Asian Journal of Language, Literature and Culture Studies

4(1): 1-11, 2021; Article no.AJL2C.63554

Speech for Fun, Fury, and Freedom: Exploring Trash

Talk in Gaming Stations
Nicolas T. Pujante, Jr.1*
1
University of Eastern Philippines – Pedro Rebadulla Memorial Campus, Catubig,
6418 Northern Samar, Philippines.

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analysed, interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

Editor(s):
(1) Dr. Suleyman Goksoy, University of Duzce, Turkey.
(2) Dr. Bakare Kazeem Kayode, Al-Medina International University, Malaysia.
Reviewers:
(1) Dr. Keyurkumar M. Nayak, Laxmi Institute of Management, India.
(2) Farai Ncube, Midlands State University, Zimbabwe.
(3) Marcelino José Jorge, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Brazil.
(4) KO Luedtke, Institute for Research in Education, Costa Rica.
(5) Amandeep Kaur Bajwa, Sri Guru Ramdas college of Nursing, India.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/63554

Received 15 October 2020

Original Research Article Accepted 21 December 2020
Published 09 January 2021

ABSTRACT

Anchored on the Neuro-Psycho-Social Theory of Speech of Jay (2000), this study explored trash
talk in gaming stations and investigated how gamers perceive this form of verbal aggression as part
of their gaming experience. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, informal
observation, and recordings of gamers’ verbal interaction. Trash talk expressions were classified
using the typology of Jay (2000) and Ivory et al. (2017), while interview responses were analyzed
thematically using the procedure of Creswell (2013). Findings reveal that trash talk expressions
include insults, slurs, swears, threats, and commands. These expressions are perceived as
inherently part of the gaming culture where they play multiple functions, such as to heighten the fun,
distract opponents, help release anger, and provide gamers a sense of power and freedom.
Moreover, trash talk, which is largely attributed to peer influence, is generally considered inoffensive
by gamers. These qualitative findings shed light on some research and pedagogical possibilities.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: E-mail: pujante.nicolas@gmail.com;

 Pujante; AJL2C, 4(1): 1-11, 2021; Article no.AJL2C.63554

Keywords: Trash talk; verbal aggression; gaming language; swearing; profanity; online gamers;
gaming station.

1. INTRODUCTION Online communication triggers the lowering of

gamers’ inhibitions, which manifest in aggressive
Gaming is one of the most popular pastimes that behaviors. Such disinhibition is fueled by online
hooked millions of people, young and adult, gamers’ non-disclosure of personal data,
around the world. With the advancement of invisibility, and lack of eye contact [3,1,15]. This
communication technology, gaming culture has online sense of anonymity allows gamers to
evolved from a solo form of entertainment into an display verbal aggression and hostility without
interactive social activity where people can play, the fear of its direct social consequence.
interact, and compete with others using personal
computers, mobile phones, and other digital While studies attribute aggressive online gaming
devices through the internet [1]. This innovative behavior to gamer’s disinhibition afforded by
shift has popularized multiplayer online games online sense of anonymity, the use of trash talk is
and has led to the prevalence of professional also observed in gaming stations where gamers
esports competitions. Unlike solo gaming, are present and no longer anonymous. This
multiplayer online games allow gamers to observation implies that disinhibition occurs even
experience the excitement of true competition, outside online communication and suggests that
provides an opportunity for teamwork, and make while online gamer’s anonymity triggers verbal
distant gaming interaction possible [2]. aggression, the use of trash talk may also be
attributed to and influenced by other multiple
However, while online gaming communication agents surrounding the gamers and their
has advanced gaming culture and experience, it environment. Hence, this study explored trash
has also brought about ethical setbacks for the talk as used by non-professional online gamers
growing population of online gamers. Online in gaming stations. Specifically, the study dealt
communication has been used as a venue in with the following questions: (1) What are the
expressing aggressive antisocial behavior within ‘trash talk’ expressions used by gamers in
a diverse community of gamers. Online toxicity, gaming stations? and (2) How do gamers
such as perpetrating, experiencing, and perceive these expressions as part of their
witnessing hateful, vulgar, or toxic messages gaming experience? The findings of this study
have been largely observed in online gaming would provide valuable insights about gamers
platforms [3,4], which have become prevalent and their behavior. While trash talk is considered
tools for cyberbullying [5,1]. Consequently, socially and culturally taboo in local communities,
o ensive language in online gaming is the most it is vital to explore its nature and conventions
reported reason for complaint [2] and a factor from the perspective of the gamers for rational
why some quit gaming [6]. judgment and, if necessary, appropriate
intervention initiatives.
Such aggressive use of toxic language in
gaming, and other competitive contexts, is 1.1 Theoretical Framework
popularly known as trash talk. Trash talk is
defined as disparaging, taunting, or boastful This study is anchored on the Neuro-Psycho-
comments to intimidate and distract opponents Social (NPS) Theory of Jay [16], which is
[7,8] and to motivate oneself [9]. Trash talk has designed to account for why and how a speaker
been in sports for decades [10], since it is uses curse words. This theory sees cursing as a
associated with increased self-efficacy and behavior that is purposeful and rule-governed,
performance among athletes [9]. Trash talk in rather than chaotic, meaningless, or random. The
gaming has been largely attributed to goal of the theory is to generate rules that
observation and exposure to aggressive gaming underlie concepts of appropriateness,
language [11-13], especially that profanity is offensiveness, and humor. The NPS Theory
largely present in the majority of top-selling game provides a three-dimensional model of a person's
content [14]. On the other hand, other studies knowledge of cursing, which develops as a
claim that the anonymity afforded by online person matures. An individual's knowledge
communication leads to hostility and aggression depends on personal experience, psychological
among gamers. The detached nature of online makeup, and on the culture in which he or she is
gaming and the anonymity it provides have raised. As such, a person's style of cursing will
encouraged players to engage in trash talk. be the product of both shared and private

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experiences. Each of the NPS factors takes time recording field notes during the informal
to develop and evolve in one’s life, as each factor observation conducted by the researcher.
depends on maturation and experience.
2.4 Data Collection
The Neuro-Psycho-Social Theory of Jay [16]
provides the backbone of this study which aimed After the stations and gamers were identified, the
at exploring the trash talk expressions and researcher collected data from multiple sources:
investigating how gamers perceive these audio-recording, informal observation, and semi-
expressions as part of their gaming experience. structured interviews. The utterances of online
The neurological processes and psychological gamers as a group were audio-recorded for ten
motives of speakers, as well as the sociocultural (10) random days, one hour per day. Though
environment surrounding them are the key gamers were informed and were asked
elements of the theory that guided the researcher permission to record their utterances, they were
in understanding trash talk in the gaming context. not aware as to when or how it would be done so
their behavior and exchange of words would not
2. METHODOLOGY be conditioned or modified. Informal observation
of the participants was also conducted for three
2.1 Research Design days in a separate time the audio recordings
were done. The researcher made field notes to
This study used a qualitative research capture the relevant data about the study subject.
approach particularly an exploratory case study Lastly, a semi-structured interview was
to capture relevant data. A case study research conducted by the researcher with each
design will allow the researchers to focus participant to determine the trash talk
on a specific area or situation for an in-depth expressions and the perception that gamers hold
analysis based on multiple sources of information about trash talk in gaming. The interview with
[17]. each participant lasted for 11-15 minutes. The
researcher interviewed the participants until data
2.2 Participants reached saturation.
Ten (10) Filipino non-professional gamers from
2.5 Reflexivity
three (3) gaming stations participated in the
study. The researcher employed purposive
The researcher is a non-gamer. He believes that
sampling in selecting the participants. The
one’s use of language is largely influenced by
participants were male gamers who are 18-22
his/her environment, a manifestation of the kind
years old; who spend at least fifteen (15) hours
of language he/she is exposed to. Though the
per week playing DotA (Defense of the Ancient);
researcher holds a certain level of tolerance to
and who are verbally active or aggressive when
profanity, he does not support the use of foul
gaming. The researcher conducted an initial
language, especially in the context where it is
survey with the owners, bystanders, and gamers
intentionally used to slander or cause harm.
in the gaming stations to identify gamers who
Further, the researcher does not subscribe to the
have the characteristics based on the criteria set
use of extremely ill verbal attacks in gaming
by the researcher. The identified gamers were
stations particularly when used by young gamers
then invited to participate in the study. Though
who might think that foul language is acceptable
the participants were from three gaming stations,
in all contexts.
they are treated as a single case since they
share similar characteristics evidenced in the
sampling technique used. 2.6 Data Analysis

The researcher used the typology of Ivory et al.

2.3 Instruments
[18] in classifying the trash talk expressions and
referred to Jay [16] on what constitutes trash talk.
The researcher used an interview protocol, audio
The interview transcripts, on the other hand,
recorder, and observation note as data gathering
were analyzed thematically using the procedure
tools. The interview protocol was used to guide
of Creswell [17]. The researcher generated initial
the researcher in conducting semi-structured
codes by giving meaning to the interview
interviews with the participants. The audio-
responses of the gamers; Coding was done
recorder was utilized to record the series of
manually by making margin notes on the
interviews and the interaction of the gamers
interview transcripts. The researcher, then,
while gaming. The observation note was used in

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identified themes or patterns based on the list of “hagas” [feeble], “hadok” [coward], “maluya”
identified initial codes. The identified themes [weak], and “inutil” [useless]. Extracts illustrating
were presented to and checked by the gamers these expressions are:
for member-checking. Field notes were used to
verify and back up identified themes and “nga demonyo, hadok” [damn, such a
patterns. The researcher then developed coward];
naturalistic generalizations and presented a “inutil ka” [you’re useless]; and
description of the study subject. He thoroughly “gihagasi nga hayop” [you’re so freakin’
reviewed the generalizations along with the lame].
themes that emerge from the analysis. Finally,
the findings of the analysis were submitted to an Some gamers use ironic expressions to insinuate
expert in applied language studies for validation. sarcasm and mockery. This happens when a
gamer praises an opponent who is losing the
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION game. These sarcastic remarks are often
followed by waves of laughter and screams.
3.1 ‘Trash Talk’ Expressions in Gaming Similarly, using irony is a strategy to achieve a
Stations humorous conversational witticism as illustrated
in the jokes of the Filipino comedian Vice Ganda
The ‘trash talk’ expressions fall into five [20]. Examples of ironic expressions used by
categories, namely, insults, slurs, swears, threats, gamers are:
and commands. These expressions encompass
the vernacular, Filipino, and English language “gitindihi adto, pare” [that was dope, man];
with the use of informal, slang, taboo, and even “diba, gilistuhi iton mag dota” [told you, he
vulgar language. plays DotA so well]; and
“kalisto nimo huh” [you’re damn good].
3.1.1 Insults
Some insults that highlight weak gaming skills
Online gamers have a rich repertoire of words
come in a form of questions to accentuate doubt
and ways to describe, label, and mock a gamer
over the opponent’s ability. These expressions
and his gaming performance. Insults are usually
are used to denigrate the opponent’s gaming
used by the advancing gamer to insult the
skills without explicitly saying it. Some mocking
opponent or by the losing gamer to taunt a poor
questions are:
performing teammate. Some of these
expressions are directly addressed to the gamer
“maato ka pa?” [are you still gonna fight?];
and/or the virtual character. Insults commonly
“‘yan lang ba ng skills mo?” [“is that only
associate poor gaming ability with poor intellect.
what you’ve got?”]; and
Extracts that illustrate these expressions are:
“are you joking?” [are you joking?].
“pota ka, noob mo” [fuck you, you’re noob];
“kagbubulok, nastress naman ak saim” Exchange of some insulting remarks intends to
[idiots, you’re stressing me out]; provoke laughter. Gamers sometimes go beyond
“tanga ka, tanga” [you’re fool, fool]; and the gaming context to poke fun at and taunt other
“mga bungog at kontra” [we’re fighting with gamers. Jdetawy, [21] explains that similar to
idiots]. humorous swearwords, this form of insults is
idiomatic and playful, not abusive and offensive.
Other intellect-based derogatory terms are the Some of these insults, which are game-irrelevant,
Filipino slang “bobo”, “gago”, “ungas”, “tanga”, are often used to make fun of other gamers to
“tarantado”, and the vernacular terms, like lose their “cool”. Extracts that illustrate these
“bulok”, “bungog”, “dumol”, which are variants of expressions are:
the local slang for idiot, stupid, foolish, or
ignorant. This finding concurs with the claim of “piyos ka” [you’re uncircumcised];
Suganob-Nicolau [19] that the swear words of “pangit ka” [you’re ugly]; and
young learners were related to intellect-based “pan-os mo” [you stink].
terms. Some gamers also use the expressions
“noob”, a gaming jargon which means novice or In most local communities, to be uncircumcised
newbie, and “feeder”, which refers to a gamer is to be the object of ridicule and disdain. An
whose virtual hero easily dies in a game. Other uncircumcised male is believed to be physically
local expressions used to mock gamers are weak and unable to produce children [22]. Thus,

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when a gamer is unable to play well, other “damn” and “crap” are used. Similarly, the word
gamers insinuate that this comes from the “fuck” can be used in multiple settings [21].
weakness of being uncircumcised. Considering its emphatic nature, they are often
expressed with intensity accompanied by
3.1.2 Slurs minimal non-verbal gestures. Further, a
swearword can stand as a solo expression to
While insults aim to mockingly describe other express anger or surprise and can also be used
gamers, slurs attack opponents using remarks as a sentence enhancer, where it is embedded in
with derogatory reference to a certain group. other derogatory expressions to intensify the
These remarks use offensive metaphors that message [26].
have insensitive reference to people of different
race, gender, sexual orientation, and mental Though gaming trash talk is rich in swearing,
condition. Common slurs among gamers have numerous swearwords are derived from some
reference to people with mental illness. Gamers key expressions. The word “demonyo”, for
may be labeled using the expressions “brain- instance, a common local swearword that literally
damaged”, “mongoloid”, and the local term means evil/demon, comes in many variants, such
“siraulo”, which means mentally ill. Poor as “deputa”, “deputik”, “demuntris”, “demunjo”,
performing gamers are also associated with “munyo”, “nga demon”, and “demongkag”. Some
being “babayi/daraga” [woman/lady] and “bakla” expressions that contain these swearwords are:
[gay]. Some gamers are also mockingly told that
they are abandoned with insensitive reference to “demonyo, bias an uyag” [fuck, the game is
orphans. These remarks insinuate a degree of biased];
mockery or bantering attitudes toward people of “depota, buhi pa adto” [crap, it’s still alive];
different backgrounds and orientation. Some and
extracts containing slurs are: “munyo, naigo ak” [damn, I got hit].

“mongoloid nga hayop” [he’s a fucking “Putang ina mo” is another swearword commonly
retarded]; used in gaming stations. It is a Filipino profane
“nagdidinaraga ka naman” [you’re acting girly expression which literally means “your mother is
again]; a whore” or the Filipino counterpart of English
“bakla kam nga duha” [you two are gay]; and profanity “you’re a son of a bitch”. Such
“wara ka nanay/tatay” [you’re orphaned]; expression is meant to show anger, displeasure,
frustration, joy, or surprise [27]. “Putang ina mo”
Expressions containing insensitive reference to comes in various forms, like “putangina”, “tangina
disfavored people and groups are also discussed nanay mo”, “pucha”, “siya ay putangina mo”,
in other studies [23,24,21,25,18,26]. Contrary to “pota ka”, and “putang ina niyo”. In the gaming
the study of Ivory et al. [18], slurs related to race context, this expression is seldom taken in its
and religion are not present in the trash talk literal sense. Filipinos commonly use this
utterances of the gamers. expression as a variant of the word "fuck" [28].
Parreno [29] claims that “putang ina mo” does
3.1.3 Swears not offend hearers as compared to a situation
when one’s mother is directly named a slut.
Swears are utterances used to express varied Some extracts that use these swearwords are:
extreme emotions – from the frustrations of
losing points to the ecstasy of winning the game. “putang ina, giboringi nga uyag” [crap, this
Jdetawy [21] explains that this type of swearing game is so boring];
is not directed to other people. It is used to “puta ka, pagmadalagan na,” [fuck, you
express personal emotions, such as anger, better run];
shock, and frustration. Swearwords are “depota na, ginpatay ak” [damn it, I got killed];
sometimes used in venting emotion, with no bad and
intention. These expressions, which are “puta, kahinay sa mouse” [shit, the mouse
considered formulaic and are expressed with works slow].
automaticity, are not taken in its literal sense.
Their meaning greatly varies as to the context “Fuck” is another swearword typically used in
when the expression is uttered. Swearwords gaming stations. Other common variants of this
could be so generic and flexible that they could swearword are “pakshet” [fuckshit], “pakyu” [fuck
be used in any context akin to how the words you], “pakyu bitch” [fuck you, bitch], “pakyu ka”

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[fuck you], “what the fuck”, and “what the fuck under control, to insult an opponent, or to ridicule
you doing”. In most cases, gamers localize poor-performing teammates. They are often used
pronunciation by producing the sound of /p/ by the advancing gamer to show superiority over
instead of /f/ in the word “fuck”. Some extracts the other gamer. Such imperatives are not meant
containing these expressions are: to be followed since compliance means
surrender or poor performance. Commands are
“pakshet, ay sin cheat” [fuckshit, don’t cheat]; often addressed to the gamer, yet the action is
“fuckin’ bitch, hain kana?” [where you at expected to be done by the virtual character or
fuckin’ bitch?]; and the avatar. By saying these expressions, the
“pakyu ka, sama mo pa nanay mo.” [fuck you, gamer inflicts authority over the other gamers.
you can even bring your mom with you]. Extracts containing commands are:
Moreover, some of these swearwords are a “magpakita ka, hunghang” [show yourself,
compound of two profane words. For instance, idiot];
“deputa” is supposed to be a portmanteau of the “takbo, gonggong” [run, asshole]; and
words “demonyo” [evil] and “puta” [whore], while “bulos, bulos” [fight back, fight back].
“pakshet” is a localized compound of the words
“fuck” and “shit”. The apparent use of English Though some commands are addressed to the
swearwords is indicative that gamers borrow virtual character, others seem to be directed to
trash talk expressions from models. Finn [30] the gamer. Expressions that directing someone
also explains that Asian and Arab students prefer to go home, to shut up, and to stop gaming
to swear more in English due to social appear to be directly addressed to a gamer.
constraints in their own societies. Some extracts illustrating these expressions are:
3.1.4 Threats “sus, liya gad” [shut the fuck up];
“pan-os mo, pagmauli boy” [go home boy,
Threats are used by a gamer to inform his you stink]; and
opponents of his planned or approaching attacks. “putang ina mo, wag ka nang magdota” [fuck
They are used to let the opponent know his you, stop playing dota].
intention to inflict pain, injury, damage, or other
hostile action usually to the virtual character, and These expressions are referred to by Goddard
not to the gamer. They aim to threaten and [25] as imperative formulas. Swear words, like
distract opponents or to merely imply that a “hell” or “fuck” are commonly inserted in the
gamer is under control and advancing in the imperative frame to make the message sound
game. To intensify the impact of threats, they are more demanding, urgent, or angry.
accompanied by other profane expressions and
are expressed in a villainous tone. Examples of
3.2 Perceptions of Online Gamers on
threats are:
Trash Talk
“human ka niyan” [I’m gonna finish you];
“hinahanap ka na, gago” [you’re being The gamers who were interviewed hold the
chased, asshole]; following perceptions on trash talk as part of their
“tapalan kikaw niyan” [I’m gonna slap you”]; gaming experience:
and
“patay ka, mapatay ka niyan” [you’re gonna 3.2.1 Trash talk is inherently part of the
die]. multiplayer gaming culture

Threats are also found in the utterances of online Gamers perceive trash talk as an integral part of
gamers as illustrated by Ivory et al. [18] who the gaming culture. Swearing and name calling
classified threats as direct and indirect. It was are normalized in gaming stations since
found out that threats are used by a small everybody displays such linguistic behavior. It is
minority of online gamers as compared to other the style of interaction that gamers are regularly
profane expressions [18]. exposed to when they play in gaming stations. A
gamer shared, “I use these [swear] words
3.1.5 Commands whenever I play with them [friends] and these
words are normal for us. It is of your
These are the imperatives in the gamer’s disadvantage if you can’t tolerate them (G5).”
utterances which aim is to put the opponent Another gamer said, “That’s how we do it here

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[game station]. It’s the nature of gamers, young 3.2.3 Trash talk heightens the fun
and old, they talk trash. Rules would be of no use
(G3).” Moreover, some even believe that While others find trash talk threatening, toxic,
swearing is a universal gaming language. A and destructive, some gamers make fun out of it.
gamer said, “We’re used to swearing while Cursing using profane expressions,
gaming. Perhaps, gamers everywhere talk that accompanied by their clever play of language,
way (G2).” Another gamer shared, “In almost makes gaming interactive and fun. Exchange of
everything that happens on screen, we swear comical insults adds flavor to their gaming
(G7).” He further explained that when a gamer experience. One gamer said, “It’s just for fun. We
lost a game, he would swear out; when one won play games to have fun; We make use of those
a game, he would also swear out. Swearing is [profane] words just to have fun. That’s what we
present in almost all aspects of gaming; hence, look for in gaming (G10).” Another gamer
gamers believe that it is inherently part of the explained, “…especially if we’re having a party,
gaming culture and experience. Similarly, trash that’s when I and my friends belong to the same
talk as a form of verbal aggression is largely team, we always tease one another. It’s fun (G4).”
observed in sports [10,7,31]. In fact, swearing is Naming the gaming session as “party” implies
not limited to athletes, as coaches and fans also the fun that comes with the game. Furthermore,
swear [32]. gaming without trash talk is considered boring
and does not hype up or excite gamers. The
3.2.2 Trash talk is attributed to peer influence noise that gamers create adds to the overall thrill.
One gamer said, “It’s boring when you play with
Gamers claim that the use of trash talk in gaming gamers who are too serious and don’t swear
stations is attributed to peer influence. Profanity (G7).” Since playing online games is their
is what they regularly hear from other gamers pastime, they prefer to make it loud and fun by
who happen to be their friends and using the language that they enjoy. Another
acquaintances. This finding is evident in the gamer said, “Talking trash is fun. Teasing and
response of a gamer who said, “We [gamers] use annoying each other make us laugh. We become
it [trash talk] as a result of observing other DotA unmindful of the time (G2).” Surprisingly, trash
players. We just copy what most gamers are talk, which is considered a source of online
saying (G6).” This response supports the claim of toxicity [2-4] and a tool for cyberbullying [5,1], is
another gamer who explained, “At first, I just hear perceived to be a part of creating a bond among
it (trash talk) from my friends. Eventually, it gamers by making gaming casual, interactive,
comes out of my mouth naturally when I’m and fun. Perhaps, the relationship among
gaming (G2).” Jdetawy [21] explains that gamers and the medium of interaction contribute
swearing among adolescents and teenagers is to such opposing views on trash talk. Gamers
influenced by the language of the people who communicate through online platforms and
surrounding them and is further triggered by the those who interact in a gaming station are
notion that the use of swearwords implies surrounded by different environmental factors,
independence and maturity. This finding also hence, their response to profanity in gaming
supports the claim of NPS Theory of Jay [16] that varies.
the presence of a model is one of the causal 3.2.4 Trash talk serves as an emotional outlet
factors that prompts a person to curse. Moreover,
other gamers claim that they intentionally imitate Multiplayer online games allow gamers to
such use of language to get along with other experience varied extreme emotions – from the
gamers. “Of course, we have to get along with ecstasy of winning to the shame of losing the
others [gamers]. You’d sound indifferent if you game. Trash talk is often a manifestation of
talk discreetly (G8),” a gamer explained. These gamer’s burst of emotions. Gamer’s dismay and
responses imply how gamers adjust to secure a frustration with poor-performing gamers are
sense of belonging by using the language of their commonly expressed using taunting and
peers. This finding concurs with the claim that denigrating words. A gamer said, “[By using
gaming is an effective way of heightening a trash talk] I could express what I feel towards
sense of social belonging with friends [33], and another player, especially if they could not play
swearing promotes social cohesion [23,24]. well (G5).” Another gamer said, “I could express
Fägersten [34] also posited that social my complaints about a player, especially those
swearing simulates casual conversation, reduces who could not get it right away (G9).” This
social distance, and creates the illusion of perception agrees with Jay [16] and Jdetawy [21]
intimacy. who affirm that swearing expresses the

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speaker’s emotional state used to express anger control and superior over their opponent when
or to release tension or stress. Swear words are they throw derogatory remarks. One gamer said,
related to private and interpersonal expression of “It feels good to swear. It feels like you’re a king
outrage and dissatisfaction [16]. Suganob- (G2).” He compared himself to a king whenever
Nicolau [19] also claims that anger was the main he is engaged in trash talk; it makes him feel
reason why young learners swear at someone. A good about himself. Another gamer explained,
gamer shared, “Whenever I’m in trouble at home, “It’s like, whenever we say those [profane] words,
I go to gaming shop, play DotA, and talk trash to we feel that we are more skilled and dominant
release my anger (G4).” Loud and aggressive than other gamers (G9).” Shouting boastful
exchange of language also helps gamers release remarks or throwing denigrating words to other
emotions from issues outside the gaming context. gamers is a way of affirming oneself and one’s
Swearing allows gamers to release frustrations gaming ability. This finding supports the claim of
or anger without fear. This practice explains why Vingerhoets et al. [24] that swearing is used to
some gamers find trash talk to have a calming express dominance, to gain attention, or to make
effect. A gamer shared, “It [trash talk] calms me the speaker sound macho. On the other hand,
down (G4).” This finding agrees with the swearing is also associated with enjoying a
hypothesis of Vingerhoets et al. [24] that sense of freedom. Some gamers claim that what
swearing produces catharsis effect, which results they like about trash talk is that they are free to
in a relief of stress and stability of someone’s use the language that they want without fear of
emotions [21]. getting judged or reprimanded. Most gaming
stations are tolerant of such use of language and
3.2.5 Trash talk is a game tactic it gives gamers the liberty to curse. A gamer said,
“It’s the only place (gaming station) where I could
Gamers believe that trash talk boosts one’s talk trash. I can’t do it at home or school. So,
energy and, thus, improves gaming performance. sometimes it feels good to have the freedom to
Gamers become more eager to win when express yourself, especially if you are really into
provoked by derogatory words. A gamer said, the game (G3).” This statement concurs with the
“Whenever I hear those words, I want to prove to observation of another gamer who said, “What’s
other gamers that they are wrong, so I play better good about it [trash talk] is that you can say
(G6).” Another gamer said, “[I use talk trash] to whatever you want to say and how you want to
have more energy, that way, I’ll have a better say it. We’re free to do it (G10).” The sense of
performance (G1).” This perception supports the power and freedom that gamers feel when they
claim that trash talk among athletes results in swear encourages them to engage in trash talk
increased self-efficacy and improved while gaming.
performance [9]. Moreover, other gamers use
trash talk to distract opponents. Shouting and 3.2.7 Trash talk is generally inoffensive
cursing are believed to destroy an opponent’s
focus and, thus, give gamers more possibility to Most gamers who were interviewed generally
advance in the game. One participant said, consider trash talk inoffensive and harmless in
“Sometimes, we intentionally annoy the opponent the gaming context. They see it as a nonpersonal
to distract him and ruin his performance, to put attack or a friendly form of teasing. They claim
his mind off the game (G6).” Taunting opponents that they know when to stop and what topics
and mocking their skills is a gaming strategy to would trigger physical violence. Contrary to the
agitate opponents to have them lose their focus societal concept of trash talk, these gamers
and to make them feel incompetent. Trash talk in barely perceive trash talk as a form of bullying,
the sports context is also employed as a game harassment, or abuse. When asked if they are
strategy than merely a means of insulting offended when they are verbally attacked, a
opponents [31]. The purpose of trash talk during gamer said, “No, I’m used to hearing those words.
competition is to distract opponents by elevating It’s your loss if you take it personally (G3).”
their emotions [7]. McDermott [8] also confirmed Another gamer explained, “We don’t mean
the ability of trash talk to negatively affect the whatever we say during the game. Sometimes
game performance of a competitor. we swear since we are carried away with the flow
3.2.6 Trash talk provides a sense of power of the game. But it doesn’t mean that we say it
and freedom against other gamers (G8).” One gamer,
however, shared his observation that derogatory
Gamers feel power or a sense of authority expressions sometimes injure gamers
whenever they swear. They feel that they are in emotionally especially when verbal attacks cross

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the line. He explained, “There are gamers who is a form of interaction that heightens the fun,
talk extremely ill. They would even involve your expresses gamer’s fury, and creates a sense of
family or parents (G7).” This perception implies freedom in the gaming context. These functions
that while most gamers find trash talk harmless, that trash talk fulfills are some of the agents that
a few see it as an offensive gaming lingo [35]. make gamers tolerant to aggressive language.
This perception of gamers on trash talk supports Other factors like permissive environment,
the finding of Jay [23] that swearing is a common relationship among gamers, topic of interaction,
conversational practice resulting in no obvious familiarity with the gaming space, and
harm. Evidence of harm is present in harassment competitive and casual nature of gaming may
and discrimination, but there is little evidence of have also contributed to aggression-tolerant
harm resulting from swearing. Vingerhoets et al. gaming culture and may have perhaps triggered
[24] also suggests that if swearing is used in gamers’ lack of inhibition to display verbal
appropriate contexts, the risk of being subjected aggression. These factors indicate that gamers
to negative reactions of others is less likely. share distinct norms and conventions which are
Contrary to reports associating trash talk to essential components in understanding their
online toxicity [2-4] and cyberbullying [5-1], behavior.
gamers who opts to play in game stations
observe that trash talk is, in most cases, Finally, the findings suggest that more than
harmless and inoffensive in gaming. conforming to shared gaming culture, some
gamers use trash talk to fulfill specific human
4. CONCLUSIONS needs, such as the need to belong, to win and
dominate, and to enjoy a sense of power and
This study explored the trash talk expressions freedom. Deviation from what is perceived
used by non-professional gamers in gaming correct and appropriate makes gamers feel free
stations and investigated how gamers perceive from the restrictions set out by norms and
these expressions as part of their gaming standards of their home, school, and society.
experience. Findings reveal that trash talk Boasting and spewing profanity that sounds
expressions, which include insults, slurs, swears, denigrating may also be a gamer’s way to feed
threats, and commands, resonate in gaming his/her ego. Trash talk, therefore, seems to take
stations. They are expressed in varying volume a vital part in addressing larger personal issues,
and intensity and are accompanied by minimal like the need for affirmation, attention, and
body language. The commonly used expressions validation, which are perhaps lacking in the lives
are sometimes modified or embedded in other of some gamers. As provided in the NPS Theory
utterances to create a certain effect. For of Jay [16], the use of trash talk in gaming
instance, gamers use irony to elicit sarcasm and stations is influenced by the psychological
humor, questions to euphemize mockery, and motives of the gamers and sociocultural
metaphors to insinuate insult. This clever play of environment surrounding them.
language implies that the exchange of
swearwords could be a gamer’s way to show off 5. RECOMMENDATIONS
wit and creativity, rather than to intentionally
slander or cause harm. To have a deeper understanding of trash talk
among gamers, researchers are encouraged to
Moreover, contrary to the societal perception that investigate the display of verbal aggression at
labels trash talk as antisocial, offensive, and home, school, or community as an effect of
destructive, gamers generally use it as a means swearing in gaming stations; explore the trash
to make gaming fun, casual, and interactive. talk themes/topics that trigger physical violence
Trash talk is barely seen as a form of among gamers; and investigate the factors that
harassment or abuse, but rather a unique style of influence the use of trash talk among gamers of
interaction among gamers. Such perception different background and orientation. A
implies that while trash talk expressions denote quantitative approach is also suggested to
negativity and toxicity, the way these expressions determine the degrees to which the qualitative
are interpreted is contextual. In multiplayer findings of this study have manifested.
gaming, which is competitive in nature where
gamers are overwhelmed by the forces from the Moreover, it is suggested that trash talk or
virtual and real world they dwell in, trash talk swearing be introduced in language education to
generally serves a purpose and is, therefore, expose students to these expressions and to
accepted. As perceived by the gamers, trash talk inform them the context in which these

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