PORTLAND CEMENT, MIXING

WATER, ADMIXTURE

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING

CECMAT20
 INTRODUCTION

Portland cement concrete is the most widely used manufactured construction

material in the world. The importance of concrete in our daily lives cannot be
overstated. It is used in structures such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, factories,
pavements, and playgrounds.

The main use of portland cement is to make portland cement concrete, but it can
be used for other purposes, such as stabilizing soils and aggregate bases for highway
construction.

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 PORTLAND CEMENT PRODUCTION

Production of portland cement starts with two basic raw ingredients: a calcareous
material and an argillaceous material.

The calcareous material is a calcium oxide, such as limestone, chalk, or oyster

shells.

The argillaceous material is a combination of silica and alumina that can be

obtained from clay, shale, and blast furnace slag.

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 STEPS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
PORTLAND CEMENT

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 These materials are crushed and then stored in silos. The raw
materials, in the desired proportions, are passed through grinding mill,
using either a wet or dry process. The ground material is stored until
it can be sent to the kiln.

Modern dry process cement plants use a heat recovery cycle to

preheat the ground material, or feed stock, with the exhaust gas from
the kiln.

In addition, some plants use a flash furnace to further heat the feed
stock. Both the preheater and flash furnace improve the energy
efficiency of cement production. In the kiln, the raw materials are
melted at temperatures of 1400 to 1650°C, changing the raw
materials into cement clinker.

The clinker is cooled and stored. The final process involves grinding
the clinker into a fine powder. During grinding, a small amount of
gypsum is added to regulate the setting time of the cement in the
concrete.

The finished product may be stored and transported in either bulk or

sacks. The cement can be stored for long periods of time, provided it
is kept dry.
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 The maximum size of the cement
particles is 0.09 mm; 85% to 95% of the
particles are smaller than 0.045 mm, and
the average diameter is 0.01 mm.

A kilogram of portland cement has

approximately 7 trillion particles with a
total surface area of about 300 to 400
m2.

Fineness of cement is usually measured

indirectly by measuring the surface area
with the Blaine air permeability
apparatus (ASTM C204)

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 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
PORTLAND CEMENT

The raw materials used to manufacture portland cement are lime, silica, alumina,
and iron oxide. These raw materials interact in the kiln, forming complex chemical
compounds. Calcination in the kiln restructures the molecular composition,
producing four main compounds as shown below.

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 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of cement is needed for mixture proportioning calculations.

The specific gravity of portland cement (without voids between particles) is
about 3.15 and can be determined according to ASTM C188.

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 HYDRATION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The hydration process occurs through two mechanisms: through-solution and

topochemical.
The through-solution process involves the following steps:
• dissolution of anhydrous compounds into constituents
• formation of hydrates in solution
• precipitation of hydrates from the supersaturated solution

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 WATER-CEMENT RATIO

The amount of water added to concrete must be sufficient for hydration, water
absorbed by the aggregate, water lost through evaporation and absorption into
the forms, and additional water needed for the workability of the plastic
concrete.
Hydration is the chemical reaction between cement and water. There are two
components to hydration: chemical and physical.
Chemical bonding requires approximately 0.22 to 0.25 kg of water per 1 kg of
cement. Historically, this was considered the minimum water to cement ratio
required for hydration.
More recently, the role of physical bonding of water to the cement gel, termed
gel-water has been recognized. Cement cannot fully hydrate without gel-water.
Each kilogram of cement requires 0.19 kg of gel-water. Hence, the Portland
Cement Association (PCA) now recommends a minimum of 0.40.

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 WATER-CEMENT RATIO

The water added for workability is in excess of the water needed for hydration
and causes the development of capillary voids in the concrete. These voids
increase the porosity and permeability of the concrete and reduce strength.

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 T Y P I C AL AG E - ST R ENGTH R E L AT I ONSH IP S OF
CONCR E T E B ASE D ON COMPR E SSI ON T E ST S OF 0 . 1 5
X 0 . 3 0 M CY L I NDERS, USI NG T Y P E I P ORT L AND
CE ME NT AND MOI ST- CUR ING.

Air entrained concrete Non-air entrained concrete

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 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

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 ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE

Admixtures are ingredients other than portland cement, water, and aggregates
that may be added to concrete to impart a specific quality to either the plastic
(fresh) mix or the hardened concrete (ASTM C494).

Some admixtures are charged into the mix as solutions. In such cases, the liquid
should be considered part of the mixing water.

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 ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE

Admixtures are classified by the following chemical and functional physical

characteristics:
1. Air entrainers
2. Water reducers
3. Retarders
4. Hydration controller admixtures
5. Accelerators
6. Specialty admixtures

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 ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE

The Portland Cement Association (PCA) identifies four major reasons for using
admixtures:
1. to reduce the cost of concrete construction
2. to achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means
3. to ensure quality of concrete during the stages of mixing, transporting, placing,
and curing in adverse weather conditions
4. to overcome certain emergencies during concrete operations

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 AIR ENTRAINERS

Air entrainers produce tiny air bubbles in the hardened concrete to provide space for water
to expand upon freezing. As moisture within the concrete pore structure freezes, three
mechanisms contribute to the development of internal stresses in the concrete:
• Critical saturation
• Hydraulic pressure
• Osmotic pressure

Magnified photo of concrete

showing entrained air bubbles.
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 WATER REDUCERS

Workability of fresh or plastic concrete requires more water than is needed for
hydration. The excess water, beyond the hydration requirements, is detrimental to
all desirable properties of hardened concrete. Therefore, water-reducing admixtures
have been developed to gain workability and, at the same time, maintain quality.

Water reducers increase the mobility of the cement particles in the plastic mix,
allowing workability to be achieved at lower water contents. Water reducers are
produced with different levels of effectiveness: conventional, mid-range, and high-
range.

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 SLUMP OF CONCRETE WITH SAME
WATER-CEMENT RATIO

a. no water reducer

b. conventional water reducer

c. mid-range water reducer

d. high-range water reducer

(superplasticizer)

A water reducer allows the use of

a lower amount of mixing water
while maintaining the same
workability level. Used in this
manner, the water reducer allows
a lower water–cement ratio and
therefore increases the strength
and other desirable properties of
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the concrete.
 EFFECTS OF WATER REDUCER

Water reducers can actually be used to accomplish three different objectives:

• Adding a water reducer without altering the other quantities in the mix
increases the slump, which is a measure of concrete consistency and an
indicator of workability.
• The strength of the mix can be increased by using the water reducer by
lowering the quantity of water and keeping the cement content constant.
• The cost of the mix, which is primarily determined by the amount of cement,
can be reduced.
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 RETARDERS

Some construction conditions require that the time between mixing and placing
or finishing the concrete be increased. In such cases, retarders can be used to
delay the initial set of concrete. Retarders are used for several reasons, such as
the following:
1. Offsetting the effect of hot weather
2. Allowing for unusual placement or long haul distances
3. Providing time for special finishes

In addition, some retarders entrain air and improve workability. Other retarders
increase the time required for the initial set but reduce the time between the
initial and final set.

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 HYDRATION-CONTROL ADMIXTURES

These admixtures have the ability to stop and reactivate the hydration process of
concrete.They consist of two parts:
• Stabilizer
• Activator
Adding the stabilizer completely stops the hydration of the cementing materials
for up to 72 hours, while adding the activator to the stabilized concrete
reestablishes normal hydration and setting. These admixtures are very useful in
extending the use of ready-mixed concrete when the work at the jobsite is
stopped for various reasons. They are also useful when concrete is being hauled
for a long time.

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 ACCELERATORS

Accelerators are used to develop early strength of concrete at a faster rate than
that developed in normal concrete. The ultimate strength, however, of high early
strength concrete is about the same as that of normal concrete.
Accelerators are used to:
1. Increase rate of strength gain
2. Reduce the amount of time before finishing operations begin
3. Reduce curing time
4. Plug leaks under hydraulic pressure efficiently

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 SPECIALTY ADMIXTURES

Examples of specialty admixtures include:

• workability retaining
• corrosion inhibitors
• damp-proofing agents
• permeability-reducing agents
• fungicidal, germicidal, and insecticidal admixtures
• pumping aids
• bonding agents
• grouting agents
• gas-forming agents
• coloring agents
• shrinkage reducing

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