English for Dentistry by Sorin Ungurean

Student: Cochinescu Eliza-Elena

CHAPTER 1. ENGLISH-VERB GRAMMAR

A. General Information on English Verbs
Verbs are a part of speech expressing actions or states. They fall into such
categories as:
 Regular (e.g. 'to arrive', 'to wait'), or irregular 'to do–did–done', 'to set–set–
set');  Simple (e.g. 'to do', 'to allow'), or compound ('to play along', 'to turn
down');  Notional (i.e. carrying meaning: 'to have' = 'to own'/'to possess');
auxiliary (e.g.
'to have' in perfect tenses); or modal ('to have to' employed instead of
'must').
NB: In the following verbal structures, symbols are used as follows: [+] =
affirmative, [–] = negative, [?] = interrogative statements; ‘V1/V2/V3’ =
first/second/third verb form, whether irregular (cf. “speak–spoke–spoken”) or
regular (“talk–talked–talked”); ‘S’ = Subject. Quite often, time and tense do not
coincide in the use of English verbs.
Spelling: Verbs ending in a consonant preceded by a vowel (-VC) double that
consonant before adding an ending such as -(e)d or -ing – always in BE: revelling,
but only when the last syllable is stressed in AE: reveling/rebelling. Never double
the final consonant when it is preceded by a long vowel or a diphthong: revealing.
Also, verbs ending in consonants preceded by other consonants – understanding, or
ones ending in a vowel preceded by a consonant – come > coming, never double
the (final) consonant.
Other special situations are verbs ending in -y. The y is preserved if it comes
after a vowel – 'stay' > stays/stayed/staying, but it turns into -ie right after a
consonant when -(e)s or -(e)d follow: 'bury' > buries/buried/burying, 'hurry' >
hurries/hurried/hurrying.
SCIENTIFIC LEXICON: AE/BE “American/British English” § cf. “compare” (Latin confer) §
e.g. “for example” (Lat. exempli gratia) § i.e. “that is” (Lat. id est) § NB “take note” (Lat.
nota bene)

Activity 1. Practice with verbs. When you have revised the form and
use of a structure, supply at least two examples (sentences) of your
own in the blank lines > below the structure!
B. Selected Tenses of the Indicative Mood – the main mood, used to report
reality in the past, present, or future.
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 1. The Present Tense
(a) Present Simple Examples
[+] S + V1(-[E]S) She often writes business letters. His old PC hardly works at all.
 He thinks you should study more.
 She swims too far from the shore.
[–] S + DO(ES) NOT/DO(ES)N’T + V1 I don't speak Korean. It doesn't matter if...
 He doesn`t really like pasta.
 She doesn`t think it`s a good idea to go to the party.
[?] DO(ES) + S + V1? Does he know? Do we have an agreement? Don't you think so?
 Does he realise that it is wrong?
 Do you understand that I don`t like that restaurant?
Uses: Habitual actions (Mail arrives daily.); eternal truths/scientific facts: Water
boils at 100°C.); anticipation of future actions, part of an official program (The
conference begins tomorrow.); instead of Pres. Continuous, with verbs of
perception (I smell trouble!).
Comments: It is accompanied by specific time expressions, such as: EVER, ALWAYS,
OFTEN, NEVER, USUALLY/CUSTOMARILY/AS A HABIT, RARELY/SELDOM etc.
(b) Present Continuous
[+] S + AM/IS/ARE + V1-ING We're talking grammar now. Look, it's raining!
 She is coming to the wedding.
 He is going to move from this
apartment.
[–] S + AM/IS/ARE NOT + V1-ING I am not buying it! We're not going away yet.
 She is not going to run away
from the problem.
 We are not breaking the
window to get inside.
[?] AM/IS/ARE + S + V1-ING? Why's she crying? Aren't you forgetting
something?
 Is she trying to get in trouble?
 Aren`t you drawing today?
Uses: An action in progress at the time of speaking (i.e. NOW), or two or several
simultaneous actions. (e.g. I can see you're working while they're having fun.)
Comments: Also has future use as Subject’s personal schedule: I'm leaving tonight.
 2. The Present Perfect Tense
(a) Present Perfect Simple
[+] S + (HA)'VE/(HA)'S + V3 We've won all the games so far. It's just
 I have worked a lot today. started.
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 I have filmed a new movie.
[–] S + (HA)'VE/(HA)'S NOT + V3 I haven't eaten lunch yet. He hasn't got the
 I haven`t seen him in a long job.
time.
 I haven`t found the best movie
yet.
[?] HAVE/HAS + S + V3? Has she paid the bills? Have you taken the
offer?
 Have you spoken to him yet?
 Have you worn that dress?
Uses: To express past but recent actions (accompanied by JUST, YET, ALREADY), or
ones occurred in an unfinished period (TODAY; THIS week/semester/year/century
etc). Comments: Must be contrasted with Past Simple: Present Perfect actions
always have some connection with the present time, and they never occur
'THEN'/equivalent adverb.
(b) Present Perfect Continuous
[+] S + (HA)'VE/(HA)'S + BEEN + V1-ING We've been negotiating for two days.
 I have been paying too much attention to you.
 I have been swimming for a long time.
[–] S + (HA)'VE/(HA)'S NOT + BEEN + V1-ING I haven't been following, sorry!
 I haven`t been looking for a gift yet.
 I haven`t been doing that much work.
[?] HAVE/HAS + S + BEEN + V1-ING? How long have you been waiting here?
 Have you been playing that game all day?
 Have you been working out today?
Uses: An action that started in the past and will probably go on for some time after
now. Comments: Time-lapse expressions with FOR and SINCE (equivalent in
meaning) are typical: It's been happening FOR TWO CENTURIES/SINCE THE EARLY
19TH CENTURY.
 3. The Past Tense
(a) Past Simple
[+] S + V2 I got no messages yesterday. It rained again, so it was sad.
 I rode my bike yesterday. It was really fun.
 I chose the best time to go out.
[–] S + DID NOT/DIDN’T + V1 She didn't take long to start. We didn't ask for help.
 I didn`t mean for this to happen.
 I didn`t want this gift.
[?] DID + S + V1? Did he say those words? Did the film start after all?
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 Did you steal my favorite mug?
 Did you understand my point of view?
Uses: For actions/states occurred at a definite time in the past (finished period).
Comments: It is accompanied by specific time expressions, e.g.: YESTERDAY; 'LAST +
week/year' etc; '… AGO'; 'IN/ON/AT+PAST REFERENCE' (in June, on the 21st, at
noon).
(b) Past Continuous
[+] S + (WA)'S/(WE)'RE + V1-ING We're playing Monopoly, when the power went
out.
 I was walking to the store, when my mom called me.
 I was doing my homework, when you came by.
[–] S + WAS/WERE NOT + V1-ING I wasn't trying to imply that! He wasn't joking,
right?
 I wasn`t doing anything wrong, I swear.
 I wasn`t trying to become the bad guy/
[?] WAS/WERE + S + V1-ING? Was he acting on purpose? Was it raining at noon?
 Were you trying to sabotage me?
 Was it snowing there?
Uses: To describe a past action in progress (which normally requires an expression
to set the past reference: THEN/AT THAT TIME/WHEN WE ARRIVED ETC).
Comments: May be set in parallel with another past action (I was trying to sleep
while/as they were raising hell in the house. – cf. the Present Continuous).
 4. The Past Perfect Tense
(a) Past Perfect Simple
[+] S + (HA)’D + V3 The meat I'd bought for dinner went bad. I had hoped that...
 She had proven to us that you were lying.
 You had broken your promise.
[–] S + HAD NOT/HADN’T + V3 You hadn't prepared, that's why you failed. –
No, I hadn't.
 She hadn`t read that book yet.
 You hadn`t seen my videos yet.
[?] HAD + S + V3? Had he really expected we'd believe him? Why had the home
team changed their outfits right before the game started?
 Had she slept in that room last night?
 Had she spoken with her bestfriend today?
Uses: To describe a past action taking place before another past action or point in
the past. JUST, YET, ALREADY, FOR and SINCE are often present.
Comments: It occurs more frequently in English than its equivalent tense mai mult
ca perfect in Romanian. (Cf. also Conditional #3, below)
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(b) Past Perfect Continuous
[+] S + (HA)'D + BEEN + V1-ING It had been snowing hard, so all roads were
closed. I'd been dating her for a year, so I knew her.
 I had been trying to get a better grade, but it is not working.
 You had been doing your best to contact her.
[–] S + (HA)'D NOT + BEEN + V1-ING I hope you had not been waiting that long
when he arrived. They hadn't been living there for decades.
 I hadn`t been waiting for long.
 You hadn`t been making any progress.
[?] HAD + S + BEEN + V1-ING? Had he really been suffering so much? Why had
they been acting so silly before we met?
 Had you been living in this small house all along?
 Had she been spending all of her money?
Uses: For a past action previous to another past action or point in the past, seen in
development up to the (past) reference point.
Comments: Typical adverbials are FOR/SINCE; translated into Romanian as
imperfect.
 5. The Future Tense
(a) Future Simple
[+] S + WILL + V1 I will send my report soon. They'll pretend to agree.
 He will do his best to become better.
 I will be there for you.
[–] S + WILL NOT/WON'T + V1 We promise we won't do it. It will not happen!
 I promise you he won`t lie to you again.
 She won`t make that mistake again.
[?] WILL + S + V1? Will you do the same thing tomorrow/on the break?
 Will he make those cupcakes for my birthday?
 Will she try to make it?
Uses: To express a future action, usually set at a definite time in the future.
Comments: It is accompanied by specific time expressions, such as: 'NEXT
month/semester/year etc’ (cf. 'LAST...' for Past Simple, 'THIS...' for Present Perfect);
'... FROM NOW' (cf. '... AGO' for Past Tense Simple); 'IN/ON/AT...' (cf. Present/Past
Tense Simple)
(b) Future Continuous
[+] S + WILL BE + V1-ING We'll surely be sleeping at midnight. They'll be taking
turns feeding the baby/cub.
 They will for sure be staying at a motel.
 She will be doing her project alone.
[–] S + WILL NOT/WON'T BE + V1-ING We won’t be playing any more as we're busy.
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 I won`t be accepting this type of behaviour.
 I won`t tolerate these lies anymore.
[?] WILL + S + BE V1-ING? Will you be staying long? Will I be doing OK?
 Will you be trying to finish your homework?
 Will she be present at your wedding?
Uses: To express a future action in progress at a definite time in the future (i.e.
THEN). Comments: In the negative [–] and in the interrogative [?], it occurs rarely.
• 6. The Near/'Going to' Future
[+] S + AM/IS/ARE + GOING TO + V1 (It looks like) It's going to rain soon.
 I am going to go to the store later, do you want something?
 She is going to realise this later.
[–] S + AM/IS/ARE NOT + GOING TO + V1 I'm not going to miss the play!
 I am not going to live in this house anymore.
 We are not going to eat pizza.
[?] AM/IS/ARE + S + GOING TO + V1? Are you going to answer the query?
 Is she going to swim in that dirty water?
 Are you guys going to go to that restaurant?
Uses: To express either the Subject’s intention to do something, or that something
is inevitable and will happen soon (basically, natural events).
Comments: It can be used in the past as well: It was going to rain, so we took
shelter.
• 7. The Future in the Past is a means of expressing the future from a past
perspective. The two Subjects (in the main, and in the subordinate clause)
may differ.
S + V2 (THAT) | S + (WOUL)'D (NOT) + V1
I imagined (that) | it would happen. She swore to me that | she'd send help right
away.
> I thought that you would help me get through this.
I hoped that you wouldn`t betray me like that.
C. The Subjunctive Mood – a means to express a proposal, strong wish, or
unreal meaning. It occurs in subordinate clauses only.
(a) S + V1 She's asking that | we stop right now! (= ...asking us to stop...)
 He`s telling that we make too much noise.
 She`s saying that we are amazing
(b) S + V2 If I were you, | I would tell the truth. (cf. Conditional 2 below); or (I)
Wish (that) | you were here!
 If I wore that dress, you wouldn`t like it.
 If I made that cake, she wouldn`t eat it

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(c) S + HAD + V3 If I had been there, | I would've spared him the trouble.
(Conditional 3); I wish (that) | I hadn't contributed so much to the lost match!
 If I had said that, she would`ve been mad.
 If you had done that, she would`ve corrected you.
(d) S + SHOULD + V1 The doctor suggested | we should stay home. Should the
power go out, close all applications and shut the machine down!
> Should you go outside, take a jacket with you.

Should I leave ,it wouldn`t matter.

D. The Conditional Mood serves to express condition in subordinate clauses

introduced by the conjunction IF. (The order of the two clauses is optional, the
meaning stays the same: If you really
want to, | you can do it. = You can do it, | if you really want to.) Comments:
There are three forms of conditional constructions, named by convention 'Type 1',
'Type 2', and 'Type 3', as follows:
Type 1 (Future): the event is possible and will likely happen if the condition is
fulfilled:
IF + S + Present Simple, | S + Future If we have the tools, | we'll do the job.
 If I go there, I will come back very sad.
 If you don`t understand, I will explain it again.
Type 2 (Present): the event is also possible, if the condition is fulfilled:
IF + S + Subjunctive 'b', | S + WOULD + V1 If we had the tools, | we'd do the job.
 If we went to your house, we would have so much fun.
 If you wore that outfit, you would steal the spotlight.
Type 3 (Past): the event was not possible, therefore it did not take place:
IF + S + Past Perfect, | S + WOULD + HAVE V3 If we had had the tools, | we would
have done the job.
> If we had proven our innocence, we would have escaped that situation.

If she had broken the promise, he would be very upset.

E. The Imperative Mood – commands, requests, directions etc.

(a) (DO NOT/DON’T) V1! (S=2nd PERS.) Come here! Don't do that! Help me, will
you?
 Please don`t ruin my happiness.
 Don`t make this about you!
(b) LET + S=1ST/3RD PERSON ACC. + V1! Let me remove that for you! Let Jack pay!
> Let him carry your purse!

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Let Jason do your homework!

F. Non-finite moods – cannot stand alone as predicates:

(a) infinitive present (e.g. to stand) / perfect (to have stood); (b) present
participle/gerund (standing); (c) past participle ('V3'=stood)
G. The Sequence of Tenses means the rules necessary for agreement in the
tense of verbs when speech is reported (i.e. indirect) . Notice how this is done
by taking one step further back in time:
(a) PRESENT ⇒ PAST: DIRECT SP. I have an idea. ⇒ INDIRECT SP. He said | he had an
idea.
 I think the picture is nice. He thinks the picture is nice.
 I know you lied. She knows you lied.
(b) PRESENT CONTINUOUS ⇒ PAST CONTIN.: I am having... ⇒ ...he was having...
 I am making cookies. She said she was making cookies.
 I am swimming today. She said she was swimming today.
(c) PRESENT PERFECT ⇒ PAST (PERFECT): I have had... ⇒ ...he (had) had...
 I have seen the menu already. He said he had seen the menu already.
 I have talked to a girl today. She said she had talked to a girl today.
(d) PAST ⇒ PAST PERFECT: I had a dream. ⇒ He said | he had had a dream.
 I started with the wrong foot with these workers. He said he had started with the
wrong foot with those workers.
 I went to an amazing hotel. She said she had went to an amazing hotel.
(e) PAST CONTINUOUS ⇒ PAST PERF. CONT: I was having... ⇒ ...he'd been having...
 I was having a nice picnic, until you showed up. He`d been having a nice picnic,
until you showed up.
 I was watching a good movie. She said she`d been watching a good movie.
(f) FUTURE ⇒ FUTURE IN THE PAST: I will have... ⇒ He said | he would have...
 I will make the carrot cake. He said he would make the carrot cake.
 I will go to the store. She said she would go to the store.
(g) NEAR FUTURE ⇒ N.F. IN PAST: I'm going to have... ⇒ ...he was going to have...
 I`m going to have the best summer ever. He was going to have the best summer
ever.
 I`m going to be the best singer. She said she was going to be the best singer.
(h) IMPERATIVE ⇒ INFINITIVE: Have a try! ⇒ He asked me to have a try.
> Have a sip, please! He asked me nicely to have a sip.

Have a taste! She asked me to have a taste.

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H. Modal Verbs express speakers' attitudes about what is hap-

pening. We treat them like auxiliaries – always adding either V1 or HAVE V3 (never
add -s, -ed, or -ing!). Modals cannot take forms in the passive voice, continuous
aspect, or any of the tenses of the Indicative, except for Present and Past. They go
as follows:

CAN expresses ability: I cannot tap-dance., or possibility: It can go on like this for
days!
 I can actually remember everyting you said to me yesterday.
 She can do whatever you can`t.
COULD replaces CAN in the past: One could dance in the '80s!; creates polite
requests: Could you lend me $5?; and is sometimes used before IF: I could do it if I
had the time.
 I could eat the whole pizza by myself, let me show you.
 I could go the whole week without drinking any coffee.
MAY expresses permission: May I come in, please? No, you mayn't., or possibility: It
may be that the visitors got lost in the maze. (= maybe they got lost...)
 May I try your dress, Amanda? I think it will look good on me too.
 May I stay at your house today?
MIGHT is used for possibility/probability: I might tell you a story if you behave.;
suggestion: You might try one of these exercises!, or permission: I'd like to go, if I
might.
 You might want to take the test again. I don`t think you want a bad grade.
 She might try to come back, don`t let that happen.
BE ALLOWED TO expresses permission: I'll make an observation if I'm allowed.
 If i`m allowed to go out, i`ll give you a call.
 If she allowes me to go, I`ll be there.
SHALL is used to make an offer: Shall I help you with the bags?, or to express
determination: “We shall never surrender!” (cf. Winston Churchill, 4 June 1940)
 I shall try to help you, I don`t guarantee the best result though.
 We shall go there to check it out!
SHOULD expresses necessity, e.g. I should go.; or advice: You shouldn't ask for
more.
 You should go to the vet with the cat, he doesn`t look good.
 She should try to contact him.
WILL expresses will (i.e. desire), so do not mistake it for the Future: I will answer
that! Ma, Sid won't share the toy with us!

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 Will you try to fix the mess you just created?
 She will do her homework now.
WOULD expresses wish: If it's okay, I'd like a glass of water. Pass the salt, would
you?
 I would like to announce that I just finished my homework.
 She would go to that interview.
MUST is used to express necessity: It must be done!; obligation: I must go now.; or
probability: He must have missed the bus (or else he'd be here).
 I must go to my grandmother`s house to help her with the chores.
 She must wait for the confirmation.
HAVE TO = MUST: I have (got)/had/will have to borrow the book.; the negative is
for lack of obligation: You don't/didn't have to do it, we can/could manage!
 I have to send my project today, or else I am going to fail.
 I have to make the best cake ever.
NEED expresses a lesser degree of necessity or obligation than MUST: It need be
done!
We needn't hurry. (Do not mistake it for the notional 'need', I need more time for
this.)
 He needs to eat, or else his mother will be upset.
 We need to stick together.
OUGHT TO expresses the least degree of what is advisable: You ought to help her!,
or what is expected from the subject: Well, someone ought to know something!
> You ought to tell us what happened exactly!

She ought to speak the truth now!

I. APPENDIX: List of selected IRREGULAR VERBS (more info & full list at
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs). Notes: i. <~> indicates
repetition; ii. <*> is for regular use (-ed), in addition to irregular; iii. <#> =
“similarly”. Activity 2. Make sure you know all the forms along with
their meanings and pronunciations!
V1 / V2 / V3 / bent (similarly, #: brought build / built /
unbend) built
be (am, is, are) / SG. was,
bind / bound / bound burn* / burnt / burnt
PL. were / been bear /
bite / bit / bitten bleed / buy / bought / bought
bore / born beat / beat /
bled / bled blow / blew / cast / ~ / ~ (# broadcast*,
beat(en) become /
blown break / broke / forecast*)
became / become begin /
broken breed / bred / catch / caught / caught
began / begun bend / bent
bred bring / brought / choose / chose / chosen

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come / came / come cost lay / laid / laid (# inlay) shaven (ed) shed / ~ / ~
/ ~ / ~ creep* / crept / lead / led / led (# shine* / shone / shone
crept cut / ~ / ~ deal / mislead) leap* / leapt / shoot / shot / shot show /
dealt / dealt dig / dug / leapt learn* / learnt / showed / shown
dug dive / dove (dived) / learnt leave / left / left (showed) shut / ~ / ~ sing
dived do / did / done (# lend / lent / lent let / ~ / / sang / sung sink / sank /
outdo, overdo, undo) ~ (# sublet) lie / lay / lain sunk sit / sat / sat sleep /
draw / drew / drawn (# light* / lit / lit lose / lost / slept / slept slide / slid /
withdraw) lost slid slit / ~ / ~ smell* /
dream* / dreamt / dreamt make / made / made (# smelt / smelt sow /
drink / drank / drunk drive unmake) sowed / sown (sowed)
/ drove / driven dwell* / mean / meant / meant speak / spoke / spoken
dwelt / dwelt eat / ate / meet / met / met mow / speed* / sped / sped
eaten fall / fell / fallen mowed / mown (-ed) spell* / spelt / spelt (#
feed / fed / fed feel / felt / overcome / -came / -come mis-
felt fight / fought / fought pay / paid / paid (# spell*)
find / found / found fit* / overpay, underpay) spend / spent / spent
~ / ~ flee / fled / fled fly / prove / proved / proven spill* / spilt / spilt spin
flew / flown forbid / put / ~ / ~ (# input*, out- / spun / spun spit / ~
forbade / forbidden forget put*) (spat) / ~ (spat) split /
/ forgot / forgotten forgive quit* / ~ / ~ read ~ / ~ spoil* / spoilt /
/ forgave / forgiven / read / read ride spoilt spread / ~ / ~
freeze / froze / frozen / rode / ridden spring / sprang /
get / got / got(ten) give / (# over- sprung stand / stood /
gave / given go / went / ride) stood (# withstand)
gone (# forgo, undergo) ring / rang / rung rise / steal / stole / stolen stick /
grow / grew / grown (# rose / risen (# arise) stuck / stuck sting /
outgrow) run / ran / run (# stung / stung stink / stank
hang* / hung / hung outrun, overrun) (stunk) / stunk strike /
have / had / had saw / sawed / sawn struck / struck strive* /
hear / heard / heard (sawed) say / said / said strove / striven swear /
(# overhear) see / saw / seen (# swore / sworn sweat* / ~ /
hide / hid / hidden hit / foresee, ~ sweep / swept / swept
~ / ~ hold / held / held (# oversee) swell / swelled / swollen (-
with- seek / sought / sought ed) swim / swam / swum
hold, uphold) sell / sold / sold send / swing / swung / swung
hurt / ~ / ~ keep / sent / sent set / ~ / ~ (# take / took / taken (#
kept / kept kneel* / upset) sew / sewed / sewn mistake, overtake,
knelt / knelt know / (sewed) shake / shook / undertake)
knew / known shaken shave / shaved /
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teach / taught / taught
tear / tore / torn tell /
told / told (# foretell)
think / thought / thought
(# outthink)
thrive* / throve /
thriven throw / threw /
thrown thrust / ~ / ~
understand /
understood / -stood (#
misunderstand) wake /
woke / woken (#
awake)
wear / wore / worn
weave* / wove / woven
(#
unweave*)
wed* / ~ / ~ weep /
wept / wept wet* / ~ /
~ win / won / won
wind / wound / wound
(# unwind)
write / wrote / written (#
unwrite)

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