Case Studies on Transport Policy 10 (2022) 1695–1705

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Case Studies on Transport Policy

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Consumers’ switching intentions from conventional to green vehicles in the

context of smog risk in Pakistan
Sofia Anwar a, Bilal Hussain a, *, Muhammad Usman a, b, Syed Asif Ali Naqvi a,
Ashfaq Ahmad Shah c, d
a
Department of Economics, Government College University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
b
Faculty of Management Sciences, Riphah International University, Faisalabad Campus, Faisalabad 38000, Punjab, Pakistan
c
Research Center for Environment and Society, Hohai University Nanjing, Jiangsu Province
d
School of Public Administration, Hohai University, 8 Fochengxi Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The heavy smog pollution in all the urban areas of Pakistan is disturbing everyday life very badly. Most of the
Green vehicles smog pollution comes from transportation, and it is triggering many health problems. The government of
Pakistan Pakistan is struggling to alleviate smog pollution by introducing green vehicles and new modes of transportation.
Push-pull-mooring framework
The Push-Pull and Mooring (PPM) framework was employed to examine the switching intentions of people from
Smog pollution
Switching intentions
conventional vehicles toward green vehicles in the context of smog. Results depicted that smog knowledge,
perceived environment health risk, decision self-efficacy, willingness to pay, and alternative attractiveness
positively impact the switching intentions toward green vehicles. In the parallel, normative environment and
regulative environment have a negligible effect on switching intentions. Push and pull factors also have a sig­
nificant moderating affect with the interaction of mooring factors on switching intentions. It can be concluded
that push–pull and mooring factors could enhance the switching intentions toward green vehicles. Thus, these
factors might be helpful to switch from motorized vehicles to green vehicles, which might be effective in
reducing smog pollution in Pakistan.

1. Introduction proportion of the population, higher energy consumption, and higher

density of vehicles (Li et al., 2015).
Globally, air pollution has become an alarming threat, and smog is a Motorized transport is the primary cause of air pollution in urban
type of air pollution formed by the chemical reaction of sunlight with the areas around the World. However, one of the most serious issues is
appearance of bad ozone and air pollutants (Saleem et al., 2019). It has raising ambient air pollution in urban hotspots, with regular breaches of
become a severe issue due to its many negative effects in most areas standards and guidelines (Tabinda et al., 2020). Accordingly, Pakistan is
around the world, especially in Pakistan. According to a Global Burden experiencing a large scale of smog in recent years, and motor vehicles
of diseases report, smog has become the 7th most risk factor contributor are a major source of smog. In Punjab province, rising population and
in world mortality (West et al., 2016). Smog pollution hits Pakistan, economic development have upsurged the motorization growth along
China, UK, India, USA, and more than six hundred people live in smog with improper traffic management system (Baig et al., 2021). Lahore is
and bear risks regarding health (Ghauri and Lodhi, 2013; Bates, 2017; 2nd largest city in Pakistan with smog pollution that is a severe threat for
Mukhtar, 2017). Further, smog is exploiting the behaviours of the Pak­ the public in terms of cost and health. Previously, a study showed that
istani people through changing their outdoor activities and involving after Karachi and Quetta, Lahore is 3rd highly polluted city of Pakistan
them in the most serious issues regarding their health. According to with maximum particular matter (Ghauri et al., 2007). Many experts
World Health Organization, smog is a mixture of a particular matter, claimed that Pakistan is facing smog due to the coal refining industry in
nitrogen oxide, ozone, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. These India, but on the contrary, India is also facing this problem (Saleem
pollutants are mostly released from gasoline vehicles, the energy sector et al., 2019). Since conventional vehicles are a key source in the
and industrial plants. Smog is usually formed in cities with a greater increasing level of smog; so, green vehicles were introduced in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bilalhussain1410@gmail.com (B. Hussain).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2022.06.008
Received 29 July 2021; Received in revised form 27 May 2022; Accepted 27 June 2022
Available online 30 June 2022
2213-624X/© 2022 World Conference on Transport Research Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Anwar et al. Case Studies on Transport Policy 10 (2022) 1695–1705

consideration with less negative effects on environmental quality. presented in section 5.

Potentially, green vehicles provide us with a sustainable environment
with lower environmental issues and low carbon emissions (Onat et al. 2. Methodology
2020).
Pakistani public perceives many health risks due to smog pollution. It The current study proposed a psychological model to determine the
pays attention to self-protective measures while the government con­ switching intentions of the peoples toward green vehicles in the back­
vinces them to familiarize themselves with sustainable means of drop of Pakistan’s smog threat. An empirical research method is utilized
movements and collective variations for existing substitutes. These for the empirical estimation of research objectives. In addition, this
variations are subjective through self-efficacy, switching cost enabling section consists of following sub-sections; including, research instru­
the people to make decisions (Cori et al., 2020). It is impossible to attain ment, sampling and data collection, and analytical tool.
a sustainable environment without amalgamation of economic, social
and environmental regulations (Ahi and Searcy, 2013). In any climatic 2.1. Research instrument
uneasiness like smog, the public has a variety of mitigation measures
depending on their social, economic and psychological perspectives. In quantitative research, reliability and validity of scales are
Climatic indicators may induce people to change their residence places considered the main components that help the researcher make struc­
and avoid the negative effects of environmental factors on their living tural models of the people’s socio-psychological behaviors. In con­
standards. The economic, social, environmental, political factors and structing switching intentions, the 3-item construct was adopted that
other factors with their features are necessary for the decision-making was already used by (Jung et al., 2017; Sajjad et al., 2020).
process against environmental risks. All these factors positively corre­ Likewise, a three-item scale was also adapted to determine the smog
late with mobility while inverse relation with environmental vulnera­ knowledge of people, and a regulative environment was also constructed
bility (Sajjad et al., 2020). Furthermore, floods have a little to non- by three-item scales. Moreover, a two-item scale was used to measure
existent influence on migration; whereas, heat stress regularly boosts the normative environment, willingness to pay, decision self-efficacy,
long-term migration in Pakistan (Mueller et al., 2014). perceived health risk and alternative attractiveness. A two-item scale
Many peoples have limited factors and lack resources and abilities to was already adopted by (Tarkang and Zotor, 2015).
move and adapt. When such peoples feel incapable of migrating and All of the constructs were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale
facing stress due to climatic hazards, adaptation approaches might ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating strongly agree whereas 5 indicates
encourage the switching behaviour of people toward green technologies strongly disagree. Table 2 lists all of the constructs in the current study
for the protection of the environment (Sajjad et al., 2020). To study the that include items.
economic, environmental, psychological, social, and institutional es­
sentials for the trapped population to enable their switching behaviour 2.2. Data collection and sampling
toward green vehicles if they cannot migrate. The PPM model works
with kinds of factors as push factors, pull factors, and mooring factors to For data collection, a questionnaire survey was used. Initially, the
explain the switching behaviour of the people. Within these factors, questionnaire was examined by many experts having expertise in envi­
push factors are negative, whereas pull factors have a positive influence. ronmental science and economics to evaluate all the relevant factors
Through these factors, individuals attain psychological and social se­ affecting the switching intentions of peoples. After evaluating the
curity as residing at someplace. Within these factors, mooring factors are questionnaire, a pilot test was directed to 35 respondents involving
the most significant social and personal factors which decide choice to school teachers, college students and university teachers, graduate stu­
leave or a stay at a place (Moon, 1995). dents and postgraduate students. After the pilot test, errors and omis­
A plethora of literature is available on consumer switching intentions sions were removed. The objective of the pilot test is to identify
toward green vehicles in Table 1. Recently, Lee et al. (2021) conducted a problems and validate the study’s questionnaire. The data for the study
study on the public intentions to purchase electric vehicles in context of is collected using a survey approach. The data was obtained from 634
Pakistan. However, according to authors’ information, no recent study people in five Punjab districts: Lahore, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Multan,
used PPM framework to examine the consumers’ switching intentions and Rawalpindi.These districts are most affected by smog with more
toward green vehicles in the perspective of Pakistan. So, the current population. The respondents included in the study were from various
study tries to examine the consumers’ switching intentions between departments of different universities such as Government College Uni­
conventional vehicles and green vehicles with the help of the PPM versity Faisalabad, Government College University Lahore, Bahaudin
framework, when people have to face a higher level of smog risks Zakarya University Multan, Arid University Rawalpindi and University
regarding their health and the government is taking actions against of Gujrat (Gujranwala Campus). Most data were collected from univer­
emissions. This PPM framework may clarify the consumers’ switching sities faculties, graduate students, master students and postgraduate
intentions toward green vehicles. Further, the study also examines the students. Further, data was collected from school teachers and college
interaction of economic, institutional, social, political factors in deter­ students as well. After the data was collected, it was filtered, and owing
mining the switching behaviours toward green vehicles against smog to the incompleteness of the data, roughly 42 records were removed.
risks. This study also analyzes whether the PPM framework may clarify Descriptive results of the study showed that most population is
the switching behaviours of peoples for selection of vehicles and comprised (25–35) years of age, and almost 57% of the population was
knowing their activities that influence the smog. This paper works with male in the study area. Age biasedness can potentially influence the
these research hypotheses; how does smog knowledge, normative consumer actions. Consumers can be discriminated against the age
environment, regulative environment, decision self-efficacy, willingness groups. Based on stereotypical assumptions made about older people,
to pay, alternative attractiveness, and perceived environment health risk like, they are resistant to change or anti-technology, ageism can mani­
affect the peoples’ switching intentions. Furthermore, this study also fest itself and can affect the intentions. Moreover, most individuals were
analyzes the direct and indirect effect of pull and push factors dealing received 16 years of schooling, and most respondents included in the
with mooring factors on the switching behaviour of the consumers. sample were married. Furthermore, results also showed that most re­
The rest of the paper is divided into four sections. Section 2 presents spondents had house members (1–3), whereas most children were in the
the methodology, including sampling and data collection and analytical range of (0–1) of most respondents. Results showed that the monthly
techniques used in the paper. Section 3 reports the observed results of income of most respondents was within 300 to 500 $ range. Intention to
the paper, whereas section 4 reports the discussion regarding the overall pay for switching intentions toward green vehicles was asked in the form
study results. At the last, conclusions and policy recommendations are of amount in $ from their monthly income for the sake of descriptive

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Table 1
Summary of previous literature relevant to our study.
Authors Country Method Key indicators Results

Egbue & Long China Chi-square test Consumer attitudes and Positive attitude of consumers was found toward green
(2012) perceptions toward green vehicles.
vehicles
Lai et al. (2012) Taiwan PPM Consumer switching Switching intentions strongly affected by mooring forces.
behavior towards mobile
shopping
Kanchanapibul UK Structural equation modeling Green purchase behavior Purchase of green products was significantly affected by
et al. (2014) ecological and knowledge.
Biswas & Roy Emerging Multiple linear regression analysis, Consumer Behavior in green Choice preferences are highly affected by price sensitivity.
(2015) Economies of the one-way ANOVA products
East
Suki (2016) Malaysia SEM, One-Way (ANOVA) Green Product Purchase Purchase of green products significantly affected by social
value while insignificantly by conditional value.
Jiang et al. (2016) China (ANOVA) Public Satisfied behavior of public toward government regulations.
Awareness of Smog Pollution
Jugert et al. (2016) Germany ANOVA Pro-environmental intentions Collective efficacy manipulations affected pro-environmental
and Australia intentions through increasing both collective and self-efficacy
Junquera et al. Spain Logistic regression analysis Vehicle purchasing Willingness to pay for an electric car significantly related to
(2016) Intentions consumer’s perceptions.
Lai & Cheng (2016) Hong Kong SEM Green purchase behavior of Green product’s purchasing positively affected by behavior of
undergraduate students undergraduate students.
Langbroek et al. Sweden Trans theoretical Model of Change Electric vehicle adoption Adoption of electric vehicles positively influenced by policy
(2016) (TTM), Protection Motivation incentives.
Theory (PMT)
Peng et al. (2016) China PPM, Messaging application of Study confirmed the play of networking in shaping IT
SEM, Partial Mobile switching intention indirectly.
Least square (PLS)
Wang et al. (2016) China One way ANOVA analysis Smog pollution Before information disclosure WTP for self -protection was
more than after information disclosure.
Sun et al. (2016) China Contingent valuation method Smog crisis Average amount of WTP per individual was 382.6RMB per
(CVM) year.

Wei et al. (2017) China Multiple regression analyses Smog pollution Smog reliance and experience was found different in both
cities.
Wu et al. (2017) China CBSEM Products against Knowledge about smog, risk perception and information
city smog processing has positive influence on the purchase intentions of
individuals toward protective products.
Lee (2017) Korea & china Moderated regression analysis Green Purchase Intention Direct antecedents of green purchase intention were collective
(MRA) efficacy, ecological paradigm and collectivism.
Chang et al. (2017) China PPM M− shopping Switching intentions directly affected by pull and push factors.

Jung et al. (2017) South Korea PPM Airline industry Switching intentions positively affected by PPM factors.
Ghasrodashti Iran PPM Brand switching behavior Price had a significant effect on brand- switching behavior.
(2018)
Li (2018) PPM Mobile Membership Cards Switching intentions positively affected by pull and push
factors.
Liu & Cirillo (2018) Maryland Logit model Modeling green vehicle Use and ownership of cars positively affected by green vehicles
adoption in long run.
Jaiswal & Kant India Structural equation modeling Green purchasing behavior Behavior toward green vehicles significantly affected by green
(2018) (SEM) purchase behavior.
Mohiuddin et al. Emerging Partial Least Square (PLS) Intentions to Purchase Green Behavior toward green vehicles positively affected by
(2018) Countries Vehicles awareness and environmental knowledge.
Pan et al. (2018) Taiwan Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) Tourism students Environmental knowledge has a positive effect on
environmental behavioral
Intentions
Portnov et al. Israel Multiple regression analysis Price premium for green Size of premium is positively affected by familiarity with GB
(2018) building concept and Expected maintenance savings.
Wei et al. (2018) US Common method variance (CMV) Green products Customer engagement has a more favourable impact on
willingness to pay for green products.
Sreen et al. (2018) India Structural equation modeling Green purchase intentions Man-nature orientation significantly affected to intentions
(SEM) toward green purchasing.
Wang et al. (2019) China Structural equation modeling Use of Cars Intentions toward reduce use of cars significantly affected by
(SEM) smog knowledge.
Xie et al. (2019) China STIRPAT Smog pollution Insignificant relation among smog and traffic density in small
cities where as inverted U shaped relation in medium and large
cities.
Kim et al. (2019) Korea SEM Travel-related social media Switching intentions toward TSM usage negatively affected by
(TSM) users sunk cost.
Kornilaki & Font UK Grounded Theory Methodology Adoption of sustainability Tourism contributed significantly to the degradation of the
(2019) (GTM) practices natural and socio-cultural environment.
Kushwah et al. India SEM Choice behavior Ethical consumption intentions and purchase intentions
(2019) negatively affected by value barrier.
Sajjad et al. (2020) China Push-pull mooring Smog risk and vehicle Switching intentions more affected by pull and mooring factors
(PPM) switching rather than push factors.
Lee et al. (2021a) Pakistan SEM Public intentions to purchase Public intentions to use EVs positively affected by perceived
electric vehicles ease of use, environmental concerns, and effort expectancy.

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Table 2 Table 3
constructs with their definition and sources. Descriptive Statistics of the study.
Construct Items Definition of items Sources Variables Frequency Percentage

Switching SI1 In the future, I would want Sajjad et al. (2020) Age
Intentions to own an green vehicle.In Jung et al. (2017) less than25 202 34.1
SI2 the future, I will make an 25–35 245 41.4
effort to have a vehicle 35–45 94 15.9
SI3 that is more energy 45–55 36 6.1
efficient.In >55 15 2.5
the future, I will Gender
undoubtedly purchase a Female 250 42.2
green vehicle. Male 342 57.8
Decision Self- DSE1 I can try to transform my Sajjad et al. (2020) Education
Efficacy car to an energy efficient Tarkang andZotor, Intermediate 99 16.7
DSE2 vehicle without the (2015) Graduate 141 23.8
assistance of others. Master 185 31.3
I can change my vehicle to Doctorate 80 13.5
green energy vehicle Other 87 14.7
whenever I choose. Marital status
Regulative RE1 Government measures to Urban and Married 334 56.4
Environment enhance air quality are Kujinga,(2017), Divorced 18 3.0
RE2 satisfactory.Support a Sajjad et. Single 240 40.5
charge on car emissions of (2020) No. of House members
RE3 gasoline (fuel vehicles) 1–3 232 39.2
. 4–6 215 36.3
The government is putting 6–8 127 21.5
in place several strategies >8 18 3.0
to reduce pollution. No. of children
Normative NE1 Electric vehicles, in my Sajjad et al. (2020) 0–1 329 55.6
Environment family’ opinion, are the Urban and Kujinga, 2–3 162 27.4
NE2 way to go.My (2017) 4–5 75 12.7
family believes that >6 26 4.4
switching to electric cars is Monthly income ($)
important. less than200 97 16.4
Willingness to WTP1 I would be willing to pay Sajjad et al. (2020) 200–300 136 23.0
Pay higher taxes for safe Jung et al. (2017) 300–500 143 24.2
WTP2 environment. 500–700 38 6.4
I would be willing to 700–1000 163 27.5
accept cuts in my standard >1000 15 2.5
of living for safe Smog
environment. No 58 9.8
Smog Knowledge SK1 In city smog, vehicles Mohiuddin et al. Yes 534 90.2
SK2 contribute a lot. (2018),Wu et al. Causes of Smog
I have more knowledge (2017),Sajjad et al. Transport 140 23.6
SK3 than other people (2020) Factories 181 30.6
regarding smog. Crop burning 34 5.7
I am well aware from Energy sector 13 2.2
concept of smog and fog. All of the above 224 37.8
Perceived PEHR1 Due to the pollution, I am Sajjad et al. (2020) Respiratory Diseases
Environment PEHR2 mentally concerned. Vainio and No 286 48.3
Health Risk Because of the pollution, Paloniemi, (2013), Yes 306 51.7
my family is anxious. Wei et al. (2017) Intention to pay ($)
Alternative AA1 Electric vehicles are Sajjad et al. (2020) 0 52 8.8
Attractiveness cutting-edge, and they Rezvani et al. (2015) 1–5 169 28.5
AA2 have piqued my interest. 6–10 136 23.0
Vehicles that run on 11–15 118 19.9
electricity are more 16–20 99 16.7
convenient. >20 18 3.0

analysis and findings are presented in Table 3. Out of total sample, 28% of suggested hypotheses for the current study were investigated by using
of respondents were intention to pay the amount within 6–10 $ for the PLS method. The PLS method is well-known for dealing with
switching to green vehicles. To answer of question regarding the main multivariate regression equations that are interdependent (Lee et al.,
cause of smog, mostly individuals concluded that the energy sector, crop 2021b). It is based on SEM and employs partial least square path
burning, industrial pollution and transportation are jointly responsible modelling to give a graphical interface (Hair et al., 2017; Wong, 2019).
for smog pollution in Pakistan. Descriptive results are depicted in In path modelling, this technique was chosen because it tries to maxi­
Table 3. mize the explained variance of the latent dependent variable. It also has
more statistical capacity to cope with complicated structural models
than the covariance-based SEM (Amirkiaee and Evangelopoulos, 2018).
2.3. Analytical tool Furthermore, it is a viable alternative to the covariance-based SEM and
is appropriate for non-normally distributed data (Baig et al., 2022; Lee
Structural equation modelling (SEM) is widely used in a variety of et al., 2021b; Kim et al., 2016). Additionally, PLS path modelling (also
fields. It is an important tool for looking at random causal association known as soft modelling approaches) has the smallest measurement
between the variables. To decrease prediction errors using least squares, scale, sample size, and residual distribution requirements. It also in­
two estimation approaches for SEM were reviewed: covariance-based cludes techniques for determining bootstrap signal spacing, model
SEM and partial least square (PLS) structural equation modeling. A set

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parameters, and a variety of quality metrics. PLS algorithms are Table 4

becoming increasingly prominent in information systems research as Reliability Analysis and Exploratory Factor Analysis.
well as other fields such as marketing (Garson, 2016). The part of the Constructs Items Factor CR CA rho_A AVE
model with the most predictors is used for PLS analysis. The PLS also loadings
includes predicted outcomes for structural models, formative and Switching SI1 0.831 0.735 0.754
reflective models, and goodness-of-fit criteria (Ramayah et al., 2016). Intentions SI2 0.713 0.850 0.656
Recommendations for a minimum number of observations range from SI3 0.877
30 to 100 cases. Further, this statistical tool also supports confirmatory Alternative AA1 0.939 0.804 0.767 0.783 0.677
Attractiveness AA2 0.687
factor analysis (Sarstedt and Cheah, 2019; Garson, 2016).
Decision Self DSE1 0.981 0.612 0.720 0.821 0.714
3. Results Efficacy DSE2 0.756

Normative NE1 0.857 0.870 0.704 0.717 0.771

To examine the proposed measurement (Outer) model and the
Environment NE2 0.899
structural model (relationship among latent variables), the statistical
tool smart PLS was taken under consideration. This statistical tool pro­ Perceived PEHR1 0.822 0.862 0.688 0.745 0.757
vides the facility to perform Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Environment PEHR2 0.916
multiple regression analysis to examine the measurement and structural Health Risks
Regulative RE1 0.783 0.706 0.733 0.796 0.750
model (Hair et al., 2017). The present research examined the correlation Environment RE2 0.742
between latent variables and concluded that, based on the framework of RE3 0.965
the PPM model, the use of PLS is justified and appropriate, as the Smog Knowledge SK1 0.883 0.835 0.848
literature advises. SK2 0.881 0.900 0.750
SK3 0.833

3.1. Measurement of outer model Willingness to Pay WTP1 0.936 0.804 0.843
WTP2 0.890 0.910 0.834
Reliability analysis and exploratory component analysis were used to
determine the outer model’s measurement, including convergent val­
idity, factor loadings, and discriminative validity. Factor loadings,
and HTMT test are presented in Table 5.
Composite Reliability, Cronbach Alpha, rho A, and Average Variance
Variance inflation factor (VIF) was also examined to check the
Extracted were used to evaluate the models’ internal consistency, and it
multicollinearity of variables of the inner model and router model as
was also determined that the survey data was devoid of complexities and
well as the computed VIF values of the inner and outer model are less
convergent problems. Factor loadings observed the computed constructs
than ten ranges from 1.45 to 4.07 and 1.004 to 2.067 respectively, which
in the model, and the value of factor loadings above 0.4 may be
indicated that the results of the study might be considered free from the
considered for the analysis (Hair et al., 2014). All items had factor
problem of the multicollinearity. The computed results of the Inner and
loadings of>0.50 to their related structures, indicating that the loadings
Outer models are presented in Table 6 and Table 7.
were acceptable (Baig et al., 2022). Likewise, the recommended value of
Cronbach Alpha is above 0.7 (Babbie et al., 2018). On the other hand,
Cronbach Alpha value>0.4, may be included for the analysis (Saunders 3.2. Measurement of structural models
et al., 2009). The computed Cronbach Alpha value was above the
required value, thus the findings for each factor are likewise excellent. This section consisted of the structural path analysis and hypothesis
Further, the literature suggested that the value of Cronbach Alpha is testing of the proposed models of the study. In this section, two struc­
significantly affected by the number of items, and a lower number of tural models were examined. A direct relationship was examined in the
items may produce invalid values of Cronbach Alpha. Moreover, the first model between all the latent variables and the switching Intentions.
recommended values of Composite Reliability and rho_A are 0.7 while Whereas the second model estimated the direct and indirect effects of
0.5 for Average Variance Extracted (Hair et al., 2014). Since the push, pull, and mooring factors on the switching intentions.
computed values of Composite Reliability, rho_A and Average Variance Table 8 presented the path coefficient of bootstrapping for structural
Extracted are above the recommended values, so the results of all these model 1. Among all the variables, the variable alternative attractiveness,
are also satisfactory. Recent studies like Baig et al. (2022) took 0.5 as the decision self-efficacy, perceived health risk, smog knowledge and will­
benchmark value for factor loadings of constructs and considered all ingness to pay were observed positive and significant in predicting
construct as satisfactory whose value was>0.5. Table 4 showed the switching intentions of the peoples. The variable alternative attrac­
overall findings of factor loadings, Composite Reliability, Cronbach tiveness has the highest magnitude value in predicting the switching
Alpha, rho_A, and Average Variance Extracted, which demonstrate that intentions. This result was in line with the finding (She et al., 2017;
all variables are reliable. Coelho et al., 2017; Lai and Cheng, 2016). People have much interest in
The square root of each construct’s Average Variance Extracted was adopting new technologies, as they are more conscious of environmental
compared to the correlation of other constructs to determine discrimi­ quality.
nant validity. According to statistics, to prevent the discriminant, the Moreover, the construct normative environment was observed pos­
value of the square root of Average Variance Extracted should be greater itive but insignificant in predicting switching intentions. The finding
than the correlation values (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). For discrimi­ was in line with the result of Lee (2017) and Peng et al. (2016). Likewise,
nant validity, Fornell-Larcker Criterion and Heterotrait–Monotrait ratios the variable regulative environment was also found insignificant and
(HTMT) test is considered. Because all of the computed square root of negative in predicting the switching intentions. The result was consis­
Average Variance Extracted values for each construct were greater than tent with the finding of (Jaiswal and Kant, 2018; Yong et al., 2017).
the correlation values for the constructs, so Fornell–Larcker criterion However, the variable Perceived environment health risk was observed
met the discriminant validity requirements. In addition, HTMT criteria as positive and significant in defining switching intentions. This result
state that if values are less than 0.90, there are no discriminant validity was also consistent with the finding of (Wang et al., 2019). Since people
concerns (Gold et al., 2001).. As, the computed HTMT values are less are more conscious about their health, this consciousness leads them
than 0.90, indicating that there is no discriminant validity issues. The toward adopting green vehicles.
estimated findings of discriminant validity of Fornell-Larcker Criterion In the same way, the variables decision self-efficacy and willingness

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Table 5
Discriminant Validity of the factors.
Fornell-Larcker Criterion AA DSE NE PEHR RE SK SI WTP

AA 0.823
DSE 0.349 0.717
NE 0.411 0.193 0.878
PEHR 0.603 0.144 0.334 0.870
RE 0.421 0.241 0.526 0.191 0.711
SK 0.486 0.376 0.168 0.524 0.067 0.866
SI 0.719 0.432 0.311 0.637 0.244 0.617 0.810
WTP 0.590 0.084 0.101 0.734 0.047 0.701 0.654 0.913
Heterotrait–Monotrait ratios (HTMT) AA DSE NE PEHR RE SI SK WTP
WTP 0.715 0.740 0.230 0.891 0.195 0.838 0.799
SK 0.687 0.779 0.334 0.841 0.403 0.801
SI 0.743 0.818 0.433 0.509 0.480
RE 0.749 0.883 0.825 0.873
PEHR 0.581 0.299 0.781
NE 0.734 0.337
DSE 0.671
AA

variable with the dependent variable is presented in Table 9.

Table 6
Results presented in Appendix 3 shows the outer loadings and outer
VIF (Inner Values).
weights with P-values of each item included in the constructs. All the
AA DSE NE PEHR RE SK WTP items included in each construct have outer loadings with significant p-
Switching 2.409 1.454 1.633 2.630 1.582 2.512 4.074 values except RE1 and DSE2. Likewise, all the items in each construct
Intentions also have significant outer weights except the DSE2, RE1, and RE2.
Structural model 2 presented the direct and indirect effect of push,
pull and mooring factors on the switching intentions. The computed
Table 7 values of reliability tests and path coefficients as F square, R square, and
VIF (Outer Values). composite reliability are presented in graphical form in Appendix 1. The
Factors Items VIF (Outer Values) results of composite reliability were very strong. At the same time, the
computed values of Cronbach’s alpha and rho_1 showed that the
Alternative Attractiveness AA1 1.186
AA2 1.186 mooring factor has a value less than 0.7, which indicates that the
Decision Self Efficacy DSE1 1.004 mooring factor has weak reliability. The estimated values of F square
DSE2 1.004 were range from 0.25 to 2.75, and all the path coefficients were positive
Normative Environment NE1 1.419 in the proposed model. Likewise, the estimated R square values for push,
NE2 1.419
Perceived Environment Health Risk PEHR1 1.379
pull, and switching intentions were above 0.7, 0.4 and 0.6, respectively,
PEHR2 1.379 which strongly explained the model.
Regulative Environment RE1 1.027 Tables 10, 11 presented the results of total effects and specific in­
RE2 1.422 direct effects of push, pull and Mooring factors on switching intentions.
RE3 1.423
The computed results of total effects showed that mooring factors have a
Switching Intentions SI1 1.648
SI2 1.278 positive and significant influence on pull factors and push factors.
SI3 1.792 Likewise, push and pull factors also have positive and significant affect
Smog Knowledge SK1 2.067 to define switching intentions. However, the mooring factors have a very
SK2 1.932 strong effect on push factors with a magnitude value of 0.85.
SK3 1.850
Furthermore, the specific indirect effect of mooring factors through
Willingness to Pay WTP1 1.827
WTP2 1.827
Table 9
Model-Fit Summary.
to pay also have a positive and significant influence on the switching
Saturated Model Estimated Model
intentions of the peoples toward green vehicles. The result was in line
with the study finding (Wang et al., 2016; Keshavarz and Karami, 2016; SRMR 0.123 0.123
Mohiuddin et al., 2018). This result indicated that more financial re­ d_ULS 2.860 2.860
d_G 2.030 2.030
sources lead the consumers toward the adaptation of new technology. Chi-Square 5,214.5 5,214.553
Furthermore, Path diagram of the PLS algorithm is presented in Ap­ NFI 0.411 0.411
pendix 2. The model fit summary of the path coefficient of each latent

Table 8
Path Coefficients of structural model 1.
Variables Original Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviation (STDEV) T Statistics (|O/STDEV|) P Values

Alternative Attractiveness 0.349 0.348 0.046 7.574 0.000

Decision Self-Efficacy 0.224 0.226 0.036 6.260 0.000
Normative Environment 0.045 0.043 0.034 1.316 0.189
Perceived Health Risk 0.155 0.155 0.034 4.558 0.000
Regulative Environment − 0.029 − 0.024 0.038 0.755 0.450
Smog Knowledge 0.114 0.114 0.057 1.985 0.048
Willingness to pay/Switching cost 0.232 0.232 0.051 4.543 0.000

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Table 10 adopt green vehicles that can reduce smog risk, and this result is in line
Total Effects. with the finding of Sajjad et al. (2020). Green vehicles signify the new
Original Sample Standard T P- technology with less consumption of fuel, low carbon emissions and
Sample Mean Deviation Statistics Values environment-friendly vehicles. The result indicates that the individuals
(O) (M) (STDEV) assigned a high value to green vehicle’s attractiveness in the study area.
Mooring 0.631 0.636 0.023 27.305 0.000 This consequence inclined that how consumers value green vehicles in
factors -> evaluating vehicle’s price, vehicle’s performance and reliability as well.
Pull Factors The effect of normative environment is negligible in the study, which is
Mooring 0.852 0.852 0.013 64.437 0.000
factors ->
parallel with the finding of Coelho et al. (2017), Lai and Cheng (2016),
Push factors Lee (2017), Peng et al. (2016), Sajjad et al. (2020) and She et al. (2017).
Pull Factors -> 0.411 0.411 0.029 14.031 0.000 More unsustainable goods have produced many environmental prob­
Switching lems, which are now inducing the people to adopt green purchasing, less
Intentions
consumption of unsustainable goods for better environmental quality.
Push factors 0.453 0.453 0.039 11.716 0.000
-> People are moving toward reliable options to protect their families and
Switching friends as smog increases health risks. As a result, government and
Intentions policy makers may encourage the use of green vehicles on both a societal
and individual level and should have to introduce those measures that
may enrich the switching and may help the government institutions
Table 11 resolve the problem of smog effectively.
Specific indirect effect. In push factors, the variables perceived environment health risk and
Original Sample Standard T P smog knowledge have a positive and significant impact on the switching
Sample Mean Deviation Statistics –Values intentions toward green vehicles. In parallel, the variable regulative
(O) (M) (STDEV) environment has a negative and insignificant impact on the switching
Mooring factors 0.260 0.261 0.019 13.687 0.000 intentions of the individuals. The findings of perceived environmental
-> Pull health risk are similar to Wang et al. (2019) and showed that re­
Factors -> spondents feel very discomfort due to smog. It indicates that individuals
Switching
may motivate to adopt green vehicles due to high perceived environ­
Intentions
Mooring factors 0.385 0.386 0.035 10.864 0.000 mental health risks. The perceived environmental health risk predicts
-> Push switching intentions, and it implies that higher health risks may lead to
factors -> protective behaviour. Individuals with greater risk perceptions are more
Switching likely to seek out information about factors that impact their health and
Intentions
are more prepared to pay higher expenses to switch to green vehicles, as
indicated by Cheng et al. (2017) and Sajjad et al. (2020), Wang et al.
pull and push factors was also positive in predicting the switching in­ (2019) and Yadav and Pathak (2016). The finding of the smog knowl­
tentions. These indirect effects were also significant as p-values less edge is similar to the finding of Wang et al. (2019) that smog knowledge
than 0.05. The results were consistent with the study findings (Wang reduces the use of cars. Individuals hold sufficient knowledge, and they
et al., 2016; Keshavarz and Karami, 2016; Mohiuddin et al., 2018). think that smog is mainly caused due to carbon emissions from vehicles,
and the level of smog may be reduced by vehicle switching. Based on
4. Discussion these results, climatic changes communication must be advanced where
higher risks relevant to health motivate the individuals to adopt green
The study tried to examine the consumer switching behaviour from vehicles.
conventional vehicles toward green vehicles in the perspective of smog Furthermore, they should be more educated with the knowledge to
with the help of the PPM model. The study advanced its framework choose those vehicles that do not affect their surrounding environment.
based on the PPM model to capture the influence of direct and indirect This could also help individuals recognize the effective measures to
effects of the proposed hypothesis. To our best knowledge, the current protect their environment and health from vehicle emissions, which
study was the first measured in Pakistan to examine the people’s significantly adds to smog. The regulative environment is in line with
switching intentions between green and conventional vehicles in the Sajjad et al. (2020) and showed a negligible impact on the switching
perspective of smog with the help of the PPM model. The push–pull and intentions. The role of the regulative environment may help improve
mooring factors were categorized as antecedents in the PPM model, health, as indicated by Yong et al. (2017). This result showed that
based on previous literature and its practical and theoretical implica­ ongoing government policies in Pakistan regarding the environment are
tions. The main research questions of our study were to examine that not perceived as being actual for individuals, and the effect of these
how does SK, NE, RE, DSE, WTP, AA and PEHR affects the consumer’s ongoing policies on the behaviour of individuals is negligible. Policy­
switching intentions toward green vehicles in the perspective of smog as makers and governments should advance a broad range of policies and
well as we also examined the direct and indirect effect of pull and push understand the effective perspectives of the outcomes, and government
factors with the interaction of mooring factors on the switching in­ should have to promote subsidies rather than imposing taxes on green
tentions of the consumers by jointly making the constructs of the PPM vehicles so that individuals may benefit by adopting green vehicles.
model. Furthermore, among the mooring factors, the variables as decision
The reliability analysis and exploratory factor analysis results were self-efficacy and willingness to pay both have a positive and highly
satisfactory, including factor loadings, composite reliability, average significant impact on the switching intention of the individuals. These
variable extracted, Cronbach Alpha, and discriminative validity. The results confirmed that self-efficacy and willingness to pay also facilitate
results of structural models showed that the variable alternative the consumers to switch toward green vehicles along with push and pull
attractiveness has a positive and significant effect on the switching in­ factors. These factors showed the additional effect on switching in­
tentions within pull factors. In contrast, the normative environment has tentions which may not be captured by push and pull factors. People are
an insignificant effect on consumer’s switching intentions. The signifi­ more willing to pay for switching toward fossil fuel vehicles and have
cant impact of alternative attractiveness could induce the individuals to high self-efficacy, reflecting the adaptive capacity and high smog
concern. The high self-efficacy implies that individuals are willing to pay

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for green vehicles and switching toward green modes of vehicles. These switching intentions of consumers toward the adoption of green vehi­
results are in line with the findings of Kanchanapibul et al. (2014), cles. Therefore, the study results concluded that individual’s risk per­
Keshavarz and Karami (2016), Mohiuddin et al. (2018), Morgan et al. ceptions play an important role in adopting and implementing the
(2015), Sajjad et al. (2020) She et al. (2017) and Wang et al. (2016). policies. Smog is becoming more prevalent in Pakistan, and attention
Self-efficacy in sustainable use of goods may be improved by providing must be paid to it in order to reduce its impact on health, living stan­
more information to consumers on how they may prevent themselves dards, and long-term development. There is a need for more education
from an adverse selection of social and environmental factors by altering and knowledge on climate change and its effects on human health well
their consumption patterns. With target information, communication as people should have to be more sensitive regarding smog problems.
should emphasize allowing the individuals and enabling them to There is also a need for planned communication with the targeted fac­
recognize how they can reduce the effect of emissions on the smog and tors and audiences that may change the public perceptions regarding
how they may attain benefits by spending more on smog-related risks. green vehicles. Collaboration among government and stakeholders may
The quantitative results also showed the direct and moderating effect of play a better role in emission control policies and mitigation policies
push and pull factors with the interaction of mooring factors. The results regarding smog risk. The promotion of green modes of transportation at
showed that push and pull factors have positive and significant direct the societal level may enhance the efficacies of individuals and society
and moderating effects on the switching intentions. Moderating effect of and may help the government institutions control the smog problem.
push factors with mooring factors is significant and has future implica­ Promotion of these green modes of transportation should be a smog
tions. Mooring factors are more important in determining the switching control message that can enhance the willingness to switch and reduce
behaviour of the individuals with moderation effect with push and pull people’s co-anxiety. Efforts made by the government in controlling smog
factors. While promoting smog-related educational creativity and pro­ risks should be advertised, so that trust and confidence of the people in
grams, the government should place a strong emphasis on all of these government institutions could be restored. Advancing various policies
areas. regarding the promotion of greener infrastructure, emissions control,
and the introduction of green energies may positively impact public
5. Conclusion and policy implications perceptions in the context of smog. The study has some shortcomings for
future studies. Future studies may be analyzed by changing factors like
Many countries declared different policies for electric vehicles anxiety, creditability, trust in institutions, value, performance, value
around the globe in different periods. Some world economies declared to and reliability. Further using the framework of PPM, results may be
break the sale of conventional vehicles as Norway announced to ban the drawn on longitudinal data. This PPM framework may also be used to
sale of conventional vehicles till 2025. As well as the Netherland, France examine the switching behaviours of people in the other domains, such
and UK also announced to ban the sale of these conventional vehicles till as crop switching behaviours, green supply chain management switch­
2030 and 2040, respectively. Furthermore, Germany, China, Sweden ing behaviours, and switching behaviour toward green manufacturing.
and the USA have also been declared to adopt electric vehicles. Like all
these developed countries, India also declared to raise the share of GDP Funding
to purchase electric vehicles and planned to convert all the vehicles into
green transport by 2030. In considering the above importance, the No funding received.
stakeholders and government policymakers have known that the future
mode of transportation is electric vehicles (Ullah, 2019). CRediT authorship contribution statement
The current study examined the micro-level determinants that
change the individual’s perceptions such as perceived environment Sofia Anwar: Conceptualization, Methodology. Bilal Hussain:
health risk, smog knowledge, alternative attractiveness and decision Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Muham­
self-efficacy to foresee the macro-level solutions regarding switching mad Usman: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Syed
intentions toward green vehicles to mitigate the smog risk by seizing the Asif Ali Naqvi: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft. Ashfaq
effects of willingness to pay, normative environment and regulative Ahmad Shah: .
environment at the meso level. The current study results indicated that
perceived environment health risk and smog knowledge have positive Declaration of Competing Interest
and significant effects on the switching intentions among push factors.
In contrast, a regulative environment has a negative and insignificant The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
impact on the switching intentions toward green vehicles. Among pull interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
and mooring factors, alternative attractiveness, decision self-efficacy, the work reported in this paper.
willingness to pay have a positive and significant effect on the switch­
ing intentions. In contrast, the normative environment has an insignif­ Acknowledgement
icant impact on the switching intentions.
Furthermore, the specific indirect effect of pull and push factors with The authors are very grateful to all those who provided help during
the interaction of mooring factors is also positive and significant on the this research.

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Appendix. 1.

Appendix 2. Path diagram of coefficients using PLS method

Appendix 3. Outer loadings and outer weights

Outer Loadings.

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Original Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviation (STDEV) T Statistics (|O/STDEV) P Values

AA1 <- Alternative Attractiveness 0.939 0.941 0.010 91.856 0.000

AA2 <- Alternative Attractiveness 0.687 0.678 0.061 11.335 0.000
DSE1 <- Decision Self-Efficacy 0.981 0.972 0.029 33.727 0.000
DSE2 <- Decision Self-Efficacy 0.256 0.249 0.147 1.750 0.081
NE1 <- Normative Environment 0.857 0.855 0.027 32.298 0.000
NE2 <- Normative Environment 0.899 0.898 0.023 38.755 0.000
PEHR1 <- Perceived Health Risk 0.822 0.822 0.022 37.265 0.000
PEHR2 <- Perceived Health Risk 0.916 0.916 0.006 144.325 0.000
RE1 <- Regulative Environment_ 0.183 0.167 0.106 1.726 0.085
RE2 <- Regulative Environment_ 0.742 0.708 0.142 5.224 0.000
RE3 <- Regulative Environment_ 0.965 0.957 0.053 18.199 0.000
SI1 <- Switching Intentions 0.831 0.832 0.017 49.779 0.000
SI2 <- Switching Intentions 0.713 0.712 0.035 20.383 0.000
SI3 <- Switching Intentions 0.877 0.878 0.008 104.311 0.000
SK1 <- Smog Knowledge 0.883 0.884 0.011 81.577 0.000
SK2 <- Smog Knowledge 0.881 0.882 0.010 91.351 0.000
SK3 <- Smog Knowledge 0.833 0.833 0.010 80.331 0.000
WTP1 <- Willingness to pay/Switching cost 0.936 0.936 0.005 192.511 0.000
WTP2 <- Willingness to pay/Switching cost 0.890 0.890 0.012 74.950 0.000

Outer Weights.
Original Sample (O) Sample Mean (M) Standard Deviation (STDEV) T- Statistics P Values

AA1 <- Alternative Attractiveness 0.791 0.795 0.041 19.369 0.000

AA2 <- Alternative Attractiveness 0.374 0.369 0.038 9.743 0.000
DSE1 <- Decision Self-Efficacy 0.969 0.959 0.041 23.795 0.000
DSE2 <- Decision Self-Efficacy 0.195 0.189 0.135 1.443 0.150
NE1 <- Normative Environment 0.522 0.521 0.046 11.283 0.000
NE2 <- Normative Environment 0.615 0.615 0.044 13.911 0.000
PEHR1 <- Perceived Health Risk 0.471 0.471 0.017 27.830 0.000
PEHR2 <- Perceived Health Risk 0.669 0.668 0.022 29.791 0.000
RE1 <- Regulative Environment_ 0.026 0.012 0.083 0.309 0.758
RE2 <- Regulative Environment_ 0.308 0.269 0.179 1.716 0.087
RE3 <- Regulative Environment_ 0.795 0.809 0.110 7.222 0.000
SI1 <- Switching Intentions 0.418 0.418 0.015 28.534 0.000
SI2 <- Switching Intentions 0.351 0.350 0.014 25.415 0.000
SI3 <- Switching Intentions 0.459 0.459 0.019 24.108 0.000
SK1 <- Smog Knowledge 0.400 0.400 0.010 38.674 0.000
SK2 <- Smog Knowledge 0.426 0.426 0.011 38.593 0.000
SK3 <- Smog Knowledge 0.325 0.325 0.009 35.566 0.000
WTP1 <- Willingness to pay/Switching cost 0.617 0.616 0.015 42.249 0.000
WTP2 <- Willingness to pay/Switching cost 0.475 0.476 0.012 41.061 0.000

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