Data communication and

Computer Networking

Chapter one

Basics of data communication

7.1
 Review of Electronic communication

Low-frequency
source information Transmission
(analog or digital) medium
(channel)

Modulator and Frequency

Power Amplif
frequency up- down- Filter
amplifier ier
converter converter

High-
High-frequency
frequency
local oscillator
oscillator
Transmitter Receiver
 Review of Electronic communication
System noise and
interference

Transmission medium
Transmitter or Receiver
Communications channel
Copper cable (coax, UTP)
Information Received
Optical fiber cable Information
source
(intelligence) Free space (Radio)
 Basics of data communication

Defn: Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices

via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable

Data representation: text, image, numbers, audio or video

Transmission medium: guided(coaxial ,twisted pair or fiber
unguided (satellite or terrestrial)
Source: generates the data to be transmitted; eg. telephones
and PCs
Sender: It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
video camera, and so on.
Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
 Datacom components cont,
Transmitter: transforms and encodes the information in such a
way as to make the data suitable to transmission medium .
Receiver: converts data into a form that suitable to destination
device.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
television, and so on
Ø Protocol. It is a set of rules that govern data communications.
It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices. i.e a language for communicating devices
Ø Effectiveness of data communication depends on : delivery,
accuracy, timeliness(real-time), and jitter(variation of packet
arrival).
Ø One important issue in networking is the performance of the
network-how good is it? That is quality of service. The
performance of a network is measured by bandwidth,
throughput, propagation time, latency, and queue time
A transmission media define as anything that can carry information from a source to a
destination.
Figure 1.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

Figure 1.2 Classes of transmission media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another, include
ØTwisted-pair cable,
Ø Coaxial cable, and
ØFiber-optic cable.

A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained

by the physical limits of the medium.
Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that
accept and transport signals in the form of electric current.
Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form
of light.
A. Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3 Twisted pair

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as
a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in
both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources . This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance
is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise
source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
The purpose of twisting is to minimize the crosstalk and noise signals
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
Shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided- mesh covering that
encases each pair of insulated conductors. metal casing prevents the penetration of
noise or crosstalk.
Figure 1.4 shows the difference between UTP and STP.

RJ45 connector RJ-45

BNC
 Twisted pair cont’
Table 1.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
 Types of Cabling

1. Straight though cables

• Used to connect different devices
• Example: PC to Hub/Switch
2. Cross-over cables
• Used to Connect the same devices
• Example: PC to PC, switch to switch
3. Roll-over cables
• Used in Active devices like routers and gateways
 Wiring:
Standard A Standard B
1-White Green
1-White Orange
2-Green
2-Orange
3-White Orange
3-White Green
4- Blue
4- Blue
5- White Blue
5- White Blue
6- Orange
6- Green
7-White Brown
7-White Brown
8-Brown
8-Brown
EIA/TIA (Electronic Industries Alliance/ Telecommunication
Industries Association)
 How to Make a Network Cable
1. Measure and cut the required length of network cable and add a
little extra wire, just in case.
2. Carefully remove the outer jacket of the cable (About 2.5cm).
3. Inspect the newly revealed wires for any cuts or scrapes that
expose the copper wire inside.
4. Untwist the pairs so they will lay flat between your fingers.
5. Arrange the wires based on the wiring specifications you are
following.
6. Press all the wires flat and parallel between your thumb and
forefinger
7. Keep the wires flat and in order as you push them into the RJ-45
plug with the flat surface of the plug on top.
8. Place the wired plug into the crimping tool and press it firmly.
9. Test the cable to ensure that it will function in the field.
 Networking Tools

• Crimping Tool (Crimper)

• Tester
• Insulation Remover
• Side Cutting Pliers
• Screw Driver
• Puncher
 Applications

Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice

and data channels.
The local loop--the line that connects subscribers to the central
telephone office---commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair
cables.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide
high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability
of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.
B. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover (see Figure
below).

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Table 1.2
n Two kinds:
1. Thicknet(RG-11): it connect 100 devices with range 500 m (more
expensive ).
2. Thinnet (RG-58): it connect 30 devices within 185 m (cheaper).
n To connect coaxial cable to device, we need (BNC).
Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.

Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC)

Figure 1.5 BNC connectors

C. Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Figure 1.6 Bending of light ray

If the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the
interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and
moves closer to the surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the
light bends along the interface. If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray
reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser substance. Note that the critical
angle is a property of the substance, and its value differs from one substance to another.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core
is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of
the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected
off the cladding instead of being refracted into it. See Figure 2.11.
 Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has a higher
index of refraction than the surrounding medium

Figure 1.7 Fiber construction

Figure 1.8 Fiber-optic cable connectors

 Fiber-Optic Cable cont’

Applications: Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we
can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.

Advantages Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted- pair or
coaxial).
1. Higher bandwidth. 2. Less signal attenuation. 3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
4. Resistance to corrosive materials. 5. Light weight. 6. Greater immunity to tapping.

Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.

1. Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
2. Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
3.Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot
be justified.
22
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
Figure 1.9 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Radio, satellite microwave,, Bluetooth, and infrared light are all different forms of
electromagnetic waves that are used to transmit data
unguided signal can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
1.Ground Propagation:
• Radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
• The low frequency signal follow the curvature of the planet.
• Distance depends on the amount of the power.
2.Sky Propagation:
§ Higher frequency radio radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected
back to the earth.
§ Sky propagation allow for greater distance with lower power output.
3.line-of-sight Propagation: Very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines
directly from antenna to antenna.
The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves
is divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities.
These bands are rated from very low frequency(VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).
Table 1.3 lists these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and some applications.
Table 1.3 Bands
 Data and signal representation
• In data communications, information is
represented as a bit pattern. The information
can exist either analog or digital forms.
• The term analog data refers to information that
is continuous; digital data refers to information
that has discrete states. Analog data example a
human voice.
• Digital data take on discrete values. For example,
data are stored in computer memory in the form
of 0s and 1s .
 Signal representation
Ø Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an
infinite number of values in a range; digital signals can have
only a limited number of values.

Fig Analog and digital signal representation

A digital signal can have more than two levels. In general, if a

signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits.
 Characteristics of signals
Ø Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame,
called a period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical
periods.
A non periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle
that repeats over time.

ü Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite,

example of simple periodic signal is sine wave .
ü If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series
of signals with discrete frequencies.
ü A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak
amplitude, the frequency, and the phase
 Characteristics of signals
Ø Bandwidth: The range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is normally a difference
between two numbers
Ø Bit Rate: The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in
bits per second (bps).
It is used to describe non-periodic digital signals.
v Example
A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth
analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the
highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?

The bit rate can be calculated as 2 x 4000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps

 Digital Signals transmission techniques
Baseband Transmission
• Baseband transmission means sending a
digital signal over a channel without changing
the digital signal to an analog signal.

• Fig . Baseband transmission

 Digital transmission techniques
ü Baseband transmission requires a low-pass channel, a channel with
a bandwidth that starts from zero.
Example: What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we
need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, a rough approximation, is B = bit rate /2,
or 500 kHz. We need a low-pass channel with frequencies between
0 and 500 kHz.
b. A better result can be achieved by using the first and the third
harmonics with the required bandwidth B =3 x 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.
c. Still a better result can be achieved by using the first, third, and
fifth harmonics with B =5 x 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
 Line Coding Schemes
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.

Fig.. Line coding and decoding

Parameters
§ There should be self-synchronization i.e both receiver and sender clock should be
synchronized.
§ There should have some error-detecting capability
§ There should be immunity to noise and interference
§ There should be less complexity
§ There should be no low frequency component (DC-component) as long distance
transfer is not feasible for low frequency component signal
§ There should be less base line wandering
 Types of Line coding
Ø Unipolar Scheme
• In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis,
either above or below.
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): In unipolar NRZ scheme the positive voltage defines bit
1 and close to zero voltage defines bit 0.

Representation of 0 Representation of 1
•Bit 0 is mapped to amplitude close to zero
•Bit 1 is mapped to a positive amplitude
Limitation
§ It uses more power as compared polar schemes to send one bit per unit line
resistance
§ In continuous set of zeros or ones there will be self-synchronization
problem(Base line wandering )
§ DC component
 Line coding cont’
ØPolar Schemes
In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the
voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.

v Non-Return-to-Zero-Level (NRZ_L): In polar NRZ-L encoding, we use two levels

of voltage amplitude.

• Bit 0 is mapped to a negative amplitude

• Bit 1 is mapped to a positive amplitude
• A small DC component is present
• Small power required to transmit as compared to unipolar coding
• In continuous set of zeros or ones there will be self-synchronization problems

Representation of 0 Representation of 1
 Line coding cont…
v NRZI (Non Return to Zero Inverted)
Representation of 1
Representation of 0

Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C Fig. D

Bit 0 mapped to no signal level transition

Bit 1 is mapped to signal level transition at the beginning of the bit interval
Assumption:
• The signal level to the left of the bit is high– Fig. A and Fig. C
• The signal level to the left of the bit is low – Fig. B and Fig. D
 Line coding cont…
v Comparing a NRZ-L and NRZ-I
ü In both NRZ-L and NRZ-I there is Base Line wondering
problem but for NRZ-L it is twice as bad as compared to
NRZ-I. This is because of transition at the boundary for NRZ-
I(if the next bit that we are going to transmit is logical 1)
ü There is self-synchronization problem is similar in both for
long sequence of 0’s, but for long sequence of 1’s it is more
severe in NRZ-L .
ü NRZ has DC component problem. i.e. The value of the
power density is very high around frequencies close to zero.
This means that there are DC components that carry a high
level of energy i.e. uneven energy distribution.
 Line coding cont…
Ø AMI and Pseudoternary: A common bipolar encoding scheme is
called bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI). In AMI a neutral zero
voltage represents binary 0 and Binary 1s are represented by alternating
positive and negative voltages.
• In pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0
bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.

v AMI is commonly used for long-distance communication, but it has a

synchronization problem when a long sequence of 0s is present in the data.
This can be solved using scrambling.
v AMI is an alternative to NRZ. This scheme has the same signal rate as NRZ,
but there is no DC component, as bit is represented by voltage zero and
other alternative every time.
 Line coding cont’
Return to Zero (RZ): RZ scheme uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.

Representation of 1
Representation of 0
vA bit 0 is mapped to a negative amplitude −A for the first half of the symbol
duration followed by a zero amplitude for the second half of the symbol duration.
v A bit 1 is mapped to a positive amplitude +A for the first half of the bit
duration followed by a zero amplitude for the second half of the bit duration.

Ø The signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit.

 Line coding cont’
Limitation
üThe synchronization problem b/n sender and
receiver
üRZ uses three levels of voltage, which is more
complex to create and distinguish i. e requires
higher BW.
Advantage
üNo DC problem
 Manchester and differential
Manchester schemes(Bi-phases).
Ø The synchronization problem of RZ is solved by Manchester
and differential Manchester coding scheme .
Ø In Manchester encoding, is the combination of the RZ and
NRZ-L schemes the duration of the bit is divided into two
halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half
and moves to the other level in the second half. The transition
at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.
Ø Differential Manchester. Is the combination of RZ and NRZ-I
schemes . There is always a transition at the middle of the bit,
but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit.
If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1,
there is no transition .
 Manch & Differ Manc encoding continue.
Representation of 0 Representation of 1

§ Bit 0 is sent by having a mid-bit transition from high to low.

§ Bit 1 is sent by having a mid-bit transition from low to high.

Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C Fig. D

§ Bit 0 is mapped to signal level transition at the beginning of the bit

interval.
§ Bit 1 is mapped to absence of signal level transition at the beginning of
the bit interval.
Assumption:
§ The signal level to the left of the bit is high – Fig. A and Fig. C
§ The signal level to the left of the bit is low – Fig. B and Fig. D
 Manch & Differ Manc cont’….
The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems
associated with NRZ-L and Differential Manchester
overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-I
Advantages of Manchester & differential coding
ü There is no baseline wandering.
ü There is no DC component because each bit has a
positive and negative voltage contribution.
Limitation
ü The minimum bandwidth required for Manch.
and Differe. coding is 2 times that of NRZ.
Comparison of different types of Line coding wave form for
given data (01101110101)
 TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
v Asynchronous (start-stop) : Each character to be transmitted
is encoded into a series of pulses.

(a) Transmission of many characters.STB = start bit; CB = character bits; SPB

=stop bit(s); idle time is between character transmission. (b) Transmission of
one 8-bit character.

ü Transmission speeds up to 56k bps over the switched telephone network.

ü data rates up to 64 kbps or higher are possible over a direct connect cable
whose distance is limited to 50 feet.
v Synchronized transmission
 TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
ü It involves sending a grouping of characters in a continuous bit
stream.
ü modems or other communications devices provide a timing
signal or clock bits.
ü The transmission of the data is preceded by the
transmission of one or more special characters called SYN.

ü Once a group of syn characters is transmitted, the receiver

recognizes and synchronizes itself onto a stream of those syn
characters.
ü After synchronization has been achieved, then actual data
transmission can proceed.
 Comparison of Asyn and Synch
Asynchronous
1. Each character is prefixed by a start bit and followed by one or more stop bits.
2. Idle time (period of inactivity) can exist between transmitted characters.
3. Bits within a character are transmitted at prescribed time intervals.
4. Timing is established independently in the computer and terminal.
5. Transmission speeds normally do not exceed 56 000 bps over analog switched facilities.
6. It needs higher overheads as compared to synchronous transmission.
Synchronous
1. Syn characters prefix transmitted data.
2. Syn characters are transmitted between blocks of data to maintain line
synchronization.
3. No gaps exist between characters.
4. Timing is established and maintained by the transmitting and receiving modems, the
terminal, or other devices.
5. Terminals must have buffers.
6. Transmission speeds are normally in excess of 2000 bps.
7. It needs less overheads and more efficient as compared with asynchronous
transmission.
 1.6. TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
v The two types of data transmission
Ø Serial: character bits transmitted in sequence over one
line
Ø In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we
need only one communication channel rather than n
to transmit data between two communicating
devices
The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is
that with only one communication channel, serial
transmission reduces the cost of transmission over
parallel by roughly a factor of n.
Eg. computer-to-peripheral unit transmission
 Parallel Transmission
üParallel: the character bits transmitted in parallel
ü The advantage of parallel transmission is speed.
ü Increase cost of the transmission medium and interface
b/c of additional conductors.
ü Higher data rate transmission rate

Fig. Serial and parallel transmission

Broadband Transmission(Using Modulation)
Ø It means changing the digital signal to an analog signal for transmission.
Ø It uses Bandpass channel-a channel with a bandwidth that does not start
from zero.

Fig 1.16.Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a

bandpass channel

Ø In this method , digital signal is converted to a composite analog signal

Ø Example : Sending computer data through a telephone subscriber line
 1.7. TRANSMISSION MODE
Ø One method of characterizing lines, terminal devices, computers and modems
is by their transmission or communications mode. Three classes of
transmission modes are
ü Simplex: only on direction transmission , no response to Tx, may be used
turn On /off certain devices
eg. AM transmission
ü half-duplex : It permits transmission in either direction in only one
direction at a time:
eg. Operator radio transmission
Ø Full-duplex transmission
Two simultaneous transmissions
full-duplex transmission permits transmission in both
directions simultaneously .
üMore efficient throughput
üRequires complex equipments
 Transmission impairments
Ø With any communications system, the signal that is received may differ
from the signal that is transmitted due to various transmission
impairments which includes
Ø Attenuation : reduction in signal strength due to distance , it is more
serious in analog data
Ø Delay distortion: due to variation of velocity of propagation with
frequency i.e phase shift results in Inter-symbol interference
Ø Noise :unwanted signal which causes distortion
Types of noises
ü Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons, it is uniformly distributed
across the BW, and noise power is modeled as N = kTB .
ü Inter-modulation noise: When signals at different frequencies share the same
transmission medium, results sum and differences of frequency
ü Crosstalk :it is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical
coupling between nearby twisted pairs or, rarely, coax cable lines carrying multiple
signals.
Uncorrelated noise: External( Atmospheric, Extraterrestrial, Solar, Cosmic, Man-made,
Interference) and Internal (Thermal noise , Shot noise ,Transient time)
Transmission Impairment cont’
 DATA RATE LIMITS
§ A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can
send data, in bits per second over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Data rate can be calculated considering the following two conditions
v Noiseless channel ( i.e Nyquist Bit rate )
Max BitRate = 2x bandwidth x10g2L. L is signal coding level.
v Noisy Channel (Shannon Capacity)
Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 + SNR) bps
Example: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3kHz transmitting
a signal with four signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
BitRate = 2 x 3000 X log24 = 12k bps
 CHANNEL CAPACITY
q Nyquist Bandwidth: Nyquist, states that for given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal
rate that can be carried is 2B. For multiple signaling level the data rate is give by
Where M is the number of discrete signal or voltage levels.
q Shannon Capacity Formula
EXAMPLE 1.2 Let us consider an example that relates the Nyquist and Shannon
formulations.
Suppose that the spectrum of a channel is between 3 MHz and 4 MHz and SNRdB = 24 dB.
The energy per bit in a signal is given by Eb = STb ,where S is the signal power and Tb is the
time required to send one bit. The data rate R is just R = 1/Tb
Thus

Example 1.3. binary phase-shift keying, is required for a bit

error rate of .If the effective noise temperature is and the
data rate is 2400bps, what received signal level is required?
Example 2: Assume that SNR = 36dB and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as