical disks in the event of a disk failure.

Cloud-Based Storage
A cloud is a secure computing environment consisting of a set of remote servers that users access via the
Internet. A cloud can include applications, communication with other users, and storage space (cloud storage).
One of the most popular individual cloud storage systems is Microsoft OneDrive. If you have a Microsoft
account (which is free), you automatically get several gigabytes of OneDrive storage online. It is a secure
storage environment, and you can optionally choose to share certain folders or files with specific other people or
with the public. Google also offers free cloud-based storage to users, as do many other online companies.
Businesses of all sizes also employ cloud storage. For example, a business with many locations might create a
cloud-based information system for all employees to access, regardless of where they are. This information
system might include customer and product information, order information, access to human resources data
such as vacation schedules, and company-wide announcements and memos. A large company might maintain
its own online server for implementing its cloud environment, or might contract with a third-party company to
host its cloud.

4D - The Microprocessor
THE COMPUTER HARDWARE
D. THE MICROPROCESSOR
A processor, or microprocessor, is a small chip that resides in computers and other electronic devices. Its basic
job is to receive input and provide the appropriate output. While this may seem like a simple task, modern
processors can handle trillions of calculations per second.
The central processor of a computer is also known as the CPU (central processing unit). This processor handles
all the basic system instructions, such as processing mouse and keyboard input and running applications. Most
desktop computers contain a CPU developed by either Intel or AMD, both of which use the x86 processor
architecture. Mobile devices, such as laptops and tablets may use Intel and AMD CPUs, but can also use
specific mobile processors developed by companies like ARM or Apple.
Modern CPUs often include multiple processing cores, which work together to process instructions. While these
"cores" are contained in one physical unit, they are actually individual processors. In fact, if you view your
computer's performance with a system monitoring utility like Windows Task Manager (Windows) or Activity
Monitor (Mac OS X), you will see separate graphs for each processor. Processors that include two cores are
called dual-core processors, while those with four cores are called quad-core processors. Some high-end
workstations contain multiple CPUs with multiple cores, allowing a single machine to have eight, twelve, or
even more processing cores.
Besides the central processing unit, most desktop and laptop computers also include a GPU (Graphics
Processing Unit). This processor is specifically designed for rendering graphics that are output on a monitor.
Desktop computers often have a video card that contains the GPU, while mobile devices usually contain a
graphics chip that is integrated into the motherboard. By using separate processors for system and graphics
processing, computers are able to handle graphic-intensive applications more efficiently.

Here are tutorial videos that can help you understand more about computer processors.

4E - The Computer Memory

THE COMPUTER HARDWARE
E. THE COMPUTER MEMORY
In computing, memory refers to the computer hardware devices involved to store information for immediate use
in a computer; it is synonymous with the term "primary storage". Computer memory operates at a high speed,
for example RAM, as a distinction from storage that provides slow-to-access program and data storage but
offers higher capacities. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to secondary storage,
through a memory management technique called "virtual memory".
The term "memory", meaning "primary storage" or "main memory", is often associated with addressable
semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as
primary storage but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are two main
kinds of semiconductor memory, volatile and non-volatile. Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory
(used as secondary memory) and ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM memory (used for storing firmware
such as BIOS). Examples of volatile memory are primary storage, which is typically dynamic random-access
memory (DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory, which is typically static random-access memory (SRAM) that
is fast but energy-consuming, offering lower memory areal density than DRAM.
Typical secondary storage devices are hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD).
The RAM - primary storage

The HARD-DRIVE - secondary storage