TOPIC 1 : DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

We can represent digital data by using digital signals. The conversion involves three techniques: line
coding, block coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always needed. Block coding and scrambling mayor
may not be needed.

Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.

We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored
in computer memory as sequences of bits.
Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are

encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding
the digital signal.
We can formulate the relationship between data rate and signal rate as:
S =c xNx 1/r baud

where N is the data rate (bps); c is the case factor, which varies for each case; S is the number of signal
elements; and r is the previously defined factor.

Example

A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal element (r = 1). If the bit
rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution:

We assume that the average value of c is ½. The baud rate is then

S =c x N x1/r = ½ x 100, 000 x 1= 50, 000 = 50 Kbaud
Line Coding Schemes

We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories, as shown in below:

Unipolar Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below. NRZ

(Non-Return-to-Zero): Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ)

scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. It is called
NRZ
because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.

Polar Schemes

In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the voltage level for 0
can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be negative.
Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ):

In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage amplitude. We can have two versions of
polar NRZ: NRZ-Land NRZ-I.

In the first variation, NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.
In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change in the level of the

voltage determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a change,
the bit is 1.

The synchronization problem (sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized) also exists in
both schemes. Again, this problem is more serious in NRZ-L than in NRZ-I. While a long
sequence of 0's can cause a problem in both schemes, a long sequence of 1s affects only NRZ-L.

Another problem with NRZ-L occurs when there is a sudden change of polarity in the system.
NRZ-I does not have this problem. Both schemes have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.

Return to Zero (RZ) The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks
are not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting.
One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive, negative, and zero . In
RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.
Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of NRZ-L are combined into the
Manchester scheme.

In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains
at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second half. The transition
at the middle of the bit provides synchronization.

Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I. There is always
a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the
bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none.
 The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ.

Block Coding
We need redundancy to ensure synchronization and to provide some kind of inherent error detecting.
Block coding can give us this redundancy and improve the performance of line coding. In general, block
coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding is referred
to as an mB/ nB encoding technique.

Transmission Modes
Of primary concern when we are considering the transmission of data from one device to another is the
wiring, and of primary concern when we are considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we send 1 bit
at a time; or do we group bits into larger groups and, if so, how? The transmission of binary data across
a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with
each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick. While there is only one way to send
parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and
isochronous.
Parallel Transmission
Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits each. Computers produce
and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use spoken language in the form of
words rather than letters. By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called
parallel transmission.

Advantage:

The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission can increase
the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.
Disadvantage:

.
Parallel transmission requires n communication lines just to transmit the data stream. Because this is
expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices.

The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel,
serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.

Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the interface
between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the receiver
(serial-to-parallel).

Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits
(1) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is
the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate. In real-time audio and
video, in which uneven delays between frames are not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be viewed at
the same rate. If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should be no delays
between frames.
 Revision question

1.a.Discuss the following line encoding schemes.

i. Unipolar scheme (2 marks)
ii. Non-Return-Zero (NRZ- I (2 marks)
iii . Polar Schemes (2 marks)
iv. Non-Return-Zero (NRZ- L) (2 marks)

2.). Discus the following serial transmission modes:

i. Asynchronous transmission (3 marks)
ii. Synchronous transmission (3 marks)
iii. Isochronous transmission (3 marks)