Willey

Hindawi
Journal of Advanced Transportation

Volume 2022, Article ID 3868388, 26 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3868388
Review Article
A Comprehensive Review on the Integration of Electric
Vehicles for Sustainable Development
M. S. Hossain ,1 Laveet Kumar ,2 M. M. Islam ,3 and Jeyraj Selvaraj4

1
Institute for Energy Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, 76090 Sindh, Pakistan
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology, Ghazipur, 1707, Bangladesh
4
Higher Institution Centre of Excellence (HICoE), UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC),
University of Malaya, 59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Correspondence should be addressed to M. M. Islam; moinul.islam@duet.ac.bd
Received 5 May 2022; Revised 8 September 2022; Accepted 26 September 2022; Published 11 October 2022
Academic Editor: Mohammad Miralinaghi
Copyright © 2022 M. S. Hossain et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
In this article, the concept of an electric vehicle (EV) as a sustainable development (SD) is discussed, and the viability of the
development of electric vehicles is assessed. This study broadens the conventional definition of sustainable development by
incorporating and prioritizing crucial areas of technology, environment, and policy performance. The proposed review studies
have summarized the elements that can promote the integration of electric vehicle technology. The innovation of the EV has
just become a modern innovation. At the same time, some obstacles, such as policy and lower adoption, are resisting its goals.
To overcome this situation, electric cars have to adopt some innovative approaches that can be another path to success. The
review result shows that the proposal discusses the technological advancements of electric vehicles worldwide and paves the
way for further improvements. The results also mentioned technological development to reduce emissions and help us
understand the impact on the environment and health benefits. However, the summary would be advantageous to both
scholars and policymakers, as there is a lack of integrative reviews that assess the global demand and development of EVs
simultaneously and collectively. This review would provide insight for investors and policymakers to envisage electric mobility.
1. Introduction of air pollution, particularly in densely populated areas. In

order to overcome the environmental and energy crisis issues
Electric vehicles (EVs) have the potential to contribute to the that conventional vehicles contribute to, hybrid electric vehicle
decarbonization of transportation and the emergence of low- (HEV) technology has been developed and applied over the
carbon cities due to the benefits of energy-efficient technology past few years. HEV technologies provide a fuel economy
and low pollution. Thus, it has become one of the development improvement and enable HEVs to exhaust fewer emissions
trends of interest in the automotive industry [1, 2]. However, compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehi-
the EV industry’s future success is highly reliant on technolog- cles (ICEVs), but HEVs cannot completely resolve the above-
ical innovation [3, 4]. Many countries, including Sweden, mentioned issues. Thus, vehicle technology has improved to
China, Malaysia, and Korea, have paid close attention to EV produce pure electric vehicles (PEVs). As a result, PEV
technology innovation and issued policies to encourage EV technology could reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
technological innovation [5–8]. Nowadays, technological inno- and particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution as the world is suf-
vation in the electric vehicle field of sustainable development is fering from dangerously high levels and poses a major envi-
a significant topic. ronmental risk to human health [9]. Many studies have been
The most important reason is that, at present, environ- conducted to reduce GHG emissions from vehicles. Without
mental issues are becoming increasingly serious. Vehicle GHG standards, global CO2 emissions from passenger
exhaust gas emissions have become the most significant source vehicles would nearly double between 2000 and 2030 [10].
2 Journal of Advanced Transportation
However, if current GHG standards are followed, global GHG agement systems could respond to the smart grid system,
emissions from passenger vehicles are expected to be slightly which includes renewable energy sources (RESs) and EVs,
lower in 2030 than they were in 2000. Based on other research, respectively. That research shows a good summary of the prog-
currently implemented vehicle GHG emission standards will ress of EV charging infrastructure and the impact of EV charg-
reduce 1.7 billion tons of CO2 emissions from light duty vehi- ing on the grid, which, on the other hand, is critical for the
cles (LDVs) in 2040, whereas CO2 emissions from LDVs will growth of the EV market. However, several authors summarized
be 5 billion tons in 2040 if GHG emission standards are not EV charging infrastructure [33–35], EV integration into the
implemented [11]. Sen et al. have estimated the impact of smart grid [36], vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology impact [37],
GHG standards on the market share of electric vehicles (EV) battery swapping stations for electric vehicles [38], and EV
because zero-emission vehicles are more likely to meet GHG and smart grid interaction [39] in various publications. But tak-
standards, also known as the corporate average fuel economy ing part in single approaches may not be suitable for EV adop-
(CAFE) [12]. tion growth. There are several supporting strategies, such as
The researchers from different countries used various environmental and health impact, policies to help EV technol-
methods to assess the environmental impact of EVs. Many ogy improvement, and sustainable development worldwide.
researchers have discovered that electric vehicles (EVs) can help To improve EV adoption growth towards sustainable
to reduce GHG emissions in a variety of ways [13–15]. For improvement, this paper proposes an innovative approach for
example, Hawkins et al. discovered that in Europe, EVs could EV development to provide an important guideline with exam-
offer a 10% to 24% reduction in global warming potential when ples for developing and nondeveloping countries. Such
compared to conventional diesel vehicles [16]. According to approaches consider various aspects of development, such as
Onat et al., all-electric vehicle types could help to reduce global technical, environmental, health, and policy. The study is sum-
warming in Qatar [17]. Some scholars believe that electric vehi- marized from the standpoint of sustainable development using
cles may not help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions [18–20]. electric vehicle technology and its impacts in different sectors.
Some researchers deny the actual environmental benefits of The technological development could not help to increase EV
EVs, owing to a lack of EV stock and the power utilized by adoption. Thus, this review points to the technological improve-
EVs being insufficiently clean. For example, more than 70% of ment rates including such key dimensions as human, nature,
China’s electric power is generated by burning coal or natural and system factors. EV technology with future smart city devel-
gas. The power production industry is well-known as a source opment is the key factor for renewable energy system develop-
of air pollutant emissions, including sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ment, which could help to reduce the impact of EV integration
nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions [21]. The source of electricity on the grid. The smart grid structure with EV system impact
generation emits a large amount of greenhouse gases, which has been discussed in this review. The following article summa-
makes the popularity of EVs appear to be environmentally rizes EV policy, which is a significant contribution to recogniz-
unfriendly [20, 22–24]. The electric vehicle contributes to global ing the major improvements in EV use in different countries
warming mitigation if the electricity generation system is pow- and necessary methods. The review summarized the EV adop-
ered by renewable and sustainable energy [25–27]. However, tion hypothesis, which could improve the sociodemographic
Khan et al. have discovered a comprehensive study on solar- and psychological characteristics. Nowadays, EV sharing and
powered electric vehicle charging systems [28]. As a result, from its benefits are hot topics, and electric vehicles are playing an
an environmental viewpoint, EVs remain a promising trend for essential role in environmental and infrastructure benefits. In
decarbonizing transportation and can contribute to sustainable this regard, the review went through the vehicle sharing mobil-
development [29]. ity structure discussion. Lastly, the paper summarizes and
The sustainable development framework is the most explores some different methods and their advantages and dis-
important model or framework to consider when developing advantages, which could continue the development of electric
new technology. Such frameworks take into account various vehicle innovations with a sustainable energy management sys-
aspects of development, such as social, economic, environmen- tem. These discussions will give a general framework for
tal, and technological factors. Furthermore, the development of increasing EV growth in the world.
international standards and codes, universal infrastructures, The structure of this article is as follows: in the next sec-
associated peripherals, and user-friendly software will be criti- tion, we summarized the electric vehicle technology develop-
cal to the successful growth of EVs over the next decade [30]. ment approaches. Section 3 summarizes the CO2 emission
Huge teams of researchers are working in these fields all over and reduction approaches with different countries’ alterna-
the world. Khalid et al. and their research team have enclosed tive fuel vehicle studies. Sections 4 and 5 show the EV’s envi-
a comprehensive review on advanced charging topologies and ronmental and health impacts. Section 6 summarizes the
methodologies for electric vehicle batteries [31]. They focused electric vehicle policies and major improvements for EV
on EV charging technologies regarding charging methods, con- development. Section 7 outlines the advantages and disad-
trol strategies, and power levels. Ahmad et al. developed an vantages of electric vehicles. In the last section, the study
existing EV charging infrastructure and energy management covers the conclusion and makes a recommendation.
system for smart microgrids [32]. The charging infrastructure
of electric vehicles relays on the grid system, thus unscheduled 2. Electric Vehicle Technology
EV connectivity with conventional grid systems leads to unre-
liable and interrupted power supply, which may lead to grid Currently, the world is facing atmospheric changes and emis-
failure. Therefore, the smart city development and energy man- sions of ozone-depleting substances [40, 41]. Most of the
Journal of Advanced Transportation 3
conventional vehicles carry substances that deplete the ozone load systems, it is recommended to connect or charge EVs to
layer. According to a declaration issued by the European Com- the grid at a specific time. However, EV technology advance-
mission, transportation sector is responsible for a quarter of the ment may not only increase EV adoption. There are several cri-
total ozone layer depletion in the European Union (EU). One teria needed for energy management methods and policies to
of the main ozone-depleting materials is CO2 gas, and about give motivation to EV customers. A study using bilevel mathe-
15% of CO2 is emitted by light vehicles [42]. The revolution matical model to capture the decision-making processes of the
of electric vehicles has stirred up great interest from analysts, transport agency and the travelers can serve as guidance for
governments, and strategic designers in many countries. metropolitan transport agencies to establish specific locations
Today’s electric vehicle (EV) technology stems from various and capacities for EV [49].
types of individual achievements that divides the overall field
of EV into several key areas [43]. Because of their low pollution 2.1. Flexible and Innovative System in the Vehicle. In near
level, EVs can promote low-carbon emission and present a future, dynamic mobility between fully electric vehicles
model for decarbonization of transportation in automobile (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)) will
sector [1, 2, 44]. Nevertheless, future expansion of EVs depends become an imperative choice for the smart grid area [50].
on technological improvement to a great extent [3, 4]. Policy- Hence, an energy management mechanism is desirable to
makers in many countries like Sweden, China, Malaysia, and endorse the link between household business taxes and fast
South Korea are serious about developing strategies to support car charging. One of the best choices required for flexible
the new inventions in this field [5, 45]. and unique utilities is EV [41, 51], the function and focus
Figure 1 shows the analysis of the estimated improvement of which include strategy to ensure high response speed
index the estimation steps to improve the areas and subdo- and transfer energy in two directions.
mains, where PE is the hardware and EM is the electric motor.
2.2. Future Development Model of Electric Vehicle Network
There are various analytical models to appreciate the sus-
(EVGI). Electric vehicles can be used not only as transporta-
tainable and unsustainable development of electric vehicles.
tion but also as electrical loads (grid to vehicle (G2V)), the
An enhanced version of the HNS model (human, system, and
corresponding energy stock of grid (vehicle to grid (V2G)),
nature) has been developed for mechanical steering of EV,
the energy stock of various electric vehicles (vehicle to vehi-
which is then converted into NHS to show versatility from N
cle (V2V)), and the energy stock of buildings (vehicle to
to H and then converted to H to S. An idea of the relationship
building (V2B)) functions system compliance center [52,
between people, nature, and systems is shown in Figure 2. As
53]. In the field of vehicles, some of the latest innovations
shown in Figure 2, each of the three representations is adjusted
include proprietary long-distance power transmission (wire-
equally in accordance with their proposed model (NHS)—case
less power transfer (WPT)) [54], connected mobility (CM),
(a) is more supportable than (b), and (b) is more practical and
autonomous or autonomous electric vehicles, and the eco-
therefore better than case (c). In the proposed model, nature,
nomic saving and life power network of electric vehicles.
human, and systems are considered independently (Figure 2),
Figure 4 shows a classification, and Figure 5 shows a recom-
whereas humans depend on nature and nature will remain
mended model for the future development of EVs and
without people, and the structure depends on both humans
energy structures. This proposed structure includes renew-
and nature. As a rule, support infers a rational approach to
able electricity and hydrogen generation for battery and fuel
limit negative environmental impacts trying to maintain har-
cell EVs. On the other hand, energy networking systems
mony between all three components. The opinions of people
have been developed for energy utility, distribution, and
and structures are discerned from a natural viewpoint [46].
transmission control systems, whereas EV is contributing
There are three types of electric vehicles: hybrid electric
as a utility and energy distributer.
vehicle (HEV), fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), and electric
vehicle (EV). According to [47], all PHEVs in a municipal 2.3. Application of Renewable Energy. This section studies the
fleet can be divided into the following six categories, where impact of renewable energy systems in implementing EV.
vehicles in category 2 are modular electric vehicles that are Knezović et al. [55] studied the opportunity and exertion of
operated by, at least, one electric motor using the energy synchronizing sustainable energy sources (for example, based
stored in batteries. on wind and sun) to provide energy for battery charging and
limiting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. PEV can charge
(1) Electric bicycles and bicycles electric vehicles in peak-off hour or when the renewable
(2) Street electric cars energy is available. There is a lack of coordination between
the host and the distributed generation energy system (DESS)
(3) High-speed urban electric vehicles with sustainable energy, which can be completed under the
basic load and the maximum load. At the top time, supple-
(4) Low-speed electric cars mentary energy is fed into the grid. From the literature, we
(5) Supercars found that primarily, the broader prospects of entire future
grid system and network have been studied so far [41].
(6) Electric bus and electric truck
2.4. Smart Grid Structure. Smart grid is a multifaceted system
A model for relationship between EV and the grid is shown connected to all grid networks. At present, the power grid net-
in Figure 3 [41, 48]. To overcome the low-voltage and high- work does not meet the flexibility required to facilitate EV
Domain & Improvement

0.7
subdomain (%)
0.6 PE 18.3
PE-hybrid 38.5
0.5 PE-other 15.8
Estimated density
EM 7.7
0.4 EM-PM 10.1
EM-Induction 9.4
0.3 Charging & dis 23.8
Discharging 28.6
0.2 Charging 21.9
Battery 11.7
0.1 Battery-lithium- 13.2
ion
0 Battery-nickel 8.7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 Battery-lead acid 5.1
Predicted-k
PE EM-induc
PE-hybrid EM-PM
PE-other Battery
Charging & disch Nickel
Charging L-acid
Discharging Li-ion
EM
Figure 1: The estimated technological improvement rates of domains and subdomains [43].
Nature Human System However, EV technology still needs to be synchronized to the

Human Nature Human national grid system. A short details are shown in Figure 6 [52].
System System Nature 2.5.1. Negative Effects. Electric cars are a wonderful test for
energy suppliers. The unnecessary integration of electric
vehicles into a decentralized system can affect the shape of
Sustainable Unsustainable Unsustainable the stack, the limits of the components of the transport
Figure 2: Models for human, structures, and nature (HNS): (a) frame, tension and repetitive accidents, injection of upper
sustainable and (b and c) unsustainable. Redrawn from this symphonies, a power failure, and financing stability.
source [46].
2.5.2. Positive Effects. Although top-level EV access to the
charging. For the exhibition of all system screen characters for network can cause problems such as damage to the quality
this application, various networks need to be effectually of the degradation, increasing maximum loads, and power
cliched, connected, and permitted. The following are the main recommendations, each of these problems can be resolved
components of planning a keen system [41, 52]: using executive power techniques, such as [37, 56, 57].
(1) The substructure of the system and its components 2.6. Approach Time to Charge the Battery to Reduce Negative
must be adaptable Impacts. Synchronous loading is one of the most effective
(2) The structured grid model should support future strategies. The transaction costs for energy, a measure of
growth the energy consumption of a battery in the state of charge
(SOC) (Figure 7(a)), are regarded as the parameters of this
(3) When planning the structure, the structure and technology. In the independent state of charging, 55% of
points of the programming/device/grid structures the battery charge is accomplished, and additionally, 45%
should be considered is supplied during low use (10: 00 p.m. to 7: 00 a.m.). In
express delivery, 75% of the EV battery charge ends when
(4) Any system update program should be executed
used less (10: 00 p.m. to 7: 00 a.m.), and the remaining 25%
automatically
is made available between 7: 00 a.m. and 10: 00 p.m. In an
uncontrolled state of charge, 55% of the charging time of
2.5. Impacts of EV Integration on the Grid. However, this sec- the battery is used during periods of low usage (10: 00 p.m.
tion’s information is important to observe the impacts of EV to 7: 00 a.m.), and the remaining 45% is between 7: 00 a.m.
integration on the grid. We summarized the effects of mixing and 10: 00 p.m. [12].
the EV grid, which can be divided into negative and positive. It A proposed charging schedule is shown in Figures 7(b)
is recommended that before connecting EV technology to the and 7(c). One of the primary difficulties with this strategy
grid network, there will be significant heavy load problems. is that during periods of maximum energy consumption,
Grid RE Grid stability

Day time
S2V
PVE
Electric vehicles V2G Household

EVs controller electricity Grid EVs
Charge to EVs
Home
V2G
power
PVE Evening time

V2H
Grid EVs
Discharging
Home
power
Figure 3: The relationship between electric vehicles and the grid.
Wireless power transfer Wireless power transfer is the latest

technique to charge / discharge the EVs
without any physical contact between source
and load. WPT transfers electrical energy
Connected mobility
through electromagnetics.
Connected mobility (CM) is the concept of

Autonomous EVs communication between vehicle-to-vehicle,
vehicle to a roadside base station, passenger,
traffic signal, power grid, etc.
EV shared economy
Autonomous or self driving vehicles are the next
generation vehicles,which have the ability to
sense their surroundings and act upon it. It is a
Energy internet driverless technology, where the vehicle itself
decides the travelling route, identifes road
conditions, operates the vehicle to reach the
destination set by the user.
EVs may play a vital role in the development of With the technological advancement in EV
the energy internet (EI) technology . The EI technologies, a new concept of vehicle
concept, frst introduced by Jeremy Rifkin, is to ownership may evolve in the near future using
unify the power, transportation, gas, and thermal theshared economy or collaborative consumption
systems in a single platform . concept.
Figure 4: Classification of EV network.
the charging of connected EVs gets restricted. The following to the environmental impact. Synchronization between issues
mode (controlled state of charge) is considered. related to global temperature change and air pollution are vital
The updated lithium battery is suitable for charging EVs for a cleaner transportation sector. The International Energy
with a range of 170 kilometers. The maximum battery Agency (IEA) is taking measures to reduce carbon dioxide
charge of EVs is around 20 to 30 kWh. EV FC batteries (CO2eq), and many countries have adopted the introduction
can charge 80% of EVs in less than 30 minutes. of EVs in the market as an important policy [59, 60].
Many observations focused on the development of electric
3. CO2 Emission and Reduction Approaches vehicle advertisements in various departments and countries,
such as in the United States, Iceland, Canada, and the Nether-
Apart from the positive impact, we believe that EVs could be a lands [61–64]. From 2012 to 2013, the development of cooper-
suitable technological option for renewable energy sources. ation between electric vehicles in the Scandinavian market was
However, for sustainable development, EVs could contribute determined by measuring the possibility of using various forms
Utility control center

distribution control Switch, router
center, transmission Information network communication
control center channel
Data processing Optimal regulation

Intelligent control
Data collection
Fuel cell vehicle Renewable
energy
Communication flow
Transportation
Energy newtwork Thermal network Power network
network
Boiler Electric Power/

Thermoelectic
vehicle energy flow
coupler
Power plants
Electrolyzer
Figure 5: Structure of energy network. Redrawn from this source [52].
EVGI impacts on grid

to carry out the exercises foreseen after 2020 as part of the
Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) [68].
South Korea proposes to reduce the runoff of greenhouse gases
Positive impact Negative impact (GHG) by 37% by 2030 as an INDC. They believe that this will
be achieved by reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the
Power management Load demand increase family car sector by 30.8 million tons in terms of carbon diox-
Power quality Component overloading ide, which equates to the target emission reduction of 11.1%
improvement Phase & voltage unbalance [69]. In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the
Voltage and frequency Harmonics automotive sector, the Korean government has reached an
regulation Stability
Power loss increase
agreement to create and provide institutional assistance to
Renewable energy
integration support the global green automotive industry [70]. Electric vehicles
(EVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) play an important
Figure 6: Negative and positive impacts of EV grid integration role, especially in response to environmental concerns and
system. Redrawn from this source [52]. future interest in cars. In light of these environmental and eco-
nomic considerations, the Korean government has set targets
for the elimination of electric vehicles and FCEVs and is look-
ing for various methods of assistance [71, 72].
of financing to purchase electric vehicles [61]. The outcomes
indicate that the decisive factors are the development of fuel 3.1. Different Country’s Strategies for Alternative Fuel Vehicles
and electric vehicle costs and the driving force behind the gov- (AFVs). Figure 8 shows different countries’ strategies for alter-
ernment. Many tests use virtual models to estimate the cost of native fuel vehicles (AFVs). We summarized the important
emissions from electric vehicles. Therefore, further research studies and methodologies for AFVs’ performance and contri-
on real information about electric vehicles is required [65]. bution to reducing GHG emissions. Previous alternative fuel
Buyers of electric vehicles are required to use their local grid vehicle (AFV) surveys show that customer preferences for fuel
discharge as a guide for EV statistic, which is a dangerous devi- type vary by country/region and inspection time. In addition,
ation from atmospheric deviation due to different radiant in many studies, the probability of making an AFV decision is
forces in the area. Appropriate models for determining the less than that of an internal combustion engine. Especially
age limit of electricity consumption and carbon dioxide emis- considering the opening and charging time of the charging
sions for electric vehicles take into account the explicit radia- station and taking into account the various characteristics of
tion factor of the energy service life, which is why it should various studies, with the current level of innovation, internal
be carried out on site [66]. combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) are even better than
As people pay more attention to environmental changes, AFV [72], but ICEVs produce more GHG emissions than
more attention is being paid to reducing carbon dioxide AFV. However, based on environmental and health benefits,
emissions than ever before. Carbon dioxide from the auto- AFVs such as BEV and FCV technology could provide an
motive industry, in particular, accounts for 22.9% of global alternative means for sustainable development. The problem
emissions [67]. More than 190 countries have created plans of locating refueling stations in a transportation network via
100% + 15
20% SOC 12
Reserve (safety margin)

9
Operating range
Battery capacity
over charge risk

80% not exceed
6
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
95% SOC
0% – Controlled charging
Uncontrolled charging
(a) (b)
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Type 1 (EV)
Type 2 (EV)
Type 3 (EV)
(c)
Figure 7: Charging schedule of EVs. Redrawn from this source [58]. (a) EV battery capacity. (b) Charging is limited during peak times. (c)
Charging process is completed before 6 a.m.
mathematical programming has been carried out by [73]. The section, we provide some research and future prediction out-
proposed model is applicable for several alternative fuel types comes for EV development in the road transportation sector
and is particularly suitable for hydrogen fuel. in South Korea and China.
Various studies have shown that a clear energy structure in
the United States is a key factor in AFV greenhouse gas emis- 3.2. CO2 Emission and Reduction Scenario Approaches. This is
sions. To reduce the reduction of medium- and long-term a proposed assessment of carbon dioxide emissions and
AFV greenhouse gas emissions, some AFV assumptions need approaches of reducing the use of heavy-duty trucks under
to be considered, as well as customer trends and mechanical various conditions of emission acceptability in South Korean.
innovations, as well as state regulatory mechanisms for energy Mechanically achievable carbon reduction levels apply to the
consumption. It is recommended that we follow the different following four situations: similar to business as usual (BAU),
countries’ AFV methodology to overcome the EV perfor- mild, normal, and aggressive conditions. In the estimation of
mance issues and use those technologies for sustainable devel- CO2 emissions, a simulation model based on the longitudinal
opment. Based on the life cycle assessments around the world, component of the vehicle, the normal vehicle mileage, and the
AFVs perform better than ICEVs. For example, in the Euro- number of Korean vehicles has been used, as shown in
pean power mix, EVs can reduce GHG emissions by 10 to Figure 9. According to BAU, 30.82 million tons of carbon
20% compared to ICEVs. On the other hand, GHG emissions dioxide will be produced by 2030 and carbon dioxide emis-
from hydrogen production are analyzed in the context of sions will be cautious and sensitive and, as a rule, will decrease
South Korea. They used well-to-wheel (WTW) approaches by 2.1%, 4%, and 5%, respectively. By 2040, the impact of these
to reduce GHG emissions. However, since a large portion of conditions will be reduced by 5.7%, 10.9%, and 15.8%, respec-
the power sources around the world are fossil fuel based, tively. These results indicate that South Korea can reduce CO2
EVs may not be effective in reducing GHG emissions. Thus, emissions through strict improvement measures or CO2 regu-
EV technology needs further improvement (i.e., fuel cell tech- lations for vehicles [74].
nology) and policy implications to achieve deep decarboniza- Here is another example. China is by far the best private
tion from power to transportation sectors. In the following electric car advertisement in the world and flexibly represents
Methodology
Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs) preferences
Error component Assuming a realistic attribute level,

US & Japan multinomial logit model gasoline vehicles still dominate AFVs
ICEVs are preferable to EVs.

RUM & RRM discrete
Increasing the driving distance
Germany choice model of EVs to the level of ICEVs
is important
Multiple discrete-continuous
extreme value model EVs have a greater effect on CO2
Korea emission reduction
Mixed logit model than hybrid vehicles
FCEV-related policies are in the light

of the probable future outcomes
US of competition between
EVs and FCEVs
EU
Fossil fuel-oriented EVs are preferable As a result of calculating the choice
Romania to nuclear-oriented EVs, although probability for each fuel type,
the latter is advantageous in terms the vehicle price should be
Korea
of GHG reduction further reduced for difusion of EV
70 countries
AFVs GHG emissions
Life cycle assessment GHG emissions of BEV depend on the
marginal power mix and
charging patterns
European power mix, EVs can reduce
GHG emissions by 10 to 24%
Carbon reduction through EVs compared to ICEVs
nuclear and renewable energy
GHG emissions from hydrogen
policy goals
production are analyzed in the
A large portion of power sources are context of South Korea
fossil fuel-based. EVs are not well-to-wheel GHG emissions of
efective in reducing GHG emissions South Korea
Figure 8: Summary of the relevant studies.
part of the world’s private car in 2017. The China data carbon emissions in Shandong and Tianjin are generally
research center of Automotive Technology & Research Center high, this increase in runoff is due to the generally low nat-
has maintained an extensive database of prices and quality. ural impact of destroyed vehicles in Guangdong.
This data can be used to evaluate the environmental impact In Shanghai, from 2011 to 2017, the outflow of carbon
of the PEV in China [75]. dioxide from PHEV continued to decline. Between 2011 and
Always indicate eVKT (vehicle kilometers travelled) of 2017, plug-in hybrid cars have grown steadily in Guangdong,
BEV and PHEV in 5 districts. From 2011 to 2017, BEV cov- Tianjin, and Shaanxi in the past 4 years (except 2016) and in
ered 12.5 billion kilometers in 5 regions. Beijing invested over 2017. It is unclear whether PHEV-CO2 in region 5 has
30% in all electronic quotas; Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Shan- completely run out until 2015. The model is also explained
dong accounted for around 20%; in Tianjin, it is less than 10%. by the general environmental impact of top models such as
From 2011 to 2017, 5.8 billion kilometers were spent in 5 Guangdong, Tianjin, and Shaanxi, although the CO2 emis-
regions. Shanghai represents 55% of the PHEV recommenda- sions in Tianjin and Shaanxi are slightly higher. In 2017, the
tions, Guangdong 32%, and less than 5% in the other three PEV produced 355,827 tons of carbon dioxide in five main
regions. Between 2011 and 2017, these five districts spanned locations. About 80% of this volume is provided by BEV and
a total of 1.83 billion kilometers. In 2017, PEVs accounted 20% by PHEV. In 2017, each BEV model emitted 606.6 kg of
for 70.1% of the 9.7 billion kilometers guaranteed by battery- carbon dioxide, and each PHEV model emitted 350.9 kg of
based EVs. carbon dioxide. Although BEV and PHEV disposed of
Figure 10 shows the absolute annual CO2R for BEV and 472,806 tons and 139,018 tons of carbon dioxide from 2011
PHEV, respectively. From 2011 to 2017, BEV carbon dioxide to 2017, respectively, the PEVs generally reduced 611,824 tons
outflows in Beijing and Zhejiang declined. In any case, from of carbon dioxide [76].
2011 to 2013, BEV went to Guangdong, from 2014 to Shan- The above results show the performance of EVs and EV-
dong and from 2012 to Tianjin, carbon emissions have related policy applications. That progress mainly depends on
increased, and the ICEV has also been limited. Although a country’s policy and identifying the best technology to fit
CO2 emission (million ton) 35 found this reduction to be a conflict advantage, especially
due to helpless street customers [86], and emphasized the need
33
for additional security measures.
31 The location of countless electric vehicles poses environ-
29 mental problems associated with battery disassembly.
Although it is currently impractical to use lithium batteries
27
incompletely, lithium batteries contain hazardous components
25 inherent in the toxicity of electronic equipment and must be
23 properly disposed of. There are many reasons why lithium bat-
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 teries are more difficult to predict and more expensive than
lead-acid batteries. Initially, lithium batteries were equipped
BAU (Business as Usual)
Mild scenario with a series of accessories, including LiCoO2, LiMn2O4,
Normal scenario LiNiMnCoO2, LiFePO4, LiNiCoAlO2, and Li4Ti5O12, which
Aggressive scenario made the automatic reuse process difficult. In this case, the
dynamic materials in the battery cells of Li particles are coated
Figure 9: CO2 emission reduction in South Korea [74].
with metal foil powder, which needs to be separated during
recycling. Lead-acid batteries are always made of a small num-
into the market. However, underdeveloped countries should ber of large lead plates and are located in a single plastic case,
learn from EV growth countries’ experience. A good EV policy but in most cases, many individual low-limit batteries and lith-
could help to reduce GHG emissions and environmental and ium particles are bundled in the module [87, 88].
health impacts from the transportation sector. To support this
powertrain electrification, China and India launched subna- 4.1. Electric Vehicle Battery Recycling. From an environmen-
tional level policies to inspire electric vehicle demand, local tal point of view, the rapid growth of the electric vehicle
manufacturing, research and development (R&D), and infra- market will not cause a large number of lithium-ion batteries
structure development. Therefore, technology and policy have to expire. If they enter the recycling program or are improp-
a significant role in EV growth and adoption. erly used, they will generate a lot of toxic waste. Stringer and
Ma [89] found that due to the strengthening, the global elec-
4. EV Environmental Impact tric vehicle load will reach 55,000 to 3.4 million from 2018 to
2025. These batteries are no longer suitable for electric vehi-
Since the introduction of the most advanced combustion cles. However, they have less than sufficient limits for certain
engine in 1885, transportation has only been achieved through fixed capacities (for example, storing energy on a private,
fossil-fueled vehicles. Today, vehicles account for 29% of global modern, and basic scale). However, according to Nissan
carbon dioxide emissions, while individual vehicles account for CEO Francisco Carranza [90], the price of EV battery mate-
10% [77]. In addition, by 2025, less than 5% of vehicles in the rials that can be disposed of permanently is much lower than
United States will correspond to corporate average fuel econ- the price of fully used batteries. Since the used EV battery
omy (CAFE) [78]. On the other hand, EU regulations stipulate has enough energy to meet the less demanding tasks (such
that by 2020, the bound emissions of carbon dioxide must as RES energy storage), and since the use time can only be
reach 95 g/km, which means that more than 95% of cars still about 8–20 years [91], this will undoubtedly be reused again.
do not agree with the standard [79]. As a result, the main con- This wise approach is called the second demonstration of
test is the amount of adoption for EVs versus clean electricity using electric vehicle batteries, and some organizations have
fueled. In 2009, a fascinating study was conducted, showing recommended it, for example, Nissan and Hyundai. Marra
the advantages of PHEV and HEV vehicles in achieving emis- et al. [92] found that the ratings of batteries with potential
sion targets and reducing fuel consumption compared to regu- for reuse are almost several times higher than the ratings
lar vehicles [80]. At this point, the restriction that restricts the of batteries that are increasingly suitable for recycling [93].
use of electric vehicles as a standard rather than an exception
seems to support hybrid electric vehicles. However, the envi- 4.2. Electric Vehicle Effect on Electric Scaffolding. At the turn of
ronmental impact of HEV largely depends on its internal com- the 20th century, global temperature changes and environmen-
bustion engine “range extender” [81]. tal pollution issues became the main issues of general legisla-
Another major disadvantage of simple fractional alternative issues, which led people to seek the choice of petroleum
tives is that, despite many other options, they all produce products functionally and may revive electric vehicles. At the
nearby toxins such as some CO, NOx, and PM. Contrary to same time, the rapid expansion of the state-supplied electricity
the flow of carbon dioxide, these particles have local character- supply can benefit both the land and the real test of the energy
istics that affect air quality within 100 km [82]. Several sources structure. Huang et al. [94], described that the emergence of
indicate that this reduction in carbon dioxide emissions can electric vehicles will cause a “top-down” impact, which may
reach 100%, while SOx can be reduced by 75%, NOx can be lead to serious risks related to the power system, for example,
reduced by 69%, and PM10 can be reduced by 31% [83, 84]. in southern Norway in 2017 [95]. These risks include an
In this regard, urban areas are exposed to another type of pol- increase in the short-circuit currents; the voltage level could
lution: noise pollution. In all respects, a quiet EV can reduce no longer be between the standard limits; the power demand
the noise level by 3-5 dB (A) [85]. Nonetheless, some experts is higher and the lifespan of the equipment is affected.
80 K
250 K
60 K
200 K
PHEV tCO2e
BEV tCO2e
40 K
150 K
20 K
100 K
0
–10 K
50 K
–20 K
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year Year
Beijing Guangdong Shaanxi Guangdong

Shandong Tianjin Tianjin Shanghai
Zhejiang Zhejiang
Figure 10: Top 5 BEV and PHEV CO2 emission reduction in China [76].
However, the EV hosting capacity of the grid is good for a 5.1. Well-to-Wheel Approach. The well-to-wheel analysis is a
majority of the end-users, but the weakest power cable in the nonstandardized method to quantify the impact of transporta-
system will be overloaded at a 20% EV penetration level. The tion fuels and vehicles regarding energy and climate change.
network tolerated an EV penetration of 50% with regard to According to the life cycle concept, the US Department of
the voltage levels at all end-users in Norway. Injecting reactive Energy’s Argonne National Laboratory has proposed a well-
power at the location of an installed fast charger proved to sig- to-wheel (WTW) rating system for studying vehicle fuel con-
nificantly reduce the largest voltage deviations otherwise sumption. Well-to-wheel is the first step in comparing the effi-
imposed by the charger [96]. Various scientists have raised ciency of different solutions towards greenhouse gas (GHG)
comparable questions about these issues [97, 98]. emissions. Those GHG emissions are so crucial to mitigate
because, simply put, they cause climate change. The subject of
the assessment is the support of the vehicle’s fuel base, which
5. Health Impact is divided into two stages: the level of fuel production (or from
the well-to-tank, WTT) and the ignition level of the fuel (or
Vehicle-driven innovations such as electric vehicles (EV), from the fuel tank-to-wheel, TTW). The former includes the
including hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), plug-in HEV extraction, transportation, and conversion of fuel. The WTW
(PHEV), and battery electric vehicles (BEV) have potential method focuses on the life cycle of fuel consumed by the vehi-
economic, environmental, and health benefits, but they need cles without describing the vehicle manufacture, scrapping, and
to recognize the impressive benefits of open EV reception. recycling. Figure 11 shows the system boundary of the well-to-
Anyway, in the United States, only a small percentage of wheel approach structure [20].
electric vehicles need to investigate the behavior of the vehi- Figure 12 shows an example of the EU energy mix in the
cle distribution in order to identify the current consumers of transportation sector. Let us compare vehicles that are pow-
electric vehicles based on the attributes and settings of the ered by gasoline, diesel, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
electric vehicle while also considering competitive solutions, (PHEV), batteries, and compressed natural gas (CNG) [103].
which are assembled fuel and diesel ordinary vehicles [99]. There are some immediate assumptions from this simple
EVs powered by low-emitting electricity from natural example:
gas, wind, water, or solar power can reduce environmental
health impacts by 50% or more compared of ICEVs [100]. (i) On a TTW basis, electrified solutions offer the best
Considering the age of sustainable energy use, German elec- performance. These are the emissions coming
tric vehicle emissions are 62-64% lower than traditional directly from the vehicle
vehicles [65]. However, many scholars believe that the pro-
motion of EVs in China cannot achieve energy savings or (ii) Considering the current EU energy mix (106 g CO2/
greenhouse gas reduction in most provinces due to their MJ), the WTT CO2 contribution from BEV is approx-
power structure [101]. Certain environmental benefits can imately double compared to conventional fuels. These
only be realized in certain well-established or low-carbon are the emissions coming from the fuel or, in the case
regions [102]. Increasing the proportion of renewable of electric vehicles, the electricity production
energy, such as hydropower, wind, and solar power, in the
power supply system can effectively reduce the negative (iii) On a WTW basis, BEVs offer better performance
environmental effects of EVs [27]. thanks to the better efficiency of the powertrain
Air pollutants
Transportation
Coal Thermal Battery BEVs

power Electricity
transmission
Natural Fossil fuel Power from Battery &
non-fossil energy HEVs
resources extraction Tank
Gasoline & diesel

Crude oil production Tank ICEVs
Transportation
Greenhouse gases
Well-to-tank (WTT) Tank-to-wheel (TTW)
Figure 11: Well-to-wheel system bounder [20].
160
140
120
100
CO2-g/km
80
60
40
20
0
Petrol Diesel PHEV BEV (14,5 CNG
(Petrol) kWh/100 km)
TTW
WTT
WTW
Figure 12: WTW emission comparison C-segment vehicle—WLTP [103].
5.2. EV and Health. Despite continuous innovation and more, policymakers want to lower greenhouse gas emissions
improvement, the automotive industry continues to account through alternative technologies, e.g., by using battery electric
for a quarter of the emissions of greenhouse gas substances vehicles that are powered by sustainable energy sources to
(GHGs). Automobile emissions lead to a high concentration limit their environmental footprint. Since the road transport
of air pollution, and many urban communities on the planet sector has generated 18% of the all greenhouse gas emissions
often do not meet the air quality indicators set by the World over the past decade [115], an increased interest in alternative
Health Organization (WHO) [104]. For many reasons, it is technologies such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs) could
important to show off new energy vehicles in the global indus- reduce such emissions [116].
try. Electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles offer many advan-
tages for cities and urban areas, such as extremely low (hybrid 6. EV Policy
electric cars with plug-in PHEV) to zero (electric cars with bat-
tery-BEV, electric cars with fuel cell-FCHEV, and hybrid fuel Policy development for electric vehicles is an important fac-
cell) tailpipe emissions, reduced noise, and the ability to enable tor for sustainable EV development. Most policy research
new smart services [105–108]. has focused on plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) in the short
Thus, the European Union (EU) is carefully and exten- term, such as by (i) typically considering a wider range of
sively studying the enforcement of a driving ban for diesel cars evaluation criteria and (ii) setting PEV sales goals in the lon-
in other European and German cities [109, 110]. By doing so, ger term (e.g., 2030 or 2040) [117]. Much evidence shows
policymakers want to reduce local emissions, such as nitrogen that the short-term method has played a key role in the
oxides, in order to mitigate natural and health problems [111, supervision of PEV so far [118, 119]. Although some studies
112]. For example, in 2018, the German city of Stuttgart will have shown that PEV and standard gasoline vehicles will
impose restrictions on driving old diesel cars due to the higher eventually achieve equal costs (whether on the price tag or at
nitric oxide content than in previous years [113, 114]. Further- any cost of ownership) [120, 121], various studies have shown
12
Table 1: Summary of key PEV supportive policies.
Policy demand focused Description Current PEV policy in Canada “Strong” version
Financial incentives ranging from $500 to
Reduce the cost of PEVs and infrastructure (via grants, Incentives of $6,000 per PEV for 20 years across all
Financial incentives $14,000 per PEV in BC, QC, and across
discounts, user fee exemptions, or tax breaks) provinces
the country through 2020
High-occupancy vehicle PEVs in BC, ON, and QC have
HOV lane access without restrictions for PEVs Access to HOV lanes in all provinces that have them
(HOV) lane access unrestricted access to the HOV lanes
Current charger to gas station ratio By 2025, the ratio of chargers to petrol stations will
Public charging Allow charging while away from home
unchanged over time be 0.5 throughout all provinces
In BC, ON, and QC, charges are mandated All provinces have adopted EV-ready building
Building codes Require charging access in new buildings
by building codes regulations
Existing carbon prices are in place in BC,
Increase in the cost of fuels that produce carbon By 2030, the price of carbon reaches and remains at
Carbon pricing AB, and QC; beginning in 2018, a federal
emissions through cap and trade or a carbon tax $150
price floor will be applied to all provinces
Supply-focused zero-emission Impose a minimum proportion of light-duty ZEV Beginning in 2020, the QC ZEV obligation By 2040, a national ZEV requirement will have
vehicle (ZEV) mandate sales on manufacturers will increase to 22.5% credits by 2025 increased market share by 40%
Give light-duty cars a maximum amount of tailpipe By 2025, the fleet must meet an average
Vehicle emission standard By 2040, the fleet must emit 71 g CO2e on average
emissions CO2e/km standard
Demand that fuel suppliers limit the amount of According to national standards, the carbon
By 2030, national standards call for a
carbon in the fuels they sell and provide credits for the intensity of transportation energy must decrease by
Low-carbon fuel standard 12.5% decrease in the carbon intensity of
use of alternative fuels (such as electricity and 45% by 2040 compared to 2010 levels and by 25% by
transportation energy compared to 2010
hydrogen) 2030
Journal of Advanced Transportation
Table 2: Policy on recycling and recycling technology for metal recovery from end-of-life batteries of EVs.
Country Key content Company Recycling process Reference

GRS
European Pyrometallurgy, mechanical separation,
Batterien
Union hydrometallurgy
Batrec AG
Pyrolysis, hydrometallugy,
Eurodieuze
Swiss Create a system of collection and recycling for all types of hydrometallurgy, mechanical
Recupel
batteries based on an extended producer responsibility separation, leaching, and refining [136–138]
system through the Battery Directive Crushing, pyrolysis, distillation,
France SNAM
pyrometallurgy
Mechanical separation, chemical
Spain Pilagst
treatment
Belgium Umicore Hydrometallugy after pyrometallurgy
The German Batteries Act requires all producers and
Germany importers of batteries and accumulators to collect end-of- Accurec Pyrolysis, hydrometallurgy [138, 139]
life batteries
Universal waste regulations are used to manage the large
number of batteries. The recycling of EV batteries at the end Onto Cryogenic crushing, hydrometallurgy,
USA of their useful lives is not required by federal law, though. Retriev pyrometallurgy, cryogenic crushing, [138, 140]
Several states recently outlawed the disposal of used EV TOXCO hydrometallurgy
batteries in landfills
Under the Law for the Promotion of Effective Utilization of
Resources, manufacturers encourage resource collection and DOWA Pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy,
Japan [141, 142]
recycling on a voluntary basis (recycling batteries is not Sumitomo hydrometallugy after pyrometallurgy
covered by any specific laws)
Interim Measures for the Management of Recycling and
Utilizing Power Batteries for New Energy Vehicles were
China N/A N/A [143, 144]
published in China (including design, production, and
recycling responsibilities)
After receiving a subsidy, the consumer must return the SungEel
Korea EV’s dead battery. The recycling of EV battery end-of-life Hitech Hydrometallurgy [145, 146]
batteries is not, however, subject to any laws Kobar
100%
90%
EV targets 2020 or 2030
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
China
Finland
India
Ireland
Japan
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Korea
Slovenia
UK
US (some states)
Country or region EV
Figure 13: EV present and future targets by countries.

Socio-demographics Technical factors Economic factors Behavioral eactors
Income Car performance Financial attributes Mobility pratices

Electric mobility
Gender Expected next car Frequency
Ease of operation Charging available cost Distance
Age
Tech reliable Driving range Intention to buy a EV experience
Number of children
Speed Charging time new car Driver license time
Rural vs. non rural
Design style Battery life Timing of purchase Number of car
Country Fuel economy V2G capability car in the next 5 years
Sustainability values
Energy efficiency
appliances
Sustainable system
EV Adoption interest Increase recycling
V2G influence
Change diet
Environmental value
Figure 14: Conceptual framework for EV adoption and the influence of V2G [149].
Gender (being male)
Education
Income
Socio-demographic
Household size
characteristics
Number of cars per household
Dwelling dispersion in the area

of residency are positively related
Age is negatively related
to the adoption EVs
Individualistic and hierarchical Pro-environmental
worldviews are
negatively associated
Psychological
characteristics
Communitarian and egalitarian Pro-technological attitudes

worldviews are positively associated are positively related to the
with the adoption of EVs adoption of EVs
Contextual factors: EV policy incentives have a

EV policy incentives positive effect on the adoption of EVs.
Figure 15: EV adoption hypothesis stature.
that this strategy will undoubtedly help to expand PEV trans- low-carbon energy demand technologies. According to the
action volume. In the coming decades [122, 123], for example, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), renewable
a Canadian study showed that despite ideally reducing battery energy policies must prioritize end-use sectors over power
costs, without expanding at least one stable PEV, the new generation. Renewable heating and cooling require more pol-
industry-wide PEV cannot exceed 10% by 2030 [124]. How- icy attention, such as dedicated targets, technology mandates,
ever, the current vehicle market has already switched to new financial incentives, generation-based incentives, and carbon
BEV technology and will soon go for FCEV. Most national or energy taxes [125]. EV and climate policy also push to uti-
policies around the world are focused on reducing road trans- lize renewable energy in the transportation sector. To reduce
port CO2 emissions by shifting to high energy efficiency and more emissions from the road transport sector, the
Technophile positively influences

Multimodality positively influences
perceived usefulness of EVs
Mobility and multimodality Technophile of niche actors

Technophile positively influences
Multimodality positively influences
perceived ease of EV use
Car ownership negatively influences Car-sharing experience positively

perceived usefulness of EVs influences perceived usefulness of EVs
Acceptance barriers
Car ownership and car-sharing
experience Car-sharing experience positively
Car ownership positively influences
perceived ease of EV use influences perceived ease of EV use
Urbanity positively influences Perceived usefulness positively influences

perceived usefulness of EVs behavioral intention to use EVs
Urbanity Dependent variables
Urbanity positively influences Perceived ease of use positively influences

perceived ease of EV use behavioral intention to use EVs
Ecological awareness positively Car-sharing experience leads to

influences perceived usefulness of EVs greater intention to buy EV
Eco-awareness Access or ownership

Car-sharing experience positively
Ecological awareness positively influences intention to use EV car
influences perceived ease of EV use sharing if available
Figure 16: A mobility research framework.
subnational government has implemented several initiatives 6.2. The Major Improvements of the 2018/19 Agreement
to stimulate the adoption of electric mobility in recent Include the following Policies
years [126].
(1) The EU has approved some excellent strategic tools.
6.1. Barriers to Adoption. PEV adoption is low in most They include mileage standards for cars and trucks
regions due to a variety of demand and supply-side market and the Clean Electric Vehicle Directive, which stipu-
barriers [127, 128]. Understanding these barriers is helpful lates the public procurement of electric vehicles. The
for designing policies to encourage EV adoption. Previous Energy Efficiency Directive specifies minimum require-
studies have identified eight key types of PEV stabilization ments for load foundations in new and rebuilt structures
policies implemented in Canada and various sites, which
can measure their impact on PEV adoption [129]. These (2) In China, the progress of the agreement reviewed the
policies can be predicted using core policies implemented speculative restrictions on the new ICE car manufactur-
globally and form the basis of most PEV strategies (e.g., ing facility and brought forth a proposal to establish
[130, 131]). For a small part of the entire industry, different normal mileage for the passenger light-duty vehicle
types of policies were deemed to have a negligible to small (PLDV) in 2025. The utilization of separate motivating
market share impact (e.g., voluntary programs) and/or a inducements for vehicles depends on the quality of the
particularly uncertain impact (e.g., research and develop- battery (for example, a car loan and a zero-emission car
ment support) [117, 132]. These eight “quantifiable” policies loan under the new energy vehicle rules)
are described in Table 1, along with how they are currently
being implemented in Canada and how they differ from a (3) In Japan, the adoption of an automatic method,
“strong” version that we summarized in this paper. which can be used by modern partners, means that
Table 1 shows an example, but it is true that EV adoption the emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) substances
needs strong policy support to overcome its barriers to adop- from vehicles (including sold vehicles) provided by
tion. We can utilize the developed countries’ EV policies (e.g., car manufacturers to households account for 80%
PEV policies) and their impacts to make reliable policies that of the country (road vehicles account for 90%),
could be linked to climate policies. However, EV policy is still through the combination of HEV, BEV, PHEV,
experiencing challenges because consumers need time to and FCEV, to reduce emissions in 2050. The truck’s
adopt new technology. In this next section, we summarized performance principles have been revised, and an
some countries’ EV policy improvements and future goals. update on the vehicle’s mileage has been announced
Travel transfer model
Questionnaire Influential factor

survey screening
Transfer
probability
Scobit model Utility function
Pollution gas emission Noise Road demand Parking space

reduction model reduction model reduction model reduction model
PEG per Cost of Car Car

PEG per head head
coal reduction
fuel car Transmission distance distance
power loss noise
Ration of Parking
PEG of Travel Road area space
PEG of coal power
sharing proportion covered by matching
fuel cars vehicles coefficient
EVs
Road Parking
Noise
demand space
Difference reduction area
PGS reduction reduction
cost reduction
benefit area
Environment benefit Infrastructure benefit
Figure 17: Travel transfer model [158].
(4) Canada has realized the dream of combining EVs with Strategic energy is also increasing in various countries.
new methods. British Columbia announced the intro- One of the most important aircraft types is Chile, which is
duction of the world’s most potent ZEV (zero-emis- one of the largest airlines in the world after China. Chile’s
sion vehicle) team: by 2030, the share of the ZEV goal is to rejuvenate 100% of its convertibles and 40% of
business will reach 30%, and by 2040, it will reach its private cars by 2050. New Zealand also has high expecta-
100%. Canada’s system is comparable to the ten US tions and hopes to achieve a transition from a clean econ-
states where the ZEV team has been implemented omy to zero emissions by 2050. New Zealand and Chile
joined the Electric Vehicle Initiative (EVI) in 2018 [133].
(5) India announced the second conspiracy period,
“Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric 6.3. Policy on Recycling of EV Battery by Countries. Battery-
Vehicles in India” (FAME India). It reduced the related research is also important to enhance EV adoption.
price of electric vehicles by half, focusing on vehicles This is part of waste management and needs a specific policy
for open or general transportation (vehicles, rick- to encourage the expansion of the EV market. With the rise
shaws, and taxis) and private bicycles of the EV market, the global supply of EVs has recently
increased significantly, as has the global market for EV bat-
(6) In South Korea, the level of national sponsorship for teries [134]. China, Japan, and Korea have a large market
all low-carbon vehicle purchases increased from share of EV batteries and are essential countries for the
32,000 in 2018 to 57,000 in 2019, and other strategic development and production of EV batteries on a global
tools have been added, including public access, sub- scale. Because the top ten EV battery producers are from
sidies, and discounts on transportation security fees China, Japan, and Korea, they accounted for more than
and reduced parking spaces. It is joined by an objec- 80% of the EV battery supply in 2018 [135].
tive to support production volume of more than 10% To maximize resource recovery and properly manage
of the capacity of all vehicles by 2022 and to use hazardous materials from end-of-life EV batteries and tech-
money-related help and progress to guarantee great nology, recycling policies for EV batteries are being imple-
manufacturing players mented in several countries, as shown in Table 2.
1601 1693.26
1401
1201
External benefts of EVs
sharing (Million $)
1001
801
781.53 747.16
601
401
201
9.38 5.86 20.32 8.97
1
EMISSION NOISE ROAD PARKING PLACE
Total
Each EV
(a) External EV sharing benefits in Chongqing
NOx CO2 SO2
Emission reduction benefit of sharing
8.009
EVs (MIllion $)
4.009
0.009
Sharing EVs
Self-service EVs
Ride-sourcing EVs
(b) Emission reduction benefit of sharing ENs
Figure 18: EV sharing benefits [158].
6.4. EV Adoption. EVs continue to penetrate the national mar- The literary outcomes integrate the appeal of EV choices
ket, and by the end of 2018, more than 5.1 million EVs had and the six components of the V2G influence. The text on
been produced [147]. Global stocks of EVs have mainly been the EV and (to a lesser extent) the evolving V2G employment
concentrated in three regions: China accounts for about 45% classification typically emphasizes the importance of six
of them, followed by Europe and the United States, which dimensions, including the various parts of the user, conven-
account for 24% and 22%, respectively [133]. In addition, Euro- tional vehicles, and a supportive (and social) foundation for
pean countries continue to travel relative to the entire fleet. innovation. An overview of these indicators can be seen below.
More than 10%, of vehicles in Norway are electric vehicles Figure 14 shows a multidimensional conceptual framework
(BEV or PHEV), followed by Iceland (3.3%), the Netherlands for EV adoption [149].
(1.9%), Sweden (1.6%), and China (1.1%) [148]. However,
China has the most widespread advertising for EVs, and by 6.5. EV Adoption Hypothesis. The current study has reliably
the end of 2018, its national fleet increased by 1.1 million established that early users of EVs have the quality of social seg-
EVs [133]. This can be observed in the international EV targets mentation and can be clearly identified on the basis of potential
for 2020 or 2030 in Figure 13. users or non-EVs (i.e., buyers of ICE cars). Currently, the study
EV integration approaches
UCCIA
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to use Peak load will be high

Simple constructions Power loss will be high
No restriction on the user and Voltage fluctuation will be high
grid RESs such as PV system will cause
disturbance to the system because
of the weather changes
Electricity price will be high
Loading of transformers and
transmissions line will be high
Electrical network will need support
UCCIA
with Disadvantages
Advantages
SMES
Easy to use for EV owners Information and communication
Provides benefits for the grid Technologies are required
Offers auxiliary services Needs the cooperation of EV owners
Peak power is extremely Very complex control and implementation
minimized High capital cost
Power loss is extremely
minimized
Supports the reactive power from
SMES to the grid
Mitigates the effect of the PV
system
(a)
CCIA
Disadvantages
Advantages
Easy to use Peak load may be high
Simple constructions Power loss may be high
Restriction on EVs charging Voltage fluctuation may be high
process according to electricity RESs such as PV system will cause
price disturbance to the system because of
the weather changes
Electricity price may be high
Loading of transformers and
transmissions lines may be high
Electrical network will need support
Need for communication systems
Need for the cooperation of EV owners
CCIA
Advantages with Disadvantages
SMES
Easy to use Information and communication
Restriction on EV charging technologies are required
process according to electricity Need for the cooperation of EV owners
price Very complex control and implementation
Offers auxiliary services High capital cost
Peak power is extremely
minimized
minimized
SMES to the grid
system
(b)
Figure 19: Continued.

CC/DIA
Disadvantages
Advantages
e Provides benefits for EV owners Voltage fluctuation may be high
e Alleviation reinforces the grid RESs such as PV system will cause
e Peak power is well minimized disturbance to the system because
e Power loss is well minimized of the weather changes
Need for communication systems
Need for the cooperation of EV owners
Complex control and implementation
CC/DIA
with Disadvantages
Advantages
SMES Information and communication
Easy to use constructions
Restriction on EV charging Technologies are required
process according to electricity Need for the cooperation of EV owners
price Very complex control and implementation
Offers auxiliary services High capital cost
Alleviation reinforces the grid
Peak power is extremely
minimized
minimized
SMES to the grid
system
Grid becomes strong and more
stable
(c)
Figure 19: Advantages and disadvantages of the EV integration approach.
assumes that regular or early users (depending on definition) study suggests that experience with car-sharing services—in
usually (1) are profoundly trained [150], (2) have a higher particular electric car-sharing—can lead to broader adoption
income [151], (3) are young to middle-aged [152], (4) are part of electric car technology, which will lead to wider market pen-
of a family with several cars [150, 153], (5) live in larger families etration. Using the technology acceptance model, a quantitative
[150], (6) are mostly men, and (7) live in small- and medium- study was conducted between users who share cars and those
sized cities [152]. Figure 15 shows a diagram of the EV adop- who do not to evaluate the impact of car-sharing experiences
tion hypothesis. on the acceptance of EVs. In addition, five possible predictors
The latest report by Nayum et al. [150] tested the impor- for the adoption of EVs were tested: mobility, automotive own-
tance of psychological factors as an indicator for buyers who ership, urban areas, environmental awareness, and technology
buy increasingly environmentally attractive vehicles (e.g., elec- [156]. Figure 16 shows the car-sharing mobility structure.
tric cars). They expanded the comprehensive action determi-
nation model [154], which includes targeted, standardized, 6.7. Measuring Frame. According to Pigou’s theory, external
situational, and ongoing impacts on environmentally friendly factors must be assimilated to reflect their real expense or
behavior [64, 155]. value [157]. As a combination of new, environmentally
friendly technologies and an innovative business model, the
6.6. EV Sharing. Given the dangers of climate change, the external effects of sharing electric cars should undoubtedly
mobility sector must move towards sustainability. One way to be studied in order to facilitate this further. Selecting appropri-
reduce emissions while driving is to establish the use of electric ate indicators is a crucial step. The entire structure of the travel
vehicles (EVs). However, given the current market share in transfer model can be observed in Figure 17 [158].
Germany, the expected regime change from traditional com- Summarizing the above findings of this document by
bustion to electric motors seems rather unlikely. This leads to sharing travel measurements of EVs instead of urban ICVs
the search for new options for dynamic market growth. Recent reveals some interesting results. For example, in China, in
studies have shown that consumers lack sufficient knowledge Chongqing, 6.33% of urban residents might want to move
and have a high level of uncertainty regarding electric vehicle their travel arrangements from ICVs to self-service EVs, while
technology. To overcome these barriers to acceptability, this 4.26% of people want to choose EVs from ICVs. This
conclusion means that self-service EVs are currently more However, EV sustainable development needs strong
popular on the market than self-service EVs. The potential policy support, which has been proposed in our
market demand for EVs is 27,400, and the demand for EVs review paper. We summarized different countries’
with a source code is 12,000. Based on the results, the external strategies, methods, and outcomes to give attention
benefits of sharing EVs can be calculated (Figure 18(a)). The to EV sustainable development
most significant benefit comes from the highway asset reserve
and the benefit of parking. The benefits of reducing emissions Although this work provides insight and novel results and
are primarily related to reducing carbon dioxide emissions, as discussion about the technological and policy development of
shown in Figure 18(b) [158]. EV, there are still some limitations. For instance, depending
on the application, there are two different types of EV. The
car is one, and “the bus, truck, and lorry” are the others.
7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Exploring and contrasting the technological developments in
Electric Vehicles the domains of these two types is important from an applica-
tion standpoint. We use the common method system to
Recently, some analysts have uncovered the critical advances in
decompose the EVs filed in the work, even though it currently
EVs. Nordelöf et al. [159] written survey analyzes knowledge
appears impossible to achieve sustainable development, but
points based on the life cycle assessment as advantages of
this work will provide a full package to understand barriers
EVs and shows the continuous development of electric vehicle
and necessary methods to solve them. Thus, this study
innovations, the constant progress in material production, and
provides a number of policy recommendation to address the
the age of performance the life cycle assessment EV test [159].
increase of the EV adoption by showing EV uptake and
They found that many articles consider the energy source to be
promote the installation of charging stations or act to remove
the driving force behind the EV results, but they also argued
barriers and limitations.
that many inspections could not undo this judgment, resulting
in people having no rational information about the environ- (1) The provincial government provides incentives to
mental impact of EV [160]. ICEV were compared to shortages EV users, such as cash rebates or subsidized loans,
in the concentration of GHG or EV. WHO conducted an to help them offset the cost of the electrical vehicle
important WTW study focusing on EVs [161]. Figure 19 shows supply equipment (EVSE) and its installation as well
a comparison of EV integration approaches [162, 163], where as the costs of the necessary building upgrades
SMES is the superconducting magnetic energy storage, UCCIA
is the uncontrolled charging integration approach, and CCIA is (2) Provide financial assistance to landlords and strata
the controlled charging integration approach. councils with a requirement for a specific number
of charging stations
8. Conclusions and Recommendations (3) Municipal and provincial governments should develop
EVs can effectively promote the use of renewable energy and and implement a program within the next ten years to
environmental pressures on ICE vehicles. This paper explores encourage and provide financial support to strata
EV-related technology and major policy concerns to help councils and landlords who develop retrofit plans and
make EV a sustainable development. The following conclu- upgrade the power distribution systems of their build-
sions are drawn. ings to meet residents’ future charging needs
(4) Avoid being overly conservative, which can result in
(1) The estimation of EV technology improvement in
the unnecessary oversizing of electrical equipment,
this study indicates that the higher complexity of
and revise and update the regulatory requirements
sustainable development leads to relatively slower
from codes and standards on a regular basis to reflect
EV adoption
the most recent technological advancements
(2) A possible implication for the policymakers encour-
aging EV development is to issue more incentive (5) To prevent future situations of unfairness and
plans for innovations in the grid and electric vehicle inequality among them, regulate the rights and
relationship domains responsibilities of EV users, building residents, strata
councils, and landlords regarding the installation
(3) The technology trajectories of future development and use of charging stations within multiunit resi-
models have been proposed for EV wireless charging dential buildings (MURBs)
and energy networks. This could be a recommended
model for the future development of EVs and energy (6) Expand the current guidelines to offer precise direc-
structures. Moreover, power electronics for EV inte- tion and answers on technical and governance issues
gration on the grid have negative impacts. The like defining ownership and charging infrastructure
results in the paper prove that it is time to approach costs
EV charging to reduce negative impacts
(7) Develop a program or guideline to instruct and
(4) The policymakers found that EVs might be a renew- direct strata councils and landlords on how to create
able energy contributor to reducing CO2 emissions. a long-term EV charging infrastructure plan that will
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Hindawi

Journal of Advanced Transportation

M. S. Hossain ,1 Laveet Kumar ,2 M. M. Islam ,3 and Jeyraj Selvaraj4

Correspondence should be addressed to M. M. Islam; moinul.islam@duet.ac.bd

Academic Editor: Mohammad Miralinaghi

1. Introduction of air pollution, particularly in densely populated areas. In

Domain & Improvement

Nature Human System However, EV technology still needs to be synchronized to the

Grid RE Grid stability

Electric vehicles V2G Household

PVE Evening time

Figure 3: The relationship between electric vehicles and the grid.

Wireless power transfer Wireless power transfer is the latest

Connected mobility (CM) is the concept of

Figure 4: Classiﬁcation of EV network.

Utility control center

Data processing Optimal regulation

Boiler Electric Power/

Figure 5: Structure of energy network. Redrawn from this source [52].

EVGI impacts on grid

Reserve (safety margin)

over charge risk

Error component Assuming a realistic attribute level,

ICEVs are preferable to EVs.

FCEV-related policies are in the light

Figure 8: Summary of the relevant studies.

Beijing Guangdong Shaanxi Guangdong

Coal Thermal Battery BEVs

Gasoline & diesel

Figure 11: Well-to-wheel system bounder [20].

Figure 12: WTW emission comparison C-segment vehicle—WLTP [103].

Table 1: Summary of key PEV supportive policies.

Country Key content Company Recycling process Reference

Figure 13: EV present and future targets by countries.

Socio-demographics Technical factors Economic factors Behavioral eactors

Income Car performance Financial attributes Mobility pratices

Gender (being male)

Dwelling dispersion in the area

Communitarian and egalitarian Pro-technological attitudes

Contextual factors: EV policy incentives have a

Figure 15: EV adoption hypothesis stature.

Technophile positively influences

Mobility and multimodality Technophile of niche actors

Car ownership negatively influences Car-sharing experience positively

Urbanity positively influences Perceived usefulness positively influences

Urbanity Dependent variables

Urbanity positively influences Perceived ease of use positively influences

Ecological awareness positively Car-sharing experience leads to

Eco-awareness Access or ownership

Figure 16: A mobility research framework.

Travel transfer model

Questionnaire Influential factor

Scobit model Utility function

Pollution gas emission Noise Road demand Parking space

PEG per Cost of Car Car

Environment benefit Infrastructure benefit

Figure 17: Travel transfer model [158].

Figure 18: EV sharing beneﬁts [158].

Easy to use Peak load will be high