Foundation Chemistry Class 8 For IIT-JE - Disha Experts

Includes NCERT &
Exemplar Solutions
8
Foundation
Class
100% useful for Class 8 School Exam

Set of 4 Solved Exercises
è Exercise 1: FIB, T/F, M atching, VSA, SA and LA Questions
è Exercise 2: NCERT, Exemplar and HOTS Questions
è Exercise 3 & 4: M CQs 1 Correct, MCQs >_ 1 Correct,

Passage, Assertion-Reason, Multiple Matching
and Integer Type Questions
EBD_7027
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Contents
1. Synthetic Fibres and Plastics 1-22
2. Materials : Metal & Non-metals 23-50
3. Coal and Petroleum 51-70
4. Combustion and Flame 71-92
5. Language of Chemistry 93-112
6. Classification of Matter on the basis of Chemical Composition 113-130
7. States of Matter 131-148
8. Transformation of Matter 149-167

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Chapter SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND
1 PLASTICS
INTRODUCTION
You have read in your previous classes that natural fibres like cotton, wool, silk, etc., are obtained from plants or
animals. The synthetic fibres, on the other hand, are made by human beings. That is why these are called synthetic or
man-made fibres. Man-made fibres are spun and woven into a huge number of consumer and industrial products,
including garments such as shirts, scarves, and hosiery; home furnishings such as upholstery, carpets, and drapes;
and industrial parts such as tire cord, flame-proof linings, and drive belts. The chemical compounds from which
man-made fibres are produced are known as polymers. Many of the polymers that constitute man-made fibres are the
same as or similar to compounds that make up plastics, rubbers, adhesives, and surface coatings. Indeed, polymers
such as regenerated cellulose, polycaprolactam, and polyethylene terephthalate, which have become familiar household
materials under the trade names rayon, nylon, and Dacron (trademark), respectively.
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2 CHEMISTRY
MAN MADE MATERIALS

Synthetic fibres and plastics consists of polymers. Normally the things you observe around you in your routine life are made of
polymers, like shirts, jeans and clothing are made up of synthetic fabrics and kids playing toys, cable wires etc are made up of plastics.
A polymer is a large molecule of high molecular mass formed by the repetitive bonding of many small molecules called monomers. The
process by which the monomers are transformed into polymers is called polymerisation. As polymers are single big size molecules,
they are also called macromolecules.
Classification of polymers on the basis of source:
(a) Natural polymers: Proteins, cellulose, starch, resins and rubber.
(b) Semi–synthetic polymers: Cellulose derivatives as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate, etc.
(c) Synthetic polymers: Plastic (polythene), synthetic fibres (nylon 6, 6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna – S).
As you have already studied about natural fibres (cotton, silk, wool, etc.) and their processing in earlier classes. Now we will discuss
about synthetic fibres in detail.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Fibres which are man made and manufactured artificially from chemicals are called synthetic fibres.
A few commonly used synthetic fibres are rayon, nylon and polyester (terylene).
Characteristics of Synthetic Fibres
Clothes made from synthetic fibres are stronger and do not wrinkle easily. They also dry easily. But they have less air spaces in them
than natural fibres and do not 'breathe' so well. They also cannot absorb sweat. These properties make them unsuitable for hot and
humid weather.
Advantages of Synthetic Fibres:
(i) They are tough and durable.
(ii) They are water-resistant and easy to dry.
(iii) They do not bleed colour when washed.
(iv) Unlike natural fibres, they do not shrink on washing.
(v) They do not wrinkle as they retain crease longer.
(vi) They trap the heat in our body.
(vii) They make us sweatend.
(viii) They are not very comfortable.
Disadvantages of Synthetic Fibres
A big disadvantage of synthetic fibres is that they melt on heating. If the cloths catch fire, it can be disastrous. They contain chemicals
which may harm our skin. Another disadvantage is that the clothes made of synthetic fibres are not suitable to wear during hot summer
weather.
RAYON
Rayon is first man-made fibre which was developed in France in 1884 to offer a cheaper alternative to silk textiles. Rayon resembles silk
in appearance. Hence it is also known as artificial silk. It is produced from natural cellulose by its chemical treatment. The cellulose
required for making rayon is obtained from wood pulp.
Wood pulp is first dissolved in an alkaline solution. The thick liquid produced is then passed through tiny holes of a metal cylinder
which is known as spinneret to make fibres. The fibres are hardened by passing them into a bath of sulphuric acid. The fibres are then
spun into yarn and woven into cloth.
Properties of Rayon
(i) Low warmth, good to drape, not durable, creases easily and needs ironing.
(ii) Rayon fibre has the same comfort property as natural fibres.
(iii) Rayon can easily be dyed in variety of colours.
(iv) Usual rayon fibres recommended care for dry cleaning purpose only.
(v) Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not insulate body heat, making them ideal
for use in hot and humid climates.
Synthetic Fibres and Plastics 3
Uses of Rayon
(i) It is the most commonly used semi-synthetic fibre and is used in:
Textile industry for making textiles (fabrics)
• Manufacture of tyres
• Medical field for making bandages and surgical dressing.
(ii) Rayon’s thin fibres have ability to allow clothing to breathe more than other fabrics, which makes it a good choice for the design
of sports wear and sundresses that are expected to provide coolness and comfort.
(iii) Rayon when mixed with wool is used to make carpets.
Rayon was originally called artificial silk but now the name rayon is given to all fibres obtained by chemical
treatment of cellulose. Thus, artificial silk is a polysaccharide i.e., cellulose derivative.
NYLON
It is the first man made completely synthetic fibre. First introduced by Wallace Carotters on 28th February 1935. The chemical
compounds used in making nylon are now obtained from petroleum products called petrochemicals. Actually, nylon is made up of
repeating units of a chemical called an amide. So, nylon is a polyamide. Nylon is a thermoplastic polymer. It was made simultaneously
in New York (NY) and London (LON) thus it has derived the name NYLON.
Properties of Nylon
(i) It possesses good strength. Nylon is a very strong but light weight material. Its strength does not lost with age.
(ii) It possesses good elasticity. It stretches but also regains its original shape easily.
(iii) It is moth and alkali resistant
(iv) It is inert to many chemicals and solvents
(v) It is wrinkle resistant
(vi) Nylon fibrics absorb very little water. So nylon clothes are very easy to wash and dry.
(vii) Nylon fabrics has low resistance to sunlight.
Uses of Nylon
It is used for making
(i) fishing nets, car seat belts, strings for sports rackets etc
(ii) ropes used for mountaineering parachute fibres, tyre cords etc.
(iii) machine parts in form of plastics.
(iv) material in dress socks, swim wear, shorts, track pants, active wear, wind breakers, draperies and bedspreads.
(v) carpets, textile fibres, bristles for brushes, track suits, combat uniforms, swim wears and women stockings.
(vi) a substitute for metals in ball bearings and gears.
High temperatures are able to melt nylon. Because of this fact, when ironing items made of nylon you should
set your iron at a low setting and turn the item over onto the wrong side.
P oi n t
Nylon is natural or synthetic fibre ?
SOLUTION
Nylon is a polyamide which are natural but nylon is a man made fibre.
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4 CHEMISTRY
POLYESTERS
It is a general name for synthetic fibres that contain many ester groups. Alcohols and organic acids react together to make compounds
called esters which polymerises to form polyesters.
Terylene or Dacron is the best example. The chemical compounds used in making polyester fibres are made from petroleum products
called petrochemicals. Like nylon polyster is also a thermoplastic polymer.
Polyster blended with cotton and wool are called polycot and polywool respectively. Polycot contain 55% polyesters and 45% wool.
Properties of Polyester
(i) Polyester fabrics and fibres are extremely strong.
(ii) Polyester is very durable; resistant to most chemicals, wrinkle resistant, mildew and abrasion resistant.
(iii) Polyester is hydrophobic in nature and quick drying. It can be used for insulation by manufacturing hollow fibres.
(iv) Polyester retains its shape and hence is good for making outdoor clothing for harsh climates.
Uses of Polyester
(i) It is used for making shirts, trousers, sarees, and other dress materials.
(ii) It is used for making sails for sailing boats.
(iii) It is used for making fire-hoses and conveyer belts.
(iv) Due to its strength and tenacity polyester was also used to make ropes in industries
(v) Now a days PET bottles are one of the most popular uses of polyester
(vi) Polyester is also used for making nets, thread, raincoats, jackets, clothing and medical textiles.
Among synthetic fibres the polyesters, are most widely used. They account for about one-half of all synthetic
fibres.
ACRYLIC
Acrylic is a synthetic fibre. This is made from a chemical called ‘acrylonitrile’ through Polymerisation. Acrylic is a commonly used
clothing material. It is light weight, soft and warm, has a wool-like feel, can be easily dyed, does not shrink or wrinkle and also insect
resistant.
It is easy to maintain and is often used as an alternative to expensive woolen fabrics like cashmere. It tends to form fuzz and is not as
pure wool.
Properties of Acrylic
(i) It is more flexible and shock resistant than glass.
(ii) It is abrasion resistant and resistant to UV and chemical damage.
(iii) Acrylic can transmit or filter ultraviolet light and is easily cleaned.
(iv) It is easily cut, corrosion resistant and a good insulator.
Uses of Acrylic
The application of acrylic include; windows, aircraft canopies, automobile tail lights, hobby crafts, sunscreens, lighting fixtures,
furniture; table tops, sign boards, decorating panels, windshields, camera lenses, aquariums, toys, incubators, appliances and
security shields.
Acryline is extremely strong. If it breaks or gets damaged, it will not shatter.

PLASTICS
A plastic is a synthetic material, which can be moulded or set into any desired shape when soft, and then harden to produce articles.
Some plastic have linear and some have cross links. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but
many are partially natural.
The first man-made plastic was created by Alexander Parkes who publicly demonstrated it at the 1862 in Great International Exhibition
in London.
Plastic is an organic material of high molecular weight with specific properties. Most of the plastics are polymers having long chains.
Classification of Plastics
Plastics can be broadly classified as :
(i) Thermoplastic and (ii) Thermosetting Plastics.
(i) Thermoplastic material : A plastic material that can be melted repeatedly by heating and can be moulded again and again into
different shapes is called thermoplastic material .
A thermoplastic material becomes soft on heating and hard on cooling. These plastics can be moulded into toys, beads,
buckets, telephone and television cases. Examples of thermoplastics are polythene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene.
Shower curtains, and pipes are most often made of PVC.
(ii) Thermosetting Plastics : A plastic substance, which once set, does not soften on heating is known as thermosetting plastic. A
thermosetting plastic can be used only once. They are used in a situation where resistance to heat is important. Examples of
thermosetting plastics are bakelite, melamine and urea formaldehyde resin. They are used in a situation where resistance to heat
is important.
Differences between Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Plastics
Property Thermoplastics Thermosetting Plastics
1. Effect of heat Soften at 70°C to 90°C Do not soften easily

2. Strength Comparatively weaker Comparatively stronger
3. Reusability Can be reused after melting Can not be remelted or reused.
4. Flexibility They are flexible They are hard and rigid.
Plasticizers are non volatile liquids which are added to a polymer such as PVC to make it soft and readily
workable on heating.
As polymeric chains in the thermosetting plastic form cross links, this in turn prevents the plastic from melting once heated after
initial forming and cooling. If you again heat it a lot it would burn, not melt. So using it in a kettle is good because it won't rust, it is
electrically safe and it won't go soft and floppy when hot .Whereas thermoplastics possesses intermolecular forces this property
allows thermoplastics to be remolded because the intermolecular interactions spontaneously reform upon cooling.
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6 CHEMISTRY
Applications of Some Routine Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Materials
Name of plastic Type of plastic Uses of plastic
1. (a) LDPE Thermoplastic It is used in insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufacture of
(Low density polyethene) squeeze bottles, toys, flexible pipes (it is chemically inert, tough, flexible
and poor conductor of electricity)
(b) HDPE Thermoplastic It is used for making buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes, etc. (it is
(High density polyethene) comparatively more chemically inert, tougher and harder)
2. Polytetrafluoro ethene Thermoplastic It is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non-stick
(Teflon) surface coated utensils as it is chemically inert and resistant to attack by
corrosive reagents.
3. Polyacrylonitrile Thermoplastic It is used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres as orlon
(PAN) or acrilan.
4. Polyproprene Thermoplastic It is used in manufacture of ropes, toys, pipes, fibres, etc.
5. Polystyrene Thermoplastic It is used as an insulator, wrapping material in manufacture of toys, radio
and television cabinets.
6. Polyvinyl chloride Thermoplastic It is used in manufacture of rain coats, hand bags, vinyl flooring, water
(PVC) pipes, etc.
7. Bakelite Thermosetting It is used in making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches and
handles of various utensils, etc.
8. Melamine Thermosetting It is used in manufacture of unbreakable crockery
Visit your nearby market with your friends. Go to various shops which have plastic or plastic containing objects. Make a list
of those objects and observe them carefully. Now discuss with your friends and make a list of objects which can be
remoulded or reused.
P oi n t
Why thermosetting plastics can not be remelted or reused ?
SOLUTION
It is because once it is melted it forms strong cross linked bonds on cooling which posses great strength.
PLASTICS – A NEW AGE MATERIAL

Plastic materials display properties that are unique when compared to other materials and have contributed greatly to quality of our
everyday life. Thus plastic can easily replace other important products including wood, metals, glass etc. Consumers like it because
of its versatility, durability, light weight and other qualities.
Demerits associated with other materials makes plastic such important material .For example, if plastic bottles would have to be
replaced by glass. Glass is much heavier and can break. Broken glass can be dangerous when stepped on or touched. Plastics have
also replaced wood items. We use plastics because they are more affordable and can be long lasting when compared with wood.
General Properties of Synthetic Plastics :
(i) Most plastics are waterproof and are unaffected by weather. They are non-biodegradable.
(ii) They are not affected by water, strong acids and alkalies. Some are however soluble in certain organic solvents.
(iii) Plastic is tough and can withstand high pressure. It is stretchable and its tensile strength is many times than natural fibre. Even
a fine synthetic fibre is not easily breakable.
(iv) Plastic is easily moulded to any shape or even passed through a fine pore forming a fibre.
(v) Plastics may be transparent, translucent or opaque.
(vi) Plastics are non-conductors of heat and electricity and hence used as insulators.
(vii) Most plastics catch fire easily. They are inflammable.
Uses of Plastics:
(i) For making water bottles and waterproof containers.
(ii) For making plastic wrap materials, which is used to keep food fresh in refrigerators.
(iii) As packing materials.
(iv) For making table cloths, bathroom curtains, raincoats, waterproof shoes and fashionable footwear.
(v) Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or Glass fibre-reinforced plastic (GFRP) is a fibre reinforced polymer made of a plastic matrix
reinforced by fine fibres made of glass. Simply known as fibre glass.
Disadvantages of Plastic
(i) A large part of our household wastes are made of plastics. We throw away plastic bags, in which we buy foodstuffs, vegetables,
clothes and other materials. The plastic bags used for packing is not biodegradable and takes thousands of years for a plastic
bag to disintegrate.
(ii) When burnt, plastics give off poisonous fumes. PVC on burning gives fumes of hydrogen chloride.
(iii) Recycling plastic is expensive.
(iv) They are non-renewable resources.
(v) The poisonous gaseous product produced by the decomposition of plastic can cause cancer.
(vi) They harm the environment by choking the drains.
PLASTICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The extensive and wide use of plastic has now become a big threat for our environment. The next time you go for shopping and carry
home the things in a cute, comfy plastic carry-bag, think you are contributing your share to a deadly pollution whose ill-effects are
irreversible and capable of reaching out to numerous generations to come. Plastic is one of the major toxic pollutants. Being a non-
biodegradable substance, composed of toxic chemicals, plastic pollutes earth, air and water.
Plastic waste is a major environmental issue and cause of public health problems. Plastic shopping or carrier bags are one of the main
sources of plastic waste in our country. Besides this visual pollution, plastic bag wastes contribute to blockage of drains and gutters,
plastic bags are a threat to aquatic life when they find their way to water bodies and are harmful for aquatic animals in many ways.
Furthermore, when filled with rainwater, plastic bags become breeding grounds for mosquitoes, which cause malaria. Plastic bags
along with food waste can be eaten by animals and as they don't break down this can cause digestive problems in them.
When plastics are burnt, they emit toxic gases and smoke full of carbon particles. Plastics that get burried under the soil prevent the
percolation of rainwater and the run away water into the soil.
Indiscriminate dumping of plastic waste on land makes the land infertile.
Like all solid waste, the primary strategy for effectively managing plastics are reduce, reuse, recycle and recover.
Reduction of plastic waste can be done by using
(i) products with less plastic packaging jute
(ii) carrybags made up of cloth, jute or paper.
Recycling of plastic waste should be emphasized. House hold plastic waste should be collected and forwarded for recycling. One
should support and promote plastic recycling schemes in their local area.
Reuse the plastic materials. Used plastic bags and bottles should not be thrown away they should be reused if possible.
The fourth R is to recover material which cannot be reused or recycled should be recovered.
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8 CHEMISTRY
CONNECTING TOPIC
In addition to fibre and plastic there are many other important man-made materials and substances which we use in our routine life.
Medicines for health care, kitchen crockery made up of glass. Rubber used in tyres and detergents for washing and cleaning
purposes. These materials are disscussed one by one in brief.
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soap : Fatty acid salts of sodium and potassium are known as soaps. These are prepared by the action of fatty acids with sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
Fatty acid + sodium hydroxide ® Soap + glycerol.
Detergents are sodium salt of long chain sulphonic acids or alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
Advantages of detergents over soaps
(i) Detergents can be used for laundering even with hard water as they are soluble even in hard water.
(ii) Detergents possess better cleansing properties than soaps.
Disadvantages of detergents over soap.
Detergents are prepared from hydrocarbons, while soaps are prepared from edible fatty oils. Thus they are non biodegradable.
Saponification
It is the process of making of soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkalies. Both soaps and detergents are soluble in water and
act as surfactants which reduce the surface tension of water to a great extent. This increases the water - fabric interaction as a
consequence of which dirt particles, grease spots etc are washed away effectively. In other words soaps and detergents enhance the
cleansing action of water.
RUBBERS
Natural rubber : It is naturally occurring polymer of high molecular weight obtained from rubber trees. It possesses more than 300
percent elasticity. Natural rubber contains deniable bonds. It is a polymer of monomer called isoprene.
Natural rubber is a poly cis-isoprene. It is prepared from latex (obtained from rubber tree by coagulation with acetic acid). It is a soft
and tacky material. Gutta percha on the other hand is poly-isoprene. It is a hard and horny material.
Synthetic rubber : It is identical to natural rubber but possesses better properties. The two important forms of artificial rubber are.
(i) Thiokol and (ii) Neoprene
Thiokol is produced by chemical reaction of dichloroethane with sodium polysulphide.
Neoprene is produced by polymerisation of 2-Chloro-butadiene.
Vulcanization of rubber : The process of heating natural rubber with sulphur is known as vulcanization of rubber. The cross linking
of rubber molecules, improves strength and elasticity of rubber considerably.
Natural rubber is soft, sticky and possesses low strength where as vulcanized rubber is comparatively hard, non-sticky and shows
better strength. It possesses good elasticity and is abrasion resistant.
The tensile strength of natural rubber is low but of vulcanized rubber is high.
Natural rubber can be used in the temperature range of 10-60°C whereas vulcanised rubber can be used in the range of 45°C to 110°C.
The elasticity of vulcanised rubber is high whereas that of natural rubber is low.
Natural rubber is soluble in organic solvents like ether, petrol and carbon disulphide whereas vulcanised rubber is practically
insoluble in organic solvents.
GLASS
It consists of a mixture of two or more silicates.
Preparation of Glass :
Common glass (or soft glass) : It is used to make bottles, glass wares etc. and is obtained by heating together silica (in the form of
sand), sodium carbonate or sodium sulphate and chalk or lime stone (calcium carbonate). Some broken glass and a little coke are
usually added. The glass so prepared consists of silicates of sodium and calcium.
Na2CO3(s) + SiO2(s) ® Na2SiO3 (s) + CO2 (g)
(silica)
Na2SO4(s) + SiO2(s) ® Na2SiO3 (s) + SO3 (g)
CaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) ® CaSiO3 (s) + CO2 (g)
Hard glass : For preparation of hard glass K2CO3 is used in place of Na2CO3. It consists of a mixture of calcium and potassium
silicates.
Physical Properties of Glass
Hard, rigid, high viscosity, bad conductor of heat and electricity, Brittle etc.
Chemical Properties of Glass
(i) It is resistant to action of air and acids except hydroflouric acid.
(ii) It is alkaline in nature.
(iii) It slowly reacts with water to form alkaline solution.
Types of Glass :
(i) Silica glass : For this type of glass the raw material used is 100% pure form of quartz. It is quite expensive. It is used in the
manufacture of laboratory apparatus. It has low thermal expansion. Its softening point is very high and it is resistant to a wide
variety of chemicals.
(ii) Alkali silicate glass : For it the raw materials used are sand and soda. It is also called water glass because it is soluble in water
and used only as a solution. It is generally used to make gums and adhesives.
(iii) Lead glass : For this type of glass lead oxide is added to ordinary glass. The addition of lead oxide increases the density and
also the refractive index. This type of glass is used for the manufacture of ornamental glass ware, decorative articles etc.
(iv) Optical glass : This type of glass is used in the manufacture of optical instruments like binoculars, spectacles, lenses, prisms,
telescopes, microscopes etc. It is transparent and can be grounded into the required shape. It generally contains phosphorus,
and lead silicates with little cerium oxide which absorbs UV radiations.
(v) Processed glass : The properties and applications of glass also depend upon the processing of glass.
Some types of processed glass and their applications are given here :
Processed glass Applications
(a) Laminated glass Used for doors and windows of automobiles. (It has high strength)
(b) Fibre glass Used for reinforcing purpose (It has enough tensile strength)
(c) Foam glass Used for civil construction and insulation purposes (it is light weight).
(d) Opaque glass In it non transparent glass filters the light entering into it. Thus provides an aesthetic look
(vi) Borosilicate glass : It contains silica and boron oxide and small amount of oxides of sodium and aluminium. It is resistant to a
wide variety of chemicals due to this property it is used in the manufacture of laboratory ware.
Etching of Glass :
HF dissolves glass due to formation of soluble fluorosilicates. The glass surface is coated with wax and the places where design is
to be made, are exposed to aqueous HF by removing the wax surface. Aqueous HF is poured on the exposed part. After some time it
is poured out and wax is removed from the surface. The exposed part of glass is engraved.
MEDICINES
Drug
Chemical substances used for curing, diagnosing and treatment of diseases are called drugs. The branch of chemistry which deals
with the treatment of diseases using suitable chemicals is known as chemotherapy.
Requirements of a Substances to act like a Drug
(i) Its target should be localised at the site of action.
(ii) It should not make host tissue resistant against the effect of drug after use for some time.
(iii) It should not produce any side effects of long term use.
(iv) It should be effective within therapeutic range.
Types of Drugs
(i) Antipyretics :
Those drugs which are used to bring down body temperature during fever. e.g., Paracetamol, Aspirin etc.
(ii) Antacids :
Those substances which neutralize the excess acid and raise the pH to an appropriate level in stomach are called antacids. e.g.,
magnesium hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide gel etc.
(iii) Antihistamines :
The drugs which interfere with the natural action of histamine. These are widely used for treatment of hay fever, conjuctivitis,
snoozing, itching of eyes, nose and throat etc. e.g., diphenylhydramine, promethazine etc.
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10 CHEMISTRY
(iv) Tranquillizers :
Drugs which are used for the treatment of stress, fatigue, mild and severe mental diseases are called tranquillizers. e.g., equanil,
valium, serotonin, barbituric acid, luminal, seconal etc.
(v) Analgesics :
Drugs which reduce pain without reducing consciousness, mental confusion, paralysis or some other disturbance of the
nervous system are called analgesics. e.g., aspirin, paracetamol, morphine diacetate etc.
(vi) Antimicrobials :
Drugs used to cure diseases caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi etc., are called antimicrobials. e.g.,
sulphanilamide
(vii) Antibiotics :
These are chemical substances which are produced by some microorganism and can be used to either inhibit the growth or
even kill other microorganism which cause infections. e.g., penicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin etc.
(viii) Antiseptics :
Those chemical substances which prevent the growth of micro-organism or may even kill them. They are safe to be applied on
living tissues. e.g., furacin, soframycin, boric acid, iodine, bithional etc.
(ix) Disinfectants :
Those chemical substances which kill micro-organisms but are not safe to be applied on the living tissues. These are generally
used to kill the micro-organism present in the drains, toilets, floors etc. e.g., 0.2% solution of phenol acts as an antiseptic
whereas 1% solution acts as a disinfectant.
(x) Antifertility drugs :
Chemical substances used to check pregnancy in women are known as anti-fertility drugs or oral contraceptives. e.g.,
Norethindrone, Mifepristone etc.
SUMMARY
u There are two types of fibre - One which are obtained from natural sources and other which are man-made.
u Fibres which are obtained from natural sources are called natural fibres. E.g. cotton, silk, wool, etc.
u Fibres which are manufactured artificially are called synthetic fibres e.g. rayon, nylon, polyester etc.
Rayon : It is a semi-synthetic fibre. It is prepared from natural cellulose. It is also known as artificial silk.
u Types of rayon
(i) Viscose rayon (ii) Cuprammonium rayon (iii) Acetate rayon
u Nylon : It is a polyamide. It is manufactured by using adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine.
Since both compounds used contain six carbon atoms in the molecule so it is referred as Nylon 6,6.
It is a condensation polymer.
u Nylon is used in making of different types of clothes, ropes, socks, curtains, sleeping bags, parachutes, etc. The fibre of
nylon is stronger than a steel wire of same thickness.
é O ù
ê || ú
u Polyester : It is the general name for synthetic fibre that contains many ester groups. ëê – C – O – ûú
u Terylene is one of the most famous types of polyester.

u Fabrics made from polyester fibre are almost wrinkle-free, easy to wash and have shiny appearance.
u PET (Polyethylene terepthalate) is very famous term for polyester.
u Acrylic:Acrylic is man-made fibre. Since, acrylic resembles wool so it is also known as artificial wool or synthetic wool.
u Acrylic is cheaper than natural wool and can be dyed in various colour.
u Acrylic is used in making sweaters, blanket, and other many clothes.
u Plastics : A plastic is a synthetic material, which can be moulded or set into any desired shape when soft and then hardened
to produce articles.
u Classification of plastics
(i) Thermoplastic materials
(ii) Thermosetting materials
u Plastics which can be easily bent or deform on heating are known as thermoplastic. PVC and Polythene are the examples of
thermoplastics.
u Plastics which do not get deformed or softened on heating when mold once, are called thermosetting plastics. Bakelite and
melamine are the examples of thermosetting plastics.
u Substances which get decomposed through the natural processes, such as action of bacteria, etc. are called biodegradable
substances. For example; potato peels, peels of other vegetable, food stuffs, fruit, paper, cotton cloths, wood, etc.
u Substances which either do not decompose or take many years to get decomposed through the natural process, are called
non-biodegradable substance, e.g. tin, aluminium, plastics, etc.
u Plastic is a non-biodegradable substance. If it is left or thrown, it takes many years to get decomposed or either does not get
decomposed.
u Burning the plastic can result in release of many harmful gases in the atmosphere. This can lead to air pollution.
u For dealing with the menace of plastic waste, we need to follow the three Rs, i.e. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
EBD_7027
12 CHEMISTRY
Fill in the Blanks : Match the Following :
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an DIRECTIONS : Following question contains statements given
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B,
C and D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q,
1. ............... is called artificial silk. r and s) in column II.
2. A thermosetting plastic can be used ...............
1. Match Column-I with Column-II and select the correct
3. Base raw material for rayon is ...............
answer using the code given below in the columns.
4. Tensile strength of nylon is ............... than that of cotton. Column-I Column-II
5. Melamine is a thermo ............... plastic. (A) Rayon (p) Polymer of
6. ............... is the synthetic fibre used as wool. diacid and diamine
7. The synthetic fibres are also known as ............... fibres (B) Nylon (q) Terylene
8. The first fully synthetic fibre was ............... (C) Polyester (r) Regenerated cellulose
(D) Polystyrene (s) Light foam used for
9. A plastic used for making crockery is ...............
insulating and
True / False : packing.
(a) A – (r); B – (p); C – (q); D – (s)
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your (b) A – (s); B – (p); C – (q); D – (r)
answer as true or false. (c) A – (r); B – (q); C – (p); D – (s)
1. Rayon is a semi-synthetic fibre (d) A – (r); B – (s); C – (q); D – (p)
2. Match Column-I with Column-II and select the correct
2. Nylon is corrosion resistant
answer using the code given below the columns.
3. PVC is a thermo-setting plastic. Column-I Column-II
4. Bakelite is thermosetting plastic. (A) Thermoplastics (p) Endoscopes
5. Polyester is a thermoplastic. (B) Glass fibre (q) Bakelite
6. Common name of PETE is terylene (C) Thermosetting plastics (r) polypropylene
(D) Optical fibre (s) Used in making
7. Polystyrene foam is used as an insulating and packaging
space suits
material
(a) A – (p); B – (s); C – (q); D – (r)
8. Plastics do not corrode or rust. (b) A – (r); B – (s); C – (q); D – (p)
9. Most plastics are biodegradable (c) A – (s); B – (r); C – (q); D – (p)
10. Plastic melamine is fire resistant. (d) A – (r); B – (s); C – (p); D – (q)
11. Bakelite is a soft and flexible plastic. 3. Match Column-I with Column-II and select the correct
answer using the code given below the columns.
12. Polysters are purely synthetic fibres.
Column-I Column-II
13. Rayons are derived from cellulose. (A) Natural fibre (p) Terylene
14. Acrylics are crimpy and are a substitute for natural wool. (B) Synthetic fibre (q) Rain coats
15. Synthetic fibres are generally hydrophilic. (C) Semisynthetic fibre (r) Wool
16. We can mould plastics into various shapes because of the (D) Rubber (s) Terry wool
property of elasticity in them. (a) A – (r); B – (p); C – (s); D – (q)
(b) A – (q); B – (p); C – (s); D – (r)
(c) A – (r); B – (p); C – (q); D – (s)
(d) A – (s); B – (p); C – (r); D – (q)
4. Which of the following represents the correct match for Short Answer Questions :
items in Column I with those in Column II
Column -I Column-II DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
(A) Nylon (p) Thermoplastic
1. What is plastic? Name different types of plastics.
(B) PVC (q) Thermosetting plastic
2. Give the uses of thermosetting plastics.
(C) Bakelite (r) Fibre 3. Why have synthetic fibres became so popular?
(a) A – (q), B – (r), C – (p) 4. How is rayon prepared?
(b) A – (q), B – (p), C – (r) 5. What is rayon ? Why is it called an artificial silk?
(c) A – (r), B – (p), C – (q) 6. Why is Polyster quite suitable for making dress materials ?
(d) A – (r), B – (q), C – (p) 7. Why should we not wear synthetic clothes while working
in kitchen ?
Very Short Answer Questions:
8. Why is it convenient to store plastic containers than
metals?
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
9. Write the uses of plastics in health care industry.
1. What is a monomer? 10. Say no for polythene bags and say yes for paper bags.
2. What is a polymer? Comment on this slogan.
3. Define polymerisation. Long Answer Questions :
4. Define tensile strength of a material.
DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
5. Name any one synthetic polyamide fibre.
6. Give two examples of thermosetting plastics. 1. Explain thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics with
7. Give an important use of nylon. examples.
8. Name any two commonly used plastics. 2. Write down the name of any 5 fibres/plastics and also
mention one use of each.
9. What is the common name of rayon ?
10. Name a man-made fibre which was made without using
S.No. Fibres/Plastics Uses
natural raw materials.
1
11. Name two articles made by rayon.
2
12. How many types of arrangement of units in plastics ?
Name them. 3
13. Why plastics are not ecofriendly ? 4
14. What are 4Rs? 5
EBD_7027
14 CHEMISTRY
Text-Book Exercise : 14. ‘Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping for

conservation of forests’.
1. Explain why some fibres are called synthetic. Comment.
2. Mark (ü) the correct answer. 15. Describe an activity to show that thermoplastic is a poor
Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because conductor of electricity.
(a) it has a silk like appearance
Exemplar Questions :
(b) it is obtained from wood pulp
(c) its fibres can also be woven like those of natural fibres 1. Plastic is used for making a large variety of articles of daily
3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words: use and these articles are very attractive. But it is advised to
(a) Synthetic fibres are also called ______ or _______ avoid the use of plastic as far as possible. Why ?
fibres. 2. A lady went to the market in buy a blanket. The shopkeeper
(b) Synthetic fibres are synthesised from raw material called showed her blankets made of acrylic fibres as well as made
________. of wool. She preferred to buy an acrylic blanket. Can you
(c) Like synthetic fibres, plastic is also a __________ . guess why ?
4. Give examples which indicate that nylon fibres are very 3. Terrycot is made by mixing two types of fibres. Write the
strong. names of the fibres.
5. Explain why plastic containers are favoured for storing food. 4. Rohit took with him some nylon ropes, when he was going
6. Explain the difference between the thermoplastic and for rock climbing. Can you tell why he selected nylon ropes
thermosetting plastics. instead of ropes made of cotton or jute ?
7. Explain why the following are made of thermosetting plastics. 5. Despite being very useful it is advised to restrict the use of
(a) Saucepan handles plastic. Why is it so ? Can you suggest some methods to
limit its consumption ?
(b) Electric plugs/switches/plug boards
8. Categorise the materials of the following products into ‘can HOTS Questions :
be recycled’ and ‘cannot be recycled’.
1. Why is rayon called a regenerated fibre?
Telephone instruments, plastic toys, cooker handles, carry
bags, ball point pens, plastic bowls, plastic covering on 2. Why is nylon called a polyamide?
electrical wires, plastic chairs, electrical switches. 3. What is the application of nylon in medical field ?
9. Rana wants to buy shirts for summer. Should he buy cotton 4. Give the names of two articles made by nylon.
shirts or shirts made from synthetic material? Advise Rana, 5. Why is the name nylon given to the first fully synthetic
giving your reason. fibre ?
10. Give examples to show that plastics are noncorrosive in 6. Why is thermosettings plastic stronger than thermoplastic?
nature.
11. Should the handle and bristles of a tooth brush be made of
the same material? Explain your answer.
12. ‘Avoid plastics as far as possible’. Comment on this advice.
13. Match the terms of column I correctly with the phrases given
in column II.
Column-I Column-II
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes and
stockings
(iii) Rayon (c) Used to make non-stick
cookwares
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
Multiple Choice Questions : 8. A synthetic fibre obtained from renewable resources is

(a) Nylon. (b) Polyester.
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 23 multiple choice (c) Rayon. (d) Acrylic.
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out 9. The major raw materials for rayon is obtained from
of which ONLY ONE is correct.
(a) wood. (b) coal.
1. Which of the following statements is true for thermoplastic (c) petroleum. (d) both coal and petroleum.
and thermosetting plastic? 10. Which of the following are advantages of synthetic fibres:
(a) Thermosettings are permanent setting resins but (a) They are tough and durable.
thermoplastics are not, since they can be softened on (b) They are water resistant and easy to dry.
cooling. (c) They do not wrinkle.
(b) Thermoplastics are less brittle as compared to (d) All of these.
thermosettings because of the absence of long chain
11. Terrywool is obtained by mixing
polymers.
(a) polyester and wool.
(c) Thermosettings are more brittle as compared to
(b) cotton and wool.
thermoplastics because of the presence of strong
bonds. (c) polyester and cotton.
(d) The chemical nature of thermoplastics can be changed (d) cotton and silk.
by repeated heating and cooling. 12. Plastics
2. Select the one that is a natural polymer. (a) are light.
(a) Nylon 6,6 (b) Polyester (b) can be spun into fibres to make cloth and carpets.
(c) Cellulose (d) none of these (c) can be coloured and moulded into any desired shape.
3. Select the synthetic polymer whose filament was first (d) (a), (b) and (c).
obtained that could be streched several times its original 13. Synthetic fibres are obtained from
length. (a) plants (b) animals
(a) Nylon (b) polyester (c) petroleum (d) All of these
(c) Acrylic (d) none of these. 14. Which of these fabrics will you prefer on a hot and humid
4. The hard plastic covers of telephones are made of polymers day?
of (a) Nylon (b) Silk
(a) styrene (b) acrylonitrile (c) Cotton (d) Wool
(c) ethene (d) none of these
15. Natural fibres are
5. Plastics are
(a) Nylon and Rayon (b) Nylon only
(a) salts (b) acids
(c) Rayon silk (d) None of these
(c) polymers (d) solvents
16. Synthetic fibres are
6. For which of the following is polythene not used?
(a) Rayon and Cotton
(a) construction materials of plastics
(b) Nylon, Polyester and Jute
(b) Plastic pipes
(c) Rayon, Nylon, and Polyester
(c) Bread - wrappers
(d) candles (d) None of these
7. Which of the following are synthetic fibres: 17. Correct full form of abbreviation PETE is
(a) Orlon, polypropylene and nylon (a) Polyethylene terephthalate
(b) Jute, ramie and hemp (b) Polyethane terephthalate
(c) Wool, silk and cotton (c) Polyethene terephthalate
(d) All of these (d) None of these
EBD_7027
16 CHEMISTRY
18. Which of the following synthetic fibre is good absorbent? 5. Which of the following is/are synthetic fibres
(a) Nylon (b) Rayon (a) Angora (b) Rayon
(c) Polyester (d) Acrylic (c) Nylon (d) Polyester
19. Which of the following is thermosetting plastics?
(a) Polyvinyl chloride (b) Polyester Passage Based Questions :
(c) Polypropylene (d) Bakelite
DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the
20. Polycot is obtained by mixing following questions.
(a) polyester and cotton
(b) polyester and wool Passage-1
(c) cotton and wool Synthetic fibres are the result of extensive research by scientists
(d) None of these to improve on naturally occuring animal and plant fibres. Before
21. The first man made fibre is synthetic fibres were developed, artificially manufactured fibres
(a) Nylon (b) Polyester were made from cellulose, which comes from plants. These fibres
are called cellulose fibres. Synthetic fibres account for about half
(c) Rayon (d) Cotton
of all fibre usage, with applications in every field of fibre and
22. The plastics which do not remould again on heating are
textile technology. Although many classes of fibre based on
called
synthetic polymers have been evaluated as potentially valuable
(a) Thermosetting plastics commercial products, four of them - Nylon, polyester, acrylic and
(b) Thermoplast plastics polyolefin - dominate the market. These four account for
(c) Both of these approximately 98 percent by volume of synthetic fibre production,
(d) None of these with polyester alone accounting for around 60 percent.
23. Which of the following groups contain all synthetic 1. Synthetic fibres are result of extensive research on
substances ? (a) Natural fibres
(a) Nylon, Terylene, Wool (b) Glass fibres
(b) PVC, Polythene, Bakelite (c) Semi-synthetic fibres
(c) Cotton, Polycot, Rayon (d) Optical fibres
(d) Acrylic, Silk, Wool 2. Which of the following is a semi-synthetic fibre?
(a) Nylon (b) Polyester
More than One Option Correct :
(c) Cellulose acetate (d) Acrylic
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 5 Multiple Choice 3. Which of the following synthetic fibre has most wide
Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out applications?
of which ONE OR MORE may be correct. (a) Nylon (b) Polyester
(c) Acrylic (d) Polyolefin
1. Plastics
(a) are organic material of high molecular weight Passage-2
(b) are polymers having long chains Rahul one day thought to clean his messy room while cleaning he
(c) are made by the process of polymerisation found items like old T-shirts, cable wire, cycle tyres, bottle of
(d) only (a) and (b) are correct shaving foam, table cloth, broken toys, pain killer strips, stop
2. Pick out natural fibres out of the following ? cork of glass bottle and tube of face wash.
(a) Cotton (b) Jute 4. Which of the following is a synthetic fibre ?
(c) Nylon (d) Wool (a) table cloth (b) broken toys
3. Which of the following are thermo plastic polymer? (c) pain killer strips (d) stop cock of glass bottle
(a) Melamine (b) PVC 5. Which of of the following comes under category of plastic?
(c) Polythene (d) Nylon (a) pain killer strips (b) cycle tyre
4. Which of the following is/are common properties of (c) broken toys (d) old T-shirts
plastics ? 6. Which of the following is/are polyester(s) ?
(a) Non-reactive (b) Durable (a) T-shirts (b) pain killer strip
(c) Light in weight (d) Good conductor of electricity (c) cycle tyre (d) broken toys
Assertion & Reason : 7. Assertion : Handles of utensils are made up of

thermoplastics.
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an assertion Reason : Thermoplastics get soften on heating.
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question 8. Assertion : Plastic being light in weight and easy to handle
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that is used as a substitute for glass and metal.
best describes the two statements. Reason : We should avoid plastics as far as possible.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the Multiple Matching Questions :
correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not DIRECTIONS : Following question has four statements (A, B, C
the correct explanation of Assertion. and D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
1. Assertion : Clothes made up of synthetic fibre are Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
unsuitable for hot and humid weather.
Reason : Synthetic clothes not breathe so well 1. Column-I Column-II
(A) Rayon (p) Polymer
2. Assertion : Bakelite is used for making electric switches
and plugs. (B) Nylon (q) Semi-synthetic fibre
(C) Artificial silk (r) Synthetic fibre
Reason : It is a thermosetting polymer and an insulator.
(D) Polyester (s) Regenerated fibre.
3. Assertion : Acrylic fabrics are used in making socks and
shawls. Integer Type Questions :
Reason : Acrylic fabrics are replacement of wool.
DIRECTIONS : Following are integer based questions. Each
4. Assertion : Plastics are non-biodegradable.
question, when worked out will result in one integer from 0 to 9
Reason : They cannot be decomposed by microorganisms. (both inclusive).
5. Assertion : Synthetic fibres are polymers that are
synthesised by human beings by chemical process. 1. Number of synthetic fibres among the following
Reason : Polymers occur in nature also. Nylon, Jute, Wool, Cotton.
6. Assertion : Nylon is used for making rock climbing ropes, 2. Among the following number of materials that cannot be
parachutes, car seat belts and fishing nets. recycled.
Reason : Nylon is a very strong fibre. Cooker handles, Electrical switches, Plastic chairs, Plastic
toys, Plastic bowls.
EBD_7027
18 CHEMISTRY
ADVANCED EXERCISE
BASED ON CONNECTING TOPICS
(c) Aluminium hydroxide gel
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 1-15) : This section contains multiple choice
(d) Penicillin
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
10. Soft soaps are
(a) sodium and potassium salt
1. Which of the following statements, is not correct, about (b) sodium salt of fatty acids
glass. (c) potassium salt of fatty acids
(a) Because of its high viscosity glass exists in solid state (d) potassium salt of sulphonic acids
(b) There is no definite melting point for glass. 11. An antibiotic with a broad spectrum
(c) The silicate units in glass are arranged in a way that is (a) Kills the antibodies
quite similar to the arrangement found in liquids. (b) Acts on a specific antigen
(d) Glass is a solid because it has a regular crystalline (c) Acts on different antigens
arrangement. (d) Acts on both the antigens and antibodies
2. One of the properties of glass is its transparency. This 12. Washing soap can be prepared by saponification with alkali
property of glass is due to of which of the following oil
(a) its high viscosity (a) Rose oil (b) Paraffin oil
(b) regular arrangement of silicate units in glass. (c) Groundnut oil (d) Kerosene oil
(c) irregular arrangement of silicate units in glass. 13. Which of the statements about glass are correct?
(d) its high coefficient of thermal expansion. 1. Glass is a super-cooled liquid having infinite viscosity.
3. Washing soaps are potassium and sodium salts of 2. Violet coloured glass is obtained by adding MnO2.
(a) Dicarboxylic acids (b) fatty acids 3. Glass is a man-made silicate.
4. Glass is a crystalline substance.
(c) mineral acids (d) none of these
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
4. Natural rubber is soft but vulcanized rubber is hard.
Vulcanised rubber also resists. (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
(a) drops of acid rain (b) cold temperatures
14. The major component used in preparation of different types
(c) jerking movements (d) wear and tear due to friction
of glasses is
5. When glass is heated, it
(a) silica (b) sodium borate
(a) does not melt at a fixed temperature
(c) calcium silicate (d) sodium silicate
(b) vapourises
15. Consider the following statements
(c) melts only above 1000°C
1. Soap cannot be used in acidic water.
(d) None of these
2 Ionic part of a soap is —COO–· Na+.
6. Glass is a transparent substance obtained by heating silica
with oxides or carbonates of metals. Glass is a mixture of 3. Soap dissolves in water faster then detergent.
(a) phosphates (b) sulphates Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(c) oxides (d) silicates (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
7. Which of the following is tranquilizer ? (c) 3 only (d) 1 only
(a) aspirin (b) paracetamol DIRECTIONS (Qs. 16-21) : This section contains multiple choice
(c) equanil (d) diphenylhydramine questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
8. Which of the following drug will behave like analgesics as of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
well as antipyretic ?
(a) Boric acid (b) Aspirin 16. Alkali silicate glass
(c) Sulphanilamide (d) Penicillin (a) is also called silicate glass
9. Which substance can acts like antiseptic as well as (b) is also called water glass
disinfectant ? (c) is generally used to make gums and adhesives.
(a) Furacin (d) None of the above is correct.
(b) Phenol
17. Which statement(s) is/are correct for silica glass? (c) molybdenum (d) calcium
(a) For it the raw material used is 100% quartz. 23. Select the principal nutrient(s) out of the following
(b) It is quite cheap (a) Hydrogen (b) Copper
(c) Its softening point is very high (c) Nitrogen (d) None of these
(d) It has a very high thermal expansion 24. Select the major plant nutrient(s) out of the following
18. In the manufacture of lead glass (a) nitrogen (b) phosphorus
(a) Oxide of lead is added to ordinary glass (c) potassium (d) zinc
(b) Oxide of lead increases the density of glass
(c) Oxide of lead increases the refractive index of glass DIRECTIONS (Qs. 25-26) : Each of these questions contains an
(d) None of the above is correct. Assertion followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer
the question on the basis of following options. You have to select
19. Vulcanisation of rubber
the one that best describes the two statements.
(a) involves heating of natural rubber with sulphur.
(b) improves strength and elasticity of natural rubber to a (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
great extent correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) increases the tensile strength of natural rubber. (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(d) results in cross - linking of rubber molecules. the correct explanation of Assertion.
20. Aspirin is an example of (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(a) analgesic (b) antifertility drug (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(c) antipyretics drug (d) tranquilizers 25. Assertion : Glass is not a solid.
21. Vulcanised rubber Reason : Its molecules are randomly arranged
(a) is natural rubber heated with sulphur
26. Assertion : For silica glass the raw material used is 100%
(b) can be used in the range of 45° to 110°C
pure form of quartz.
(c) can be used in the range of 10-60°C
Reason : Silica glass is very expensive
(d) natural rubber is heated with silicon.
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 22-24) : Study the given paragraph(s) and DIRECTIONS (Q. 27) : Each question contains statements given
answer the following questions. in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C,
D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r, s) in
Passage column II.
Like other living beings, plants require food for their growth. A 27. Column-I Column-II
wide variety of elements are required for many different purposes A. Phenol solution (p) Antiseptic
for the nourishment of plants. Among these carbon, oxygen and B. Aspirin (q) Medicine
hydrogen are principal nutrients. Nitrogen, phosphorus, C. Bithronal (r) Antipyretic
potassium, magnesium, sulphur, calcium and iron play significant D. Aluminium hydroxide gel (s) Disinfectants
role for the growth and development of plants. These elements (t) Analgesic
are called major plant nutrients. Some other elements like DIRECTIONS (Q. 28) : Following are integer based questions.
manganese, molybdenum, copper, zinc, iron, chlorine are used by Each question, when worked out will result in one integer from
the field crops in very small quantities. These are called minor 0 to 9 (both inclusive).
plant nutrients. 28. How many of them are processed glass?
22. Which of the following is/are a minor plant nutrient. Lead glass, laminated glass, opaque glass, silica glass
(a) manganese (b) magnesium
EBD_7027
20 CHEMISTRY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
4. Rayon is a natural-based material that is made from the

cellulose of wood pulp or cotton.
5. Rayon is synthetic fibre having properties similar to that of
silk. So it is called artificial silk. It is obtained by chemical
Fill in the Blanks : treatment of wood pulp.
1. Rayon. 2. Only once. 3. cotton 6. Polyester is a synthetic fibre which is quite suitable to
4. more 5. set 6. acrylic make dresses and other clothes due to its properties. It
7. man-made 8. nylon 9. melamine does not wrinkle easily. It remains crisp and is easy to wash.
It is light and durable. It takes very less time to dry.
True / False : 7. Synthetic fibres melt very soon on heating. If the clothes
1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True catch fire, it can be disastrous. The fabrics melt and stick to
5. True 6. True 7. True 8. True the body of person wearing it. We should therefore not
9. False 10. True 11. False 12. True wear synthetic clothes while working in the kitchen.
13. True 14. True 15. False 16. False 8. Plastic containers seem most convenient than metal containers.
This is because of their light weight, lower price, good strength
Match the Following : and easy handling. Being lighter as compared to metals, plastics
1. (a) A – (r); B – (p); C – (q); D – (s) are used in cars, aircrafts and spacecrafts also.
2. (b) A – (r); B – (s); C – (q); D – (p) 9. Plastics are used as drug delivery devices, capsules, blood
3. (a) A – (r); B – (p); C – (s); D – (q) bags, catheters, as lenses, and also in knee replacement therapy.
4. (c) A – (r); B – (p); C – (q) 10. Plastic is a non degradable substance. It remains in
environment for thousands of year where as paper is a
Very Short Answer Questions : degradable substance which degrades. Plastic has a very
1. A monomer is a molecule that forms the basic unit for bad effect on our environment as it is a hazardous substance.
Polymer. So we must use paper bag instead of plastic bag.
2. Polymers are very large molecules that are made up of
thousands of monomer unit that are bonded together in a Long Answer Questions :
repeating pattern. 1. There are following two type of plastics :
3. A chemical process that combines several monomers to (i) Thermoplastics (ii) Thermosetting plastics.
form a polymer or polymeric compound. (i) Thermoplastics : The plastics which get deformed
4. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount easily by heating and can be bent easily are known as
of tensile stress that it can take before failure. thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC are the examples
5. Nylon 6,6. of some thermoplastics.
6. Bakelite and melamine. (ii) Thermosetting plastics : The plastics which when
7. It is used for making fabrics in textile industry. moulded once cannot be softened again by heating
8. Polyethylene (PE) and Polystyrene (PS) are called thermosetting plastics. Bakelite and
9. Rayon is known as artificial silk. Melamine are two most common examples of
10. Nylon thermosetting plastics.
11. Socks and tents 2. S.No. Fibres/plastics Uses
12. There are two types of arrangement of units in plastics
1 Terylene Shirts and other dresses
Linear and cross-linked.
13. Plastics take several years to decomposes, so are not Polyethylene
2 Bottles and Utensils
ecofriendly. T erephthalate (PET)
14. 4Rs stands for Reduce, Reuse, Recycle and Recovers. 3 Teflon N on stick cook wares
Short Answer Questions : 4 Bakelite
Electrical switches and
handles of utensils
1. Plastic is a material consisting of a wide range of synthetic
or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and 5 Melamine Floor tiles and Kitchen wares
can be molded into solid objects.
Types of plastics : Polythylene (PE), Polystyrene(PS),
Polyvinyl Chloride(PVC), PETE etc.
2. In making telephone receivers, radio, television and
photographic goods, ice-cube trays etc. Text-Book Exercise :
3. Because synthetic fibres are lighter, cheaper, easily washable, 1. Some fibres are not obtained from plants or animals, instead
fast dryable etc. of that they are made by human beings by chemical
processes. That is why these kind of fibres are called years to decompose. They do not burnt completely. During
synthetic fibres. These are made of small units that join burning of plastics lots of poisonous fumes are released
together to form long chains called polymers. Polyester, into the atmosphere causing air pollution.
rayon, nylon, acrylic etc., are some examples of synthetic Polythene bags, carelessly thrown in garbage can be eaten
fibres. by cow and other animals may choke their respiratory system
2. (b) Rayon is obtained from wood pulp. and even cause death.
3. (a) artificial, man-made The polythene bags carelessly thrown here and there are
(b) petrochemicals responsible for clogging the drains.
(c) polymer The only solution to reduce these problems is to reduce the
4. Nylon fibres are very strong fibres that is why nylon is use of plastics. Therefore, we should avoid plastics as far
used for making rock climbing ropes, parachutes, car seat as possible.
belts etc. A nylon thread is stronger than steel wire of same 13. (i) - (d), (ii) - (c), (iii) - (a), (iv) - (b)
thickness or diameter. 14. Synthetic fibres are man-made fibres. They are obtained by
5. Plastic containers are favoured for storing food because of chemical processing of petrochemicals and do not require
their : cutting of trees or hunting of animals. Therefore
(i) light weight manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping for
(ii) lower price conservation of forests.
(iii) good strength 15. To show that thermoplastic is a poor conductor of electricity
(iv) easy handling design a circuit by taking a small piece of thermoplastic
6. Property Thermoplastics Thermosetting material, a bulb, wires, a piece of metal and a battery. Set up
the circuit (as shown below) first with the metal and then
1. Effect of heat Soften at Do not soften easily with the thermoplastic material.
70°C to 90°C comparatively
stronger. Metal Thermoplastic
2. Strength Comparatively Comparatively
weaker stronger
3. Reusability Can be reused Can not be remelted
after melting or reused.
4. Flexibility They are flexible They are hard and
rigid. On passing current, bulb in case of metal glows, but not in
7. (a) Thermosetting plastics are used for making saucepan case of thermoplastic. This proves that thermoplastic is a
handles because these plastics are poor conductors poor conductor of electricity.
of heat and do not get softened on heating. Exemplar Questions :
(b) Electric plugs/switches/plug boards are made up of
thermosetting plastics because these plastics are poor 1. Due to its non-biodegradable nature it causes environmental
conductors of heat and electricity. Therefore prevent pollution.
the flow of current through it. 2. Acrylic blankets are cheap, light in weight, more durable
and are available in variety of colours and designs. They
8. Can be recycled Cannot be recycled can be easily washed at home.
1. Plastic toys 1. Cooker handles 3. Terylene and cotton.
2. Carry bags 2. Electrical switches 4. Nylon ropes are strong elastic and lighter as compared to
3. Ball point pens 3. Telephone instruments cotton or jute ropes.
4. Plastic covering 5. Plastic is a non-biodegradable material and as such it causes
on electrical wires land pollution. At the same time burning such materials in
the form of garbage causes serious air pollution.
5. Plastic bowls
Some ways to limit its consumption are :
9. Rana should buy cotton shirts for summer because shirts 1. Reducing the use of platics whenever possible use
made of synthetic material do not absorb sweat easily and paper bag.
uncomfortable to wear in summer whereas cotton being a 2. Reusing it for some other purpose thereby decreasing
good absorber of water can soak the sweat easily and pores its consumption.
in it allow evaporation and keeps our body cool. 3. Recycling of plastic. It requires the palstic to be
10. Plastics are noncorrosive in nature that is why they are collected, sorted, chopped, melted and remoulded.
used to make various containers, utensils and laboratory
equipments to store food, chemicals etc. HOTS Questions :
11. Handle and bristles of a toothbrush should be made of 1. Rayon is called regenerated fibre, because starting material
different materials. The handle of toothbrush should be hard is a natural product i.e. wood or paper pulp.
and strong so that it can give firm grip whereas bristles 2. Since nylon contains many amide groups in each molecule
should be made of soft and flexible material. so it is called a polyamide.
12. Plastics are not environment friendly. They take several 3. It is used for making bandages and surgical dressings.
EBD_7027
22 CHEMISTRY
4. Parachutes, ropes for rock climbing 2. (a) Bakelite is used for making electrical switches and
5. Since the fibre was synthesized simulatneously in New York plugs because it is an insulator.
and London, it was called nylon based on the initial letters 3. (a) Acrylic fabric is synthetic wool which is also called
of the names of cities. orlon.
6. Due to presence of cross linked arrangement of units it is 4. (a)
difficult to break apart the units in thermosetting plastic, 5. (b) Synthetic fibres are man-made polymers. Polymers
while due to lack of cross linkages thermoplastics are soft also occur in nature for e.g., cotton is a polymer called
and weaker. cellulose which is made up of a large number of glucose
units.
6. (a) Being a strong fibre nylon has strong load bearing
capacity that is why nylon is used to make rock
climbing ropes, parachutes, car seat belts and fishing
Multiple Choice Questions : nets.
1. (c) Thermoset plastics are usually harder, stronger and 7. (d) Handles of utensils are made up of thermosetting
more brittle than thermoplastics. plastics because they do not soften on heating.
2. (c) Cellulose, proteins, starch etc., are natural polymer. 8. (b) Plastics are non-biodegradable and take several years
3. (a) Nylon is more stretchy. to decompose. They adversely affect our ecosystem.
4. (d) These are made of phenol formaldehyde resins. Thus we should avoid plastics as far as possible.
5. (c) Plastics are polymer
6. (d) Candles are hydrocarbon of higher group Multiple Matching Questions :
7. (a) Orlon, polypropylene and nylon are prepared
synthetically by chemical methods thus they are 1. A ® (p, q, s), B ® (p, r), C ® (p, q, s), D ® (p, r)
synthetic fibres. Integer Type Questions :
8. (c) Rayon as it is obained from cellulose
9. (a) Wood is the major raw material of rayon 1. 1
10. (d) Nylon
11. (a) Terrywool is obtained by mixing polyester (synthetic 2. 2
fibre) and wool (natural fibre)
Cooker handles and Electrical switches.
12. (d) All are correct options
13. (c) Nylon and polyester are synthetic fibres obtained from
plastic material we get mainly from petroleum.
14. (c) Wool retains air between the fibres. That is why it is
fluffy. This enables it to retain body heat. Woolen
clothes are therefore, good for wearing in cold weather. 1. (d) Glasses are amorphous.
15. (d) None of the above is natural, all are synthetic fibres. 2. (c) 3. (b)
16. (c) Rayon, Nylon and Polyster are synthetic fibres. 4. (d) Due to this it is used in tyres.
17. (a) Polyethylene terephthalate
5. (a) 6. (d)
18. (b) Rayon have appreciable absorbent properties.
19. (d) Bakelite is a thermosetting plastics 7. (c) Equanil is a tranquilizer
20. (a) Polyester + Cotton = Polycot 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 11. (c) Broad spectrum antibiotics act on different antigens.
12. (c) Any oils which are good for eating or cooking, can be
More Than One Option Correct :
used in making soap. One of the best is said to be
1. (a, b, c) 2. (a, b, d) 3. (b, c, d,) Coconut oil. Groundnut, Shea butter, Cocoa butter,
4. (a, b, c) Sun flower and many other vegetable oils are also
5. (b, c, d) used.
Angora wools is obtained from angora goats, which are
found in hilly areas like Jammu and Kashmir. It is a natural 13. (d) Glass is an amorphous substance.
fibre. 14. (a) The major component used in the preparation of
different types of glasses is silica.
Passage Based Questions : 15. (a) Detergent dissolves in water faster than soap.
1. (a) 2. (c) 16. (a, b, c) 17. (a, c) 18. (a, b, c)
3. (b) polyester alone accounts for around 60% use of 19. (a, b, c, d) 20. (a, c) 21. (a, b)
synthetic fibre 22. (a, c) 23. (a) 24. (a,b, c)
4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a, b) 25. (a) 26. (b)
Assertion & Reason : 27. A ® (p, q, s), B ® (q, r, t), C ® (p, q), D ® (q)
1. (a) Clothes made up of synthetic fibres have less air 28. 2
spaces in them than the natural fibres and do not Laminated glass and opaque glass are type of processed
'breathe' so well. glass.
Chapter
MATERIALS : METALS AND
2 NON-METALS
INTRODUCTION
If you think about world around us you can think of many materials like, coins, cars and buses in which we ride,
airplanes, utensils at your home, electric wires, electric appliances and various other things. These all are made up of
metals. Without metals it is difficult to imagine our life. They all possess almost similar properties like hardness, solid
and good conductor of electricity. Cars and buses you ride in are made of steel, which is mostly iron. Airplanes are
made of aluminium. Many coins are combinations of zinc with copper, nickel etc. It is not necessary that all hard,
solid materials are metals.
They could be non-metals also like coke or charcoal. Now think of any five objects that do not contain or that are not
made up of metal. Some of them might be soft and smooth, such as an animal’s fur, soft cotton etc. but some may be
harder such as your study table or your plastic toys.
Actually our world is full of materials that contain little or no metal. These materials have a wide variety of properties
ranging from soft to hard, from flexible to breakable, and from solid to gaseous. Almost all things which are present in
our surrounding are made up of metals and non-metals. They play significant role in our life.
We have already learnt that a pure substance which can neither be broken down into simpler substance nor formed
from two or more simpler substances by any known physical or chemical means is called an element.
Elements can be roughly divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids.
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24 CHEMISTRY
METALS AND NON-METALS :

At present the number of elements known to us is approximately 117. Out of these about 24 are non-metals and rest are metals. There
are about 83 naturally occurring elements. For convenience in study all elements are placed in a systematic manner in a chart which is
known as periodic table.
Some metal like steel is so strong. They can support great weights. The wires made up of steel are able to hold
up a bridge. Where as some metals such as sodium and potassium, are so soft they can be cut with a knife.
METALS
A category of elements that usually have a shiny surface, are generally good conductors of heat and electricity, and can be melted or
fused, hammered into thin sheets, or drawn into wires.
Physical Properties of Metals
(i) They have a metallic lustre (shine).
(ii) They conduct heat and electricity.
(iii) They are ductile (i.e. can be drawn into wires).
(iv) They are malleable (i.e. can be hammered into thin sheets).
(v) They are sonorous (i.e. make a tinkling sound when hit). The sound produced is called metallic sound or metallic clink.
(vi) They are hard and have a high density.
(vii) They have a high melting point and are usually solid at room temperature.
(viii) They have high tensile strength (i.e. they are strong enough to bear heavy loads).
(ix) They can form alloys.
P oi n t
1. Why are pots and pans used for cooking are made of metal?
2. Why cooking utensils are not provided with metal handle.
SOLUTION
1. It is because of high melting point and hard character of metals.

2. It is because metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. That’s why most of pots and pans have wooden or plastic
handles.
Mercury (Hg) is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature whereas in case of some
metals you have to raise the temperature upto 3,400°C to melt them.
Materials : Metals and Non-metals 25
Metals can be divided broadly into two groups i.e. reactive metals and every day metals. Reactive metals are too reactive to be used
to make articles of daily use. We use articles made of certain metals such as copper, iron, aluminium etc. in our every day life. Such
metals are called every day metals. Since every day metals are not very reactive so they do not react quickly with water vapour or
oxygen in the air. However there is a great variation between these two groups of metals. For example: Gold does not tarnish in air but
iron rusts slowly in air.
Chemical Behavior of Metals
Chemical nature of metals can be explained on the basis of a reactivity series.
Potassium Most reactive
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Hydrogen H Non metal
Copper
Silver
Gold Least reactive
Reactivity Series of the Metals
Sodium and Potassium are stored in Kerosene oil due to its high reactivity. Owing to their high reactivity the
surface of alkali metals tarnish very quickly.
Reactivity series :
Metals along with hydrogen (a non-metal) are arranged in order of their reactivity in a series, called the activity series. This series
helps us in understanding the reactions of metals. In the reactivity series the reactive metals are at the top and less reactive are at the
bottom.
Metals undergo similar kind of reactions. However the “vigour” with which they react is not the same. Some
metals are more reactive than others.
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26 CHEMISTRY
Chemical Properties of Metals
1. Reaction with oxygen :
Metals can donate electrons to oxygen molecule, therefore metal form oxides by combining with oxygen. Oxides of metals are
basic in nature.
2Mg + O2 ¾¾ ® 2 MgO
4Na + O2 ¾¾ ® 2 Na2O
2Ca + O2 ¾¾ ® 2 CaO
Metals like Na and K react immediately.
Mg like metal have to be heated.
Cu and Fe reacts very slowly only upon heating upto high temperature.
Copper is least reactive of these.
With oxygen, chromium and manganese form acidic oxides such as chromium trioxide and manganese (VII)
oxide, in addition to basic oxides. Aluminium, zinc and tin form amphoteric oxides (i.e. oxides having both
acidic and basic properties).
In your school laboratory heat, iron, magnesium and copper then put the metals into gas jars filled with oxygen. The
diagram shows the reaction.
iron magnesium copper

(a) Which metal burns brightest?
(b) Which metal burns dullest?
2. Reaction with water :

Different metals react differently with water. On reaction with cold water Na and K reacts violently to form their hydroxides with
evolution of hydrogen gas. For example
2Na + 2H2O ¾¾ ® 2NaOH + H2
Calcium starts floating because the bubbles of hydrogen gas formed stick to the surface of the metal.
Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen. It also starts
floating due to the bubbles of hydrogen gas sticking to its surface.
Mg(s) + H2O (l) ¾¾
® MgO (s) + H2(g)
Metals like aluminium, iron and zinc do not react either with cold or hot water. But they react with steam to
form the metal oxide and hydrogen.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) ¾¾ ® Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
3 Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ¾¾ ® Fe3O4(s) + 4H2O(g)
3. Reaction with acids :

Metals react with dilute acids to form their respective salts with the evolution of hydrogen gas. Generally metals react with dilute
hydrochloric acid (dil. HCl) to form corresponding chlorides with evolution of hydrogen gas. For example:
Mg + 2 HCl ¾¾ ® MgCl2 + H2
Zn + 2HCl ¾¾ ® ZnCl2 + H2
Metals reacts with sulphuric acid to yield their corresponding sulphates with evolution of hydrogen gas.
Mg + H 2SO 4 ¾¾ ® MgSO + H
4 2
Zn + H2SO4 ¾¾
® ZnSO4 + H2
The more reactive metals, sodium and potassium react violently with dilute acids. The reaction is slower for
less reactive metals. Copper, silver and gold do not react with acids. Magnesium reacts fastest and lead reacts
slowest with dilute acids.
P oi n t
Why we can not store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil?
SOLUTION
We cannot store the lemon pickle in aluminium utensil because aluminium is a metal and lemon is acidic. The acid react with metal to give hydrogen
which would spoil the food and make it inedible.
When a metal reacts with dilute nitric acid, then hydrogen gas is not evolved. Because nitric acid is a strong oxidising agent. So, as
soon as hydrogen gas is formed in the reaction between a metal and dilute nitric acid, the nitric acid, oxidises this hydrogen to water.
Very dilute nitric acid, however reacts with magnesium and manganese to evolve hydrogen gas.
Find a penny from 1983 or later. Rub one edge on sandpaper to scrap away the copper. Place the penny in a foam cup. Add
vinegar to a depth of 1-2 cm. Then wait for 24 hours. Then describe changes you found. What property of metals have you
demonstrated?
4. Reaction with bases :

Only some metals such as aluminium, zinc and lead react with strong bases such as sodium hydroxide to release hydrogen gas.
5. Reaction of metal with solution of other metal salt :
Different metals possessed different reactivity some are more and some are less reactive as discussed before in reactivity series.
A more active metal displaces less active metal from its salt solution. For example aluminium and iron displace copper from
solution of copper sulphate.
2Al(s) + 3CuSO4(aq) ¾® Al2(SO4)3 + 3Cu
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ¾¾ ® Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)
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28 CHEMISTRY
Magnesium and zinc also displace copper from copper sulphate solution.
Displacement reaction does not occur in following cases.
Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq) ¾® No reaction
Ag(s) + Al2(SO4)3 (aq) ¾® No reaction
A few more displacement reactions are:
Cu(s) + AgNO3(aq) ¾¾ ® CuNO3(aq) + Ag(s)
Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ¾¾
® Zn(NO3)2(aq) + Pb(s)
Take equal amount of iron sulphate solution in your school lab in a three glass beakers A, B and C simultaneously. Now put
coins made of copper, silver and aluminium in beakers A, B and C respectively for two minutes. Then take out each coin and
notice is there any change in any coin?
Aluminium corrodes less than iron inspite of being more reactive.
Summary the Chemical Reactions for Metals :
Reaction with O2 Reaction with H2O Reaction with mineral acid
Potassium K Violent reaction to give

hydrogen gas and salt solution
Burn vigorously to form
oxides With cold water forms hydrogen
Sodium Na gas and alkaline hydroxide
solution.
React with decreasing vigour
down the series
Calcium Ca React to form hydrogen gas and
Magnesium Mg salt solution with decreasing
Burn with decreasing vigour down the series
Aluminium Al vigour down the series No reaction with cold water.
Zinc Zn With steam forms hydrogen
Iron Fe gas and oxide
CORROSION
Corrosion is the process of slowly eating away of metal due to attack of atmospheric gases and water on the surface of metal. The most
common example of corrosion is the rusting of iron.
Rusting is the corrosion of iron on exposure to atmosphere
3
2Fe (s) + O2 (g) + xH2O (l) ¾¾ ® Fe O .xH O (s)
2 3 2
2
i.e., rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide
When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for long, it acquires a dull green coating. The green material is a mixture of copper
hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) and copper carbonate (CuCO3). The reaction involved is
® Cu ( OH )2 + CuCO3
2Cu + H 2 O + CO 2 + O 2 ¾¾
14442444 3
moist air
The major problem of corrosion occurs with iron (or steel) as it is used as a structural material in industries like construction,
infrastructure, bridges, rail transport power transmission, ship building, automobiles, heavy industries etc.
Methods of Preventions
Rusting of iron can be prevented by avoiding direct contact with air and moisture by using following methods:
(i) Applying grease and oil on the exposed parts of iron articles.
(ii) Painting surfaces of iron articles.
(iii) Galvanising the surface of iron articles i.e. by coating the surface of iron with zinc. During galvanisation, iron articles are dipped
in molten zinc and then, after being taken out of molten zinc the articles are coated.
(iv) Rusting of iron can also be prevented by alloying.
P oi n t
Explain an activity to show rust is basic in nature.
SOLUTION
Collect some amount of rust after a reaction between iron, oxygen and water. Dissolve it in a very little amount of water. Shake well the mixture
of rust and water. Test the solution with the red and blue litmus papers. We observe that the red litmus paper turns into blue. It shows that the
nature of rust is basic.
CONNECTING TOPIC
EXTRACTION OF METALS
Occurrence of Metals
Metals occur in the nature both in free state and in combined state.
Free state: The major source of metals is earth’s crust. Some of the metals found in free state are platinum, gold, silver and copper.
These elements can occur in free state because these are less reactive.
Combined state: Most of the metals occur in combined state. Naturally - occurring metallic compounds are called minerals. In the
combined state, metal occur in the form of their compounds such as oxides, sulphides, sulphates, carbonates, nitrates, chloride etc.
Those minerals from which an element can be extracted economically is called an ore. Examples of some ores of important metals are
bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) for aluminium, magnetite (Fe3O4) for iron, zinc blende (ZnS) for zinc, cuprite (Cu2O) for copper etc.
Metallurgy
As you see that most of metals naturally occur in combined state. Thus they need to be separated from rest of impurities for various
applications. This process of extraction of metal from ore for various purposes is called metallurgy. The complete process of
extraction of metals from their ores and then refining them for use is called metallurgy.
Detail study of metallurgical operations are studied in higher classes. Here we are giving you brief introduction about various stages
involved in metallurgy.
The metallurgy of a metal involves three main operations
1. Concentration or dressing of ore. 2. Reduction 3. Purification or refining.
1. Concentration
The removal of impurities like soil, sand, stones and useless silicates (Gangue) from the ores is known as concentration. It is done
by physical as well as chemical method.
Physical methods
(i) Hydraulic washings (gravity separation)
This process of concentration of ores is based on the fact that ore and gangue particles are having different densities.
Heavy ore are separated from lighter gangue particles by washing with a stream (flow) of water.
Ores of tin and lead are concentrated by this process.
(ii) Froth flotation process
This method is exclusively used for the concentration of sulphide ores like galena
(PbS), zinc blende (ZnS) etc. It is based on the different wetting characteristics of
the ore and gangue particles with water and oil.
The gangue particles are preferentially wetted by water while the ore particles by oil.
The crushed ore is treated with water and pine oil in a tank. Pine oil acts as frothing
agent and produces froth. Air is bubbled through the mixture. Ore particles are
preferentially wetted by the oil and floats on water surface in the form of froth. The
impurities settle at the bottom.
The concentrated ore is skimmed off from the top. Froth flotation process
EBD_7027
30 CHEMISTRY
(iii) Magnetic separation Crushed and

This process is used for separating magnetic materials from non-magnetic powered Ore
materials. As shown in figure a magnetic separator consists of a leather Magnetic

Roller
belt moving on two rollers. One end consists of a magnetic roller, when
the ore reaches the magnetic end, the non-magnetic material falls down
Leather belt Roller
vertically while the magnetic material is attracted by the magnet. This Non-magnetic
waste
process is used for separating ores like magnetite (Fe3O4), chromite Magnetic
Ore
[Fe(CrO2)2] etc. Magnetic separation
Chemical methods
(i) Calcination : Heating the carbonate ore to a high temperature in the absence of air is known as calcination. Organic matter
and volatile impurities are eliminated and metal oxide is formed.
Example:
ZnCO3 ¾¾®
heat
ZnO + CO2
(Zinc Carbonate) (Zinc Oxide)
(ii) Roasting : This process is usually used in case of sulphide ores. The ore is heated in the presence of air at a temperature
below its melting point and result in the formation of metal oxide or metal sulphate.
Example:
2 ZnS + 3O2 heat
¾¾¾ ® 2 ZnO + 2SO2
(Zinc blende) (air)
(iii) Leaching : It is a chemical method used for the concentration of ore in which crude powdered ore is allowed to react with
suitable reagent. Ore reacts with added reagent to form soluble complex while impurities remain undissolved. Insoluble
impurities are separated by filtration and ore is reprecipated from soluble complex.
e.g. ® This process is used for concentration of Al, Ag, Au ores etc.
2. Reduction to free metal
(i) Smelting : In this process the metallic oxides are reduced to metals by suitable reducing agents. The commonly used
reducing agents are carbon, and carbon monoxide.
Examples:
ZnO + C ¾¾ ® Zn + CO
(zinc oxide) (carbon monoxide)
Fe2O3 + 3C ¾¾ ® 2 Fe + 3 CO
Fe2O3 + 3CO ¾¾ ® 2 Fe + 3 CO2
(ii) Self reduction process : This process is used for reducing metals having low reactivity. Mercuric oxide (HgO) can be
reduced to mercury (Hg) by heating above 300 ºC.
heat
2 HgO ¾¾¾ 300ºC
® 2Hg + O2
(mercuric oxide)
Copper can be also obtained by self-reduction process.
(iii) Reduction by aluminium (Gold-schmidt aluminothermic process) : In this process the metal oxides are thoroughly mixed
with Al powder and a little BaO2 in a crucible. The reaction is brought about by introducing a lighted Mg ribbon. Since the
reaction is exothermic the temperature reached to about 3000°C. Metals like Cr and Mn can be extracted by this method.
Cr2O3 + 2Al ¾¾ ® Al2O3 + 2Cr
3 MnO2 + 4Al ¾¾ ® 2Al2O3 + 3Mn
(iv) Electrolytic reduction: Highly electropositive metals (e.g. sodium. potassium, calcium etc.) can not be reduced by chemical
reducing agents. These are obtained by electrolytic reduction of their fused chlorides.
Examples : Sodium and magnesium are obtained by this method. These metals are deposited at the cathode during electrolysis.
2NaCl Electrolysis
¾¾¾¾¾
® 2Na + Cl2
(Sodium Chloride) (Sodium metal) (Chlorine)
(fused or molten) (at cathode) (at anode)
MgCl2 ¾¾¾¾¾Electrolysis
® Mg + Cl2
Metals extracted from their ores are usually contaminated with impurities. These are purified by following methods.
3. Refining
(i) Liquation : It is used for metals having low melting point
This method is used to purify readily fusible metal (e.g., Sn, Pb and Bi etc.) from infusible impurities. When crude metal is
heated, the metal having low melting point melts and flows down on inclined surface leaving behind impurities. e.g.
Purification of Sn containing impurities of high melting metals like Fe, Cu, W etc.
(ii) Distillation : Low boiling point metals like zinc, mercury etc. can be purified by this method. The pure metal distills over
while the impurities are left behind.
(iii) Refining by Electrolysis or electrolytic refining : Large Battery
number of metals like copper, silver, gold and zinc are _
+
purified by this method. The metal of highest purity are
obtained by this method.
Various steps involved in this method are :
Impure metal
(a) The block of impure metal is made anode by Pure metal
(anode)
connecting to the positive terminal of the battery. (cathode)
(b) A thin strip of pure metal is made cathode by Impurities
Electrolyte
connecting to the negative terminal of the battery.
(c) A water soluble salt of the metal acts as an electrolyte. Electrolytic refining
The arrangement is shown in figure above. When the battery is switched on, current flows in the circuit. Impure metal from
the anode dissolved by the electrolyte and pure metal gets deposited on the cathode.
(iv) Thermal decomposition method :
This method may be of different type and in this method, the metal is converted into suitable volatile compound which is
decomposed at high temperature to give pure metal.
(v) Zone-refining or fractional crystallization :
This is another method used to obtain metals of very high purity. Metals like Si, Ge, Ga etc. used in semiconducter devices
are purified by this method. This method is based on difference in solubilities of impurities in molten and solid state.
Uses of Metals
Taking advantage of the strength, hardness and rigidity of metals, they are used in making machinery, automobiles, aeroplanes, trains,
satellites and various industrial gadgets.
An alloy of iron and niobium is exceptionally strong and is used in the construction of nuclear reactors.
Uses of iron : One of the most important use of iron ore is in the manufacture of steel. Iron is combined with various other combinations
of elements including carbon, chromium, nickel, silicon, molybdenum etc. to make different varieties of steel which is an excellent
material for various forms of construction work. As steel can withstand high pressure as well as temperature. It is widely used for
making outdoor household things like decorative wrought iron fencing, wrought iron trollis, wrought iron furniture and so on. Metallic
iron possesses natural magnetic properties and hence it is used for making permanent magnets as well as electromagnets.
Iron is an important part of a large molecule called haemoglobin, which carries oxygen in our bloodstream.
Haemoglobin also gives blood its bright red color.
Uses of aluminium: It is used to make house-hold article and for making aeroplanes (because of its lightness). It is also used in making
electrical cables (because it is quite cheaper than copper). Aluminium foils (used for wrapping food stuffs, medicines, chocolates,
cigarettes etc.)
When red hot iron is hammered, it gives off lots of sparks. These sparks are iron burning in oxygen from the air.
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32 CHEMISTRY
Aluminium : This is the most abundant metal on planet Earth (and the third most abundant of all chemical elements). It forms
about one-twelfth by weight of the Earth’s outer layer, the crust. Pure aluminium is very light but not very strong. However, when
combined with other elements such as copper, magnesium or silicon, it forms extremely strong alloys. Also it does not rust, unlike steel.
Uses of copper : It is used in electrical gadgets (because it is a very good conductor of electricity). It is also used for making radiators
of automobiles.
Uses of magnesium : It is used in flares and flash bulb in photography (because it burns in air with dazzling white flame). Alloys of
magnesium being light and strong are used in manufacture of air-crafts and other vehicles. Magnesium, being resistant to corrosion,
is used to line water pipes and tanks.
Uses of zinc : A coating of zinc is provided on iron and steel to prevent corrosion of iron. The coated metal is called galvanised iron.
Noble metals and their uses : Gold, silver and platinum are known as noble metals. These metals are not affected by air, water or acids.
Uses of silver :
(i) Used in jewellery (because it is too soft).
(ii) Used to make coins and medals.
(iii) Used to make contacts in some kind of electrical equipments.
(iv) Used in electroplating. A thin layer of silver is deposited on another metal by electrolysis.
(v) Compounds of silver are used in photography. (These compounds are sensitive to light). For example silver iodide, silver
bromide, silver chloride etc.
(vi) Tooth cavities are filled with dental amalgams which are alloys of silver, tin etc. with mercury.
Uses of gold :
(i) Used in jewellery and ornaments.
(ii) Used to make coins and medals.
(iii) Used as a standard of currency for trade.
(iv) Used in dentistry. Artificial teeth were earlier usually made of silver or gold.
(v) Used for gold lettering.
Gold is a famous symbol of wealth. But rarer metals such as platinum and palladium command higher prices
for specialized engineering and electronic uses.
Uses of platinum :
(i) Used to make surgical instruments and chemical equipments.
(ii) Alloys of silver and platinum are used for making electrical parts and bearings.
(iii) Used to make fine jewellery.
(iv) Used as a catalyst in many reactions.
ALLOYS
The capacity of metals to combine with other metals is called alloy formation. (i.e., homogenous mixture) Examples of alloys are brass,
bronze and steel. Useful alloys combine the best properties of two or more metals into a single substance.
For example, copper is a fairly soft and malleable metal. But when mixed with tin, it forms bronze, which can be cast into statues that last
hundreds of years. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Pure iron rusts very easily, but when mixed with carbon, chromium, and
vanadium, iron forms stainless steel. Knives and forks made of stainless steel can be washed over and over again without rusting.
Some of the alloys along with their composition and uses are listed in table given below.
Alloy Composition Uses
1. Brass Cu = 80%, Zn = 20% For making utensils and cartridges.
2. Bronze Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For making statues, medals, ships, coins and machines
3. Solder Sn = 50%, Pb = 50% For joining metals, solding wire and electronic components etc.
4. Duralumin Al = 95.5%, Cu = 3%, Mn = 1.0%, Mg = 0.5% Used in bodies of aircrafts, kitchen ware and automobile parts etc.
5. German Silver Cu = 60%, Zn = 20%, Ni = 20% For making utensils and ornaments
6. Gun metal Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For Gears and castings etc.
7. Bell metal Cu = 80%, Sn = 20% For bells, gangs etc.
8. Magnalium Al = 90%, Mg = 10% For balance beams, light instruments.
9. Type metal Pb = 82%, Sb = 15%, Sn = 3% For casting type
10. Stainless steel Fe, Ni, Cr, C For utensils, cutlery etc.
Solder is an alloy made up of lead and tin. It melts at a low temperature. It is used for fastening other pieces of
metal together.
We should conserve and recycle metals

Because our planet is chock-full of metal-containing compounds, it is difficult to imagine how we could ever encounter a shortage of
metals. Experts suggest that however, if we continue with our present rate of consumption, such shortages will occur within the next
two centuries. The problem is not a shortage of metal-containing compounds but rather a shortage of ores from which these
compounds can be extracted at a reasonable cost.
Recycling metals
Most metals occur combined with minerals and other substances, spread through rocks known as ores. It takes huge amounts of time
and energy to dig or mine the ores, and then extract and purify the metals from them. Recycling helps to reduce these problems. For
example, recycled aluminium uses only one-twentieth of the energy which is needed to produce aluminium from its ore. Many other
metals can also be recycled, including irons and steel, and even the silver and gold used in electrical circuits and false teeth!
NON-METALS
A non-metal is an element that can easily form negative ion (anions) by gaining electrons, e.g.
Cl + e - ¾¾ ® Cl -
(Chlorine) (Chloride ion)
- 2-
O + 2e ¾¾
® O
(Oxygen) (Oxide ion)
phosphorus 1%
oxygen 65% Chart shows that
our body contains 3%
metals the rest is made
up of non metals.
Carbon
nitrogen 3%
metals 3 % hydrogen 10%
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The most abundant non-metal in the earth’s crust is oxygen, which constitutes about 50% of the earth’s crust.
The next abundant non-metal is silicon which constitutes about 26% of the earth’s crust.
Physical Properties of Non-metals:

(i) At room temperature non-metals are either solids or gases, except bromine (Br) which is a liquid.
(ii) They are lustreless (i.e. dull). Except graphite and Iodine.
(iii) They are generally brittle.
(iv) They are bad conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite).
(v) They are non-sonorous (i.e. they do not produce a metallic clink).
P oi n t
Name a non-metal that is a liquid at room temperature ?
SOLUTION
Bromine.
As phosphorus is naturally not stable as an element. So, phosphorus in nature is always found in compounds.
Chemical Properties of Non-metals

Non-metals are more reactive with metals than with other non-metals. Generally non-metal react with each other at a high temperature.
1. Action of Air : Non-metals do not react with air at room temperature. Except white phosphorus which burns in air, at room
temperature to form its oxide. Thus to avoid contact with air, phosphorus is stored under water.
Non-metals reacts with oxygen to form either acidic or neutral oxides. Acidic oxides dissolve in water to form acids.
Hydrogen is being burnt in air produces a “pop” sound to form water
Ignition
2H2 + O2 ¾¾¾¾ ® 2H2O
Hydrides like H2S, H2Se and H2Te burns in the atmosphere of oxygen with blue flame forming dioxides.
2 H 2 S + 3O2 ¾¾® 2 H 2O + SO2
Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which dissolve in water to form carbonic acid. Carbon reacts with insufficient
amount of oxygen to form carbon monoxide, which is a neutral oxide and does not dissolve in water.
C(s) + O2(g) ¾¾ ® CO2 (g)
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) ¾¾ ® H2CO3 (aq)
CO (g) + H2O (l) ¾¾ ® No reaction
• Sulphur reacts with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide, an acidic oxide, which dissolves in water to form sulphurous acids.
S(s) + O2 (g) ¾¾ ® SO2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) ¾¾ ® H2SO3 (aq)
• Phosphorus reacts with oxygen to form phosphorus pentaoxide, an acidic oxide, which dissolves in water to from phosphoric
acid.
2P(s) + 5/2 O2 (g) ¾¾ ® P2O5 (s)
P2O5 (s) + 3 H2O (l) ¾¾ ® 2H3PO4 (aq)
2. Action of water: Generally non-metals do not react with water. However chlorine dissolves in water and form an acidic solution.
Sunlight
2Cl2 + 2H 2 O ¾¾¾¾® 2HCl + 2HOCl
or heat (Hypochlorous acid)
On passing steam over red hot coke (carbon), we get a gaseous mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which is known as
water gas.
C + H2O ¾¾
® CO + H2
(red hot) (steam) (water gas)
3. Action of acids : Non-metals do not react with dilute acids.
Instruction : Do this experiment with your teacher as it can be dangerous.

In your school’s chemistry lab heat iron, aluminium and copper. Then put the metal in to gas jars filled with chlorine which
is very reactive and dangerous gas.
(a) Which metal burn brightest in chlorine ?
(b) Give the descending order of 3 metals with respect to their tendency to burn in presence of chlorine.
COMPARISION BETWEEN METALS & NON-METALS

METALS NON-METALS
Metals are generally solids. (exception : mercury, gallium) Non-metals are found in all three states.
Metals are heavy, (exception : sodium, potassium, magnesium) Non-metals are generally light in weight.
They are hard and nonbrittle. (exception : sodium, Solid non-metals are hard but brittle.
potassium and lead which are soft)
They are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are bad conductors of heat and electricity,
(exception : lead) (exception : graphite)
They are ductile and malleable. They are neither ductile nor malleable.
Their melting point and boiling point are generally high. Their melting point and boiling point are generally low.
They generally produce ringing sound on collision. They do not produce ringing sound.
They are generally lustrous and can be polished. They are generally non-lustrous and cannot be polished.
Uses of Non-metals
Non-metals find a large number of uses in our life.
Uses of hydrogen :
(i) Used to convert vegetables oil into vegetable ghee. (The process is called hydrogenation of oils).
(ii) Used in preparation of ammonia (NH3) gas which is used in fertilizers.
(iii) H2 with metals like nickel, palladium etc is used as common reducing agent in organic chemistry.
Although hydrogen makes up more than 90 percent of the atoms in the universe, it makes up only 1.0 percent
of the mass of Earth’s crust, oceans, and atmosphere. Hydrogen is rarely found on Earth as a pure element.
Most of it is combined with oxygen as water.
Uses of oxygen:
(i) It is essential for survival of life.
(ii) It is essential for combustion process.
(iii) Used in oxy-acetylene torch which is used to cut and weld metals.
(iv) It is used in manufacture of acids (e.g. H2SO4, HNO3 etc).
(v) Liquid oxygen is used to burn rocket fuel.
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36 CHEMISTRY
Ozone (O3) is an allotrope of oxygen. There is a ozone layer near the top of the atmosphere. This ozone layer
is very valuable as it stop harmful rays from the sun. These are rays that cause cancers and other problems.
Uses of nitrogen:
(i) Used in manufacture of ammonia (NH3), nitric acid (HNO3) and fertilizers.
(ii) Used to preserve food (because nitrogen is inert i.e. less reactive).
(iii) Used in explosives e.g. ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
(iv) Used by plants to manufacture proteins.
(v) Liquid nitrogen is used to preserve blood, corneas and other donated organs.
Sulfur and nitrogen are found in coal and oil. When coal is burned, the sulfur and nitrogen form sulfur dioxide
and an oxide of nitrogen. These compounds then combine with moisture in the air and form sulfuric acid and
nitric acid. These are a few of the dangerous pollutants in the air.
Uses of carbon :
(i) Diamond (a crystalline form of carbon) is used as a gem.
(ii) Diamond is used for cutting rocks or glass.
(iii) Graphite (a crystalline form of carbon) is used as an electrode (because graphite is a good conductor of electricity).
(iv) Graphite is used as a lubricant (solid lubricant) in machines (becuause of high m.p.)
(v) Graphite is used in manufacture of lead pencils.
P oi n t
What happens when you hit
(a) the lead strip
(b) the carbon rod.
SOLUTION
The lead strip get bent, carbon rod is broken in to two pieces.
Uses of sulphur :
(i) Used in manufacture of dyes, matches, fire work and gun powder.
(ii) Used in many medicines (e.g. skin ointments)
(iii) Used as fungicide to kill harmful fungi.
(iv) Used in vulcanization of rubber.
(v) Used in manufacture of sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Uses of chlorine :
(i) Used in manufacture of PVC (poly-vinyl chloride) which is a plastic.
(ii) Used as water disinfectant to kill germs.
(iii) Used as a bleaching agent in paper and textile industry.
(iv) Used in manufacture of hydrochloric acid (HCl).
(v) Used in manufacture of pesticides like Gammexene.
Uses of iodine :
(i) Used as an antiseptic.
(ii) Used in preparation of “tincture of Iodine”.
(iii) Used in medicines.
(iv) Iodized salt contains a compound of iodine which helps to prevent diseases like goitre.
Uses of noble gases :
The gases Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar) etc. are known as noble gases because of their non-reactive nature.
(i) Helium is used to fill balloons.
(ii) A mixture of helium and oxygen is used by divers for respiration.
(iii) Neon is used for illumination. It glows orange red in advertising signs.
(iv) Argon is used to fill electric bulbs.
(v) A mixture of argon and mercury vapours is used in advertising. This mixture glows green in advertisement signs.
Few elements have both metallic and non-metallic properties. And a few elements, such as the noble gases,
have neither kind of properties.
Uses of phosphorus
(i) Used in manufacture of phosphoric acid and super phosphate fertilizer.
(ii) Used in preparation of fire works, smoke screens and in match stick industry.
(iii) Used in making phosphorus bronze alloy which is corrosion resistant.
Soft drinks are mainly carbonated water but also contains phosphoric acid; this is made of hydrogen, oxygen
and phosphorus
Uses of silicon
(i) Used for making silicon steel alloy and also in preparation of a polymer called silicone.
(ii) Used in making semi-conductor devices such as transistors.
Metalloids : There are six elements called metalloids (Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. The metalloids
have some of the characteristics of metals and some of non-metals. The most common metalloid is silicon (Si). It combines with
oxygen to form a number of familiars substances, including sand, glass and cement. The most useful property of metalloids is their
varying ability to conduct electricity. As the amount of electricity conducted by a metalloid depends upon temperature, exposure to
light, or the presence of small amount of impurities. For this reason, metalloids such as silicon and germanium (Ge) are used to make
semiconductors.
Observe 10 hard, brittle substances from your home and surroundings which you use in your routine life like plastic toys,
kitchen dishes, nails, table, chair, fan, motor pump etc. Classify these substances into category of metals and non-metals.
Tell your friends to do the same and compare the results.
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38 CHEMISTRY
SUMMARY
Elements are broadly classified as metals and non-metals.
Metal is an element which can form positive ion (cation) by losing electrons. Metals are also called electropositive elements.
Metals can occur both in free and combined state.
Most of the metals occurring in combined state are obtained from their ores.
When metals occur in free state, then it is in uncombined state Au, Ag, Pt occur in free state.
Reactive metals such as Mg, Ca, Al, Fe, etc. occur in combined state in the form of their oxides, sulphides, sulphates,
carbonates, nitrates, chlorides etc.
Elements which show characteristics of both metals and non-metals are called metalloids e.g. Si, Ge etc.
Various steps which are necessary to obtain metals from their ores are concentration of ores, reduction, refining.
Metals are generally hard, strong solids, They have a metallic lustre. They are sonorous, malleable, ductile, good conductors
of heat and electricity.
The oxygen of the air acts on metals to form their oxides.
Metals on combustion produce basic or amphoteric oxides.
Metals along with hydrogen, are arranged in decreasing order of reactivity in the activity series. This series helps us to
understand the chemical behaviour of metals.
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Sn > Pb [H] Cu > Hg > Ag
The metal activity series is
Metals more reactive than hydrogen Metals less reactive
than hydrogen
A more active metal displaces a less active metal from the solution of its compound soluble in water.
Metals higher than hydrogen in the activity series displace hydrogen from water and acids.
Gold, silver and platinum are noble metals. They are not affected by water or acids.
Naturally occurring metallic compounds are called minerals.
The minerals from which metal can be extracted profitably are called ores.
The impurities of sand and rocky materials that are present in ores are called gangue or matrix.
Calcination : It is the process of heating of ore in absence of air.
Roasting : It is the process of heating of ore in presence of air.
Smelting : It involves the heating of oxide ore with carbon so as to reduce the metal oxide to metal.
Alloy : A uniform mixture of two or more metals or metal and non-metal in known as alloy, e.g. steel is an alloy of iron and
carbon.
Refining : The process of purification of metal is called refining. It is carried out to obtain metal of maximum purity.
Corrosion : The wastage of metal layer by layer due to formation of metal compounds on the surface of metal is called
corrosion.
Rusting : The corrosion of iron is called rusting. In moist air a piece of iron rusts.
Amalgam : An amalgam is an alloy of mercury and one or more metals.
Metals are used in making machinery, automobiles, aeroplanes, trains, satellites, industrial gadgets etc.
A non-metal is an element which can form negative ions (anion) by gain of electrons.
Non-metals are lustreless (except graphite and iodine), brittle (if solid), non-sonorous, bad conductors of heat and electricity
(except graphite).
Except white phosphorus, non-metals do not react with air at ordinary temperature.
In general, non-metals are non-reactive towards water.
Some reactive non-metals are kept in water to protect them from the influence of air, e.g. if white phosphorus is kept in air it
catches fire so it is kept in water.
Majority of non-metals do not react with acids.
Non-metals on combustion produce acidic oxides.
Fill in the Blanks : Match the Following :
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an DIRECTIONS : Following question contains statements given
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C
and D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r
1. Metals combine with oxygen to form ............... oxides. and s) in column II.
2. Metals above hydrogen in the activity series can displace 1. Match the Column
............... from dilute acids.
Column I Column II
3. ............... is a non-metal that is a good conductor of electricity.
(A) Brass (p) Homogeneous mixture of copper
4. ............... is a non-metal that is lustrous. and zinc
5. Iodine is used as an antiseptic in the form of ............... (B) Bronze (q) Homogeneous mixture of iron and
solution. carbon
6. The chief ore of iron is ............... . (C) Steel (r) Homogeneous mixture of copper
and tin
7. The black part of a pencil is made of ............... .
(D) Solder (s) Homogeneous mixture of tin and
8. ............... .is a metal that exist as a liquid at room temperature. lead
9. Liquid ............... .is used to preserve donated organs. Very Short Answer Questions:
10. Copper corrodes in the presence of ________ and water.
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
True / False :
1. Why does gold and silver occur in native state?
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your 2. Why is white phosphorous kept under water?
answer as true or false. 3. Name one metallic element that is more reactive than hydrogen.
1. Metals are electropositive elements. 4. Give one example, with equation, of displacement of
hydrogen by a metal from acid.
2. Different metals have same reactivities with water and dilute
5. What happens when iron nails are put into copper sulphate
acids. solution.
3. Naturally occurring metallic compounds are called minerals. 6. Which metal can be extracted from bauxite?
4. Bauxite is an ore of zinc. 7. Why iron sheets are coated with zinc?
5. Bromine is a gaseous non-metal. 8. What is galvanising?
9. Can copper displace iron from iron sulphate solution? Give
6. In the activity series silver is above copper
reason.
7. Iodine is lustrous and is a metal 10. Which non-metal is used in the manufacture of fertilizers?
8. Non-metals can easily lose electrons to form cations. 11. Name the metal which is converted into its foils which are
used for packing of medicine tablets.
9. Non-metals are less dense and have low m.p. and b.p. as
compared to metals. 12. Coal and pencil lead does not show the property of
malleability. Can we call them metal?
10. Sodium and potassium occur in nature in free state.
13. What happens when a non-metal reacts with acid?
11. Dental amalgams contain gold and mercury.
14. Which gas is always produced when a metal reacts with a
12. Magnesium burns in air with dazzling white light. dilute acid?
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40 CHEMISTRY
Short Answer Questions : Long Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences. DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
1. Give an example of a metal which 1. Observe the following figure, complete the reaction(s) and
tell in which beaker/beakers displacement reactions take place.
(a) is liquid at room temperature
Beaker A : Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc granule (Zn),
(b) is best conductor of heat
Beaker B : Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)
(c) can be easily cut with knife
Beaker C : Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu),
2. What are the two necessary conditions for the rusting of
Beaker D : Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu).
iron?
Beaker E : Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Iron nail (Fe),
3. Differentiate between metals and non-metals.
4. Write equations for the reaction of
(a) iron with steam
(b) calcium with water A B C D E
(c) potassium with water
5. What is reactivity series? How does it help us in predicting 2. (A) Explain the physical properties of non-metals.
reactivities of various metals?
(B) Give an example of a non-metal which :
6. What are uses of sulphur.
(a) is a solid at room temperature
7. What type of oxides are formed when non-metals combine
(b) possesses lustre
with oxygen?
(c) is a good conductor of electricity
8. Name the following :
(d) is a good conductor of heat
(a) A metal used in hot water system
3. Define the following terms :
(b) A metal used in long distance cable wires
(a) Minerals (b) Ores
(c) A metal added to gold to harden it
(c) Metallurgy (d) Malleability
9. What happens when a copper vessel is exposed in moist
air? (e) Ductility
Text-Book Exercise : 8. Match the substances given in Column A with their uses
given in Column B.
1. Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheets?
Column A Column B
(a) Zinc (b) Phosphorus (i) Gold (a) Thermometers
(c) Sulphur (d) Oxygen (ii) Iron (b) Electric wire
2. Which of the following statements is correct? (iii) Aluminium (c) Wrapping food
(a) All metals are ductile. (iv) Carbon (d) Jewellery
(b) All non-metals are ductile. (v) Copper (e) Machinery
(c) Generally, metals are ductile. (vi) Mercury (f) Fuel
9. What happens when
(d) Some non-metals are ductile.
(a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?
3. Fill in the blanks :
(b) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution?
(a) Phosphorus is very ____________ non-metal. Write word equations of the reactions involved.
(b) Metals are ____________ conductors of heat and 10. Saloni took a piece of burning charcoal and collected the
____________ . gas evolved in a test tube.
(c) Iron is ____________ reactive than copper. (a) How will she find the nature of the gas ?
(d) Metals react with acids to produce ____________ (b) Write down word equations of all the reactions taking
gas. place in this process.
4. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false. 11. One day Reeta went to a jeweller’s shop with her mother.
(a) Generally, non-metals react with acids. ( ) Her mother gave old gold jewellery to the goldsmith to polish.
Next day when they brought the jewellery back, they found
(b) Sodium is a very reactive metal. ( )
that there was a slight loss in its weight.
(c) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution.( )
Can you suggest a reason for the loss in weight?
(d) Coal can be drawn into wires. ( )
5. Some properties are listed in the following Table. Distinguish Exemplar Questions :
between metals and non-metals on the basis of these 1. A purple coloured non-metal forms a brown solution in
properties. alcohol which is applied on wounds as an antiseptic. Name
Properties Metals Non-metals the non-metal.
1. Appearance 2. Zinc sulphate forms a colourless solution in water. Will you
2. Hardness observe any colour on adding copper turning in it?
3. Malleability 3. Why are bells made of metals?
4. Ductility 4. Paheli bought a statue made of copper. To her surprise it
acquired a dull green coating after a couple of months.
5. Heat Conduction
Explain the reason.
6. Conduction of Electricity
5. Some of the following statements are incorrect. Find the
6. Give reasons for the following : incorrect statements and correct them.
(a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items. (a) The property of metals by virtue of which they can be
drawn into wires is called ductility.
(b) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of
metallic substances. (b) Metals are good conductor of electricity but poor
conductor of heat.
(c) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt solution.
(c) Articles made of metals produce ringing sound when
(d) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.
struck hard.
7. Can you store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil? Explain.
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42 CHEMISTRY
(d) Oxides of non-metals and metals are acidic in nature. 4. It is advised that food stuffs with acid components should
(e) A less reactive metal replaces a more reactive metal not be stored in the utensils made of iron, aluminium or
from its salt solution in water. copper, why?
HOTS Questions : 5. Of the two metals A and B, A is found in native state and B
occurs in combined state in nature. Which of the two will be
1. Explain why, aluminium is more reactive than iron yet there present first in the activity series of metals?
is less corrosion of aluminium when both are exposed to
6. The tarnished copper vessels are cleaned with lemon juice?
air?
Explain why these sour substances are effective in cleaning
2. In a solution of silver nitrate, a copper plate was dipped. the vessels.
After some time, silver from the solution was deposited on 7. Give reasons
the copper plate. Which metal is more reactive - copper or
(a) Platinum, gold and silver are used to make jewellery.
silver? Why?
(b) Sodium, potassium and lithium are stored under oil.
3. Can aluminium vessels be employed for storage of copper
(c) Aluminium is a highly reactive metal, yet it is used to
sulphate solution? Explain your answer.
make utensils for cooking.
Multiple Choice Questions : (a) Sodium (b) Calcium

(c) Iron (d) Silver
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 21 multiple choice 8. The most characteristic property of metals is their tendency
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out to
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) Form basic oxides (b) Form hydrides
1. Select the one that could displace copper from a solution of (c) Lose electrons (d) Gain electrons
copper sulphate. 9. The process of protecting iron, from rusting, by coating
(a) Silver (b) Mercury with zinc is called
(c) Tin (d) Gold (a) Rusting (b) Roasting
2. Which of the following is a liquid metal? (c) Smelting (d) Galvanizing
(a) Mercury (b) Bromine 10. The correct order of metals in the activity series is
(c) Aluminium (d) Sodium (a) Cu > Zn > Mg > Ca (b) Ca > Zn > Cu > Mg
3. The property of metals to be hammered into their sheets is (c) Zn > Mg > Cu > Ca (d) Ca > Mg > Zn > Cu.
called 11. Sodium reacts with cold water to form
(a) Malleability (b) Ductility (a) sodium hydroxide and hydrogen
(c) Tensile strength (d) Sonorous nature (b) sodium hydroxide and oxygen
4. Select the metal that is soft (c) sodium hydride and oxygen
(a) Aluminium (b) Copper (d) None of these
(c) Sodium (d) Lead 12. The reactivities of iron, magnesium, sodium and zinc
5. Metals combine with oxygen to form an oxide. The nature towards water are in the order
of oxide formed is ................. (a) Fe > Mg > Na > Zn (b) Zn > Na > Mg > Fe
(a) Acidic (b) Basic (c) Na > Mg > Zn > Fe (d) Mg > Na > Fe > Zn.
(c) Neutral (d) Amphoteric 13. Select the one that occurs in native form.
6. The process of eating away of metals layer by layer due to (a) Calcium (b) Aluminium
formation of metal compound on surface is called (c) Sodium (d) Gold
(a) Galvanisation (b) Amalgam formation
(c) Corrosion (d) Vulcanization 14. Antimony and arsenic can be classified as
7. Which of the following metals has no reaction even with (a) Metals (b) Non metals
steam. (c) Metalloids (d) Any one of these
15. Select the property that is associated with non-metals. (a) Sodium (b) Magnesium
(a) Low density (c) Aluminium (d) Carbon
(b) Low melting point 3. Which of the following exists in liquid state?
(a) Mercury (b) Gallium
(c) Poor conductor of electricity
(c) Bromine (d) Helium
(d) All of the above
4. Which of the following show lustre?
16. For vulcanization of rubber we use which one of the following (a) Sodium (b) Graphite
non-metal? (c) Iodine (d) Neon
(a) Sulphur (b) Phosphorus 5. Which of the following metal(s) is/are classified as every
(c) Chloride (d) Carbon day metal(s)?
17. Non-metals are majorly present as (a) Sodium (b) Aluminium
(a) Solids (b) Liquids (c) Iron (d) Copper
(c) Gases (d) Both (a) and (c) 6. Which of the following lie above hydrogen in the activity
18. When MgO is dissolved in water, Mg(OH)2 is obtained. A series?
red litmus paper dipped in this solution turns blue; this (a) Aluminium (b) Silver
shows that the solution is _________ in nature. (c) Iron (d) Lead
(a) acidic (c) neutral 7. Which of the following will displace copper from copper
(c) alkaline (d) reactive sulphate solution?
19. Which of the following methods is suitable for preventing (a) Nickel (b) Tin
an iron frying pan from rusting? (c) Lead (d) Platinum
(a) Applying grease Passage Based Questions :
(b) Applying paint
(c) Applying a coating of zinc DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the
(d) All of the above. following questions.
20. Which of the following statement is false? Passage - 1
(a) Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Though most metals undergo similar kind of reactions. The
(b) Gold, Silver and Zinc are most malleable metals. “vigour” with which they react is not the same. Some are
(c) Mercury is the only liquid metal. more reactive than the others. Metals along with hydrogen
(d) Bromine is the only liquid non-metal. (a non-metal) are arranged in order of their reactivity in a
21. Which of the following statement regarding non-metals is series called activity series
true?
(a) Non-metals are of two types only solids and gases. Activity
(b) Non-metals reacts with oxygen to form basic oxides K
decrease
generally. Ca
(c) Non-metals are non-lustrous with dull apppearence. Na
Graphite, an allotrope of Carbon and iodine have Mg
shining lustrous surfaces. Al
(d) Non-metals replace hydrogen from acids. Zn
More than One Option Correct : Fe
H
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 7 Multiple Choice Cu
Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out Hg
of which ONE OR MORE may be correct. Ag
1. Which of the following will produce an acidic oxide on Au
reaction with oxygen?
(a) Calcium (b) Carbon
(c) Sulphur (d) Nitrogen 1. Which of the following is most reactive?
2. Which element(s) of the following will produce basic oxides (a) Sodium (b) Potassium
on reaction with oxygen?
(c) Calcium (d) Magnesium
EBD_7027
44 CHEMISTRY
2. Which of the following can displace Iron from FeSO4 2. Assertion : The elements sodium, potassium, aluminium
Solution are classified as metals because of their tendency to form
(a) Zinc (b) Copper cations.
(c) Silver (d) None of these Reason : Metals are malleable, ductile and good conductors
3. Which of the following metals cannot displace copper when of heat and electricity.
dropped in copper sulphate solution? 3. Assertion : Zinc is used in galvanization of iron
(a) Magnesium (b) Iron Reason : Galvanization increases the life of iron articles by
(c) Silver (d) None of these protecting them from rusting.
Passage - 2 4. Assertion : When a piece of aluminium is put in a solution
Reactive metals like sodium and potassium react with water with of copper sulphate we get a colourless solution.
evolution of hydrogen gas and form corresponding hydroxides Reason : Aluminium lies above copper in the activity series.
whereas the less reactive metals like magnesium, zinc, aluminium
and iron are too low in reactivity to react with cold water. They Multiple Matching Questions :
react with steam when red hot forming corresponding oxides.
4. Which of the following metals forms corresponding DIRECTIONS : Each question has four statements (A, B, C and
hydroxide on reaction with water? D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
(a) Mg (b) Na Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
(c) Fe (d) Zn matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
5. Which of the following metals do not react with cold water? Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
(a) Na (b) K
(c) Mg (d) Ca 1. Column I Column II
6. Which of the following metals react with steam only A. Graphite (p) Non-metal
(a) Na (b) Mg
(c) Al (d) Pt B. Platinum (q) Lustrous
Assertion & Reason : C. Mercury (r) highly unreactive

D. Bromine (s) Metal
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question Integer Type Questions :
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
best describes the two statements. question, when worked out will result in one integer from 0 to 9
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the (both inclusive).
1. Metal lies above hydrogen in the activity series.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
Aluminium, Zinc, Sodium, Gold, Silver
the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. 2. How many among the following exists in liquid state?
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. Murcury, Bromine, Sodium, Helium
1. Assertion : Silver and gold are found in free state in nature.
Reason : Silver and gold are noble metals.
ADVANCED EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 1-16) : This section contains 16 multiple 9. The chief ore of aluminium is
choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (a) Cryolite (b) Feldspar
(d) out of which ONLY ONE is correct. (c) Kaolin (d) Bauxite
1. The alloy brass consists of 10. Electrolytic reduction method is used in the extraction of
(a) Copper and Tin (a) Highly electronegative elements
(b) Highly electropositive elements
(b) Copper and Zinc
(c) Transition metals
(c) Copper and Aluminium
(d) Noble metals
(d) Tin and Lead 11. Bronze is a mixture of
2. Duralumin is an alloy containing (a) Pb + Sn (b) Cu + Sn
(a) Magnesium and aluminium (c) Cu + Zn (d) Pb + Zn
(b) Magnesium and copper 12. Chemical method used in concentration of ore is known as
(a) bleaching (b) leaching
(c) Magnesium,copper and aluminium
(c) roasting (d) calcination
(d) Magnesium,copper, manganese and aluminium.
13. The process of extraction of metal from its ores, is known
3. Sulphide ores are usually concentrated by as
(a) Gravity separation (b) Froth flotation process (a) concentration
(c) Calcination (d) Hydraulic washing (b) calcination
4. The process to remove unwanted impurities from the ore is (c) purification
called (d) metallurgy
(a) purification (b) calcination 14. Roasting is generally done in case of the following
(c) bassimerisation (d) concentration (a) Oxide ores (b) Silicate ores
5. Heating of concentrated ore in absence of air for conversion (c) Sulphide ores (d) Carbonate ores
into oxide ore is known as 15. The rocky material present in ore is known as
(a) roasting (b) calcination (a) Gangue (b) Flux
(c) reduction (d) none of these
(c) Slag (d) None of these
6. The reducing agent in thermite process is
16. Select the correct statement.
(a) Al (b) Mg
(c) BaO2 (d) MnO2 (a) A mineral can not be an ore
7. The method of zone refining of metals is based on the (b) All ore can not be a mineral
principle of (c) All ores are minerals
(a) Greater solubility of the impurity in the molten state (d) All minerals are ores
than in the solid
(b) Greater mobility of the pure metal than that of the
impurity DIRECTIONS (Qs. 17-20) : This section contains 4 multiple
(c) Higher melting point of the impurity than that of the choice questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and
pure metal (d) out of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
(d) Greater noble character of the solid metal than that of 17. Which of the following alloys contain tin as one of the
the impurity constituents?
8. Calcination is the process of heating the ore
(a) Bronze (b) Solder
(a) In a blast furnace (b) In absence of air
(c) Gun metal (d) Monel
(c) In presence of air (d) None of these
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46 CHEMISTRY
18. The process of zone refining is used in the purification of DIRECTIONS (Qs. 24-26) : Each of these questions contains an
(a) Si (b) Al Assertion followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer
(c) Ag (d) Cu the question on the basis of following options. You have to select
19. The role of calcination in metallurgical operations is the one that best describes the two statements.
(a) to remove moisture (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
(b) to decompose carbonate correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) to make oxporous (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(d) to achieve all the above the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
20. Which of the following metals is extracted by the (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
electrometallurgical method ?
(a) Cu (b) Fe 24. Assertion : Leaching is a process of reduction.
(c) Na (d) Ag Reason : Leaching involves treatment of the ore with a suitable
reagent so as to make it soluble while impurities remains
DIRECTIONS (21-23) : Study the given paragraph(s) and insoluble.
answer the following questions. 25. Assertion : Copper obtained after bassemerization is known
Passage as blister copper.
The ores obtained from the earth contain large quantities of foreign Reason : Blisters are produced on the surface of the metal
matter. These unwanted impurities, e.g. earth particles, rocky due to escaping of dissolved SO2.
26. Assertion : Lead, Tin and bismuth are purified by liquation
matter, sand limestone etc. present in an ore are called gangue or
method.
matrix. Prior to the extraction of the metal from the ore, it is
Reason : Lead, Tin and bismuth have low m.p. as compared
necessary to separate, the ore from the gangue. This separation
to impurities.
can often be achieved by physical means since mineral and gangue
generally occur as separate solid phases. The process of removal DIRECTIONS (Qs. 27) : Each question contains statements given
in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C,
of gangue from the ore is technically known as concentration or
D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r, s) in
ore dressing and the purified ore is known as concentrate. column II.
21. Which of the following is a chemical method of concentration
of ores? 27. Column I Column II
(A) Iron (p) Refining by liquation
(a) Froth floatation process
(B) Aluminium (q) Electrolyte refining
(b) Magnetic separation
(C) Tin (r) Reduction by smelting
(c) Hydraulic washing (D) Silver (s) Leaching
(d) Leaching A B C D
22. The ores that are concentrated by floatation method are (a) r s p q,s
(a) Carbonates (b) Sulphides (b) p q s r
(c) Oxides (d) Phosphates (c) q s p r
23. Magnetic separation is used to increase concentration of (d) r q s p
(a) Horn Silver (b) Calcite
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 28-29) : Following are integer based
(c) Haematite (d) Magnesite questions. Each question, when worked out will result in one
integer from 0 to 9 (both inclusive).
28. How many of the given elements are extracted by electrolytic
refining?
Pb, Hg, Ag, Zn, Zr and Ge
29. How many of the following metals are extractexd by self
reduction process?
Zn, Fe, Al, Hg, Cu, Na and Mg
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
3. Refer text
4. (a) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ¾¾
® Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Fill in the Blanks : (b) 2Ca + 2H2O ¾¾

® Ca(OH)2 + H2
1. Basic 2. Hydrogen (c) 2K + 2H2O ¾¾ ® 2KOH + H2
3. Graphite (a form of carbon) 5. Refer text
4. Graphite (a form of carbon ) or Iodine. 6. Uses of sulphur :
5. Alcoholic 6. Haematite (i) Used in manufacture of dyes, matches, fire work and
7. Graphite 8. Mercury gun powder.
9. Nitrogen 10. Carbondioxide, Oxygen (ii) Used in many medicines (e.g. skin ointments)
(iii) Used as fungicide to kill harmful fungi.
True / False :
7. Acidic oxides.
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False
8. (a) Copper, because copper is a good conductor of heat
5. False 6. False 7. False 8. False and electricity.
9. True 10. False 11. False 12. True (b) Aluminium, because aluminium is light metal and is a
Match the Following : good conductor of electricity.
1. A – (p); B – (r); C – (q); D – (s) (c) Copper
9. When a copper vessel is exposed in moist air for a long
Very Short Answer Questions : time, it aquires a dull green coating. The green substance is
1. Gold and silver possess negligible or very less reactivity. the mixture of copper hydroxide [Cu(OH)2] and copper
Due to this they occur in native state in nature. carbonate (CuCO3)
2. It burns easily in air because of its low ignition temperature 2Cu + H 2O + CO 2 + O 2 ¾¾
® Cu(OH) 2 + CuCO3
so it is kept under water. (moist air) (Green coating)
3. Sodium. [Any metal above hydrogen in activity series can
be named] Long Answer Questions :
4. Mg + 2 HCl ® MgCl2 + H2 1. Beaker A :
5. It results in change of colour of solution from blue to green. CuSO 4 + Zn ¾¾ ® ZnSO 4 + Cu
The colour change occurs due to displacement of Cu by Fe Beaker B :
from CuSO4 solution as shown by following equation CuSO 4 + Fe ¾¾ ® FeSO 4 + Cu
Fe + CuSO4 ® FeSO4 + Cu Beaker C :
(blue) (green)
ZnSO 4 + Cu ¾¾ ® No reaction
6. Aluminium (Al)
Beaker D :
7. This is done to prevent rusting of iron.
8. It is the process of depositing a thin layer of zinc on the FeSO 4 + Cu ¾¾ ® No reaction.
surface of metal. Beaker E :
9. No, copper is less reactive than iron. ZnSO 4 + Fe ¾¾ ® No reaction.
10. Nitrogen. In beaker A and B displacement reaction takes place.
11. Aluminium (Al) 2. (A) Physical properties of non-metals :
12. No, they are not metals. (i) At room temperature non-metals are either solids or
13. Non-metal do not react with acids. gases, except bromine (Br) which is a liquid.
14. Hydrogen (ii) They are lustreless (i.e. dull). Except graphite and
Iodine.
Short Answer Questions : (iii) They are generally brittle.
1. (a) Mercury or gallium (iv) They are bad conductors of heat and electricity (except
(b) Silver graphite).
(c) Sodium (v) They are non-sonorous (i.e. they do not produce a
2. (i) Air or oxygen and metallic clink).
(ii) Water [i.e. wet air] (B) (a) Sulphur
EBD_7027
48 CHEMISTRY
(b) Iodine
Cu + H 2SO 4 ¾¾ ® CuSO 4 + H2
(c) Graphite (a form of carbon) Copper Sulphuric Copper Hydrogen
(d) Graphite (a form of carbon) acid Sulphate
3. Refer to the text (b) Iron being more reactive than copper, displaces copper
from copper sulphate solution. Blue colour of copper
sulphate solution fades due to formation of iron
sulphate.
Text-Book Exercise : Fe + CuSO4 ¾¾
® FeSO 4 + Cu
Iron Copper Iron Copper
1. (a) Zinc being a metal can be beaten into thin sheets. This Sulphate Sulphate
property of metals is called malleability. Phosphorus, 10. (a) She should add some water in the test-tube in which
sulphur and oxygen are non-metals therefore do not gas is collected. Cover the test- tube and shake it well.
show this property. Test the solution with blue and red litmus. Solution
2. (c) Mercury (metal), which is liquid at room temperature will turn blue litmus red. Hence gas is acidic in nature.
cannot be drawn into wires and is not ductile. (b) Charcoal on burning reacts with oxygen to form carbon
3. (a) reactive (b) good, electricity dioxide gas.
(c) more (d) hydrogen
C + O2 ¾¾
® CO 2
4. (a) (F) Non-metals generally do not react with acids. Charcoal Oxygen Carbon
(b) (T) Sodium reacts vigorously with oxygen and water. (Carbon) dioxide
(c) (F) Zinc is more reactive than copper, therefore copper Carbon dioxide on reaction with water forms carbonic
cannot displace zinc from zinc sulphate solution. acid.
(d) (F) Coal (carbon) being a non-metal cannot be drawn
CO 2 + H 2O ¾¾
® H 2 CO 3
into wires. Carbon Water Carbonic
dioxide acid
5. Properties Metals Non-metals
Carbonic acid turns blue litmus paper red.
1. Appearnace Lustrous Dull in 11. Gold jewellery is polished by dipping jewellery in a mixture
appearance
of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid called aqua regia. Outer
2. Hardness Generally Generally soft
layer of gold dissolves in aqua regia and inner shiny layer
hard
3. Malleability Generally Non-malleable
appears. Because of the loss of upper layer of jewellery its
malleable weight is reduced.
4. Ductility Generally Non-ductile Exemplar Questions :
Ductile
1. iodine
5. Heat conduction Good Poor
2. No, because displacement reaction does not takes place.
Conductors Conductors
6. Conduction of Good Poor
3. Metals are sonorous.
4. The green material is a mixture of copper hydroxide and
electricity Conductors Conductors
copper carbonate formed due to reaction of copper with
6. (a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items because moist air (water, oxygen and carbon dioxide).
aluminium is highly malleable i.e. it can be easily beaten 5. Statement (b), (d) and (e) are not correct.
into thin sheets and it does not react with food items. (b) Metals are good conductor of electicity and also good
(b) Metals are good conductor of heat. That is why conductor of heat.
immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of (d) Oxides of non-metals are acidic in nature and oxides of
metallic substances. metals are basic in nature.
(c) A less reactive metal cannot displace a more reactive (e) A more reactive metal replaces a less reactive metal
metal from its salt solution. Copper being less reactive from its salt solution in water.
than zinc cannot displace zinc from its salt solution. HOTS Questions :
(d) Sodium and potassium are very reactive. They can 1. Because of its higher reactivity aluminium is expected to
quickly react in air and water and easily catch fire when get corroded easily on exposure to moist air, however it is
come in contact with air. So, they are stored in kerosene. not the case. When aluminium metal is exposed to
7. No, Aluminium being a metal reacts with lemon pickle which atmosphere (moist air), it combines with oxygen to form a
contains acid. Metals on reaction with acids release thin but strong film of aluminium oxide Al2O3 on its surface.
hydrogen gas. Due to which pickle can be spoiled. This film acts as a protective film and reduces the chemical
8. (i) – (d), (ii) – (e), (iii) – (c), (iv) – (f), (v) – (b), (vi) – (a) reactivity of aluminium and protects it from corrosion. In
9. (a) Copper reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to produce case of iron the oxide film formed is weak and brittle that’s
copper sulphate and hydrogen gas is liberated. why it appears as a rust and results into corrosion.
2. Since silver gets deposited on copper plate which was metal is non-malleable and brittle.
dipped in a solution of silver nitrate hence it is clear that 21. (c)
copper metal have displaced the silver from silver nitrate
solution. This shows that copper is more reactive than silver. More Than One Option Correct :
3. No. Aluminium is more reactive than copper so it will displace 1. (b, c, d) Non-metals produce acidic oxides.
copper from copper sulphate solution. It will cause holes in 2. (a, b). 3. (a, b, c) 4. (a, b, c)
the vessel and thus we can not store copper sulphate 5. (b, c, d) 6. (a, c, d)
solution in an aluminium vessel. 7. (a, b, c) All these lie above copper in activity series.
4. When food stuffs with acid components are stored in
vessels made of copper, iron or aluminum these metals may Passage Based Questions :
react with acidic components to produce certain poisonous 1. (b) Potassium
materials. Due to this it is advised not to store food stuffs 2. (a) Zinc
with acidic components in such vessels. 3. (c) Silver being less reactive than copper cannot displace
5. B [A is found in native state so it is less reactive and B is copper from copper sulphate solution
more reactive] 4. (b) Sodium reacts with water there by forming sodium
6. The basic copper carbonate that is formed on the surface of hydroxide
copper vessel reacts with acid present in lemon juice and
gets dissolved. Thus it gets readily removed. 2Na ( s ) + 2H2 O ( l ) ¾¾
® 2NaOH ( aq ) + H2 ( g )
7. (a) As platinum, gold and silver are least reactive metals 5. (c) Magnesium do not react with cold water. It reacts with
thus does not affected by air, water and other hot water by forming its oxide.
chemicals hence found to be most suitable for making
6. (c) Aluminium have low reactivity toward cold water. It
jewellery.
reacts with steam only according to following equation.
(b) Sodium, Potassium and lithium are stored under oil
because, these are highly reactive metals and as 2Al ( s ) + 3H 2 O ( g ) ¾¾
® Al2O3 ( s ) + 3H 2 ( g )
they come in contact with air and moisture, get covered
with a carbonate layer. Assertion & Reason :
H2 O CO2 1. (a) Noble metals are highly non-reactive metals. Noble
4Na + O2 ¾¾
® 2Na2O ¾¾¾
® 2NaOH ¾¾¾
® Na2CO3
metals can occur in free state.
2Na + 2H2O ¾¾ ® 2NaOH + H2. 2. (b)
(c) Aluminium is a good conductor of heat, therefore it is 3. (a)
used for making utensils. 4. (a) Aluminium displaces copper from copper sulphate
solution to form aluminium sulphate which is a
colourless solution.
Multiple Matching Questions :
Multiple Choice Questions : 1. A–q;B– r;C–s;D–p
1. (c) Tin (Sn); [It lies above copper in Activity series] Integer Type Questions :
2. (a) Mercury 1. 3
3. (a) 4. (c) Aluminium, Zinc and Sodium
5. (b) Metal oxides are basic in nature. 2. 2
6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d) Murcury and Bromine
10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. (d) Gold occurs in native form, others occur in combined
form.
14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (a)
1. (b) Brass is 80% copper + 20% zinc.
17. (d) Non-metals are majorly available in the form of solids
and gases there is only one non-metal bromine which 2. (d) It is Al = 95.5%, Cu = 3%; Mn = 1.0%, Mg = 0.5%.
is liquid at room temperature. 3. (b)
4. (d)
18. (c) The solution of magnesium oxide is alkaline in nature
5. (b) Calcination involves heating of the ore below its fusion
and that is why it changes red litmus paper to blue
temperature in absence of air.
when dipped in it.
6. (a) Aluminium works as reducing agent in thermite
19. (c)
process because it displaces Fe from Fe 2O 3 .
20. (b) Gold and Silver are most malleable metals whereas zinc
Hence, option (a) is correct.
EBD_7027
50 CHEMISTRY
7. (a) Zone refining is based on the difference in solubility 15. (a) 16. (c)
of impurities in molten and solid state of the metal. 17. (a, b, c)
This method is used for obtaining metals of very high Bronze - 88% Cu + 12% Sn
purity. Solder - 11% Sn + 37% Pb + 42% Bi
8. (b) Calcination is the heating of the ore in a suitable furnace Gun Metal - 86% Cu + 9.5% Sn + 2.5% Pb + 2% Zn
in absence of air much below its melting point to cause Monel - 60% Ni + 33% Cu + 7% Fe
decomposition and elimination of volatile products. 18. (a) Zone refining is used to purify materials, mainly
PbCO 3 ® PbO + CO 2 semiconductors like Si.
The process is generally applied to hydrated oxide or 19. (d)
carbonate ores. 20. (c) Na is obtained by elctrolytic reduction being
9. (d) Bauxite may be written as Al2O3.2H2O Cryolite is electropositive in nature.
Na3[AlF6]. Feldspar are mock forming minerals. Kaolin 21. (d)
is a Clay (China Clay). 22. (b)
10. (b) Highly electropositive element Na is extracted by 23. (d)
electrolytic reduction. 24. (d) Assertion is false but reason is true. Leaching is a
11. (b) Bronze is a mixture of Cu + Sn process of concentration.
Option (b) is correct. 25. (a) Both assertion and reason are correct and reason is
12. (b) Leaching is a chemical method of concentration of the correct explanation of assertion.
ores. Leaching involves the treatment of the ore with a 26. (a)
suitable reagent as to make it soluble while impurities
remain insoluble. The ore is recovered from the solution 27. (a) A – r ; B – s; C– p; D – q, s
by suitable chemical method. 28. 2
Silver and Zinc are refined by electrolytic refining.
13. (d)
29. 2
14. (c) In this process sulphides ores are converted into oxide Hg and Cu can be reduced by self-reduction process.
ores 2ZnS + 3O2 ® 2ZnO + 2SO2
Chapter
COAL AND PETROLEUM
3
INTRODUCTION
The world depends on fossil fuels for its energy. Crude oil, coal and natural gas formed from the prehistoric matter of
plants, animals, zooplankton and other life that was buried sometimes miles deep inside the Earth and subjected to
high temperatures and high pressure over millions of years. These three so-called fossil fuels include a wide assortment
of carbon-based substances.
Humans have been using coal as a fuel for hundreds or even thousands of years, and coal fueled steam engines in
trains long before the liquid fuel-powered engines of today's cars were in use.
Humans have known about petroleum, or crude oil, for centuries, but the substance wasn't considered terribly
interesting until the mid 1800s, when it was distilled into kerosene and found to be a good, cheap alternative .
Americans and others worldwide quickly adopted petroleum and learned to make an unending stream of useful
products from it. Simultaneously, a worldwide obsession with striking oil was born.
EBD_7027
52 CHEMISTRY
COAL AND PETROLEUM

Mankind in order to meet its basic (food, clothes and shelter) and advance needs utilizing available resources at rapid rate. Thus use
of resources by human being is much faster in comparison to rate at which these resources can be replenished by nature. Some of the
resources used by humans are natural like the air we breathe, water we drink, sunlight, soil, forests, fossil fuels, etc., and others are
man-made resources like plastic, paper, metal alloys, glass, fabric etc.
Plants and animals are living natural resources. Air water, soil and minerals are non-living natural resources.
Types of Natural Resources
(i) Inexhaustible/renewable resources : Those natural resources which can be replenished or reproduced easily. For example,
sunlight is a resource which will never run out as the sun is expected to last for another 5 billion years. Oxygen is renewable
because it is replaced in the atmosphere as plants release oxygen during photosynthesis.
Many of the inexhaustible resources gets replenished with time quickly. But some of the inexhaustible resources also depleting
as they take longer time to replenish like ground water, etc.
(ii) Exhaustible resources : Those natural resources which take very long time to replenish. Thus once used they cannot be
replenished for mankind. For example sources like fossil fuels, top fertile layer of soil, minerals, forests, etc.
Some non-renewable resources such as metal can be used again and again. These non-renewable resources
can be recycled.
Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas are very important natural resources, and play a vital role in modern society. They are found in the
earth's crust. Their easy availability and specific characteristics make them very important in the growth of industry. At present they
are the chief sources of energy worldwide.
COAL
Coal, a fossil fuel, is black in colour and hard as stone. Earlier it was used to cook food and to run railway engines.
It is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic
sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage are slightly more than those from petroleum and
about double the amount from natural gas. Coal is our most abundant fossil fuel resource.
Composition of Coal :
Coal is a complex mixture of organic chemical substances containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in chemical combination, together
with smaller amounts of nitrogen and sulphur.
Deposits :
The distribution of coal deposits is not uniform in the earth's crust. To the total coal reserves in the world, Asia contributes about one
third whereas North and South America contribute more than half. India has large deposits of coal. It is estimated that India has about
80 billion tones of proven coal deposits. The coal deposits are spread over in the states of Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and west
Bengal.
The electricity formed by using coal, is known as thermal electricity and about 50% of the electricity in the
United States is generated from coal.
Different types and their uses

Different varieties of coal are formed as a result of carbonisation known as peat, lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal,
bituminous coal, and anthracite. The carbon content, also called the rank of the coal, increases progressively from lignite, a
low rank coal to anthracite, a high rank coal. Different amounts of heat and pressure during the geochemical stage of coal
development cause these differences in rank. It is not due to the kind of plants the coal is formed from.
Out of these four, anthracite coal is the hardest coal which has the highest content 94-98% of carbon. Anthracite and
bituminous coal are the most important and are mainly used in industries. Bituminous coal is softer than anthracite and
contains about 82% carbon. Lignite is youngest variety of coal and is brown in colour. It contain 70% carbon. Since coal is
of low cost and reliable source of energy, it is used for the generation of electricity.
Coal and Petroleum 53
Formation of Coal :
It is believed that millions of years ago the ground below the forests was split open by
natural forces such as earthquakes and volcanoes. The forests were buried in the earth.
Thus, the plants had no contact with oxygen. Successive layers of sediments sealed the
buried plants. Over millions of years these deposits were subjected to tremendous pressure
and heat which finally transformed them into coal. The chemical process involved in the
transformation of plant matter into coal is called the carbonization of plant matter.
Destructive distillation of coal: Heating coal in absence of air is called destructive distillation
of coal. It produces coke (non-volatile residue), coal tar (black thick viscous liquid), coal
gas (mixture of combustible gases) and ammonical liquor (solution of ammonia in water).
Destructive distillation of coal is carried out by heating coal strongly to 1000°C in the
Destructive distillation of coal
absence of air.
Now let us discuss about various products obtained from destructive distillatioin of coal and their uses.
When coal is preserved under the right pressure and temperature for ten thousands of years you may get
diamonds from these coal pieces. Diamond and coal are both made up of carbon particles. Diamond is one of
the purest form of carbon.
Coke
Coke is the solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulphur bituminous coal. It is an almost
pure form of carbon. It is a good fuel and burns with no smoke. The products obtained by the decomposition of coal are coal gas,
carbon, coal tar, liquor ammonia and coal gas. Cokes from coal are grey, hard, and porous.
Coke is usually produced from coal; the process is called destructive distillation. Volatile constituents of the coal—including water,
coal-gas, and coal-tar—are driven off by baking in an airless furnace or oven at temperatures as high as 2,000 degrees Celsius. The
greater the volatile matter in coal, the more by-product can be produced, but too low or too high a level of volatile matter in the coal
results in inferior coke produced in respect to coke quality properties. It is generally considered that levels of 26-29 % of volatile matter
in the coal blend is good for coking purposes. Thus different types of coal are proportionally blended to reach acceptable levels of
volatility before the coking process begins.
Uses : Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.
Since smoke-producing constituents are driven off during the coking of coal, coke forms a desirable fuel for stoves and furnaces in
which conditions are not suitable for the complete burning of bituminous coal itself.
Coke may burn with little or no smoke under combustible conditions, while bituminous coal would produce
much smoke.
Coal Tar
Coal tar is a mixture of different carbon compounds. It is a thick, black liquid. The fractional distillation of coal tar gives many chemical
substances which are used in the preparation of dyes, explosives, paints, synthetic fibres, drugs and pesticides. Some of these
chemical substances are benzene, toluene, phenol and aniline.
On further fractionation of coal tar a large number of compounds are obtained, out of which 200 compounds have been isolated yet.
Coal Gas
Coal gas is mainly a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide. The gases present in coal gas are combustible, and hence it
is an excellent fuel. It has a high calorific value. It was used for lighting houses, factories and streets in Mumbai (Bombay) until 1950.
It was also used for cooking until recently.
Ammonical Liquor
The ammonia produced as a result of destructive distillation of coal is absorbed in water. The aqueous solution of ammonia, i.e.
ammonium hydroxide solution is called ammonical liquor. It is used in the preparation of nitrogeneous fertilizers such as ammonium
sulphate and ammonium superphosphate.
EBD_7027
54 CHEMISTRY
Coke was one of the materials used in the heat shielding on NASA’s Apollo program space vehicles. This material has been used
most recently as the heat shielding on the Mars Pathfinder vehicle. Although not used in modern day space shuttles, NASA had
been planning to utilize coke and other materials for the heat shield for its next generation space craft, named Orion.
CONNECTING TOPIC
CHARCOAL
Charcoal is the light, black residue consisting of impure carbon and remaining ash obtained by removing water and other volatile
constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of substances like
wood, sugar, bones or other organic matter in the absence of oxygen. The resulting soft, brittle, lightweight, black, porous material
resembles coal.
Types of charcoal :
(i) wood charcoal (ii) bone charcoal (iii) sugar charcoal
(i) Wood charcoal : Wood charcoal is obtained by burning wood in limited supply of air.
Properties :
1. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
2. It burns in air at about 400°C to form CO2 gas
400°C
C + O2 ¾¾¾¾® CO2
3. In limited supply of air it forms carbon monoxide (CO)
heat
2C + O2 ¾¾¾ ® 2CO
4. When steam is passed over red hot carbon (wood charcoal), a mixture of CO and H2 called water gas is formed.
C + H2 O ¾¾
® CO + H 2
1424 3
(red hot ) (steam)
water gas
5. Wood charcoal has a property of adsorption.
Uses :
1. Wood charcoal is used as a fuel for igniting fire.
2. Wood charcoal is used in gas masks to absorb poisonous gas.
3. Wood charcoal is used as a constituent of gun powder.
(ii) Animal charcoal or Bone charcoal : It is obtained by heating bones in a retort in the absence of air.
Uses :
1. Animal charcoal is used for decolourising brown sugar.
[Because of its property of absorbing colouring matter]
2. It is used for purifying organic liquids.
3. It is used as artists colour.
(iii) Sugar charcoal : It is obtained by dehydration of cane sugar with concentrated sulphuric acid.
conc. H SO
C12H 22O11 ¾¾¾¾¾¾
2 4® 12C(s) + 11H 2O(l )
(Sucrose) (Sugar charcoal)
Sugar charcoal is a very pure form of carbon.

It is used in preparation of artificial diamonds.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a naturally occurring oil that consists chiefly of hydrocarbons (compounds containing carbon and hydrogen) with some
other elements, such as sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. It is now known that petroleum contains hydrocarbons of the paraffin series,
with upto 100 or more carbon atoms in the chain. The unrefined form of petroleum is called crude oil.
Petroleum is also called rock oil i.e. petro = rock, oleum = oil.
It is believed that petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea. The remains of these organisms were deposited in shallow
depressions in the sea bed long, long, ago. These were covered by layers of sand and clay which compressed these remains. Over a
period of millions of years, the organic matter present in the dead organisms underwent a series of processes before being finally
transformed into petroleum. The petroleum migrated from the source rock to be entrapped in large underground reservoirs beneath
Impermeable rocks. It often floats over a layer of water and is held in this position under pressure beneath a layer of natural gas.
Petroleum is obtained by drilling through the earth and impervious (non-porous) rock above it. The world’s
first oil well to yield petroleum was dug in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. In India, oil was first struck in Madum
in Assam in 1867. The crude oil pumped out form a well is a black liquid. Because of its importance in today’s
world, it is referred to as black gold.
Refining
Petroleum is a mixture of several hydrocarbons. It is a foul - smelling brown black liquid. It also contains water, salt and rocky materials.
It cannot be used in this crude form either as a fuel or as a basic material to produce other useful components. Before being put to use,
it has to be purified or refined. The process of separating the various components of petrol from one another is known as the refining
of petroleum. This is done by a process called fractional distillation which is based on the fact that the different components of
petroleum have distinctly different boiling points.
They are separated in a large fractionating column. Crude oil is piped to the refinery from a well. It is washed with acid and alkali
solutions to remove the basic and acidic impurities respectively. Crude oil is now heated to about 673 K and fed at the base of
fractionating column. All the components except asphalt are in the vapour state. As the mixture of hot vapours rises up in the column,
it begins to cool. The component with the highest boiling point condenses first and is collected. Those with low boiling points
condense later. The residual gases escape uncondensed from the upper part of the column. The various components condensed at
different heights of the column are collected separately. The components obtained at different heights in order from the bottom are
asphalt, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, fuel oil, diesel, kerosene, petrol and petroleum gas.
Some important fractions of petroleum and their uses
Fraction Boiling Point Number of Products Obtained/Uses
Carbon Atom
Petroleum gas below 40° C 1–4 LPG (Liquefied petroleum gas)– fuel for home and industry
Gasoline and naphtha 40°–160° C 4–10 Petrol–motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for dry-cleaning
Kerosene 150°–250° C 10–16 Kerosene–domestic fuel, jet engine fuel
Light oil 250°–350° C 16–20 Diesel–fuel for motor vehicles (especially heavy vehicles),
electric generators
Heavy oil 250°–350° C 20–25 Useful organic chemicals
Residue over 350° C over 25 Lubricating oil–lubricating machinery; Paraffin wax–candles,
vaseline, ointments etc; Asphalt (bitumen)–paints, road surfaces
P oi n t
Why is petroleum refined?
SOLUTION
Petroleum or crude oil that is pumped out from oil wells is not pure. It is a mixture of several compounds. It is refined and converted
into various components so that they can be used for various purpose.
Petrochemicals
The substances which are obtained form petroleum and natural gas are called petrochemicals. These are used in the manufacture of
detergents, synthetic fibres like polyster and nylon, polythene and plastics. Petroleum is also called black gold because of its wide
application as a fuel in industry and home.
EBD_7027
56 CHEMISTRY
CONNECTING TOPIC
Petroleum gas : It is a mixture of ethane, propane and butane. Its main constituent is butane which burns giving off a lot of heat.
Butane is easily liquefied under high pressure. In the liquid form it is supplied in cylinders and is commonly known as Liquefied
petroleum Gas (LPG). It is a colourless, odourless and inflammable gas. A domestic gas cylinder contains about 14.2 kg of LPG. A
strong - smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan is added to the LPG to detect the leakage of gas from the cylinder. On being
lighted, it burns with a blue flame. One gram of LPG produces about 50 kJ of heat.
LPG should be used with care. Any accidental leakage can cause an explosion. If there is any leakage of gas from the cylinder, the
following precautions should be immediately taken -
• Any open flame in the vicinity of the gas should immediately be extinguished.
• Electric bulbs should also be switched off.
• All doors and windows of the room in which the cylinder is kept should be opened to allow the gas to escape.
• The tube and joints attached to the cylinder should be systematically checked for defects.
NATURAL GAS
Occurence :
Natural gas is naturally occuring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons. It is found in porous sedimentary rock in the earth’s crust, usually
in association with petroleum deposits.
Some times natural gas is also found at places where there are no petroleum deposits. But most wells produce natural gas as well as
petroleum. Infact natural gas is obtained as a co-product in petroleum mining.
Natural gas is found along with petroleum in reservoirs under the ground. It is chiefly made up of methane, though butane and propane
are also present in small proportions. It can be easily transported through pipes and is a clean non-polluting fuel. It is stored under
high pressure as compressed natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for power generation. In some parts of India, e.g. Vadodara, CNG is
supplied to homes and factories through pipes and directly used as a fuel. CNG is also now being used as a non-polluting fuel for
vehicles. Natural gas is used as a starting material for the manufacture of a number of chemicals and fertilizers.
Deposits of natural gas are found in India in Tripura, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and in the Krishna-Godavari delta.
Formation :
Natural gas is formed from the decomposition of organic matter buried under sea beds millions of years ago, by a process called
anaerobic fermentation. Anaerobic fermentation is the process of decomposition of complex organic matter, in absence of air by means
of micro-organisms.
Composition :
Natural gas consists mainly of methane (about 85%), ethane (up to about 10%), propane (about 3%) and butane. Carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen sulphide and sometimes helium may also be present.
Uses :
(i) Natural gas burns to produce heat. It can be used in homes and factories as a fuel. In homes and factories, it is supplied through
pipes. Vadodara in Gujarat has a network of such pipelines. Though the transportation of gas through pipelines is costly in the
beginning, it become economical in the long run. Its transportation does not need any additional storage. Such a network of
pipelines is being planned to facilitate the use of this energy resource in several parts of our country.
(ii) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) has been found to be an alternative to petrol as automobile fuel.
(iii) Natural gas is rich source of hydrogen gas which is needed in manufacture of chemical fertilizers.
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Why do we need to conserve our natural resources ?
• These natural resources are essential to meet our routine needs.
• With the rapid increase in population these days the amount or quantity of resources required to meet our needs also increases
vastly.
• Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation results into depletions of forests and other natural resources.
• Mis-management or inefficient use of natural resources as a result of unawareness of their importance.
Many of the important natural resources like minerals, coal and petroleum are exhaustible and takes millions of years to replenish.
Excessive use of many natural resources like coal, petroleum, forests results into contamination of environment. Following are some
examples,
(i) Burning of fossil fuels, cutting forests leads to air pollution and global warming.
(ii) When petroleum products comes into contact with soil and water it results into their contamination.
(iii) Accidental oil spillages on sea leads to massive water pollution.
Find ways in the classroom to reduce, reuse, and recycle. Brainstorm different ideas together and create guidelines to share
to your classmates and family members. You can find ways to reduce waste in your school, and reuse materials to conserve
natural resources. If possible, with the help of your teacher start a recycling drive and challenge schoolmates to see how
much they can recycle. Nearly everything we use can be reduced, reused, or recycled!
In India, the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) advises people with methods of saving
petrol/diesel while driving.
Some tips:
• Drive at a constant and moderate speed as far as possible.
• Switch off the engine at traffic signals or at places where you have to wait.
• Ensure correct tyre pressure.
• Ensure regular maintenance of the vehicle.
SUMMARY
There are two types of natural resources: Inexhaustible Natural Resources and Exhaustible Natural Resource
Examples of inexhaustible natural resources are air, sunlight, etc.
Example of exhaustible natural resources are coal, petroleum, forest, minerals, etc.
Coal and petroleum are known as fossil fuels since they are formed from remains of living organism.
Coal is used to produce electricity in thermal power stations.
Coal gives carbon dioxide when burnt in air.
Coal is mined from earth and processed to obtain many useful products, such as coal, coke, coal tar, etc.
Coke is almost pure form of carbon.
It is obtained from destructive distillation of a particular type of coal.
Coal tar is obtained as one of the by-products while obtaining the coke or coal gas.
Coal tar is used in the manufacturing of many products; such as synthetic dyes, drugs, explosive, perfumes, plastics,
roofing material, etc. as starting material.
Petroleum is a dark oily liquid having unpleasant odour.
Petroleum is formed from the dead remains of living organisms which lived in sea and were buried millions of year ago below
the sea bed.
After extraction, petroleum is refined to obtain petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, wax, paraffin, bitumen, kerosene, etc. Place
where refining process of petroleum is done is called petroleum refinery.
Natural gas is naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas. Natural gas is a mixture of methane, higher alkanes, carbon dioxide, etc.
Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formation as fossil fuel. It is one of the most important fuel.
Natural gas can be transported through pipeline and can be compressed to smaller volume.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used for running vehicle. Natural gas can be used directly for burning as fuel. It is a clean
fuel as it creates least pollution.
Natural gas is used as starting material in many industries, such as fertilizer and chemical.
In India natural gas reserves are found in Tripura, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Krishna and Godavari delta.
Petroleum, coal, natural gas, etc. are natural resources but available in limited amount. Thus, it is necessary to use them with
care.
EBD_7027
58 CHEMISTRY
Fill in the Blanks : 10. Peat contains 96% carbon and burns without smoke
11. The distribution of coal deposits is uniform in the earth’s
DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an crust
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). 12. Coke is 98% carbon like charcoal it is good fuel and burns
1. Natural gas mainly consists of .............. without smoke
2. The main products obtained from the destructive distillation 13. Coal tar is a mixture of different carbon compounds. It is a
of coal are .............. compounds .............. tar and .............. thick, black liquid
gas. 14. Ammoniacal liqour contains ammonia produced as a result
3. We can separate petroleum into its various fractions by of destructive distillation of coal is absorbed in water
fractional/distillation because the different fraction have 15. Methane is released during mining of coal.
different ..............
16. Petroleum is formed from the fossils remains of dead animals.
4. The process of conversion of wood into coal is called
17. Inhaling coal dust is useful for humans.
..............
5. .............. is the variety of coal with maximum carbon content. 18. Carbonisation is formation of coal from the carbon content
6. Petroleum and natural gas were formed from dead .............. of dead plants.
7. In fractional distillation, hydrocarbons with the .............. 19. Compressed natural gas is a non polluting fuel.
(highest/lowest) boiling points condense first. 20. Petroleum gets its name from petra and oleum means rock
8. Petroleum or crude oil pumped out from ............... is not oil.
pure. 21. Natural gas can be sent to the houses through pipes.
9. Coal mining causes many ............... impacts on environment. 22. Oxygen in air is an exhaustible natural resource.
10. These days ............... is being used in vehicles in place of
23. Wildlife is an exhaustible natural resource.
petrol and diesel.
11. Lignite contains about ............... percent carbon. 24. CNG is less polluting fuel than petrol and diesel.
12. Coal gas contains ...............and ............... gases. Match the Following :
13. Producer gas is a mixture of ............... and ...............
14. The crude oil is heated to a high temperature and passed DIRECTIONS : Following question contains statements given
into ............... column. in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C
15. Formation of fissil fuels is a very ............... process. and D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r
16. The black thick liquid with .............. smell is known as coal and s) in column II.
tar.
17. Excessive burning of fossil fuels is a major cause of .............. 1. Column-I Column-II
True / False : A. Natural gas (p) It is produced in marshy
areas by the action of
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your bacteria feeding on dead
answer as true or false. vegetation.
1. The percentage of carbon in anthracite is 60%. B. L.P.G. (q) Contains mainly methane.
2. Petroleum is called black gold. C. Kerosene (r) Used as a domestic fuel.
3. Bituminous coal is softer than anthracite. D. Bio-gas (s) Obtained as a liquid frac-
4. Petroleum is a fossil fuel tion of refining of
5. Petroleum is formed by the decomposition of remains of petroleum
marine
6. The refined form of petroleum is called crude oil 2. Column-I Column-II
7. Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resources called A. Kerosene (p) Road surfacing
petroleum B. Paraffin wax (q) Fuel for vehicles
8. Coal is the purest form of carbon
9. The destructive distillation of coal gives coke, coal tar, coal C. Bitumen (r) Manufacturing candles
gas, etc. D. Gasoline (s) Jet engine fuel
Very Short Answer Questions: 12. Which fuel is used in jet aeroplanes ?
13. Name the petroleum product used to manufacture candles,
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence. vaseline, grease, polish, etc.
1. What is producer gas ? Short Answer Questions :

2. What is water gas ?
3. What is meant by carbonization ? DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
4. Fuel In year 2011 1. Classify the following as exhaustible and inexhaustible
Petroleum 23 natural resources :
Water, Minerals, Coal, Natural Gas, Petroleum, Sunlight,
Nuclear power 5
Wind, Forests
Solid biomass and organic waste 23
2. How is petroleum formed?
Natural gas 8
3. Why are coal, petroleum and natural gas called fossil fuels?
Coal 41
4. List five things that you can do to help in preventing an
On the basis of the data given in the table above what is the energy crisis.
primary source of energy in India ?
5. Why do different gases condense to liquids on different
5. Give name of a non-polluting fuel which can be used in trays in the fractionating column ?
vehicles. 6. What do you mean by emission standard used in
6. Why is petroleum called black gold ? automobiles ?
7. Name the gas which is produced when coal is heated in 7. What are the measures given by PCRA for saving petrol
absence of air. and diesel ?
8. Where was the first oil well drilled ? 8. Why is depletion of coal, petroleum and forest a matter of
concern ?
9. Expand PCRA.
9. (a) What is coal?
10. Which gas is produced when coal burns in air ?
(b) Where is coal found?
11. Is kerosene a fossil fuel ?
Long Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.

1. Discuss some important methods to conserve our natural resources.
2. Sunlight and water are inexhaustible natural resources. How can they help in saving exhaustible resources ?
3. Write down two uses of each of the natural resources given in table:
EBD_7027
60 CHEMISTRY
Text-Book Exercise : Exemplar Questions :

1. What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels? 1. What does CNG stand for and why is it considered to be a
better fuel than petrol ?
2. Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.
2. Write two important uses of coke.
3. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is
this process called? 3. Name the products obtained and their uses when coal is
processed in industry.
4. Fill in the blanks :
4. Write some important uses of the various constituents of
(a) Fossil fuels are _________, __________ and petroleum.
___________ . 5. Name the petroleum product used as the fuel for stoves,
(b) Process of separation of different constituents from lamps and jet aircrafts.
petroleum is called __________. HOTS Questions :
(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicle is ________.
1. What is meant by refining of petroleum ? What is a refinery?
5. Tick True/False against the following statements :
2. How does coal mining affect the environment ?
(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (T/F) 3. Justify that water is a limitless resource.
(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (T/F) 4. How many substances are found in coal tar ?
(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T/F) 5. Name some non-conventional or alternative sources of
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T/F) energy.
6. All renewable resources are inexhaustible. Do you agree ?
(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (T/F)
7. In a petroleum well, crude oil is found above water. Which
6. Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.
two peoperties must petroleum have to form a layer above
7. Describe characteristics and uses of coke. water ?
8. Explain the process of formation of petroleum.
9. The following Table shows the total power shortage in India
from 1991– 1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot
shortage percentage for the years on the Y-axis and the
year on the X-axis.
S. No. Year Shortage (%)
1 1991 7.9
2 1992 7.8
3 1993 8.3
4 1994 7.4
5 1995 7.1
6 1996 9.2
7 1997 11.5
Multiple Choice Questions : (b) Petroleum was formed from living sea organisms which
after death get deposited in sea bed for long period of
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 33 multiple choice time.
(c) Petroleum contains traces of chlorophyll.
(d) Oil fields are located with the help of seismograph.
1. Select the one that is not derived from fossil fuel.
9. Gasoline is obtained from crude petroleum oil by its
(a) LPG (b) Kerosene
(a) fractional distillation
(c) Diesel (d) Biogas
(b) vacuum distillation
2. The conversion of wood into coal occurs by a biochemical
process that takes over millions of years and is known as (c) steam distillation
................. (d) pyrolysis
(a) catenation (b) carbonisation 10. Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel because
(c) pyrolysis (d) destructive distillation (a) it is easy to transport through pipes and emits no
3. Water gas is pollutants.
(a) CO + CO2 (b) CO + N2 (b) it is a mixture of various constituents
(c) CO + H2 (d) CO + N2 + H2 (c) it is used as a fuel in many industries
4. Main constituent of marsh gas is (d) it is a tough porous and black substance
(a) ethane (b) acetylene 11. Natural gas mainly contains
(c) ethyne (d) methane (a) ethane (b) butane
5. Petroleum refining is – (c) propane (d) methane
(a) distillation of petroleum to get different fractions of it. 12. Kerosene is used as fuel
(b) obtaining aromatic compounds from aliphatic (a) in home and industry
compounds present in petroleum. (b) for heavy motor vehicles
(c) cracking of petroleum to get gaseous hydrocarbons. (c) for stove, lamps and jet aircraft
(d) purification of petroleum. (d) for electric generator
6. The natural petroleum contains 13. We can use coke
(a) saturated hydrocarbons. (a) as an oxidising agent (b) as a reducing agent
(b) cyclic saturated hydrocarbons. (c) in printers ink (d) as electrode.
(c) compounds of sulphur. 14. Coal tar is a
(d) All of these. (a) black, thick liquid.
7. Kerosene is used as fuel because it is (b) dark, oily liquid.
(a) less volatile (b) more volatile (c) tough, porous and black substance.
(c) cheap (d) abundantly available (d) gas.
8. The origin of petroleum is indicated by the fact that 15. Now-a-days coal gas is used as a source of
(a) Its constituents can be separated by fractional (a) light (b) heat
distillation. (c) electricity (d) steam
EBD_7027
62 CHEMISTRY
16. Which type of coal has highest percentage of carbon? 26. Lignite coal contains how many percentage of carbon?
(a) Anthracite (b) Bituminous (a) 60% (b) 67%
(c) Peat (d) Lignite (c) 64% (d) 88%
17. Coal gas is a mixture of – 27. What is the actual composition of natural gas.
(a) CH4 + H2 + CO (b) C4H10 + H2 (a) CH4(85%), C2H6(10%), C3H8 (3%) and small amount
(c) C4H10 + H2O (d) C2H6 + H2 + O2 of C4H10
18. Gasoline is the name of (b) CH4 (10%), C2H6 (85%), C3H8 (3%) and small amount
of C4H10
(a) Crude oil
(c) CH4 (88%), C2H6 (10%) and small amount of C3H8
(b) The fraction of petroleum condenses with in the range
and C4H10
of 343–393 K and have composition of C7 – C9.
(d) CH4 (65%), C2H6 (20%), C3H8 (10%) and 5% of C4H10
(c) The mixture of uncondensed gases produced in the
distillation of crude oil 28. Which of the following is boiling range of diesel oil
(d) The mixture of residue and gas oil obtained in the (a) 573 K to 623 K (b) 423 K to 573 K
distillation of crude oil (c) 622 K to 673 K (d) 373 K to 623 K
19. The order of appearance of the following with rising 29. Which of the following sources of energy can be a good
temperature during the refining of crude oil is alternative to coal in a power station ?
(a) kerosene oil, gasoline, diesel (i) Geothermal energy
(b) diesel, gasoline, kerosene oil (ii) Energy from water
(c) gasoline, diesel, kerosene oil (iii) Energy from petrol
(d) gasoline, kerosone oil, diesel (iv) Energy from plants
20. Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resources called (a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (iv) only
(a) sun (b) petroleum (c) (i), (ii) and (iii) only (d) All of the above
(c) coal tar (d) coal gas 30. Read the following statements and mark the correct ones
21. The process of heating coal in the absence of air is called from the given options.
(a) Fractional distillation (i) Coal, petroleum and natural gas are called fossil fuels.
(b) Distillation (ii) Coal and natural gas are two exhaustible substances.
(c) Destructive distillation (iii) Coke is used in manufacture of steel
(d) None of these (iv) Fossil fuels are present in limited quantities
22. Which is the best variety of coal? (a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iv)
(a) Peat (b) Lignite (c) (i), (ii) and (iii) (d) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) Anthracite (d) Bituminous 31. Besides the risk of pollution, fossil fuels also pose a risk of
23. Natural gas mainly contains (a) global warming (b) water pollution
(a) ethane (b) butane (c) leakage (d) explosion
(c) propane (d) None of these 32. Consider the following statements.
24. The non-combustible element of producer gas is 1. Natural gas can be supplied to homes and factories
through pipes.
(a) CO (b) N2
2. Natural gas is obtained by fractional distillation of crude
(c) H2 (d) H2O
oil.
25. Destructive distillation of coal produces
3. Natural gas is a cleaner fuel because on burning only
(a) coal gas (b) natural gas
water is produced.
(c) biogas (d) None of these
4. Natural gas is an exhaustible source of energy like
fossil fuels.
Which alternative has the correct statements ? Passage Based Questions :

(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4 DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the
following questions.
33. Coal is a fossil fuel and it cannot be prepared in a laboratory
or industry because the formation of coal Passage
1. is a very slow process When petroleum is heated in a fractionating column, various
2. need very low pressure and low temperature fractions are obtained at various heights of the column. More
3. need very high pressure and high temperature volatile liquid goes upto the top and least volatile liquid remains
at the bottom. Various gaseous fractions are condensed according
4. causes air pollution to their boiling points.
Select the correct alternative 1. Which will condense near the top, petrol, diesel oil, fuel oil
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 4 or kerosene ?
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 4 and 3 (a) Petrol (b) Diesel oil
(c) Fuel oil (d) Kerosene
2. What can you say about the boiling points of liquids that
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 7 Multiple Choice collect at the bottom as residue ?
Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (a) Their boiling points must be very low.
of which ONE OR MORE may be correct. (b) Their boiling points must be much higher
(c) Their temperature is equal to the temperature of column
1. Select the correct statements about coke
(d) None of the above
(a) It is a crystalline form of carbon
3. As the gas reaches at the height where temperature is equal
(b) It contains about 90% carbon to or just below its boiling point it will
(c) It is used as reducing agent (a) condense to form a liquid
(d) It is a black porous substance (b) remain in gaseous state
2. Choose the products obtained from fossil fuels. (c) condense to form a solid
(a) Coal (b) Coke (d) escape from the column
(c) Coal tar (d) Oxygen
3. Which of the following is not obtained on fractional Assertion & Reason :
distillation of petroleum?
(a) Gasoline (b) Light oil DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(c) Coal gas (d) Kerosene followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
4. Which of the following are produced from coal tar? on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
(a) Synthetic dyes (b) Drugs best describes the two statements.
(c) Perfumes (d) Soap and detergent
5. Which of these is/are not fossil fuels ? (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is
(a) Coal (b) LPG the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Biogas (d) Natural gas (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is
6. Which of the following statements is/are true ? not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(a) Petroleum is a fossil fuel.
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(b) Petroleum is formed by the decomposition of remains
1. Assertion : Coal gas is a mixture of methane, hydrogen and
of marine.
carbon monoxide.
(c) The refined form of petroleum is called crude oil.
Reason : It is obtained when coal is burnt in excess of air.
(d) Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource
2. Assertion : Anthracite is the purest form of coal.
called petroleum.
Reason : It contains about 50% carbon.
7. Mark the incorrect statements. 3. Assertion : CNG and LPG are clean fuels.
(a) Fossil fuels can be made in laboratory Reason : They do not leave any residue on burning.
(b) CNG is more polluting than petrol 4. Assertion : Petroleum or crude oil pumped out of oil well is
(c) Petroleum is a mixture of various oxides of carbon not pure.
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances Reason : Petroleum is refined to get various fraction which
can be used for a specific purpose.
EBD_7027
64 CHEMISTRY
5. Assertion : Petrol is more volatile than diesel oil. Integer Type Questions :
Reason : Petrol condenses near the top of the column than
diesel oil. DIRECTIONS : Following are integer based questions. Each
6. Assertion : Air and sunlight are inexhaustible natural question, when worked out will result in one integer from 0 to 9
resources. (both inclusive).
Reason : Air and sunlight are present in unlimited quantity
in nature. 1. Number of exhaustable resources among the following is
Air ,Forests , coal , sunlight, petroleum
Multiple Matching Questions : 2. How many products are obtained from destructive
distillation of coal
DIRECTIONS : Each question has four statements (A, B, C and
3. How many among the following are fossil fuels
D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
Coal, petroleum,Charcoal,Wood.
Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
4. The given reaction represents formation of producer gas:
matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
2CO + O2 +4N2 ® xCO + 4N2
Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
Here x is
1. Column-I Column-II
A. Peat (p) 98% carbon
B. Lignite (q) 90% carbon
C. Anthracite (r) 70% carbon
D. Lampblack (s) 60% carbon
ADVANCED EXERCISE
8. Butane gas is used for fillling cylinders to be used as LPG
because
(a) it is easily available
(b) it is easily compressed into a liquid and stored in
1. Activated charcoal is used in gas masks because cylinders
(a) it is a good adsorbent (c) it is stored in gaseous state only in the cylinder
(b) it is a good reducing agent (d) it is the cheapest ga available
(c) it burns without smoke
(d) it is highly active DIRECTIONS (Qs. 9-11) : This section contains multiple choice
2. LPG is a mixture of questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
(a) C6H12 + C6H6 (b) C4H10 + C3H8 of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
(c) C2H2 + C2H4 (d) CH4 + C2H4 9. Choose the correct statements :
3. On the basis of following features identify the correct (a) Animal charcoal is obtained by heating bones in a
process retort in absence of air.
I. This process can be carried out with or without catalyst (b) Animal charcoal is used for decolourising brown sugar.
II. This process is carried out to meet the increasing (c) Sugar charcoal is used in preparation of synthetic
demands of gasoline diamonds
III. In this process higher hydrocarbons breakdown to (d) Adsorption is a surface phenomenon.
give smaller hydrocarbons 10. On dehydration of cane sugar with concentrated sulphuric
(a) Refining (b) Destructive distillation acid, we get
(c) Cracking (d) Rerforming
(a) Sugar charcoal
4. On the basis of following features identify the correct gas
(b) an allotrope of carbon that is amorphous
I. This gas is commonly known LPG.
(c) an allotrope of carbon that is a very pure form of carbon.
II. This gas is commonly used as domestic fuel
(d) wood charcoal.
III. A strong smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan is
11. Which of the following precaution (s) should be taken if in
added to detect the leakage of this gas.
case there is any leakage of gas.
(a) Ethane (b) Butane
(a) All doors and windows of the room in which cylinder
(c) Propane (d) Butene
is kept should be opened.
Conc. (b) All lights of the room should be turned on.
5. C12 H 22O11 ¾¾¾¾
®12C + 11H 2O
H2SO4
(c) Any open flame nearby should be immediately
Which of the following is obtained in the above reaction ? extinguished.
(a) Animal charcoal (b) Sugar charcoal (d) All of the above are incorrect.
(c) Coke (d) Wood charcoal
6. Ethyl mercaptan is added to LPG DIRECTIONS (Qs. 12-14) : Study the given paragraph(s) and
(a) to give colour to it (b) to give volume to it answer the following questions.
(c) to give smell to it (d) to make it liquid Passage
7. Mark the incorrect statement. Liquefied petroleum gases are a feedstock for the petrochemical
(a) Burning of coal in a sufficient amount of oxygen industry. LPGs undergo a very complex process called pyrolysis,
produces carbon dioxide.
taking place at very high temperatures. The resulting products
(b) When coal burns in insufficient amount of oxygen,
are called olefins - ethylene and propylene. These are
carbon monoxide is formed.
subsequently polymerized and transformed into polymers or
(c) Charcoal is a better fuel than kerosene to be used as
plastic, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or other products.
fuel for cooking at home.
Thus, the polyethylene bags, disposable dishware, food packing
(d) LPG is considered to be a good fuel for domestic use.
EBD_7027
66 CHEMISTRY
and wrapping materials we use in everyday life are produced from 17. Assertion : Charcoal does not produce any smoke.
liquefied gases. Reason : Charcoal contains only carbon.
12. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) consists of mainly ? 18. Assertion : Bone charcoal cannot act as a reducing agent
(a) Methane Ethane and Hexane Reason : Since bone charcoal contains maximum percentage
(b) Ethane Hexane and Nonane of calcium phosphate so it can not act as a reducing agent.
19. Assertion : Wood charcoal is used as one of the
(c) Methane Butane and Propane
constituents of gun powder.
(d) Ethane Nonane and Methane
Reason : Word charcoal is used as a deodorant and
13. Products obtain during pyrolysis of Liquefied Petroleum
disinfectant.
Gas are
(a) Ethylene and propylene DIRECTIONS (Qs. 20-21) : Each question contains statements
given in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A,
(b) Methylene and Ethylene B, C, D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r,
(c) Butylene and Propylene s) in column II.
(d) Ethane and butane
20. Column-I Column-II
14. After polymerization Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is
converted to get A. Produce less pollutants (p) LPG
(a) Camphor on burning
(b) Polymers B. Ethyl marcaptan is (q) Wood charcoal
added to check its
(c) Coal
leakage
(d) None of these
C. Used as a fuel in (r) CNG
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 15-19) : Each of these questions contains an automobiles
Assertion followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer D. Fuel obtained by (s) Sugar charcoal
the question on the basis of following options. You have to select burning wood in
the one that best describes the two statements. limited supply of air
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the 21. Column-I Column-II
correct explanation of Assertion. A. Crude oil refining (p) Petrol
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not B. Domestic and jet engine (q) Coal gas
the correct explanation of Assertion. fuel
(c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. C. Coal processing (r) Kerosene
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. D. Mixture of H2, CH4 (s) Coal Tar
15. Assertion : The main constituent of LPG is butane. and CO
Reason : A small quantity of mercaptan is added to cooking
gas cylinders supplied for domestic use. DIRECTIONS (Qs. 22-23) : Following are integer based
questions. Each question, when worked out will result in one
16. Assertion : Sugar charcoal is prepared by dehydration of
integer from 0 to 9 (both inclusive).
sugar.
Reason : Sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent. 22. How many of them are the main components of LPG.
C3H8, C4H10, C2H6, CH4, C2H2, C2H4, C5H12
23. How many types of charcoal are known?
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
Match the Following :

1. A ® (q), B ® (r), C ® (s), D ® (p)
Fill in the Blanks : 2. A ® (s), B ® (r), C ® (p), D ® (q)
1. Methane Very Short Answer Questions :

2. Ammonium, Coal, Coal 1. Producer gas is a mixture of flammable gases (CO & H2) and
3. Boiling point nonflammable gases (mainly N2 and CO2).
4. Carbonisation 2. Water gas is a mixture of carbon mono oxide and H2.
3. It refers to heating of a substance in absence of air.
5. Anthracite 4. Coal is the primary source of energy in India.
6. Organism 5. Compressed natural gas or CNG is a non-polluting fuel.
7. highest 6. Petroleum is called black gold because of its important uses
8. oil wells in all the industries and daily life.
9. adverse (bad) 7. Coal gas.
10. CNG 8. The first oil well was drilled at Pennsylvania, USA in 1859.
11. 38 9. Petroleum Conservation Research Association.
10. Carbon dioxide is produced when coal burns in air.
12. hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide C + O2 ® CO2
13. carbon monoxide and nitrogen 11. Yes, It is obtained from fractional distillation of petroleum.
14. fractionating 12. The fuel used in Jet aeroplanes is unleaded Kerosene (Jet
15. slow A) or a neptha-kerosene blend (Jet B).
13. Praffin wax
16. unpleasant
17. air pollution Short Answer Questions :
1. Exhaustible natural resources :
True / False :
Minerals, Coal, Natural Gas, Petroleum, Forests
1. False 2. True Inexhaustible natural resources :
3. True 4. True Water, Sunlight, Wind
5. True 2. Petroleum is formed from organisms living in the sea. As
these organisms die, their bodies settle down at the bottom
6. False : The unrefined form of petroleum is called crude oil
of the sea and get covered with layers of sand and clay.
7. True 8. False. Over millions of years, absence of air, high temperature and
9. True 10. False. pressure transform the dead organisms into petroleum and
11. False. 12. True natural gas.
3. Coal,Petroleum and Natural gas are called fossil fuels
13. True 14. True
because they are formed from dead plants and animals deep
15. True buried under the rocks millions of year ago.
16. True 4. Five things that can help in preventing an energy crisis are:
17. False : Inhaling coal dust is harmful for humans. (i) Hydroelectric power stations, though they produce
only 12% of the total power in India, should be
18. True
encouraged further.
19. True : CNG is a cleaner and non-polluting fuel. (ii) Switch to renewable energy.
20. True : Petra = rock, oleum = oil. (iii) Install energy-efficient appliances in the home.
21. True 22. False (iv) Save water and do not waste food.
23. True 24. True (v) Rely less on fossil fuels.
5. When the gases are heated in a fractionating column they
start rising up. As each gas reaches a height where the
EBD_7027
68 CHEMISTRY
temperature of the furnace is just equal to or below the solar heaters and wind mills should be done. Sunlight can
boiling point of the gas it condenses to form a liquid, for be used to produce electricity. Though water is inexhaustible
example, when steam rises in a column and the moment it source of energy the abnormal increase in human population
touches a surface cooler than 100°C. it condenses to form has resulted in water crisis. Water should be conserved and
water. various methods like water harvesting should be done for
6. Euro I, Euro II, etc., are vehicular emission standards aimed sustainability of water as a resource.
at reducing atmospheric pollution. They ensure better and
more efficient running of the vehicles without any wastage 3. Natural
S.No. Uses
of the fuel. Indirectly they help in saving the fossil fuels. Resources
7. The measures given by PCRA are 1. Cooking fuel
(i) Drive at a constant and moderate speed as far as 1 Coal 2. Used as a fuel in railway engines
possible.
to produce steam
(ii) Switch off the engine at traffic lights or at a place where
you have to wait. 1. Manufacture of steel
2 Coke
(iii) Ensure correct tyre pressure. 2. Extraction of metals
(iv) Ensure regular maintenance of the vehicle. 1. Synthetic dyes and drugs
If we follow the tips given by PCRA then we can save more 3 Coal tar
petrol or diesel. 2. Sealing agent against leakage
8. To meet the fuel requirement of our ever increasing 1. Street light
4 Coal Gas
population, we are overusing coal and petroleum on a large 2. Industrial fuel
scale. It is apprehended that they may get exhausted in the
near future. Similarly, trees in forests are being cut down
recklessly for human settlement and establishment of
industries. Though the forests are renewable natural
resources, their regeneration requires a lot of time. The
Text-Book Exercise :
depletion of forests also results in the disappearance of
wildlife. 1. Advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels are as follows
(i) They can be easily transported in cylinders through
9. (a) Coal is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon,
pipelines.
hydrogen and oxygen. Small amount of nitrogen and (ii) They are clean fuels and gives no ash particles after
sulphur compounds are also present in coal. burning.
(b) Coal is usually found in coal mines deep under the (iii) They can be used directly for burning in homes and
surface of the earth. factories.
(iv) They can give lot of heat energy when burnt.
Long Answer Questions :
2. Bitumen, a petroleum product is used for surfacing of roads.
1. Few measures to manage and conserve our natural resources 3. About 300 million years ago the earth had dense forest in
are : low lying wetland areas. Due to natural processes, like
(i) Reduce : Resources should be used sparingly and flooding, these forests got buried under the soil. As more
when absolutely necessary for e.g., save electricity by soil deposited over them, they were compressed. Their
not wasting it. temperature also rose as they sank deeper and under high
(ii) Recycle : Recycling saves the natural resources so pressure and temperature these dead plants got slowly
that their sustainability is maintained. converted into coal.
(iii) Control pollution : Some of the important steps to check The process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is
environmental pollution are called carbonisation.
(a) Identification of the sources and causes of 4. (a) coal, petroleum, natural gas
pollution (b) refining
(b) Estimation of capacity of environment to tolerate (c) CNG
pollution. 5. (a) (F) Fossil fuels are formed by natural process from
(iv) Biodegradable waste should be converted to non-toxic the dead remains of living organisms.
and more efficient fuels which will decrease the pressure (b) (F) CNG is a cleaner fuel than petrol.
on the fossil fuels. (c) (T) Coke is an almost pure form of carbon.
(v) Alternative sources of energy should be utilized. (d) (T) Coaltar is a mixture of about 200 substances.
2. Sunlight, wind and water are inexhaustible natural resources. (e) (F) Kerosene is a constituents of petroleum hence it
They can be utilized as alternative sources of energy. They is a fossil fuel.
will reduce our dependence on coal and petroleum. Use of
6. Fossil fuels require millions of year to form from the dead 5. Kerosene is used as fuel for stoves, lamps and jet aircrafts.
remains of living organisms at high temperature and pressure.
They cannot be formed in laboratory. They are used at much HOTS Questions :
faster rate than rate of their formation. Due to which fossil 1. The process of separation of various fractions of petroleum
fuels are exhaustible in nature. by the process of fractional destillation is called refining of
7. Characteristics of Coke: petroleum. The plant (place) where crude oil is precessed
(i) It is tough, porous and black substance. and refined into more useful petroleum products, is called a
(ii) It is an almost pure form of carbon. refinery.
(iii) It burns much cleaner than coal. 2. Coal mining, causes many adverse environmental impacts.
During mining of coal, a lot of methane, which is a dangerous
Uses:
‘greenhouse gas,’ is released. It also interferes with
(i) It is used in manufacture of steel. groundwater and water table levels. Inhaling coal dust is
(ii) Used in extraction of many metals. harmful for humans. Burning of coal, in addition greatly
8. Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea. contributes to ‘greenhouse gas’ emissions, climate change
These dead organisms got settled at the bottom of the sea and global warming. Strip mining (removed of soil and rock)
and got covered with layers of sand and clay. Over millions severely alters the landscape, which damages the
of years, absence of air, high temperature and high pressure environmental value of the surrounding land. Mountain top
transformed the dead organisms into petroleum. removal to extract coal is taken to be a large negative change
to the environment.
9. Shortage (%)
14 3. Water is a limitless resource but by unwise use and cutting
11.5 of trees water resources can be depleted.
12
4. Approximately 200 substances are present in coal tar.
10 9.2 5. Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, ocean thermal energy
7.9 7.8 8.3 7.4 and geothermal energy are some of the non-conventional
8 7.1
sources of energy.
6
6. Yes, all renewable resources are inexhaustible as they are
4 present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely to
2 be exhausted by human activities , the resources can be
used again and again. for example air sunlight etc.
0 7. In a petroleum well crude oil is found above water. The two
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
properties due to which it form layer above water are:
Exemplar Questions : (i) It is lighter than water.
(ii) it is insoluble in water.
1. CNG stands for Compressed Natural Gas. It is considered
to be a better fuel because it is less polluting.
2. It is used for extraction of many metals and also for the
manufacture of steel.
3. Coal when processed in industry gives coke, coal tar and Multiple Choice Questions :
coal gas.
1. (d) All others are obtained by refining of petroleum which
Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and in extraction of
is a fossil fuel.
many metals.
2. (b)
Coal tar is used as starting material for manufacturing various
sustances such as synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, 3. (c) water gas is a mixture of CO and H2
perfumes, paints, etc. 4. (d)
Coal gas is used as fuel. 5. (a)
6. (d) Petroleum is a naturally occuring crude oil containing
4. • Petroleum gas in liquid form (LPG) – used as fuel for
saturated, cyclic, unsaturated hydrocarbons with some
home and industry.
other elements, such as sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen.
• Petrol – used as fuel for automobile and aviation.
7. (b)
• Kerosene – used as fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet 8. (b)
aircrafts. 9. (a) Fractional distillation is used because the difference
• Diesel – used as fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric between the boiling point of different components is
generators. less.
• Lubricating oil – used for lubrication. 10. (a) Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel because it is
• Praffin wax – used in ointments, candles, vaseline etc. easy to transport through pipes.
• Bitumen – used in paints and road surfacing. 11. (d)
EBD_7027
70 CHEMISTRY
12. (c) Kerosene is used as fuel in stoves, lamps and jet 5. (b)
aircrafts. 6. (a) Air and sunlight are not likely to be exhausted by
13. (b) Coke can be used as a reducing agent in metallurgy. human activities hence they are called inexhaustible
14. (a) Coal tar is a black, thick liquid. natural resources.
15. (b) Now-a-days, coal gas is used as a source of heat. Multiple Matching Questions :
16. (a) It is hard coal and contains about 96% carbon whereas
peat, lignite and bituminous contians 60, 67 and 88% 1. A ® (s), B ® (r), C ® (q), D ® (p)
of carbon respectively.
Integer Type Questions :
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (d)
1. 3
20. (b) Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource
Petroleum ,coal and forest are exhaustable.
called petroleum.
2. 4
21. (c) The process of heating coal to a high temperature in
Coke , coal tar, coal gas and ammonium compounds.
the absence of air is called destructive distillation of
3. 2
coal. It yields products such as coke, coal gas, etc.
Petroleum and Coal.
22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (a) 4. 2
26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (a) 29. (a)
30. (d) All statements are correct.
31. (a) Fossil fuels produce greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide which are responsible for global warming.
32. (d) 33. (c) 1. (a)
More Than One Option Correct : 2. (b) LPG is a mixture of C4H10 (Butane), C3H8 (propane)
1. (a, b, c, d) and C2 H6 (ethane). Main constituent is butane
2. (b, c) (C4H10).
3. (b, c) 3. (c) 4. (b)
5. (b) Conc. H2SO4 dehydrates sugar to give sugar charcoal.
Coal gas is obtained by destructive distillation of coal.
6. (c) Since constiuent hydrocarbons of LPG do not have
4. (a, b, c) any smell, ethyl mercaptan, a strong smelling agent is
Synthetic dyes, drugs, perfumes all are made from coal tar. added to it to detect the leakage.
5. (a, c, d) 7. (c)
LPG is not a fossil fuel as it is obtained from distillation of 8. (b) Butane can be easily compressed and liquefied to be
petroleum. The rest three are fossil fuels as they are formed filled into cylinders.
under earth’s crust. 9. (a, b, c, d)
6. (a, b, d) 10. (a, b, c)
The unrefined form of petroleum is called crude oil. 11. (a, c)
7. (a, b, d) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b)
15. (b)
Passage Based Questions : 16. (b) Sulphuric acid removes water from sugar and converts
1. (a) Petrol condenses near the top of the column since it is it to sugar charcoal.
more volatile than other three. 17. (a) Charcoal is a processed fuel hence burns completely
2. (b) Their boiling points must be much higher than the without any smoke.
temperature at the bottom of fractionating column 18. (a)
hence they do not boil. 19. (b)
3. (a) As the gas reaches a height where temperature is equal 20. A - (p, r), B - (p), C - (r), D - (q)
to or just below its boiling point, it will condense to 21. A - (p, r), B - (r), C - (q, s), D - (q)
form a liquid. 22. 2
The main components of LPG are hydrocarbon containing
Assertion & Reason :
three or four carbon atoms. The main components of LPG
1. (c) Coal gas is obtained by destructive distillation of thus are propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10).
coal. 23. 3
2. (c) Anthracite contains more than 90% carbon. There are three types of charcoal
3. (a) (i) Wood charcoal
4. (b) Petroleum is refined by fractional distillation to get (ii) Boan charcoal
various useful fractions. (iii) Sugar charcoal
Chapter
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
4
INTRODUCTION
In last chapter you have studied about variety of fuels and their importance to meet our routine energy needs. You are
now well aware of fuels used at domestic scale like candle to produce light, wood or coal to cook food in villages, LPG
to cook food in towns, petrol and diesel to run motor vehicles etc. Some uses of fuels at massive scale are use of coal to
produce electricity in coal fired power stations, natural gas is used for heating and lightning purposes through
network of pipelines. Therefore energy is produced when fuels are burnt but following are some questions which may
arise in the mind of reader.
• Do all materials burn and can be used as a fuel ?
• Different fuels burns in a similar manner or not ?
• Why different fuels are needed for different purposes ?
In this chapter we will find out the answers to the above questions and will study the chemical process of burning and
the types of flame produced during the process.
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72 CHEMISTRY
COMBUSTION
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance (fuel) burns in the presence of air (oxygen) with the release of heat and light,
the flame. On combustion the burning fuel gets oxidised (combines with oxygen) to form new substances. Sometimes, combustion is
accompanied with the production of sound as well. The sound produced may be a hissing sound, crackling sound or an explosion.
C + O2 ® CO2 + Heat
CH4 + O2 ® CO2 + H2O + Energy
Combustibility is a measure of how easily a substance will catch fire. On the basis of combustibility substances are broadly divided
into two categories.
A substance that burns in air or oxygen to produce heat and light is called a combustible substace, e.g., paper, wood, kerosene, LPG.
A substance that does not burn in air or oxygen is called a non-combustible substance, e.g., stone, metal.
You have seen that a combustible substance that can be used to produce heat at a reasonable cost is called a fuel.
Thus every combustible substance which burns cannot be used as a fuel.
Conditions Necessary for Combustion :
(i) Combustible substance: Firstly substance to be burnt must be combustible (the substance must catch fire easily). Some of the
combustible substances are fossil fuels and their processed products, wood, paper, alcohols, ether etc.
(ii) Supporter of combustion: The presence of a supporter of combustion is another condition for combustion to take place. They
are nothing but the substances which help in combustion of a combustible substance. Oxygen and air are the supporter of
combustion. Air contains 21% of oxygen (a supporter of combustion) by volume and 78% of nitrogen by volume which is neither
combustible nor a supporter of combustion. That is why combustible substances burn at moderate rate in air but burn at a very
fast rate in oxygen.
You might have observed or aware of the fact that air is blown into the traditional chullahs to start fire. This shows that air or
oxygen is a supporter of combustion.
Another example to support the above fact is that it is recommended to cover a person with blanket whose clothes catches fire
to cut off air supply.
Sun also produces heat and light but it is not due to combustion as combustion cannot take place there due
to absence of combustion supporter oxygen. The heat and light produced in the sun is a result of nuclear
reactions occurring there which you will study in higher classes.
(iii) Ignition temperature: Another condition for combustion to take place is that the combustible substance should be heated so
that its temperature reaches to its ignition temperature. No substance can burn below its ignition temperature. The lowest
temperature at which a substance catches fire is called ignition temperature.
Have you ever throught why a matchstick does not burn at its own ? A matchstick burns only when it is rubbed on the side of
a matchbox.
Incident of forest fires due to ignition of dry grass occurs in extreme hot conditions only.
A paper can burn by bringing burning matchstick near it but a piece of wood or coal does not.
Cooking oil catches fire when kept in open pan for prolong heating.
A kerosene oil or petrol ignites with little spark but this is not the case with wood or coal.
All the above experiences or facts indicates that different substances catch fire or ignites at different temperatures. Thus every
substance has a particular ignition temperature at which it ignites.
An empty paper cup with air in it catches fire immediately by bringing burning matchstick near it whereas
paper cup filled with water or wetted with water does not as heat supplied by matchstick gets transferred to
water by conduction thereby not allowing paper to reach its ignition temperature.
Combustion and Flame 73
Inflammable Substances :
Flammable and inflammable are two words that are commonly confusing. Flammable and inflammable means exactly the same thing
that burns easily. Those substances which has low ignition temperature and burns easily are called inflammable substances. Examples
or CNG, LPG, Petrol, Kerosene, alcohol etc. Special care should be taken while handling and storing such substances.
Contents of Matchsticks :
A matchstick is a small stick of wood with a solidified mixture of flammable chemical deposited on one end, when that end is struck on
a rough surface, the friction generates enough heat to ignite the chemicals and produce a small flame.
Woods used to make matchsticks must be porous enough to absorb various chemicals, and rigid enough to withstand the bending
forces encountered when the match is struck. They should also be straight-grained and easy to work, so that they may be readily cut
into sticks. White pine and aspen are two common woods used for this purpose.
In earlier days a mixture of antimony trisulphide, potassium chlorate and white phosphorous with some glue and starch was applied
on head of a match. However white phosphorous proved to be dangerous. These days the head of the safety match contain antimony
trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing surface has powdered glass and little red phosphorous which is much less dangerous.
Collect around ten substances namely wood, plastic, cloth, coal, Aluminium foil, Tin can, Rubber sheet, Dry leaves, Kerosene
oil, cow dung cake.
Now burn these materials one by one and observe carefully.
(1) Which substances, readily catches fire on burning producing less smoke and
(2) Which catches fire on prolonged burning producing a lot of smoke.
Based on the observation classify the substance as combustible and non-combustible material.
CONTROL OF FIRE
• As we all know that fire is must to fulfill our routine needs but if we do not take necessary measures it can goes out of control
and can be very disasterous, it can ruin forests, huge buildings and even towns.
Any fire needs three things to be present: Fuel, Air (oxygen) and Heal. Thus in case of fire accident, fire can be extinguished (put
off) by eliminating any of the three requisites of combustion.
(a) Removal of combustible material, the fuel.
(b) Cutting off the supply of air (oxygen)
(c) Lowering the temperature of the fuel to below its ignition temperature.
• The process of extinguishing a fire is called fire fighting. In case of fire accident, fire-fighters rush to the accident site with a
tanker full of water, a pumping device and other fire-fighting equipment like axe, rope and ladders.
Methods of Controlling Fire:
(i) By using water : The first important method is to spray the burning material with water. This helps in two ways: (a) lowering the
temperature of the burning materials, and (b) putting off flames by cutting off the supply of oxygen to the flames.
Thus the fire is extinguished.
Water is a good extinguisher in case of paper and wood fire. But in case of electrical equipments water cannot be used because
water conducts electricity and can harm those trying to put out the fire.
Moreover in the case of oil fires, to extinguish the fire, the burning material is not sprayed with water. Water is heavier than oil.
On spraying water it sinks and oil floats, and the fire continues.
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74 CHEMISTRY
It is not necessary that heat and light are always produced during oxidation.
(ii) By using carbondioxide: For fire involving electrical equipments and inflammable materials such as petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2)
is the best extinguisher. Carbon dioxide (CO2), being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire like blanket. As the contact between
the fuel and oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. CO2 does not harm electrical equipments.
CO2 can be stored and transported at a high pressure in cylinders like LPG. When knob of cylinder is opened CO2 expands
enormously and cools down. Thus it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the temperature of the fuel.
P oi n t
Water should not be used to put off electrical fires or burning oil and pertrol. Instead sand or soil should be used. Why?
SOLUTION
Water should not be used for oil or pertrol fires because oil and pertrol are lighter than water hence they float on water and keep
burning on the surface. Water may conduct electricity and chances of short circuiting will be more.
CONNECTING TOPIC
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
A fire extinghuisher is a device used for putting of fires.
Different types of CO2 fire extinguisher used for putting off fires are following :
Types of fire extinguishers
(i) “Dry powder’ fire extinguisher : It contains a mixture of sand and baking soda (i.e. sodium bicarbonate). When thrown over
the burning material, baking soda is decomposed by the heat of fire to produce carbon dioxide, which being heavier than air
cuts off the contact between air and fire. (i.e. the CO2 layer is formed between the flame and air)
heat
® Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2 (Carbon dioxide)
2NaHCO 3 ¾¾¾
(ii) “Soda - acid” fire extinguisher : It consists of a metallic cylinder filled with a Hose
solution of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). At the bottom of the cylinder, a thin

Steel cylinder
sealed glass tube containing concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is placed. Strong solution of
This tube is surrounded by a fixed wire gauze. A plunger with a sharp end is sodium hydrogen
carbonate
placed at the bottom of cylinder in such a way that the sharp end is placed at the Glass bottle
Conc.
sealed thin glass tube. On the top of the cylinder, a nozzle which is sealed with sulphuric acid
wax is provided.
When the plunger is hit against the floor, the sharp tip of the plunger breaks the
Soda-acid fire extinguisher
glass test-tube. The acid in the test-tube reacts with sodium bicarbonate to
produce carbon dioxide gas which is forced through the nozzle. The wax seal is broken off, thus forcing CO2 gas out through the
nozzle. The fire is put off when the gas is directed against the fire.
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 ¾¾
® Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
(iii) “Foam-Type” fire extinguisher : It is similar to soda-acid fire extinguisher. However sodium bicarbonate solution also contains
a substance Saporin or turkey red oil which produces a foam with the gas and the solution issuing from the nozzle. The foam
being light will float on the surface of oil fires, thus cutting off the air supply.
TYPES OF COMBUSTION
Explosive Combustion
A combustion in which a substance burns suddenly and produce heat, light and sound with the help of heat or pressure is called
explosive combustion or explosion. When a cracker is ignited it explodes with a big-bang producing heat and light (sparkles). Same is
true with the firing of a gun. Big sound is produced alongwith combustion. Firewood burns with a crackling sound.
Spontaneous Combustion
In this type of combustion a material suddenly bursts into flames without the application of any apparent cause.eg. Spontaneous
forest fires are sometimes due to the heat of the sun or lighting strike and sometimes due to the carelessness of human beings
spontaneous combustion takes place at room temperature. The heat required for spontaneous combustion is produced inside, the
substance by its slow oxidation. Spontaneous combustion is usually undergone by those substances which have quite low ignition
temperature. For example white phosphorus burns in air at room temperature.
Rapid Combustion
This is a combustion in which a substance burns rapidly and produces heat and light with the help of external heat for example cooking
gas (in our homes), spirit, petrol and camphor go to flames even with a spark from a gas lighter. These materials are highly inflammable.
You might have observed "Highly Inflammable" written on petrol tankers. This is a warning to keep a flame away from these tankers;
Slow Combustion
This type of combustion occurs at moderate speed. In this combustion, fuel is not burnt completely. This results in the production of
smoke due to unburnt carbon particles. Burning of wood, coal, wax candle, pieces of paper or such other materials is a slow combustion.
FLAME
Do you know that everything that burns does not produce flame. A flame is produced as a result of rapid combustion when
combustible substance is in the vapour state and burns strongly in the presence of air. For example, kerosene oil, molten wax and
mustard oil rise through the wick and are vaporised during burning and form flames.
Wick is a loosely twisted thread made from absorbent fibre, which is generally cotton or it is a spongy material. One end of the
wick in a lamp is kept dipped in the liquid fuel, the other end is kept free in the air. The free end of the wick is also soaked in oil
or fuel and is lighted. The wick catches fire and bears the flame.
A candle mainly has three zones.
(i) Inner most zone or Dark zone :
It is the least hot or the coolest part of the flame and it is dark.This zone is surrounding the wick of the candle. It consists of
unburnt wax vapours, which have carbon particles hence the black colour. No combustion takes place in this zone.
Hot outermost
zone of complete
combustion
Innermost zone Middle zone of

of unburnt wax incomplete
and gaseous combustion
form
The Candle Flame
(i) The blowpipe is used by gold smiths to blow air into the outermost zone of flame so as to make it hotter.
This hot flame is used to melt silver or gold.
(ii) The greater the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of a fuel, the greater is the capacity to produce heat.
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76 CHEMISTRY
(ii) Middle or luminous zone : It is the largest zone of candle flame and is moderating hot. It is bright and luminous.
The wax vapours do not burn completely in the middle zone as the supply of oxygen is inadequate. It leaves a black soot and
other residues on an object placed here. The carbon particles glow emitting a yellow light.
(iii) Outermost non-luminous zone : This zone of the flame is thin and blue in colour. This is the hottest zone of the flame. Because
of adequate supply of oxygen, complete combustion occurs. The temperature of this zone is maximum around 1800°C.
• There is a small region near the base of the flame. Vaporised wax gets oxidised to carbon monoxide and carbon monoxide burns
completely with a blue flame in this zone.
Luminous zone of a flame is mainly due to incomplete burning of carbon. In the case of fuel gas (LPG or CNG)
there is no soot formation. The gases burn with a blue flame oxidising hydrocarbons completely.
CONNECTING TOPIC
Chemical Description of a Burning Candle :
Twenty five percent of the energy created by combustion is given off as heat. A small portion of the radiant heat from the candle
flame feeds back into the candle and melts the wax to fuel the flame. The candle flame surface itself is the place where fuel (wax
vapor) and oxygen mix and burn at high temperatures, radiating heat and light. Heat from the flame is conducted down the wick and
melts the wax at the wick base. The liquid wax rises up the wick because of capillary action. As the liquid wax nears the flame, the
flame's heat causes it to vaporize and combine with oxygen. The vapors are drawn into the flame where they ignite. The heat
produced melts more wax, and so on. Carbon dioxide and water is produced and forms and reforms many carbon rich particles
(soot). The soot is drawn up into the top part of the flame where increased temperature causes the carbon to luminesce and burn.
Fresh oxygen from the surrounding air is drawn into the flame primarily because of convection currents that are created by the
released heat. Hot gases produced during burning are less dense than the cooler surrounding air. They rise upward, and, in doing
so, draw the surrounding air, which contains fresh oxygen, into the flame. Solid particles of soot that form in the region between the
wick and flame are also carried upward by the convection currents. They ignite and form the bright yellow tip of the flame. The
upward flow of hot gases causes the flame to stretch out in a teardrop shape.
The wax is actually a complex mix of various long molecules that all have a chain of carbon atoms as a "backbone." Many hydrogen
atoms are attached to the carbon atoms.
H2O, CO2
(Unburned
carbon)
Light yellow
1200°C Luminous zone
Dark Red Main reaction

Brown zone
1000°C
White
1400°C Primary (initial)
Reaction zone
(Carbon particles)
Orange
800°C
O2 O2
Dead spaces
600°C
Blue
Candle Flame reaction zones, emissions, and Temperature

FUELS
The materials which are burnt to produce heat energy are known as fuels. Wood, coal, domestic gas (LPG), kerosene oil, diesel, petrol
etc. are all fuels.
Glowing charcoal does not produce a flame.

Wood at first gives flame but later glows like charcoal.
When fuels burn completely they produce a flame without smoke.
When a fuel is not completely burnt, it produces a smoky flame.
P oi n t
Gaseous fuels are better fuels than solid and liquid fuels. Explain.
SOLUTION
Gaseous fuels leave no residue after burning also they have high calorific value because their combustion is complete.
Characteristics of a Good Fuel:

While selecting an ideal fuel for domestic or industrial purpose we should keep in mind that the fuel selected must possess the
following characteristic properties.
1. It should possess high calorific value.
2. It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should neither be too low nor too high.
3. It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should not cause pollution on combustion.
4. It should have moderate rate of combustion.
5. Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop as and when required.
6. It should not leave behind much ash on combustion.
7. It should be easily available in plenty.
8. It should have low moisture content.
9. It should be cheap.
10. It should be easy to handle and transport.
Calorific Values of Different Fuels
Fuel Calorific Value (kJ/kg)

Cow dung cake 6000-8000
Wood 17000-22000
Coal 25000-33000
Petrol 45000
Kero sene 45000
Diesel 45000
Methane 50000
CNG 50000
LPG 55000
Biogas 35000-40000
Hyd rogen 150000

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78 CHEMISTRY
Uses of Fules
Fuels are very important for our life and without them our life is impossible. Following are some uses of common fuels which make them
important for us.
(i) Gasoline is the most obvious fuel used in daily life. It runs our cars, school buses and other vehicles every day.
(ii) Natural gas can be used to power the heating systems, stove tops, water heaters and dryers in our homes.
(iii) Oil and natural gas play important role in our daily lives, and in some ways you might not expect: Hydrocarbons are the building
blocks of vital products such as plastics, pharmaceuticals and more.
(iv) Many electrical plants burn coal as the primary fossil fuel for powering the electrical supply for homes across the country.
Types of Fuels :
(a) Solid fuels : Dung cakes, firewood, straw and other agricultural wastes, charcoal, coal (mined fossil fuel) like steam coke and soft
coke, paraffin wax, tallow (animal fat) and may be camphor.
(b) Liquid fuels: Fossil fuel (petroleum) or crude oil from which petrol (also called gasoline), kerosene, diesel and other fuel products
are obtained.
(c) Gaseous fuels : LPG (Liquid petroleum gas) being used as cooking gas in our households, CNG (Compressed natural gas)
obtained from natural oil wells. Natural gas is methane which is given out from putrefying organic matter, biogas (prepared in our
villages from animals dung and farm waste) and also being collected and supplied from sewage plants, Coal gas (gas obtained
from heating hard coke and converting it into coke), water gas (prepared by passing steam over red hot coke), butane gas
obtained from natural gas, and acetylene, a gas made by adding calcium carbide to water. Acetylene produced is with a little
unpleasant smell and was at one time primarily used for welding purposes. Flame from acetylene is hot and is also used for
cutting metals.
Calorific Value of Fuel or Fuel Efficiency :
• Calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat energy given out on burning one unit of fuel in the presence of fully required
amount of oxygen for its burning.
• Calorific value is used to compare the efficiency of two fuel.
• Hydrogen has a highest calorific value of 150 kJ/gm.
• Any fuel containing oxygen in it has less calorific value because oxygen supports combustion but does not burn.
• Fuel having higher mass percentage of H have high calorific value eg. Calorific value of CH4 > C2H6.
Scientists are working on using hydrogen as a fuel, as it has the highest calorific value and creates no
pollution after burning. Some success has been achieved and hydrogen is expected to the fuel of the future.
Impacts of Burning Fuels on Environment

Increase in consumption of fuel lead to many harmful effects on environment. Following are some points which clearly explain these
effects.
1. Burning of carbon containing fuels like wood, coal, coke, petroleum etc., results into discharge of ash and unburnt carbon
particles in the air. These fine particles are called SPM (Suspended Particulate Matter). SPM leads to respiratory diseases like
asthma, bronchitis etc.
2. Incomplete combustion of coal, gasoline and other fossil fuels liberates carbon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons. Carbon
monoxide (CO) combines with haemoglobin in the blood to form carboxy-haemoglobin and makes it incapable of transporting
oxygen. Many hydrocarbons are carcinogenic and hence, are serious health hazards.
3. Combustion of most fuels results into discharge of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Moreover deforestation also reduces
number of trees absorbing carbon dioxide. Thus these two factors results into elevated levels of carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide has ability to absorb infrared radiation emitted by the earth and re-radiate it back. This effect is known as
‘greenhouse effect’. It is speculated that if the concentration of CO2 in atmosphere increases significantly this could have the
effect of increasing the average temperature of the earth. This phenomena is called global warming which leads to rise in the sea
level, causing floods in the coastal areas.
4. Bruning of coal and diesel results into discharge of sulphur dioxide into atmosphere. It irritates the nose, throat, and airways to
cause coughing, wheeing, shortness of breath, or a tight feeling around the chest. Similarly automobile exhaust contains oxides
of nitrogen which leads to respiratory problems. Collectively these oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dissolves in rain water and
forms corresponding nitric and sulphuric acid thereby making rain water acidic leading to acid rain.
Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees at high elevations (for example, red spruce
trees above 2,000 feet) and many sensitive forest soils. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints,
including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation’s cultural heritage.
Due to heavy pollution caused by traditional fossil fuels petrol and diesel automobiles are being replaced by
CNG these days as it causes less pollution problems.
Measures to Conserve Fuels

As you all know how important fuels are for us and we have limited stock of fuels thus conservation of fuels is very important .
Following are some measures we can take at individual level to conserve fuel.
• Next time when your mother is going to cook, suggest her that all material needed for cooking should be available before she
switch on the gas.
• Suggest your father that he should regularly check tyre pressure of his car.
• When you go out for short distance prefer walking rather than using car/motorbike.
• Prefer public transportation for travelling rather than using private vehicles.
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80 CHEMISTRY
Fill in the Blanks : 5. Wood is a better fuel than LPG.

DIRECTIONS : Complete the following statements with an 6. It is difficult to burn dry leaves but green leaves catch fire
appropriate word / term to be filled in the blank space(s). easily.
7. Colour of outer zone of a candle flame is blue while middle
1. .............. is the substance which reacts with oxygen and
zone is yellow in colour.
turns to release energy.
8. Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives carbon dioxide.
2. During an explosion a large amount of .............. is given out.
9. Charcoal does not vaporise, so it does not produce a flame.
3. The .............. zone in a candle flame is the zone of no
10. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are produced by burning of
combustion.
coal and diesel which cause acid rain.
4. The amount of heat liberated when one kilogram of a fuel is
11. Carbon dioxide, water vapours, heat and light are the
completely burnt in sufficient supply of oxygen is
products of combustion.
called.............. of the fuel.
12. At airport and petrol pump soda acid fire extinguishers are
5. .............. is a gaseous fuel which can be stored in cylinders.
not used.
6. On burning, solid fuels leave residue and..............
13. Magnesium is a non-combustible metal.
7. .............. has corroded the marble structure of Taj Mahal.
8. .............. is used to control fires involving electrical Match the Following :
equipments.
DIRECTIONS : Following question contains statements given
9. Ignition temperature of a log of wood is.............. than a in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B,
splinter. C and D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q,
10. Respiration is a .............. combustion. r and s) in column II.
11. Combustion of white phosphorus in air is an example of 1. Column-I Column-II

.............. combustion.
A. Materials which (p) Oxygen
12. When the clothes of a person catch .............., the person is burn readily
covered with a .............. .
B. Heat produced by (q) Ignition temperature
13. The substances which have very .............. ignition
burning unit mass
temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame are called
of fuel
.............. substances.
C. Point of catching fire (r) Calorific value
True / False : D. Supporter of (s) Combustible
combustion
DIRECTIONS : Read the following statements and write your
answer as true or false. Very Short Answer Questions:
1. To extinguish petrol fire we can use water. DIRECTIONS : Give answer in one word or one sentence.
2. Carbon dioxide is effective for fire fighting. 1. What is a flame ?
3. Carbon monoxide is neither combustible nor a supporter of 2. What is the cause of smoky flame ?
combustion. 3. What is a fire extinguisher ?
4. Name any two types of fire extinguishers commonly used.
4. In luminous zone of candle a incomplete combustion of wax
5. How does water extinguish fire ?
vapours takes place with liberation of maximum heat energy.
6. What is the colour of LPG flame ?
7. Why does charcoal not produce flame ? Long Answer Questions :

8. Name three substances used to extinguish fire.
9. Coal is used in power generation. What is the power DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.
generated in such a way known as ?
1. What are the various problems caused by combustion of
10. Why is sand used for fire extinguished to be efficient ?
fuels ?
11. On what parameters is a fuel considered to be efficient ?
2. Explain the phenomenon of explosion with suitable
12. What are the fine particles released on burning carbon-
examples.
containing fuels called ?
3. (a) Label different zones of candle flame in the following
13. What is the full form of CNG and LPG?
figure.
14. What is SI unit of calorific vlaue?
15. Is rusting of iron a combustion process.
Short Answer Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Give answer in 2-3 sentences.
1. Why does a loud noise produced when a fire cracker is

burst?
2. Give reasons for the following :
(b) Explain the three different zones of candle flame. What
(a) The use of diesel and petrol as fuel in automobiles is
kind of combustion occurs in each?
being replaced by CNG.
4. Write down the examples of each types of fuel in the given
(b) A matchstick starts burning by rubbing it on the side table.
of the match box.
3. What are the harmful effects of increasing consumption of S.No. Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous fuel
fuels ? 1
4. Write the colours of the flame produced by 2
(a) Kerosene lamp 3
(b) Candle 4
(c) Bunsen burner
5. The calorific values of petrol and CNG are 45000 kJ/kg and
5. Give any three examples of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
50,000 kJ/kg, respectively. If you have vehicle which can
6. What are the disadvantages of using wood as a fuel ? run on petrol as well as CNG, which fuel will you prefer and
why ?
6. Although wood has a very high calorific value, we still
discourage its use as a fuel. Explain.
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82 CHEMISTRY
Text-Book Exercise : 2. Boojho wants to separate the following materials as

combustible and non-combustible. Can you help him ?
1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.
3. You are provided with three watch glasses containing milk,
2. Fill in the blanks:
petrol and mustard oil, respectively. Suppose you bring a
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes ________ of air.
burning candle near these materials one by one, which
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is ________. material(s) will catch fire instantly and why ?
(c) Fuel must be heated to its ________ before it starts 4. Manu was heating oil to fry potato chips. The cooking oil
burning. all of a sudden caught fire; he poured water to extinguish
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by the fire. Do you think this action was suitable. If yes, why ?
________. If not, why not ? In such a condition what should Manu
3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced have done ?
pollution in our cities. 5. Two glass jars A and B are filled with carbon dioxide and
4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels. oxygen gases, respectively. In each jar a lighted candle is
5. Give reasons: placed simultaneously. In which jar will the candle remain
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical lighted for a longer time and why?
equipment. 6. People usually keep Angethi/burning coal in their closed
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood. rooms during winter season. Why is it advised to keep the
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of door open ?
paper wrapped around an aluminium pipe does not. 7. Cracker on ignition produces sound. Why ?
6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame. HOTS Questions :
7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is
expressed. 1. CO2 is chief gas responsible for global warming (Green
8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires. house effect), why ?
2. Why does the flame of candle rise up to good height on
9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves
burning ?
catch fire easily. Explain.
3. Hydrogen has the highest calorific value, but it is not used
10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting
as a fuel. Why ?
gold and silver and why?
4. A flame always points upwards. Why do you think this is
11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The
so?
heat produced was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the
calorific value of the fuel. (Hint : Gases produced in a flame are hot, and hence lighter)
12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss. 5. Only gases burn with a flame. When you burn wood it
initially burns with a flame. Later it only glows without a
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water
flame. What do you think the answer is?
was to be heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the
wick in the yellow part of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the 6. When a fuel is burnt, carbon dioxide (or carbon monoxide)
beaker in the outermost part of the flame. Whose water will and water vapour are given out. Can you name one fuel
get heated in a shorter time? which burns without giving off water vapour?
7. Your LPG gas stove at home is giving a yellow flame. What
Exemplar Questions : can this mean?
1. Anu wants to boil water quickly in a test tube. On observing 8. Why do forest fires occur during hot summers?
the different zones of the flame, she is not able to decide
which zone of the flame will be best for boiling water quickly.
Help her in this activity.
Multiple Choice Questions : 12. Which one is the best fire extinguisher ?
(a) SO2 (b) CO2
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 31 multiple choice (c) NO2 (d) O2
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out 13. The colour of luminous zone of a candle flame is
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) black (b) blue
(c) yellow (d) None of these
1. Water is used to extinguish fire because water 14. Which of the following is example of spontaneous
(a) raises the ignition temperature of the burning substance. combustion?
(b) lowers the ignition temperature of the burning (a) Burning of matchstick
substance. (b) Combustion of fuel by motor vehicles.
(c) cools the burning substance to a temperature below its (c) Lightning of kerosene lamp.
ignition temperature. (d) Combustion of coal dust in coal mines.
(d) conducts the heat. 15. Molten wax on heating releases
2. Which of the following has highest calorific value? (a) water and carbon dioxide
(a) Petrol (b) Coke
(b) carbon and hydrogen
(c) Natural gas (d) Kerosene
3. Combustion is a ............. reaction accompanied by heat and (c) carbon dioxide and hydrogen
light – (d) water and carbon
(a) reduction (b) redox 16. Observe the following figure carefully and answer the
(c) substitution (d) oxidation following question.
4. Outermost zone of flame is called
(a) Luminous zone (b) Non-luminious zone Hot outermost
(c) Dark zone (d) None of these zone of complete
5. The fuel having lowest calorific value is combustion
(a) H2 (b) C6H12O6
(c) kerosene (d) CH4 Innermost zone Middle zone of
6. Incomplete combustion of fuel produces and gaseous combustion
(a) CO2 (b) CO form
(c) H2O (d) H2
7. Combustion is the process of
(a) vaporisation of fuel
(b) oxidation of fuel
(c) burning of fuel with the evolution of heat and light The Candle
(d) production of explosive sound Which zone of candle flame in above figure is the hottest
8. Vapourised wax gets oxidised in zone?
(a) blue zone (b) dark zone (a) Innermost zone
(c) luminous zone (d) non-luminous zone (b) Middle zone
9. Hottest part of the flame? (c) Outermost zone
(a) blue zone (b) dark zone (d) All flames are equally hot
(c) luminous zone (d) non-luminous zone 17. Which of the following is correct definition of ignition
10. Select the quality that a good fuel should possess. temperature?
(a) High calorific value (a) The lowest temperature at which a substance catches
(b) A low calorific value fire spontaneously.
(c) It should burn too fast (b) The lowest temperature at which a substance catches
(d) It should burn too slow. fire.
11. Select the fuel with highest calorific value ? (c) The lowest temperature at which a substance changes
(a) LPG (b) Kerosene oil its physical state.
(c) Wood (d) Hydrogen gas (d) The lowest temperature required for a chemical reaction
to take place.
EBD_7027
84 CHEMISTRY
18. Which of the following is correct definition of calorific value (b) This prevents the fire from spreading.
of fuel? (c) Water vapours help in cutting off the supply of air.
(a) It is the amount of heat required for burning one unit (d) All of the above
of fuel in presence of oxygen. 28. The substance that does not burn with flame is
(b) It is the amount of heat energy given out on burning (a) LPG (b) dry grass
one unit of fuel. (c) camphor (d) charcoal
(c) It is the amount of heat energy given out on burning 29. Choose the correct statement about inflammable substances
one unit of solid fuel. from the following. They have
(d) It is the amount of heat energy given out on burning (a) low ignition temperature and cannot catch fire easily
one unit of gaseous fuel.
(b) high ignition temperature and can catch fire easily
19. Which of the following is best explanation of statement:
(c) low ignition temperature and can catch fire easily
Metabolism of glucose is considered as combustion
(a) It involves reaction of glucose molecule with oxygen (d) high ignition temperature and cannot catch fire easily
(b) Products obtained are CO2 and H2O therefore it is a 30. Choose the incorrect statement from the following
combustion reaction occurs at slow and steady rate. Forest fires are usually due to :
(c) This reaction occur as rapid as combustion reaction. (a) carelessness of humans
(d) This reaction release enormous amount of energy (b) cutting of trees
20. Which of the following is best explanation of statement: (c) heat of sun
Water should never be used to extinguish oil fires. (d) lightning strike
(a) Water is heavier than oil, on spraying water it sinks 31. Shyam was cooking potato curry on a chulha. To his surprise
and oil floats, and the fire continues. he observed that the copper vessel was getting blackened
(b) Water is lighter than oil, on spraying water it sinks and from outside. It may be due to :
oil floats and the fire continues. (a) is readily available.
(c) Water reacts with oil and form a new flammable (b) producers a large amount of heat.
compound. (c) leaves behind many undersirable substances.
(d) Oil fire is very intense it convert water in to steam and (d) burns easily to air at a moderate rate.
evaporate it off.
21. LPG burns with a More than One Option Correct :
(a) non-luminous flame
(b) luminous flame DIRECTIONS : This section contains 6 Multiple Choice
(c) yellow flame Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
(d) both (a) and (b) of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
22. In improved chulhas, smoke is removed by
(a) pipes (b) windows 1. Water can be used as fire extinguisher to put out –
(c) doors (d) chimney (a) burning wood (b) burning oil
23. Digestion of food is in an example of (c) burning cloth (d) burning charcoal
(a) incomplete combustion 2. Which is/are not fuel(s) ?
(b) complete combustion (a) Wood (b) Carbon monoxide
(c) slow combustion (c) Nitrogen (d) Oxygen
(d) rapid combustion 3. Which of the following gases cause acid rain ?
24. In presence of water, ignition temperature of paper (a) Ammonia (b) Hydrogen
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) Oxides of Nitrogen (d) Sulphur dioxide
(c) remains constant (d) can decrease or increase 4. Burning is accompanied with
25. The head of the safety match contains a mixture of (a) evolution of heat (b) evolution of energy
(a) antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. (c) evolution of light (d) evolution of electricity
(b) potassium chlorate and red phosphorus 5. We can prevent energy crisis if we
(c) antimony trisulphide and white phosphorus (a) use non-renewable sources of energy
(d) glass powder and potassium chlorate (b) slow down the use of fuels like coal and petroleum
26. Place a piece of burning charcoal an iron plate and cover it (c) start using sources like wind, sunlight, hydro energy,
with a plastic jar. The charcoal stops burning because etc.
(a) its ignition temperature is lowered (d) use wood & coke instead of coal & petroleum
(b) supply of oxygen is out off 6. Fire extinguishers extinguish the fire by
(c) it becomes cold after some time (a) cutting off the supply of air
(d) None of the above (b) bringing down the temperature of fuel
27. Why do fire brigades pour water on the fire ? (c) supplying air to the fuel
(a) Water cools the combustible material so that its (d) bringing down the temperature of fire
temperature is brought below its ignition temperature.
Passage Based Questions : (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
following questions. the correct explanation of Assertion.
Passage-1 (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
Any substance that can be burnt or otherwise consumed to 1. Assertion : Innermost zone of the flame is cooler than the
produce heat energy is called a fuel. Wood, natural gas, petrol, outer zones and is dark.
kerosene, diesel, coal, and LPG are commonly used as fuels. Fuel Reason : The middle zone is largest zone of flame and this
serves as a major part of our energy requirement. Petroleum, a zone gives soot and smoke.
major fuel is widely used in our everyday lives and also used to 2. Assertion : Luminous zone of a flame is mainly due to
power automobiles. Usually fuels are compounds of carbon and incomplete burning of carbon
hydrogen, thus they combine with oxygen on burning and liberate Reason : In luminous zone hydrogen burns with a brilliant
yellow luminous flame.
carbon dioxide and water.
3. Assertion : Calorific value of methane is greater than ethane
1. Which fuels are used for running automobiles? Reason : Fuels having higher percentage of hydrogen have
(a) Wood (b) Coal higher calorific value.
(c) Diesel (d) Charcoal 4. Assertion : Fire can be extinguished by cutting off the
2. Which of the following is/are carbon fuel supply of oxygen.
(a) Wood (b) Coal Reason : Oxygen is a supporter of combustion
(c) Petroleum (d) All of these 5. Assertion : Candle burns with a flame whereas coal does
not.
3. Fuel may be
Reason : Coal does not vapourise on combustion.
(a) Solid (b) Liquid 6. Assertion : Diesel and petrol can not be used as household
(c) Gas (d) All of these fuels for cooking.
Reason : They are highly non-flammable substances.
Passage-2 7. Assertion : Coal fire can be started by using a lighted
Carbon fuels such as wood, coal, petroleum release unburnt carbon matchstick
particles in the environment. These particles are very dangerous Reason : Coal has a high ingnition temperature.
pollutants and cause respiratory diseases for example
asthma.When fuels are incompletely burnt, they release carbon Multiple Matching Questions :
monoxide gas in the atmosphere. This gas is very dangerous as it
is poisonous in nature. The combustion of fossil fuels also DIRECTIONS : Following question has four statements (A, B, C
releases a large amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. and D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
Carbon dioxide is a green house gas which is responsible for Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
global warming. Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
dioxide gas. This gas is extremely corrosive and suffocating in Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
nature. Petrol gives off oxides of nitrogen. The oxides of sulphur 1. Column-I Column-II
and nitrogen get dissolved in rain water and form acids. A. Oxides of sulphur (p) Respiratory irritants
4. Unburnt carbon particles causes and nitrogen
(a) Stomach infections (b) Respiratory problems B. Burning of gasoline (q) Rapid combustion
(c) Brain infections (d) Throat problems in automobiles
5. Global warming is caused due to____ concentration of CO2 C. Fuel burnt in (r) Acid rain
in air vapour phase
D. Use of LPG as (s) Flame
(a) Decreased (b) increased
domestic fuel
(c) Both (a) & (b) (d) None of these
6. Burning of coal and diesel releases Integer Type Questions :
(a) NO2 (b) CO2
(c) SO2 (d) CO DIRECTIONS : Following are integer based questions. Each
Assertion & Reason : (both inclusive).
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an assertion 1. How many among the following are solid fuel ?
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question Petrol, LPG, Coal, Wood, Cow dung cake, Charcoal , CNG,
on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that Biogas.
best describes the two statements. 2. How many among the following are\ produces flame
Candle, Magnesium, Camphor, Coal
EBD_7027
86 CHEMISTRY
ADVANCED EXERCISE
(a) high pressure (b) low pressure
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (c) high temperature (d) low temperature
7. CO2 is given off by chemicals like
(a) NaHCO3 (b) CaSO4
1. Which of the following substances is used in place of H2SO4 (c) Na2SO4 (d) H2SO4
in foam type of fire extinguisers ? 8. Which among the following statements is false?
(a) Saponin (b) Aluminium sulphate (a) Oil slick in sea water increases D.O. value.
(c) Sodium carbonate (d) Alcohol (b) The main reason for river water pollution is industrial
2. Hydrocarbon burns to produce and domestic sewage discharge.
(a) CO2 + water vapour + Heat + light (c) Surface water contains a lot of organic matter mineral
(b) CO2 + O2 nutrients and radioactive materials.
(c) CO2 + H2 + energy (d) Oil spill in sea water causes heavy damage to fishery.
(d) CO + H2 DIRECTIONS (Qs. 9-13) : This section contains multiple choice
3. Daily use candles (paraffin wax) contain questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
(a) higher saturated hydrocarbon of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
(b) lower saturated hydrocarbon
9. Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of solid fuels ?
(c) higher unsaturated hydrocarbon
(a) Their ash content is high
(d) lower unsaturated hydrocarbon
(b) They are easy to transport
4. The salt used in soda acid type extinguisher is
(c) Cost of production is low
(a) potassium chlorate
(d) Easy to store
(b) sodium nitrate
10. Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of liquid fuels?
(c) sodium bicarbonate
(a) Require less furnace space for combustion
(d) potassium sulphate
(b) Clean in use
5. Which of the following diagram shows a non-luminous
(c) Can be stored indefinitely
flame?
(d) Leaves less ash content
Pale blue Dark blue 11. Which of the following is/are advantage(s) of gaseous
fuels ?
(a) They have high heat content
(b) They are clean in use
Dark blue Pale blue
(c) They can be lighted at moment’s notice
(a) (b)
(d) They can be transported through network of pipelines
12. Which of the following is/are disadvantage(s) of gaseous
fuels ?
Yellow Dark Blue (a) very large storage tanks are needed
(b) higher possibilities of fire hazards
(c) they are costly
Yellow (d) they leaves no ash on burning
Dark blue
13. The zone that does not produce light in the candle flame is
(c) (d)
(a) non-luminous zone
(b) luminous zone
(c) invisible zone
(d) All zones give light
6. CO2 is stored as a liquid in cylinder at

DIRECTIONS (Qs. 14-16) : Study the given paragraph(s) and
answer the following questions. (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
17. Assertion : Water fire extinguishers can be used for solids
Passage
only, such as wood, paper, plastics and fabrics
Fire extinguishers are more popular, compared to the remaining
Reason : water is a bad conductor of electricity
Fire protection systems. There are a variety of fires. Each fire type
18. Assertion: the substances classified as fuel must necessarily
, cannot treated the same way that, is why we have to use different
contain one or several of the combustible elements
fire extinguishers for different fires. For example, a water type fire
extinguisher cannot be used for an electrical fire. Fire extinguishers Reason: carbon, hydrogen, sulphur are combustible
work on the principle that by isolating oxygen from, the fuel and substances.
ignition; the Fire triangle is effectively broken. Hence, the fire 19. Assertion: The heat of the flame vaporizes the liquid wax .
stops immediately. However, Fire extinguishers are supposed to Reason: These vaporized molecules are drawn up into the
be used for small fire or fire in an infant stage. flame
14. Which of these fire extinguisher is most suitable for electrical
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 20) : Each question contains statements given
fires?
in two columns which have to be matched. Statements (A, B, C,
(a) CO2 (b) water D) in column I have to be matched with statements (p, q, r, s) in
(c) wet chemical (d) foam column II.
15. Which of these materials would you use a water fire
extinguisher on? 20. Column-I Column-II
(a) paper (b) wood A. Petrol (p) Water
(c) plastic (d) all of these B. electrical wires (q) Foam
16. Besides a CO2 fire extinguisher, which type of fire C. textile (r) Dry powder
extinguisher can you use on electrical fires? D. flammable gases (s) CO2 gas
(a) Wet chemical fire extinguisher (a) A-q, r, s ; B- r, s ; C- p, q, r ; D- r
(b) Foam fire extinguisher (b) A-s ; B- r, s ; C- q, r ; D- r
(c) Dry powder fire extinguisher (c) A-r, s ; B- s ; C- p, r ; D- r
(d) Water fire extinguisher (d) A-q, r ; B- r ; C- p, q, r ; D- s
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 17-19) : Each of these questions contains an DIRECTIONS (Qs. 21-22) : Following are integer based
Assertion followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer questions. Each question, when worked out will result in one
the question on the basis of following options. You have to select integer from 0 to 9 (both inclusive).
the one that best describes the two statements.
21. Candle flame contain how many flames ?
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the 22. How many of the following are liquid fuels ?
Paraffin wax, kerosene, diesel, CNG, LPG, charcoal and
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not acetylene.
EBD_7027
88 CHEMISTRY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
2. Incomplete combustion
3. It is a device used for putting off fires.
4. Soda-acid type, foam type.
Fill in the Blanks : 5. Water cools down the fuel below its ignition temperature
hence fire gets extinguished.
1. Fuel.
6. LPG burns with a blue flame.
2. heat
3. innermost 7. Charcoal does not vaporise, so it does not produce a flame.
4. calorific 8. Water, sand and carbon dioxide.
5. CNG 9. The power generated by the help of coal is known as thermal
6. smoke power.
7. Acid rain 10. Putting sand on fire, cuts off the supply of oxygen to the
8. Carbon dioxide combustible substance, hence fire is put off.
9. higher 11. The efficiency of fuel is determined by its calorific value.
10. slow 12. The fine particles released on burning carbon containing
fuels are called suspended particulate matter (SPM) and are
11. spontaneous
harmful especially to lungs.
12. fire, blanket
13. CNG - Compressed Natural Gas
13. low, inflammable
LPG - Liquified Petroleum Gas
True / False : 14. The SI unit of calorific value is J/kg
15. No, this process does not produce heat or light.
1. False
Short Answer Questions :
2. True
3. False [Note : Carbon monoxide is a combustible gas and 1. The loud noise produced when a fire cracker is burst is due
burns in air with a pale blue flame] to the excessive amount of energy being instantaneously
4. False : Luminous zone is moderately hot part of the flame. released into the air, making it expand faster than the speed
5. False : LPG does not leave any residue and has high calorific of sound. This rapid release produces a shock wave, and
value. we hear a loud boom.
6. False : Ignition temperature of green leaves is higher due to 2. (a) CNG produces very small amount of harmful products.
presence of water. Hence, do not burn easily. It is a clean fuel. Hence, diesel and petrol as fuel are
7. True : Outer zone of a flame is blue while middle zone is being replaced by CNG in automobiles.
yellow in colour.
(b) The head of the safety match contains antimony
8. False : Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives carbon trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing
monoxide. surface has powdered glass and a little red phosphorus.
9. True When the match is struck against the rubbing surface,
10. True some red phosphorus gets converted into white
11. True phosphorus. This immediately reacts with potassium
12. True chlorate in the matchstick head to produce enough
13. False : Magnesium is a combustible metal. heat to ignite antimony trisulphide and starts the
combustion.
Match the Following : 3. Harmful effects of increasing consumption of fuels are
1. A ® (s), B ® (r), C ® (q), D ® (p) (i) Burning of carbon containing fuels like wood, coal
and petroleum release unburnt carbon particles which
Very Short Answer Questions :
create respiratory problems like asthma.
1. Flame is a zone of combustion of gaseous substances
(ii) Incomplete combustion of coal, gasoline and other
accompanied by evolution of heat and light.
fossil fuels releases gases like carbon monoxide.
(iii) Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen released by burning of (b) The candle flame has three zones–
coal and diesel cause acid rain causing damage to (i) Non-luminous zone is the outermost zone of the
buildings and soil. flame where complete combustion takes place.
(iv) Excessive use of fuel cause global warming.
(ii) Luminous zone is the middle zone where
4. (a) Kerosene lamp-yellow flame.
incomplete combustion occurs.
(b) Candle-yellow flame.
(c) Bunsen burner flame-blue flame. (iii) Dark zone is the innermost zone near the wick
where no combustion occurs.
5. (i) Solid fuels – Coal, wood, dung cakes
(ii) Liquid fuels – Petrol, kerosene, diesel 4.
(iii) Gaseous fuels – CNG, LPG, gobar gas S.No. Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous fuel
6. Burning of wood gives a lot of smoke which is harmful for 1 Coal Diesel CNG
human beings. Also, trees provide us with useful substances 2 Wood Kerosene Biogas
which are lost when wood is used as a fuel. Moreover cutting 3 Cow dung cake Petrol LPG
of trees leads to deforestation which is harmful to the
4 Charcoal Alcohol Hydrogen
environment.
Long Answer Questions : 5. Hint : CNG, because the calorific value of CNG is higher
than that of petrol. Therefore CNG will be more economical.
1. Following are the major problems caused due to combustion At the same time it produces the least air pollutants.
of fuels 6. Hint :
(i) Fuels, such as wood, coal, petrol, diesel, kerosene, (i) Wood produces lot of air pollution.
LPG, etc., when burnt, produce gases like carbon (ii) Use of wood as fuel encourages cutting of trees leading
monoxide, carbondioxide, oxides of nitrogen and to deforestation.
sulphur. In addition to these gases, generally in most
solid fuels, smoke is also produced. These gaseous
products and unburnt carbon particles cause air
pollution.
(ii) The solid fuels, such as wood and coal, after burning Text-Book Exercise :
produce a large amount of residue (soot, ash) after 1. Conditions for combustion are as following:
combustion. This ash if not disposed off properly, may
(i) Presence of air (oxygen)
cause air and water pollution.
(ii) Presence of inflammable substance
(iii) Pollutants in the air cause many diseases such as
asthma and other respiratory problems in human (iii) Ignition temperature
beings. 2. (a) Pollution
(iv) Carbon dioxide produced by burning fuels causes rise (b) Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
in temperature of thermosphere. This is called global (c) Ignition temperature
warming. (d) Water
(v) Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in rain water 3. CNG is a cleaner fuel as compared to petrol and diesel.
and cause acid rain which is harmful for buildings, Combustion of these fuels results in formation of unburnt
crops and soil. carbon particles and harmful gases. CNG produces less
2. Fire crackers are made of chemicals that are highly harmful gases on burning, due to this CNG is now being
combustible. Thus, when they burn, they explode i.e., they used in automobiles in many cities, which has helped in
release a lot of energy in an instant, in the form of heat, light reducing pollution in our cities.
and sound. When a combustible substance burns very 4. LPG as a fuel is better than wood. LPG burns without giving
rapidly with the evolution of tremendous heat, light and smoke while burning wood produces many air pollutants.
sound energy, it is called an explosion. Wood is obtained from trees; therefore using wood as a
3. (a) fuel causes deforestation. LPG has more fuel efficiency than
wood. Hence LPG is favoured over wood.
1. Hot outermost 5. (a) Water is a good conductor of electricity. Due to which
zone of complete the person trying to control fire involving electrical
combustion (blue) equipment with water might get electric shock.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood because LPG
Innermost zone Middle zone of burns without smoke and its storage and
combustion (yellow) transportation is also easier than wood. Using wood
vapours (black)
as a fuel results in blackening of pots and pan due to
EBD_7027
90 CHEMISTRY
release of carbon particles during burning of wood. 2. (a) Combustible – charcoal, straw, card board, paper,
Carbon particles and gases released during burning of candle wood.
wood may also cause respiratory disorder. (b) Non-combustible – chalk, stone, iron rod, copper coin,
(c) Aluminium is a metal therefore it is a good conductor glass.
of heat. When piece of paper wrapped around 3. Petrol will catch fire instantly because it is highly
aluminium is heated, heat is transferred from the paper inflammable.
to the metal and the paper does not attain its ignition 4. • Water is not suitable for fires involving oil.
temperature. Hence paper does not burn. • Manu should have switched off the flame of the burner
6. Outer zone and put a lid on the frying pan. By doing this the
Hottest of complete
part contact between fuel and oxygen is cut off and the
combustion
(blue)
flame will go off.
Moderately
5. In jar B, because oxygen is a supporter of combustion.
hot Middle zone of
6. Due to insufficient availability of oxygen in the closed room
partial combustion
(yellow) carbon monoxide gas is produced which can kill persons
Least hot sleeping in that room.
Innermost 7. Sudden formation of large amount of gas due to chemical
zone of unburnt reactions.
wax vapours
(black) HOTS Questions :
7. The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in kilo joule per kg 1. CO2 absorbs strongly in IR region and its increased
(kJ/kg). concentration in atmosphere decreases the loss of heat from
8. CO2 controls fire in following ways: earth by radiation.
(i) CO2 being heavier than oxygen covers the fire like a 2. The surrounding air pushes the flame up because hot,
blanket. This cut off the contact between the fuel and burning gases comprising the flame expand and thus become
oxygen and the fire is controlled. less dense than the surrounding air, hence the flame moves
(ii) CO2 when released from cylinder, expands enormously up.
in volume and cools down. In this way, it also bring 3. Hydrogen has the highest calorific value but it is dangerous
down the temperature of the fuel and control the fire. to handle, because it burns with explosion and is highly
9. Ignition temperature of green leaves are higher than dry inflammable.
leaves due to presence of moisture in green leaves. This is 4. Hot air is less dense and lighter as compared to cold air.Flame
why it is difficult to burn heap of green leaves. heats the air around it .hot air rises up and cold air tries to
10. Goldsmith uses outermost zone of a flame for melting gold take space from bottom area of the flame.this makes a
and silver because it is the hottest zone of a flame. circulation effect thus making the flame points upward.
11. Calorific value is amount of energy produced on combustion 5. Wood contains many chemicals like resin, lignin. When
of 1 kg of a fuel. heated, these chemicals broke up and release combustible
4.5 kg of fuel produced heat = 180,000 kJ gases. That’s why wood burns initially with a flame. when
these gases are exhausted, wood burns without flame.
180, 000 kJ
1 kg of fule produced heat = 6. Charcoal is pure form of carbon. When it burns with oxygen,
4.5 kg
it forms carbon dioxide and no water vapours are given off.
= 40,000 kJ/kg 7. If fuel and air mixture is correct, gas stove gives blue flame.
Hence, calorific value of fuel = 40,000 kJ/kg When air supply (oxygen) is insufficient, fuel does not burn
12. Both rusting and combustion involves oxidation process completely thus giving a yellow flame. Gas burner requires
but rusting cannot be termed as combustion because cleaning and air shutter adjustment to provide sufficient air.
combustion is an exothermic process while heat is not 8. There are many reasons for forest catching fire during hot
produced during rusting. summers.
13. The water in Ramesh’s beaker will heat up in shorter time. (i) Dry leaves and wood are flammable. Hot air and friction
This is because the outermost zone of a flame is the hottest on dried wood is sufficient to raise temperature to its
zone. Abida had kept the beaker in yellow zone which is ignition level.
less hot so, it will take more time to heat up the water.
(ii) Long concentration of sunlight also raises the
Exemplar Questions : temperature causing fire.
1. Anu should keep her test tube in the outermost zone which (iii) A small fire from a left cigarette butt or camp fire can
is the hottest part of the flame. cause burning of dried leaves and wood.
27. (d)
28. (d)
29. (c)
Multiple Choice Questions : 30. (c)
1. (c) When water is poured over the burning substance 31. (c)
water absorbs heat from the substance. Because of
this the temperature of burning substance falls below
its igntion temperature and it stops burning. 1. (a, c, d)
In case of oil fires, to extinguish the fire water is not
2. (c) As the fuel with more percentage of hydrogen has
effective. As water is heavier than oil. Thus on
more calorific value.
spraying water it sinks and oil floats, and the fire
3. (d) continues.
4. (b) Outermost zone of candle flame is non-luminous it is 2. (b, c, d)
poorly visible and is slightly blue. It is the hottest part Wood is a fuel. Fuel is the source of heat energy for
of the flame. domestic and industrial purposes.
5. (b) 3. (c, d) Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide causes acid
6. (b) rain.
4. (a, b, c)
7. (c) In combustion process fuel is burnt with formation of
Burning is accompanied by the evolution of heat and
CO2 and H2O as products along with evolution of
light with energy.
heat and light. 5. (b, c)
8. (a) Vaporised wax gets oxidised to carbon monoxide and 6. (a, b)
carbon monoxide burns completely with a blue flame Passage Based Questions :
in this zone.
9. (d) Outermost non-luminous zone is the hottest zone 1. (c)
where complete oxidation (burning) of the fuel is taking 2. (d)
place. 3. (d)
10. (a) A good fuel should have high calorific value. It should 4. (b)
not burn too fast nor too slow. 5. (b)
6. (c)
11. (d)
Assertion & Reason :
12. (b) Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best fire extinguisher.
13. (c) 1. (b)
2. (b)
14. (d) Spontaneous combustion of coal dust has resulted in
3. (a) Percentage of hydrogen in comparison to carbon is
many disastrous fires in coal mine. greater in methane than ethane.
15. (a) 4. (a)
16. (c) It is the hottest zone of candle flame. 5. (a) Only those substances give a flame which are converted
17. (b) to vapours.
18. (b) 6. (d) They cannot be used as household fuels since they
19. (b) catch fire very easily, i.e., inflammable.
7. (d) A coal fire cannot be started by using a lighted
20. (a)
matchstick.
21. (a) Due to complete combustion, LPG burns with a non-
luminous flame. Multiple Matching Questions :
22. (d) Chimney helps in removing the smoke by releasing it 1. A ® (p, r); B ® (q, r); C ® (s); D ® (q, s)
at a height.
23. (c) All biochemical reactions are slow reactions. Integer Type Questions :
24. (b) Water increases the ignition temperature of an object. 1. 4
25. (a) Wood, Cow dung cake, Charcoal
2. 3
26. (d) Due to non-availability of oxygen, charcoal stops
Candle, Magnesium,Camphor
burning.
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92 CHEMISTRY
11. (a, b, c, d)
12. (a, b, c)
13. (a, c)
Luminous zone produces yellow light in the candle flame.
1. (b)
2. (a) 14. (a)
3. (a) Candles consists of paraffin wax which generally 15. (d)
contains saturated hydrocarbons of length more than 16. (c)
then C24. 17. (c)
4. (c) Sodium bicarbonate reacts with sulphuric acid to give 18. (b)
carbon dioxide. 19. (a)
5. (a) 20. (a) A - q, r, s ; B - r, s ; C - p, q, r ; D - r
6. (a) 21. 3
7. (a) Candle flame contains three main zones dark inner zone,
8. (a) Oil slick in sea water decreases D.O value. luminous and non-luminous zone.
9. (b, c, d) 22. 2
10. (a, b, c) Kerosene and diesel are liquid fuels.
Chapter LANGUAGE OF
5 CHEMISTRY
INTRODUCTION
During every moment of our existence we depend upon chemistry directly or indirectly.
Chemical sciences include the study of substances or chemicals (the chemical elements), what they are made of, and
how they differ from each other in their many properties and features. Another very important area of chemistry is
how substances or chemicals change when they combine or react together.
We know that chemistry is a branch of science which deals with study of matter and various changes it
undergoes. It deals with the preparation, properties, reactions and structures of chemical elements and compounds.
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94 CHEMISTRY
For convenience the study of chemistry is sub-divided into various branches such as:
(i) Inorganic chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the compounds (generally excluding carbon
compounds) obtained from mineral or inanimate sources.
(ii) Organic chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the compounds of carbon and hydrogen obtained from animal
and plant sources. In it we study about carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins etc.
(iii) Physical chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the physical principles and conditions that govern the chemical
processes.
(iv) Analytical chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the methods of detection and determination of
elements and compounds.
(v) Industrial chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of chemical processes involved in the manufacture
of industrial products.
(vi) Bio-chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of chemical processes taking place in living organism.
(vii) Nuclear chemistry : It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the chemistry of radio-active substances and the
energy changes taking place in the nucleus of the atom.
(ix) Pharmaceutical chemistry : Chemistry dealing with pharmaceutical preparations and drug study.
(x) Medicinal chemistry : Study of structure-activity relationship, pharmacological activities.
(xi) Material chemistry : Covers solid state chemistry, both inorganic and organic, and polymer chemistry, especially as directed to
the development of materials with novel and/or useful optical, electrical, magnetic, catalytic, and mechanical properties.
Some other branches of chemistry are instrumental Chemistry - deals with design and theory of various
instruments desired to study the chemical change.
Astrochemistry - deals with the chemical aspects of space.
Geochemistry - Deals with the chemical aspects of earth crust
P oi n t
Why chemistry is sub-divided into many branches?
SOLUTION
In order to make sure easy and systematic study of the subject.
The most abundant type of atom in the universe is the hydrogen atom. Nearly 74% of the atoms in the Milky
Way galaxy are hydrogen atoms.
CHEMISTRY AND ITS LANGUAGE

We know that every science has its own technical terms which is frequently used and which is considered as its language. In chemistry
we find that in addition to technical terms it also uses certain expression like H2, O2, N2, H2O, H2SO4, NaOH, NaCl, KCl etc. which in
the language of chemistry stand for names of certain definite chemical compounds. To have a better understanding of the language of
chemistry it is essential to know some of the chemical terms which are very frequently used. Here we give a few terms commonly used
in chemistry.
To measure the masses of different atoms and to determine probable molecular formula from decomposition
data, atomic mass scale was developed. Initially in the 19th century, first atomic scale was made by using
hydrogen (the lightest element) as reference. H atom was arbitrarily assigned by a mass of 1 and mass of other
atoms were assigned relative to it.
Language of Chemistry 95
There are different kinds of atoms. About 92 of them occur naturally, while the remainder are made in labs. The first new atom made
by man was technetium, which has 43 protons. New atoms can be made by adding more protons to an atomic nucleus. However, these
new atoms (elements) are unstable and decay into smaller atoms instantaneously.
(i) Atom : Atoms are the building blocks of all matter. It is the smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identity
throughout all chemical and physical changes. Atoms of one element are different from those of the other elements. Today, we
know that atoms are not truly indivisible they are themselves made up of particles (protons, neutrons, electrons, etc.).
(ii) Molecule : The smallest particle of an element or compound which can exist independently in nature is termed as molecule.
Molecules are formed by the combination of two or more atoms in a constant ratio. If same type of atoms are present in molecule
then it is termed as Homoatomic molecule.
For example : N2 (Nitrogen molecule), O2 (Oxygen molecule), Cl2 (Chlorine molecule)
If two or more than two types of atoms are present in any molecule then it is termed as heteroatomic molecule.
For example – H2O (water), CO2 (Carbon dioxide), H2O2 (Hydrogen peroxide) etc.
(iii) Atomic mass or Atomic weight : Atomic mass of an element is defined as the mass of one atom of an element compared to 1/
12 th of the mass of an atom of C-12.
Thus when we say that atomic mass of oxygen is 16, it means that an atom of oxygen is 16 times heavier as compared to 1/12th of
the mass of an atom of C-12.
Atomic mass is expressed in a.m.u. (atomic mass unit).
Atomic mass unit (amu) is the 1/12th of the weight of an atom of C-12.
P oi n t
In the latest system of atomic scale, C-12 has been choozen as reference with atomic mass 12.000 u. Why?
SOLUTION
Because by doing so, atomic masses of maximum number of elements can be made whole number or nearly whole number.
Atomic weights of some common elements

Element Atomic mass Element Atomic mass
Hydrogen 1 Fluorine 19
Lithium 7 Sodium 23
Boron 11 Magnesium 24
Carbon 12 Aluminium 27
Nitrogen 14 Chlorine 35.5
Oxygen 16 Calcium 40
Chromium 52 Bromine 80
Manganese 55 Silver 108
Iron 56 Tin 119
Copper 63.5 Iodine 127
Zinc 65 Sulphur 32
Phosphorus 31 Potassium 39
Barium 137 Platinum 197
Mercury 200 Lead 207
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96 CHEMISTRY
(iv) Gram atomic mass or gram atomic weight : The atomic mass of an element when expressed in grams is known as gram atomic
mass or simply as gram atom (g-atom). Thus one g-atom of carbon (C-12) weighs 12.0 g.
(v) Molecular mass or molecular weight : Molecular weight is calculated by adding the atomic weights of all the constituent atoms
present in a molecule. For example.
Molecular weight of a molecule of hydrogen (H2)
= 2 × atomic weight of hydrogen = 2 × 1 = 2 amu
(vi) Gram molecular mass: The molecular mass of a substance when expressed in grams is known as gram-molecular mass or
simply gram-mole (g-mole) for the sake of convenience it is expressed simply as mole. Thus one mole (or g-mole) of water
weighs 18g (molecular weight of water = 18)
Macromolecules like polymers, proteins and carbohydrates have high molecular mass and its determination
is difficult.
SYMBOLS
We use many symbols in mathematics simply to avoid writing full and lengthy terms so as to save time and to be precise. e.g. to write
Angle A = Angle B, we write ÐA = ÐB.
Similarly, if we have to write "triangle", "Parallel", "Since", then we denote these term by symbols, D, ||, Q respectively..
A stenographer uses shorthand to save time in taking down notes but symbols of stenographer are totally different from symbols we
use in mathematics.
The need for symbols was also felt by chemists as the science of chemistry advanced. The larger number of elements and compounds
needed a language which could represent the full meaning in short space and short time.
Many of the early symbols for the elements, such as those used by alchemists prior to seventeenth century, were rather puzzling. The
alchemists who were interested in transforming base metals like lead into gold, used symbols that could not be easily interpreted by
others. Some of the symbols used in alchemy are given below.
Symbols used in Alchemy
+
+
Gold Copper Iron Antimony Arsenic
Silver Tin Lead Fire Water
It is not possible to write all traffic rules to manage traffic run smoothly. Thus traffic signals are designed to
manage traffic run smooth. Similarly symbols are designed to represent various element to study them easily.
The idea of using symbols in chemistry was originated by Greeks. The symbols for some metals used by ancient Greeks are shown
below.
Ancient Greek
Gold Silver Arsenic Sulphur
Copper Lead Water Salt

The Alchemists used strange symbols and puzzling signs to record their findings. They adopted the ancient Hindu and Greek
astrologers symbols to represent some metals and other elements.
The symbols showed resemblance between metals and some heavenly bodies like Sun, Moon, Mars, Venus, Saturn etc.
Various other systems used to write symbols are shown below :
1782 Antoine Lavoisier
1793 Torben Olof Bergman

Antonine Lavoisier
1787 J. H. Hassenfratz and Adet Torben Olof Bergman
J. H. Hassenfratz
1808 John Dalton
John Dalton
Water Nitrous oxide Ammonia
1814 J. J. Berzelius
Cu + O S + 3O
Copper Oxide Sulfur trioxide
Berzelius
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98 CHEMISTRY
Modern
CuO SO3
Copper oxide Sulfur trioxide
CuSO4 K 2SO 4
Copper Sulfate Potassium Sulfate
However it was found difficult to use these symbols developed by various scientists at different times.
The scientist who suggested a method of representing elements using the English letters (Capital as well as small) is J.J. Berzelius. The
system that we use today is very close to that proposed by Berzelius. (Jons Jakob Berzelius, a Swedish scientist).
In the system used at present, the symbol for an element consists of first one or two letters of the name of the element (e.g. H for
hydrogen, He for helium, Li for lithium). When names of two elements start with the same first two letters (e.g. magnesium and
manganese), the symbol used first letter and a later letter (Mg for magnesium and Mn for manganese).
Berzelius said, "I shall, therefore, take for the chemical sign the initial letter of common (or Latin/Greek) name of each chemical
element." Thus the element carbon was assigned the symbol C, Hydrogen H, Oxygen O, Nitrogen N, Phosphorus P, Sulphur S and so
on...... If the first letter is common to two or more elements, we shall use both, the initial letter and the first letter they have not in
common.
Sometimes when the names of two elements start with same just two letter. We use completely different letter to
represent one of them like in case of potassium and polonium where potassium is represented by letter K and
polonium as Po.
For example
Element Symbol
Carbon C
Copper Cu (Latin, Cuprum)
Cobalt Co (Latin, Cobaltum)
Calcium Ca (Latin Calx)
Chromium Cr (Greek, chrom)
Potassium K (Greek, Kalium)
Krypton Kr (Greek, Kryptos)
Antimony Sb (Latin, Stibium)
Tin Sn (Latin, Stannum)
Silicon Si (Latin, Silex)
To represent a compound, Berzelius just joined the symbols of these elements contained in one molecule of that compound.
The method used at present to write symbols for elements is illustrated in the following tables:
(i) Elements with symbols based on non-english names
English Name Symbol Non-English Name Language
Antimony Sb Stibium Latin
Copper Cu Cuprum Latin
Gold Au Aurum Latin
Iron Fe Ferrum Latin
Lead Pb Plumbum Latin
Mercury Hg Hydrargyrum Greek
Potassium K Kalium Latin
Silver Ag Argentum Latin
Sodium Na Natrium Latin
Tin Sn Stannum Latin
Tungsten W Wolfram German
(ii) For some of the elements the first letter of its English name is used as symbol to represent that element in short form. Only capital
letters are used.
Some examples to illustrate the point are listed in table below:

S. No. Name Symbol
1. Hydrogen H
2. Carbon C
3. Nitrogen N
4. Oxygen O
5. Fluorine F
6. Sulphur S
7. Boron B
8. Phosphorus P
9. Iodine I
(iii) When the names of the two elements start with the same letter, the second letter or a prominent letter is added to the first letter.
When two letters are used the first letter is in capital and the second letter is always a small one.
Some examples to illustrate the point are listed in table below:
S. No. Element Symbol
1. Carbon C
2. Calcium Ca
3. Cadmium Cd
4. Chlorine Cl
5. Phosphorus P
6. Platinum Pt
7. Palladium Pd
8. Boron B
9. Barium Ba
10. Bromine Br
11. Beryllium Be
(iv) Some elements are named after the names of the scientists. For example.
Element Name of the Scientists Symbol
1. Curium Madam curie Cm
2. Einsteinium Albert Einstein Es
3. Fermium Enrico Fermi Fm
4. Nobelium Alfred nobel No
5. Mandelevium Mendeleev Md
(v) Some elements are named after the names of the countries and laboratories. For example:
Element Name of the Countries Laboratories Symbol
1. Berkelium City of Berkley Bk
2. Californium University of California Cf
3. Polonium Poland Po
4. Americium America Am
5. Ruthenium Russia Ru
6. Germanium Germany Ge
(vi) Some elements are named after the names of the planets. For example:
Element Name of the planet Symbol
1. Uranium Uranus U
2. Neptunium Neptune Np
3. Plutonium Pluto Pu
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100 CHEMISTRY
SIGNIFICANCE OF A SYMBOL
It has both quantitative and qualitative significance.
Quantitative significance
The symbol of an element denotes one atom of the element as well as its gram atomic weight. e.g. The symbol N denotes
(i) 1 atom of nitrogen.
1
(ii) 14 parts by weight of nitrogen because 1 atom of nitrogen is 14 times heavier than th of the weight of an atom of carbon
12
(C-12)
(iii) One gram-atom of nitrogen (i.e. 14 g of nitrogen)
Qualitative significance
Qualitatively the symbol represents the name of the element. e.g. N represents nitrogen.
(For writing the chemical formula the knowledge of valency is essential. So we will first learn about valency)
VALENCY
During the formation of molecules of compounds, atoms combine in certain fixed proportions. This is because of the fact that different
atoms have different combining capacities.
The combining capacity of an atom or radical is known as its valency.
The valency is measured in terms of hydrogen atoms or oxygen atoms. The valency of hydrogen is taken as one and is selected as the
standard of valency.
Valency of an element can be defined as the number of hydrogen atoms which combine with an atom of element.
Following table illustrates the point:
Molecule Description Valency of element
Water (H2O) It contain two atoms of hydrogen in combination Valency of oxygen is 2 (one atom of oxygen
with one atom of oxygen. combines with the 2 atoms of hydrogen)
Methane (CH4) Four atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom Valency of carbon is 4
of carbon to form CH4
Ammonia (NH3) Three atoms of hydrogen with one atom of nitrogen Valency of nitrogen is 3.
to form NH3
The valence of an element is not always equal to the highest combining capacity : exceptions are there like
ruthenium, osmium and xenon, which have valences by six but form compounds with oxygen in the +8 oxidation
state, and chlorine, which has a valence of five but a valency of +7 [in perchlorates].
Since all atoms do not combine with hydrogen so the valency of the element is also defined in term of other elements like chlorine or
oxygen.
Valency with respect to chlorine
Since the valency of chlorine is 1 (as in HCl) the number of chlorine atoms with which one atom of an element can combine is called its
valency. e.g. In sodium chloride (NaCl), one atom of sodium (Na) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (Cl), therefore the valency of sodium
is 1.
Valency with respect to oxygen
Valency can also be defined as double the number of oxygen atoms with which one atom of an element can combine because the
valency of oxygen is 2 (as evident from H2O). e.g., In calcium oxide (CaO), one atom of calcium combines with one atom of oxygen so
the valency of calcium is 2 (2 × 1 = 2).
The concept of valency was first introduced in 1850. The term valency has been derived from the latin word
'valentia' which means capacity
P oi n t
What is the valency of tin ?
SOLUTION
Since valency is defined as the number of chlorine atom with which one atom of an element can combine is called its valency.
Thus tin shows two valency –2 and 4 in compounds SnCl2 and SnCl4 respectively.
IONS OR RADICALS
In addition to atoms and molecules, a third type of particles occurs in substances. These particles, called ions, are atoms or group of
atoms that carry an electrical charge.
The size of cation is always smaller than its corresponding atom whereas the size of anion is always greater
than its corresponding atom.
P oi n t
Is there any differences between property of atom and ion ? Explain with example.
SOLUTION
The identity of elements is not altered when it changed in to ion, however the properties of ion differ from those of atoms e.g., Magnesium
metal is appropriately reactive but its divalent ion is inert in nature because of stable electronic configuration.
A complex ion consists of an aggregate of atoms with a net charge. They consists of central metallic atom or
ion to which one or more electron donating molecules is/are attached. In some complex ions, such as sulphate
SO42–, the atoms are so tightly bound together that they act as a single unit. e.g., [Zn (NH3)4] 2+
An ion is formed when electrons are removed from or added to an atom or group of atoms (see below).
Add 1 electron
Cl ¾¾¾¾¾¾
® Cl –
(Chlorine atom) (Chlorideion)
Remove 1 electron
Na ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾® Na +
(Chlorine atom) (Sodium ion)
add 2 electrons
O2 ¾¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾® O 22-
(Oxygen molecule) (Peroxide ion)
When electrons is/are removed the resulting ion is called a cation or basic radical. A cation is positively charged ion. (e.g. Na+ )
When electron is/are added the resulting ion is called an anion or acidic radicals. An anion is negatively charged ion (e.g. , Cl - , O 22- )
An ion or radical is classified as monovalent, divalent, trivalent or tetravalent when the number of charge over it is 1, 2, 3 or 4
respectively.
The identity of the element is not altered when it changes to an ion, however the properties of ion differ from
those of the atoms. e.g. sodium metal is very reactive but sodium ion is unreactive.
The ionic charge represents the number of electrons lost (if positive ion) or number of electron gained (if negative ion). The charge on
ion is indicated in the symbol or formula by a superscript number followed by the + or – sign. Removing one electron from sodium
atoms (Na) creates sodium ion (Na+). Sodium ion (Na+) is an example of monoatomic ion (i.e. an ion formed from one atom).
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102 CHEMISTRY
A list of ions and their charges is given below :
Positive Radicals (Cations or Basic Radicals)
Radical Nature (Cations or Basic Radicals)
Sodium (Na+) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Potassium (K+) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Lithium (Li+) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Ammonium (NH4+) Monovalent, Polyatomic
Barium (Ba2+) Divalent, Monoatomic
Calcium (Ca2+) Divalent, Monoatomic
Zinc (Zn2+) Divalent, Monoatomic
Magnesium (Mg2+) Divalent, Monoatomic
Nickel (Ni2+) Divalent, Monoatomic
Cobalt (Co2+) Divalent, Monoatomic
Aluminium (Al3+) Trivalent, Monoatomic
Chromium (Cr3+) Trivalent, Monoatomic
Negative Radicals (Anions or Acid Radicals)
Radical Nature (Anions or Acid Radicals)
Hydride (H–) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Chloride (Cl–) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Bromide (Br–) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Iodide (I–) Monovalent, Monoatomic
Sulphide (S2–) Divalent, Monoatomic
Oxide (O2–) Divalent, Monoatomic
Nitride (N3–) Trivalent, Monoatomic
Peroxide (O22–) Divalent, Diatomic
Hydroxide (OH–) Monovalent, Diatomic
Nitrate (NO3–) Monovalent, Tetra-atomic
Nitrite (NO2–) Monovalent, Tri-atomic
Hypochlorite (ClO)– Monovalent, Diatomic
Sulphite (SO32–) Divalent, Tetra-atomic
Sulphate (SO42–) Divalent, Polyatomic
Phosphate (PO43–) Trivalent, Polyatomic
Those metallic elements which show variable valency (more than one valency states) form positive ions carrying different charges. The
ion carrying lower charge is given the suffix "ous" and the ion with higher charge is given the suffix "ic" or the value of charge is shown
by Roman numeral's (such as I, II, III, IV etc.) in parenthesis which is followed by the name of the metal.
Following examples illustrate the point
Positive Radicals (Cation or basic Radicals)
Metallic Element Cation formed Name of cation
Copper (Cu) Cu+ (Monovalent) Cuprous or Copper (I)
Cu2+ (Divalent) Cupric or Copper (II)
Iron (Fe) Fe2+ (Divalent) Ferrous or Iron (II)
Fe3+ (Trivalent) Ferric or Iron (III)
Lead (Pb) Pb2+ (Divalent) Plumbous or Lead (II)
Pb4+ (Tetravalent) Plumbic or Lead (IV)
Tin (Sn) Sn2+ (Divalent) Stannous or stannum (II)
Sn4+ (Tetravalent) Stannic or stannum (IV)
Mercury (Hg) Hg+ (Monovalent) Mercurous or Mercury (I)
Hg2+ (Divalent) Mercuric or Mercury (II)
Both positive and negative ions occur naturally in air. However, the environment we live in today has far more
sources of positive ions than in past, creating an electrical imbalance in the air and our bodies.
They can damage cells and are believed to be the reason for the deterioration of our physical and emotional
well being having a role in the aging process and cancer.
The valencies of some of the elements and radicals are listed in the following Tables.(Table-1 and Table-2)
Table – 1 : Cation or Basic Radicals
Name Symbol Valency
Aluminium Al 3
Ammonium NH4+ 1
Antimony Sb 3
Barium Ba 2
Bismuth Bi 3
Cadmium Cd 2
Calcium Ca 2
Chromium Cr 3
Cobalt Co 2
Copper Cu Cuprous or Copper (I) 1
Cupric or Copper (II) 2
Hydrogen H 1
Iron Fe Ferrous or Iron (II) 2
Ferric or Iron (III) 3
Lead Pb Plumbous or Lead (II) 2
Plumbic or Lead (IV) 4
Magnesium Mg 2
Manganese Mn Managanous or 2
Manganese (II)
Managanic or 3
Manganese (III)
Mercury Hg Mercurous or Mercury (I) 1
Mercuric or Mercury (II) 2
Nickel Ni 2
Potassium K 1
Silver Ag 1
Sodium Na 1
Strontium Sr 2
Tin Sn Stannous or Tin (II) 2
Stannic or Tin (IV) 4
Zinc Zn 2
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Table – 2 : Anion or Acid Radicals
Name Symbol Valency
Fluoride F 1
Chloride Cl 1
Hypochlorite ClO 1
Chlorate ClO3 1
Bromide Br 1
Hypobromite BrO 1
Iodide I 1
Ferricyanide Fe(CN)6 3
Arsenite AsO3 3
Arsenate AsO4 3
Zincate ZnO2 2
Meta-Aluminate AlO2 1
Aluminate AlO3 3
Stannate SnO3 2
Silicate SiO3 2
Hypoiodite IO 1
Iodate IO3 1
Sulphide S 2
Sulphite SO3 2
Bisulphite HSO3 1
Sulphate SO4 2
Bisulphate HSO4 1
Thiosulphate S2O3 2
Nitrite NO2 1
Nitrate NO3 1
Nitride N 3
Hydroxide OH 1
Oxide O 2
Hydride H 1
Peroxide O2 2
Carbonate CO3 2
Bicarbonate HCO3 1
Carbide C 4
Phosphate PO4 3
Phosphite HPO3 2
Phosphide P 3
Borate BO3 3
Acetate CH3COO 1
Cyanide CN 1
Manganate MnO4 2
Permanganate MnO4 1
Chromate CrO4 2
Dichromate Cr2O7 2
Ferrocyanide [Fe(CN)6] 4
Names of few ions are mentioned :

Sodium, Ammonium, Phosphate, Sulphate, Nitrate, Peroxide, Calcium, Aluminium, Nitride, Phosphide, Stannous, Cuprous,
Carbonate, Hydride and Zinc.
1. Divide them into categories of anions and cations.
2. Divide them into three categories of monovalent, divalent and trivalent ion.
Acidic media changes litmus paper to red colour where as Alkaline media changes litmus paper strip to blue
colour
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

As now you are familiar with terms like acidic or basic radicals. So you must aware about general concepts of acids, bases and salts.
Acids : In earlier discoveries different scientist gave different definition to explain acid but most commonly acid is a substance which
donates proton (H+) or when dissolved in water yields hydronium ions (H3O+) or hydrogen ions.
For example HCl is an acid which dissolves in water to give hydronium ion.
® H 3O + + Cl -
HCl + H 2 O ¾¾
Other examples are HNO3, H2SO4, H2CO3 etc.
• H2SO4 is used in almost all car batteries.

• Lactic acid is formed when milk is fermented to yoghurt.
• H2CO3 (carbonic acid) present in soft drinks decomposes to form bubbles of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Base : It is a substance which ionize to give OH– ions in aqueous solution or a compound which combined with the hydronium ion
(H3O+) of an acid to form salt and water only.
aqueous media
NaOH ¾¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾® Na + + OH -
Base
Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4 ¾¾
® MgSO4 + 2H 2O
Base Acid Salt Water
Other examples Al(OH)3, NH4OH etc.
Salts : An ionic compound which if dissolved in water, dissociates to yield a positive ions rather than hydrogen ion (H+ ion) and a
negative ions other than hydroxyl ion (OH– ion).
aqueous media
KCl ¾¾¾¾¾¾® K + + Cl -
Other examples are NaCl, MgCl 3, Al2(SO4)3 etc.
P oi n t
1. Aluminium nitrate [Al(NO3)3] is a salt or acid?
2. What is aqua regia ?
SOLUTION
1. It is a salt.
2. Mixture of one part of conc. HNO3 and three parts of con. HCl.
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106 CHEMISTRY
As we know that litmus solution can be used to identify acid or alkaline nature of substance. You can collect 5-10 things of
daily household like citrus fruits, soaps, antacid, paracitamol solution in water etc, and analyse their nature.
CHEMICAL FORMULA
Formula of elements: The molecule of an element is denoted by writing the symbol of the element and, to the right and below it, a
number expressing the number of atoms in the molecule. e.g.
H2 denotes one molecule of Hydrogen containing two atoms in combination.
P4 denotes one molecule of phosphorus containing four atoms in combination.
S8 denotes one molecule of sulphur containing eight atoms in combination.
The formula of those elements whose atoms are capable of independent existence is the same as the symbol of the element. e.g.
Name Symbol Chemical Formula
Helium He He
Neon Ne Ne
Argon Ar Ar
Krypton Kr Kr
Iron Fe Fe
Mercury Hg Hg
Thus the formula is the symbolic expression for a molecule and a molecule of an element may consist of one or more atoms e.g. He, Ne,
Ar... etc (one atom), O2, H2, N2, Cl2, Br2 .... etc (two atoms), P4, S8 (more than 2 atoms)
Formula of compound : A molecule of a compound may be made up of atom of different elements linked up together chemically and in
definite proportion by weight. e.g. Iron sulphide is made up of Iron (Fe) and sulphur(S) in the fixed ratio of 56 : 32 i.e. 56 parts of iron
combine with 32 parts of sulphur by weight. Thus iron sulphide consists of one atom of iron (atomic weight of iron = 56) and one atom
of sulphur (atomic weight of sulphur = 32) and its chemical formula is FeS.
In the formula both the elements are written as their symbols which always begin with a capital letter.
We have adopted the same method to represent the formula of a compound that we had adopted to represent the formula of an element.
In a chemical compound at least two symbols must appear because at least two elements must be present in a chemical compound. In
the formula of a compound, the number to the right of a symbol and below it, expresses the number of atoms of the element present,
the number 1 being omitted. This is quite evident from the formula of some compounds.
Formula of some common compounds are :
Compound Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Sulphur dioxide SO2
Sulphur trioxide SO3
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Carbon dioxide CO2
Nitric acid HNO3
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Ammonia NH3
Potassium hydroxide KOH
Potassium nitrate KNO3
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
How to write the formula of compound?

Various steps to be followed in writing the formula of a compound are as follows:
(i) Write the symbols of the two radicals (positive radical and negative radical) side by side with valencies at the top. Write the
positive radical to the left and the negative radical to the right hand side.
(ii) Cancel the common factor, if any, from the valencies, to get their simple whole number ratio.
(iii) Apply criss-cross rule (i.e., shift the valencies cross-wise to lower right of the radical). Always enclose the compound radical in
bracket before writing any numeral at the lower right corner.
To illustrate the above rules few examples are given below :
Example 1
Hydrogen Chloride 1+ –1
H Cl
Radical name Hydrogen Chloride
Radical symbol H Cl H1Cl1 or HCl
Radical nature Basic Acidic
Valency +1 –1 Cl1 H1
Usually subscript 1 is not written in the final formula.
Example 2
1+ –2
Sodium Sulphate Na SO4
Radical name Sodium Sulphate
Na2(SO4)1 or Na2SO4
Radical symbol Na (SO4)
Radical nature Basic Acidic
(SO4)1 Na2
Valency +1 –2
Example 3
Silver Iodide 1+ 1–
Ag I
Radical name Silver Iodide
Radical nature Basic Acidic Ag1I1 or AgI
Valency +1 –1
I1 Ag1
Usually subscript 1 is not written in the formula.
Based on those examples, complete the following :
1. Barium Bicarbonate Ba HCO3
Radical name ............. ............. i.e., Ba (HCO3)2
Radical nature ............. .............
(HCO3)2 Ba1
Valency ............. .............
2. Ferric Phosphate Fe PO4
Radical name ............. ............. i.e., Fe3(PO4)3
or FePO4
Radical nature ............. .............
Valency ............. ............. (PO4)3 Fe3
3. Silver Sulphide Ag S
Radical name ............. ............. i.e., Ag2S
Radical nature ............. .............
Valency ............. ............. S1 Ag2
4. Calcium Chloride Ca Cl
Radical name ............. .............
Ca1Cl2 or CaCl2
Radical nature ............. .............
Valency ............. ............. Cl2 Ca1
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108 CHEMISTRY
5. Hydrogen Sulphide H S
Radical name ............. ............. ® H2S1 or H2S
Radical nature ............. .............
S1 H2
Valency ............. .............
6. Ferrous Sulphate Fe SO4
Radical name ............. ............. ® Fe2(SO4)2 or FeSO4
Radical nature ............. .............
(SO4)2 Fe2
Valency ............. .............
7. Barium Carbonate Ba CO3
Radical name ............. ............. ® Ba2(CO3)2 or BaCO3
Radical nature ............. .............
(CO3)2 Ba2
Valency ............. .............
8. Phosphorus Trichloride
P Cl
Radical name ............. .............
® P1Cl3 or PCl3
Radical nature ............. .............
Valency ............. ............. Cl3 P1
P oi n t
Write down the formula of compound Ammonium phosphate and Barium sulphate?
SOLUTION
1. Ammonium phosphate [(NH4)3PO 4]

2. Barium sulphate [BaSO4]
The Formulae of some common compounds are given in the following table. (Table-3)
Table – 3 : Formulae of Some Common Compounds
Compound Formula Compound Formula

Ammonium chloride NH4Cl Nitric oxide NO
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 Dinitrogen trioxide N2O3
Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 Nitrogen dioxide NO2
Aluminium bromide AlBr3 Dinitrogen pentoxide N2O5
Aluminium carbonate Al2(CO3)3 Ammonia NH3
Aluminium phosphate AlPO4 Sulphur dioxide SO2
Barium chloride BaCl2 Hydrogen fluoride (Hydrofluoric acid) HF
Barium sulphate BaSO4 Hydrogen chloride (Hydrochloric acid) HCl
Calcium bromide CaBr2 Hydrogen bromide (Hydrobromic acid) HBr
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Hydrogen iodide (Hydoiodic acid) HI
Carbon monoxide CO Hydrogen nitrate (Nitric acid) HNO3
Carbon dioxide CO2 Hydrogen nitrite (Nitrous acid) HNO2
Methane CH4 Hydrogen chlorate (Chloric acid) HClO3
Ethane C2H6 Hydrogen hydroxide (Water) HOH or H2O
Nitrous oxide N2O Hydrogen sulphite (Sulphurous acid) H2SO3
Compound Formula Compound Formula

Hydrogen sulphate (Sulphuric acid) H2SO4 Potassium nitrate KNO3
Hydrogen carbonate (Carbonic acid) H2CO3 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
Hydrogen sulphide H2S Potassium chlorate KClO3
Hydrogen phosphate (phosphoric acid) H3PO4 Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
Hydrogen borate (boric acid) H3BO3 Magnesium sulphite MgSO3
Potassium fluoride KF Barium sulphate BaSO4
Sodium chloride NaCl Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Potassium bromide KBr Barium oxide BaO
Silver iodide AgI Copper sulphide CuS
Iron phosphate FePO4
Significance of chemical formula : Like the symbols, a formula has also qualitative as well as quantitative significance.
Qualitative significance :
Qualitatively, the formula represents the name of the substance and the names of various elements present in the substance. e.g.
H2 indicates that it consists of only hydrogen.
H2O indicates that it consists of hydrogen and oxygen.
HNO3 indicates that it consists of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.
Quantitative significance
Quantitatively the chemical formula represent,
(i) One molecule of the substance (element or compound)
(ii) The actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the substance (element or compound)
(iii) The number of parts by weight of the substance (molecular weight and number of parts by weight of each element).
SUMMARY
u Chemistry is a branch of science which deals with study of matter and various changes it undergoes. It deals with the
preparation, properties, reactions and structures of chemical elements and compounds.
Chemistry is sub-divided into various branches such as : Inorganic chemistry, Organic chemistry, Physical chemistry,
Analytical chemistry, Industrial chemistry, Bio-chemistry, Nuclear chemistry, Pharmaceutical chemistry, Medicinal chemistry,
Material chemistry etc.
u Atomic Mass or Atomic Weight : Atomic mass of an element is defined as the mass of one atom of an element compared to
1/12 th of the mass of an atom of C-12.
u Gram Atomic Mass or Gram Atomic Weight : The atomic mass of an element when expressed in grams is known as gram
atomic mass or simply as gram atom (g-atom).
u Molecular Mass or Molecular Weight : Molecular weight is calculated by adding the atomic weights of all the constituent
atoms present in a molecule.
u Gram Molecular Mass : The molecular mass of a substance when expressed in grams is known as gram-molecular mass or
simply gram-mole (g-mole) for the sake of convenience it is expressed simply as mole.
u A symbol is defined as an abbrevation or short hand sign for full name of an element.
u Some elements are named after the names of scientists, countries and laboratories and after the names of planet.
u The combining capacity of an atom or radical is known as its valency.
u When electrons is/are removed from an element the resulting ion is called a cation or basic radical. A cation is positively
charged ion. (e.g. Na+ ).
u When electron is/are added to an element the resulting ion is called an anion or acidic radicals. An anion is negatively
charged ion (e.g. , Cl - , O 22- ) .
u The molecule of an element is denoted by writing the symbol of the element and, to the right and below it, a number
expressing the number of atoms in the molecule.
u Chemical formula has both qualitative and quantitative significance.
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110 CHEMISTRY
Multiple Choice Questions : 11. Which of the following is a symbol of palladium ?

(a) B (b) Pd
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 18 multiple choice (c) Be (d) Ag
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out 12. Hg is a symbol of
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) Lead (b) Tin
(c) Antimony (d) Mercury
1. The symbols of tin and mercury are respectively
13. Valency of an atom or radicals is
(a) Ti and Me (b) me and Ti (a) ionisation energy (b) electron affinity of atom
(c) Sn and Hg (d) Me and Sn (c) its combining capacity (d) size of atom
2. Which one of the following information is conveyed by the 14. When electrons are added the resulting ion is called
symbol of an element? (a) basic radical (b) acidic radicals
(a) The name of the element (c) neutral radical (d) None of these
(b) The atomic mass of the element 15. Acid turns litmus paper
(c) The atomic number of the element (a) Blue (b) Yellow
(d) All the above (c) Red (d) None of these
3. Na2S2O3 represent the compound 16. Amphoprotic substances are those
(a) sodium sulphate (b) sodium sulphite (a) which can donate a proton
(c) sodium thiosulphate (d) None of these (b) which can accept a proton
4. Which one is a bivalent ion? (c) which can accept and donate proton
(a) sodium (b) calcium (d) which can donate hydroxyl ion
(c) sulphide (d) both (b) and (c) 17. One molecule of sulphur contains
5. The chromate and dichromate ions are respectively (a) Two atoms of sulphur (b) Eight atoms of sulphur
(a) CrO 2- 2-
4 and Cr2 O 7 (b) Cr2 O72– and CrO 4– (c) Four atoms of sulphur (d) One atom of sulphur
18. Chemical formula of Aluminium sulphate is
(c) CrO 4– and CrO5– (d) CrO 2– 2–
4 and Cr2 O 5 (a) Al2(SO4)3 (b) AlSO4
6. The formula of sodium pyrophosphate is (c) Al3(SO4)2 (d) None of the above
(a) Na2P2O7 (b) Na3PO4 More than One Option Correct :
(c) Na4P2O7 (d) Na3PO3
7. The branch of chemistry which deals with study of physical DIRECTIONS : This section contains 7 Multiple Choice
properties and conditions is Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
(a) physical chemistry of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
(b) Analytical chemistry
(c) Nuclear chemistry 1. Which of the following is / are bivalent radicals?
(d) Pharmaceutical chemistry (a) Sulphate (b) Bisulphate
8. The branch of chemistry which deals with study of the (c) Sulphite (d) Sulphide
methods of detection and determination of elements and 2. Which of the following are triatomic?
compounds is (a) H2O (b) CO2
(a) Physical chemistry (b) Nuclear chemistry (c) CO32– (d) NaCl
(c) Analytical chemistry (d) Bio chemistry
3. In organic chemistry we study about
9. What is the valency of sulphur in sulphur dioxide (SO2)?
(a) Carbohydrates (b) Fertilizers
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) Proteins (d) Ceramics
(c) 6 (d) 4
4. Which of the following are acidic radicals ?
10. Molecular weight of water is
(a) PO43– (b) Mg2+
(a) 16 amu (b) 12 amu 2–
(c) CO3 (d) NO3–
(c) 10 amu (d) 18 amu
5. Acids are those substances which Assertion & Reason :

(a) Furnish H3O+ in aqueous solution
(b) Lowers the pH of solution DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an assertion
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(c) Furnish OH– in aqueous solution
(d) Increase the pH of solution best describes the two statements.
6. Chemical formula gives information about
(a) which elements are present in compound (a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
(b) physical properties of compound
(c) nature of compound
(d) total number of atoms of each element present in (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
compounds (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
7. Which of the following ion is divalent ? 1. Assertion : The combining capacity of an atom or radical is
(a) SO42– (b) PO43– known as its valency.
Reason : The valency of an element is always a whole
(c) Cu2+ (d) Sn2+
number.
Passage Based Questions : 2. Assertion : A cation is formed after the removal of electrons.
Reason : An element always looses one electron to form
DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the cation.
following questions. 3. Assertion : The molecular mass of NaOH is 40.
Reason : The molecular mass of a compound is defined as
Passage the sum of the atomic weights of all the constituent atom
The formula of a binary compound, i.e., a compound formed by present in a molecule.
two elements only, is obtained by transposing their valencies. 4. Assertion : One mole of any substance is equals to its
Suppose an element. A has a valency y and element B has a molecular weight.
valency x. Then the compound formed between A and B usually Mass of substance in grams
Reason : Number of moles ®
has the formula AxBy. The subscripts should be divided by a Molecular weight
common factor, if any. Multiple Matching Questions :
y x
Þ AxBy DIRECTIONS : Following question has four statements (A, B, C
A B
and D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
4 2 Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
Þ A2B4 Þ AB2 matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
A B
Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
1. In which of the following compounds phosphorus (P) has
1. Column I Column II
valency 3?
A. SO42– (p) Bivalent
(a) PCl5 (b) PCl3
B. Fe2+ (q) Monoatomic
(c) PCl2 (d) None of these
C. N3– (r) Trivalent
2. What is the valency of the underlined elements in following D. PO43– (s) Polyatomic
compounds respectively.
AgI, Mg3N2, NaCl, CaCl2
(a) 1, 2, 2, 2 (b) 1, 2, 1, 1 DIRECTIONS : Following are integer based questions. Each
(c) 1, 2, 1, 2 (d) 2, 1, 1, 2 question, when worked out will result in one integer from 0 to 9
3. How many times greater is the valency of N in NH3 than (both inclusive).
that of Cl in HCl?
1. Find the value of x in NaxBO3.
(a) 3 (b) 2
2. What is the valency of Carbon in CH4.
(c) 4 (d) 5
3. Calculate the sum of the valencies of Helium, Phosphorus
and neon.
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112 CHEMISTRY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
3. (a) N in NH3 has 3 valency and Cl in HCl has 1 valency.

Thus valency of N in NH3 is three time greater than
valency of Cl in HCl.
Multiple Choice Questions :
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) Assertion & Reason :
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 1. (b)
9. (a) Sulphur has valency 4 in sulphur dioxide (SO2).
2. (c) An element can loose one to four electron to form
10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) mono, di, tri and tetra valent cation respectively.
15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a)
More Than One Option Correct : Multiple Matching Questions :

1. (a, c, d) 2. (a, b) 3. (a, c) 1. A ® (p, s), B ® (p, q), C ® (r, q), D ® (r, s)
4. (a, c, d) 5. (a, b) 6. (a, d)
7. (a, c, d) Integer Type Questions :
Passage Based Questions : 1. The formula of sodium borate is Na 3BO3.

1. (b) In PCl3, phosphorus has valency 3. \x=3
2. (c) 1 1
Þ AgI 2. 4
Ag I
3. P(15) = 2, 8, 5,
2 3
Þ Mg3N2 Valency = 5Ne(10) = 2, 8
Mg N
\ Valency = 0,
1 1
Þ NaCl
\ Sum of valency = 5
Na Cl
He(2) = 2, \ Valency = 0
2 1
Þ CaCl2
Ca Cl
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER ON THE
Chapter
BASIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
6 (ELEMENT, COMPOUND, MIXTURE)
INTRODUCTION
You must have tasted different fruit juices. Some you like and some you don't like. Why do fruit juices taste different?
The answer is that they contain different ingredients or we can say, the matter in each juice is different. Scientists
sometimes use the term matter instead of composition for description.
To understand the chemical nature of matter, let us understand, what is a chemical substance?
In science concept of a substance is a little different from its everyday meaning. In science substance refers to a single
pure form of matter. Thus we can say that substance is a kind of matter that can not be separated into other kinds of
matter by any physical process.
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114 CHEMISTRY
Most of the naturally occurring materials on earth are mixtures (impure substances). Pure substances are rare.
On the basis of chemical composition matter can be classified as pure substance and impure substance.
This classification can be represented as
Matter
Pure Impure
substance substance or
mixture
Elements Compounds Homogeneous Hetero-

mixtures geneous
mixtures
We will now discuss the above classification in detail.
HISTORICAL PREVIEW
The first modern list of chemical elements was given by Antoine Lavoisier's in 1789, known as Elements of
Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and calorie. By 1818, Jons Jakob Berzelius
had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had
sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869.
According to Boyle in the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that cannot be
decomposed into any simpler substance. Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into
other chemical elements by chemical processes.
By 1919, there were seventy-two known elements. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named
mendelevium in honour of Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. In
October 2006, the synthesis of element 118 was reported; the synthesis of element 117 was reported in Antonine Lavoisier
April 2010.
PURE SUBSTANCE
When a scientists says that some thing is pure, they mean it is a single substance.
A pure substance is one that has a uniform composition and always have the same texture, colour, taste at a given temperature and
pressure. A pure substance is homogeneous in nature and it has definite set of properties. It is not possible to change the composition
of a pure substance by physical methods. We can further classify the pure substances as elements and compounds.
The purity of a pure substance can be tested by checking its melting point or boiling point. A pure substance has a fixed melting point
or boiling point at constant pressure. For example the boiling point of pure water is 373 K at normal pressure (1 atmosphere). The
presence of impurities in water increases its boiling point.
Take pure water in 100 mL beaker and boil it on a Bunsen burner flame. Take a lab thermometer and note down its boiling
point. Now weight approximately 10g of table salt (NaCl) and dissolve it uniformly in another beaker filled with pure
water. Now boil this aqueous salt solution and measure its boiling point with the help of thermometer and further repeat
the above process now by dissolving 10g of copper sulphate. (CuSO4.5H2O). Record your observation.
(a) What is the boiling point of pure water?
(b) Is there any change in boiling point after dissolving common salt?
(c) Do you observe any difference in boiling point later when test is carried out by dissolving copper sulphate in pure water?
(d) Write conclusion of a above experiment on the basis of your observations.
Classification of Matter on The Basis of Chemical Composition (Element, Compound, Mixture) 115
P oi n t
Though pure water is a pure substance but sea water is impure. Explain.
SOLUTION
A pure substance has a fixed melting point and boiling point. Sea water freezes at a temperature well below the freezing point of pure water
(0°C) and boils at a temperature above the boiling point of pure water (100°C).
Every sample of a pure substance is always the same, no matter what the form. For example water from tap
water, sea water, and blood would be exactly same. Water can be mixed with all sorts of other substances, but
water itself is always the same substance.
ELEMENTS
Pure substances which are made up of only one kind of atoms are known as elements. e.g. Pure gold is an element it contains only gold
atoms. Nitrogen gas is an element because it contains only nitrogen atom. Similarly graphite (carbon) in your pencil is an element.
Graphite is made up solely of carbon atoms. Elements cannot be broken down into other substances by any chemical means.
Individually or in combination, the elements form every object in the world. At present there are around 118 different elements. And of
these, you probably use only 30 to 40 in your daily life. All of the elements are inserted in a chart called the periodic table
Atoms of pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element
to exist in multiple structures (special arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their
properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each
carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each
other; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes. The ability for an element to exist in one of many
structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.
P oi n t
How many type of atoms you can expect to find in a sample of any element?
SOLUTION
An element is made up of only one type of atom.
In the periodic table, each element is designated by its chemical symbol, which comes from the letters of the elements name. For
example, the atomic symbol for carbon is C, and that for cobalt is Co. In many cases, the atomic symbol is derived from the element's
latin name. Gold has the atomic symbol Au which comes from its latin name, aurum. Iron has the atomic symbol Fe which comes from
its latin name Ferrum.
Every element has a set of distinct characteristics i.e. atomic symbol, atomic numbers and atomic masses.
So the periodic table is listing of all the known elements with their atomic symbols, atomic numbers, and atomic masses.
PERIODIC TABLE
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116 CHEMISTRY
At present 118 elements are known, out of which 92 are found in earth crust and rest all are artificially
prepared by nuclear reactions. About 90% of the mass of earth crust consists of only five elements-oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, and calcium.
P oi n t
A substance is analysed in a laboratory, and when viewed under an electron microscope, it is revealed that it contains only
one kind of atom. Is the substance an element, compound or mixture?
SOLUTION
Element
ATOMICITY OF AN ELEMENT
The number of atoms of an element present in its molecule is called its atomicity. e.g.
Element Atomicity
Hydrogen, H2 2
Neon, Ne 1
Oxygen, O2 2
Nitrogen, N2 2
Helium, He 1
Phosphorus, P4 4
Sulphur, S8 8
On the basis of their atomicity elements are classified into following classes :
(i) Monoatomic elements : These are the elements having atomicity equal to 1. i.e. the molecule of such elements consists of only
1 atom e.g. He (Helium), Ne (Neon), Cu (Copper), Au (Gold) etc.
(ii) Diatomic elements : These are the elements having atomicity equal to 2. i.e. the molecule of such elements consists of 2 atoms.
e.g. Hydrogen (H2), Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2), Chlorine (Cl2), Bromine (Br2), Iodine (I2) etc.
(iii) Polyatomic elements : These are the elements having atomicity more than 2. i.e. the molecules of such elements consists of more
than 2 atoms i.e. 3 atoms (triatomic), 4 atoms (tetra-atomic) etc. e.g. Phosphorus (P4), Sulphur (S8) etc.
In addition to S8 ring many other modification of sulphur containing 6-20

sulphur atoms per ring have been synthesized in last two decades. The S S S
structure of S8 is S S
S
S S
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
On the basis of variation in their properties elements can be broadly classified as metals, non-metals and metalloids.
Elements
Metals Non-metals Metalloids

e.g. sodium, e.g. hydrogen, e.g. germanium
potassium, oxygen, carbon, arsenic, antimony
gold, silver nitrogen
It is quite difficult to frame an exact definition for metals and non-metals in terms of physical properties, because regardless of what
definition is adapted, there are always exceptions.
Following table lists differences in physical properties of metals and non-metals :
TABLE
Differences in Physical properties of metals and non-metals
Property Metals Non-metals
1. State Generally in solid state at room temperature. Generally liquid or gas at room temperature.
Exceptions: Mercury (Hg), Gallium (Ga). Exceptions: Carbon (C), boron (B) and sulphur (S) are solids
These are liquids at room temperature. at room temperature.
2. Hardness Generally hard. Tungsten and chromium are the Generally soft.
hardest metals.
Exceptions: sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Mercury Exception: Diamond. It consists of carbon (a non-metal).
(Hg), lead (Pb) are not hard. Na can be easily It is the hardest substance known.
cut with a knife.
3. Lustre Possess a brilliant lustre. The lustre is because No lustre.
of the fact that metals reflect light from their Exceptions: Iodine and graphite (i.e. a form of carbon)
surface instead of absorbing it. possess lustre.
4. Melting Point Metals have high melting point. m.p. depends Non-metals have low melting point.
on the strength of metallic bond present in
metals. m.p. is high in case of heavy metals.
Exceptions: Sodium and potassium which are Exceptions: carbon, boron and silicon have high melting
light elements have low melting point. points.
5. Density Metals have a high density. Non-metals have a low density.
Exceptions: The density of magnesium, Exceptions: Diamond (a form of carbon) has a high density.
aluminium and titanium is not high because
they are light metals.
6. Boiling Point High boiling point. Low boiling point.
Exceptions: Mercury, gallium. Exceptions: Carbon, boron and silicon.
7. Ductility Metals posses ductility i.e. they can be drawn They do not possess the property of ductility.
into wires.
Exceptions: Zinc, Mercury, Gallium. Exception: Carbon fibres.
8. Malleability Metals are malleable. Non-metals are generally non-malleable.
Exceptions: Zinc, Mercury and gallium. Exception: Carbon fibres.
9. Brittleness Metals are generally not brittle. Non- metals are generally brittle.
Exceptions: Zinc
10. Conductivity Good conductors of heat and electricity. Bad conductors of heat and electricity.
Exceptions: Bismuth and Tungsten which are Exceptions: Graphite and gas carbon are good conductors of
poor conductors of electricity. electricity.
11. Sonorousness Metals are sonorous (i.e. a sound is produced Non-metals are non-sonorous.
by them when struck with some hard material)
Metalloids : Some elements possess the properties of both metals and non-metals and these elements are called metalloids. e.g.
Germanium, arsenic, antimony, selenium and tellurium.
COMPOUNDS
When atoms of different elements bond to one another, they make a compound. Sodium atoms and chlorine atoms, for example, bond
to make the compound sodium chloride commonly known as table salt. Nitrogen atoms and hydrogen atoms join to make the
compound ammonia which is a common household cleaner.
Hence "A chemical compound is a pure substance formed from chemical combination of two or more elements."
Water (H2O) is considered a pure substance. It consists of two types of atoms (hydrogen atoms and oxygen atom). In water there is
a fixed number of hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms combined together chemically in a definite proportion by weight. In water (H2O),
hydrogen and oxygen combine in a fixed ratio of 1 : 8 (by weight) to form water.
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Compounds are formed from simple, substances by chemical reaction. Some compounds are formed directly
from their constituent elements while other compounds are formed by reaction of of an element with another
compound. Compounds are also made by reaction of compounds with each other.
P oi n t
Are the physical and chemical properties of a compound necessarily similar to those of the elements from which it was
composed?
SOLUTION
No, it is nto necessary that physical and chemical properties are similar to those of the elements of which they composed.
A compound possess entirely different physical and chemical properties from those of its constituents.
The sodium chloride NaCl is very different from the elemental sodium and the elemental chlorine used in its formation. Elemental
sodium, (Na) consists of nothing but sodium atoms, which form a soft, silvery metal that can cut easily with a knife. Its melting point
is 97.5°C and it reacts violently with water. Elemental chlorine, Cl2 consists of chlorine molecules. This material, a yellow green gas at
room temperature is very toxic, and it was used as a chemical warfare agent during world war I. Its boiling point is - 34°C. The
compound NaCl is a translucent, brittle, colorless crystal having a melting point of 800°C. It does not react with water as sodium does
and not toxic to humans as chlorine is, but it is an essential component of all living organism.
P oi n t
Hydrogen Sulphide is one of the bad smelling compounds. Rotten eggs get their characteristic bad smell from the hydrogen
sulphide they release. Can you confirm from this information that elemental sulphur so is just as smelly ?
How will you prove cuprous oxide is a compound and not an element?
SOLUTION
No, you cannot. Infact the odour of elemental sulphur is negligible as compared with that of hydrogen sulphide. Compounds are truly
different from the elements from which they are formed. Hydrogen sulphide is as different from elemental sulphur.
On heating cuprous oxide. It give lustrous Cu metal which has different composition from starting compound
Chemical and physical properties of a compound differ from those of its constituents. e.g. water consists of
hydrogen (a combustible substance) and oxygen (a supporter of combustion). Water is used to extinguish fire
i.e. it is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.
MIXTURES
Mixtures are absolutely everywhere you look. Mixtures are the form that are mostly found in nature e.g. rocks, air, or the ocean they
are just about anything you find. They are substances held together by physical forces, not chemical.
.Two or more substances (either elements or compounds) can be mixed together in any proportion and the resultant substances so
obtained are called mixtures (impure substance).
Fizzy drinks we drink are mixture of liquids (water and flavouring) and a gas (carbondioxide) The gas makes
the fizzy bubble
Most of the material around us are a mixtures. A mixture contains more than one substance, elements or compounds.
A mixture depicts the properties of its constituting substances. For example, lemonade (nimbu pani) is a mixture of water, lemon juice,
sugar and salt. When we drink it we get the sour taste of lemon, salty taste of salt, sweet taste of sugar. Moreover it quenches our thirst
as water does.
Most materials we considered as mixtures are mixtures of elements, mixtures of compounds, or mixture of element and compounds. For
example, steel is a mixture of the elements iron, chromium, nickel, and carbon. Our atmosphere or air is a mixture of the elements
nitrogen, oxygen and argon with traces of carbon dioxide and water vapour.
The formation of a mixture is a physical change because each substance in a mixture retains its chemical,
identity. Whereas the formation of a compound is a chemical change. Recall that sodium chloride is composed
of Na+ and Cl– which is entirely different from its elements,
P oi n t
1. So far, you have learned about three kinds of substances:
elements, compounds, and mixtures. Which box below contains only an element? Which contains only a compound?
Which contains a mixture?
A B C
2. You have just won a block of pure 24-carat gold. Have you just procured an element, compound or mixture?
SOLUTION
1. The molecules in box A contain two different types of atoms and so are representative of a compound. The molecules in box B each
consist of the same atoms and so are representative of an element. Box C is a mixture of the compound and the element.
2. Element
Solutions are mixtures with particle size between 0.1 to 2 nanometers. Light can usually passthrough the
solution. If the solute able to absorb visible light then the solution will have a color
Types of mixtures : Depending upon the nature of the components that forms the mixture we can have different types of mixtures.
(i) Homogeneous mixture : It is a mixture that has the same composition throughout. e.g. a solution of sugar in water. Such a mixture
has two or more components. The composition of such a mixture is variable (e.g. different quantities of sugar are added to the
same quantity of water).
Some other examples of homogeneous mixture are alloys, salt in water, copper sulphate solution etc.
Suspensions are mixtures with particles having diameter greater than 1000 nm. They do not transmit light.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture : In such a mixture the particles of each component of the mixture remain separate and can be observed
as individual grains under a microscope. e.g. mixture of grains and sand. This type of mixtures contain physically distinct parts
and have a non-uniform composition. Some other examples of heterogeneous mixture are a mixture of sodium chloride and iron
fillings, a mixture of salt and sulphur, a mixture of oil and water.
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120 CHEMISTRY
There are several types of mixtures. They are:

• solutions
• suspensions
• emulsions
• colloidal dispersions
Solutions: These are mixtures made by mixing a solute and a solvent. The solute is the substance that dissolves. The solvent is the
substance that does the dissolving.
Suspensions: These are heterogeneous mixtures of a solid and a liquid in which the solid does not dissolve. Suspensions will settle
when left standing undisturbed.
Emulsions: These are a special type of suspension. This mixture consists of two liquids that do not mix. Since the liquids do not mix,
emulsions are heterogeneous. Emulsions will settle into layers when they are left standing undisturbed.
Colloidal Dispersions: These are mixtures with characteristics part way between a solution and a suspension. Colloidal dispersions
may appear homogeneous but are actually heterogeneous. Colloidal dispersions do not settle when left standing undisturbed for a
period of time.
Examples:
Solutions Suspensions Emulsions Colloidal dispersions
salt and w ater soil and water oil and vinegar liquid laundry st arch and water
alcohol and water sand and water kerosene and water fine pottery clay and water
copper sulfate and water clay and water oil and water mayonnaise
Most homogeneous mixture are also known as solutions and examples of these include pure air, coffees, and
even metal alloys.
You can compare a solution with a mixture that contains non-soluble substances. Stir some sand into a jar of water. Then stir
a spoonful of salt into a different jar of water.
Differences between Compounds and Mixtures : These differences between compounds and mixtures are summarized in the table
below.
Mixtures Compounds
(i) The constituents can be separated from one another by (i) The constituent elements can not be separated by
physical methods. physical methods.
(ii) Mixtures vary widely in composition (ii) They are fixed in their composition by mass of
elements present.
(iii) Mixing is not generally accompanied by external effects such as (iii) Chemical combination is usually accompanied by
as explosion, evolution of heat or volume changes (for gases) one or more of these effects (i.e. explosion,
evolution or absorption of heat etc.)
(iv) The properties of mixtures are the sum of properties of its constituents. (iv) The properties of a compound are different from
those of its constituent elements.
Classification of Homogeneous mixtures : Homogeneous mixtures can be further classified as follows:

(i) Solid-solid mixture: Examples of such a mixtures are brass, bronze etc.
A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals (or metal and non-metal) is called an alloy. Brass and Bronze are alloys. Alloys find
a wide range of applications in industry.
(ii) Solid-liquid mixture: Examples of such a mixture are
(a) aqueous solution of salt or sugar
(b) solution of iodine (I2) in carbon tetra chloride (CCl4).
(iii) Liquid-liquid mixture: Examples of this type of mixture are
(a) rectified spirit (a mixture of gasoline and alcohol)
(b) a mixture of toluene and benzene.
(iv) Liquid-gas mixture: This type of mixture is exemplified by liquor ammonia which is a mixture of ammonia gas and water.
(v) Gas-gas mixture: Pure air is an example of this type of mixture. Air consists of nitrogen, oxygen, argon etc.
Classification of Heterogenous mixtures :
(i) Solid-gas mixture: For example, Hydrogen gas adsorbed on palladium.
(ii) Solid-solid mixture: For example
(a) gun powder
(b) mixture of sulphur and iron filling
(iii) Solid-liquid mixture: Example : Suspension of sulphur in water.
(iv) Liquid-liquid mixture: Example : Benzene in water (i.e. immiscible liquids).
Points of Differences Between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous mixtures : These are listed in table below :
Homogeneous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures
(i) Such mixtures have same composition throughout (i) Such a mixture has different composition in different parts.
(ii) The components of such a mixture cannot be seen (ii) The components of such a mixture can be seen even
even under a microscope. with naked eye.
INSTRUCTION :
Try this experiment only with your teacher as it can be dangerous.
Place the mixture of iron fillings and sulphur in a pyrex glass test tube. Heat the test tube in the flame of Bunsen burner until
the mixture glows. Remove the test tube from the flame and allow it to cool. When sufficiently cooled, break the test tube
and remove the contents. Examine the contents with a magnet and magnifying glass.
Now find the answer of following questions.
(1) Your magnet will attract the resulting material or not?
(2) You are able to see the yellow Sulphur particles or not?
(3) Are the particles in a mixture in any way different than they were before mixing?
SEPARATING THE COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE

We have already learnt that most of the natural substances are not chemically pure. Different methods of separation are used to get
individual components from the mixtures.
Heterogeneous mixture can be separated into their respective components by simple physical methods like hand picking, sieving,
filtration that we use in our daily life.
Sometimes special techniques are used for separation of components of a mixture. Some of these techniques are discussed in details.
The constituents of any mixture can be separated by taking advantage of the difference in their physical properties.
1. Sedimentation and Decantation : This method is generally used for separating the constituents of a system in which one
component is liquid and the other is a coarse suspension of a solid heavier than the liquid. For example muddy river water.
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122 CHEMISTRY
Fine
Suspension
Clear liquid
Clear
liquid
Coarse
Suspension
Sedimentation Decantation
Separation by sedimentation and decantation.
A sedimentation technique is widely used in the cleaning process of drinking water, while gases cannot be
sperated by using sedimentation.
Such a mixture is allowed to stand for some time. The solid particles settle down to the bottom of the vessel under the action of
gravity. This settling down of coarse suspensions is called sedimentation. The clear supernatant liquid (upper layer of liquid) is
carefully transferred to another beaker. This process of mechanically transferring of the clear liquid without disturbing the
settled solid particles is called decantation.
2. Filtration: This method is used for separating insoluble component (suspended impurity etc.) of a solution. In principle, a
solution containing suspended impurities is made to pass through a porous membrane like filter paper, filter cloth, porous
membrane of clay or porous glass filters. Such membranes do not allow the fine particles of suspended impurity to pass through
the pores of membrane, thus separating the insoluble/suspended material from the solvent (generally water).
Sometimes, a small quantity of alum is added to the system before filtration. A typical experimental set up for filtration in the
laboratory (using filter paper) is shown in figure.
Impure Suspension
Insoluble Matter (Residue)

Filter paper Clamp
Filtrate
Fig. Separation by filtration
These days very effective and different methods are used for filtration of drinking water like carbon filtration,
submicron filtration and Ion exchange
P oi n t
How might you separate a mixture of sand and salt?
SOLUTION
Dissolve the mixture containing salt and sand in water. Salt dissolves in water whereas sand is insoluble in water. Filter it. Sand will be retained
in filter paper while salt solution will be collected as filtrate. Salt is separated from salt solution by distillation the process discussed further
in chapter. During distillation water distills and salt remains in the flask.
Only those substances whose vapour pressures becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure much before their
respective melting points can be purified by sublimation.
3. Sublimation : Sublime substances such as camphor, ammonium chloride, naphthalene (moth-balls) and iodine on heating
directly pass into vapours, without passing through the liquid phase. The vapours on cooling give back the substance in the
crystalline form (known as sublimate). This process, known as sublimation is used for separating such substances in which the
other constituents are not affected by heating. An experimental set up is shown in figure below :
Cotton plug
Inverted Funnel
Perforated
Sublimate
Asbestos
Sheet Mixture
Separation by sublimation
In the universe sublimation occurs on the surface of asteroids and comets, when these are formed by mixtures
of solid carbondioxide, water, ammonia and methane.
4. Distillation : Two liquids having different boiling points (with a difference of 10-20 K) can be separated by this method. When
mixture of two such liquids is heated in a retort (or distillation flask) the low-boiling liquid component first distills over and the
other component is left behind in the retort.
A simple experimental set up is shown in figure below
Thermometer
Distillation Flask
Water Out
Condenser
Mixture of Reciever
two liquids
water in
Distillate
Separation by distillation
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124 CHEMISTRY
This method is used for purification of those liquids which do not decompose of their respective boiling points
and contain non-volatile impurities.
P oi n t
How does distillation separate the components of a mixture?
SOLUTION
Distillation is the process of simultaneous vaporization and condensation. The substances having different boiling points are separated by this
method. The substance having lower boiling point is distilled first and collected. The liquid having higher boiling point is distilled at higher
temperature and is collected in separate container. If the other substance is solid, it remains in distillation flask.
Evaporation is a method of separating a soluble solid from the solvent in which it is dissolved. Lemon juice,
which is a solution of citric acid in water, separates by evaporation. Water evaporates off from boiling lemon
juice. Eventually, only solid crystals of citric acid are left behind.
Fractional distillation can not be used to separate a mixture of liquids which form azeotropes i.e. constant
boiling mixtures.
5. Gravity Method : This method takes advantage of difference in the density of the two components of a mixture. For example two
immiscible liquids, e.g., oil and water, can be separated with the help of a separating funnel. The heavier component forms the
lower layer, which can be separated by opening the stopcock and collecting it in a clean and dry beaker.
Gravity seperation technique is also known as liquid-liquid extraction or seperating funnel extraction.
A typical set up is shown in figure below :
Separating
Funnel
Oil Water
Water
Separation of two immiscible liquids by a separating funnel (gravity methods)
6. Magnetic Method : The magnetic component of a mixture can be separated with the help of an ordinary horseshoe magnet. The
mixture is placed in a china or glass plate and the magnet is moved over the mixture. The magnetic material gets attached to the
magnet. The process is repeated a number of times till the magnetic material is completely removed.
Horse Shoe
Magnet
Iron
Filings
Sulphur + Iron Filings
Separation of a magnetic substance by a magnet.
P oi n t
1. How can the components of a mixture be separted from one another?
2. How might you separate a mixture of iron and sand?
SOLUTION
1. Components of a mixture can be separated from one another by simple techniques taking advantage of difference in physical properties
of its components. For example a mixture of solid and liquid can be separated by filtration.
Mixtures can also be separated by taking advantages of a difference in boiling or melting point. For example a mixture of water and some
other liquid having different boiling points can be separated by distillation. In this method each liquid distill at a particular temperature.
In this way each liquid can be isolated.
2. Mixture of sand and iron is separated by magnet. When magnet is brought over this mixture iron being magnetic in nature sticks to it,
leaving behind sand in container.
7. Crystallisation : The hot saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly and undisturbed in a beaker or in a crystallising dish. After
some time the crystals of the pure compound are formed and impurities are left behind in solution.
Fractional Crystallization: This method is used to separate two or more solutes, by making use of their
difference in solubility.
8. Chromatography : It is another technique used for the separation of various constituents of a mixture.
This technique is used to separate the dissolved constituents of a mixture. In this technique the dissolved constituents are
adsorbed over an appropriate adsorbing material (i.e. adsorbent).
Chromatography finds application in research laboratories for identification of new substances.
This method makes use of the difference in adsorption of constituents by a surface of an appropriate adsorbent (adsorbing material).
This method is used to separate the constituents in a mixture of ink. The technique used for this is known as paper chromatography.
Scientists can identify the substances in a solution by comparing their chromatograms with those of known
substances. This method can be used, for example, to identify the colourings used in foods.
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SOME DIFFERENT TYPES OF MIXTURES AND THE PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN SEPARATION:

1. Solid-solid mixtures
Components of mixture Technique used Principle involved
1. (a) Mixture of sulphur (soluble in CS2) Solvent One of the components is soluble in same
and sand (insoluble). extraction solvent and the other is insoluble in that solvent.
(b) Mixture of ammonium chloride (insoluble)
and Iodine (soluble in carbon tetra chloride)
2. Mixture of iron filing and sand. magnetic one component is magnetic and gets
separation attracted towards the magnet.
3. Mixture of sand (heavier) and saw dust. Gravity One of the component is heavier and the other
method is lighter than the given liquid.
4. (a) Mixture of Iodine (sublime) and sand One of the component is sublimate and it sublimes on heating.
(b) Mixture of ammonium chloride Sublimation
(sublime) and sand.
2. Separation of Solid-Liquid Mixtures :
Mixture Technique
(a) Mixture of sand and water Sedimentation (sand is insoluble)
(b) Mixture of silver chloride (or chalk) and water Filtration (AgCl or chalk is insoluble)
(c) (i) Mixture of sodium chloride (NaCl) and water Evaporation (NaCl is soluble in water and is not sublime)
(ii) Mixture of sulphurand carbon dislphide sulphur is soluble in carbon disulphide and is not sublime
3. Separation of Liquid-Liquid Mixtures :

Mixture of petrol and water
Petrol is lighter and water is heavier liquid. They are immiscible liquids. They can be separated by use of separating funnel.
SUMMARY
Substance : In science substance refers to any single pure from of matter.
CHEMICALCLASSIFICATION OFMATTER
Matter
Pure substances Impure

substance or
mixture
Elements Compounds
Homogeneous Hetero-geneous
mixtures mixtures
Metals Metalloids Non-metals
Inorganic compounds Organic campounds
Test for purity of a pure substance : By checking its m.p. or b.p. We can test the purity of a pure substance. A pure substance
has a fixed melting point or boiling point at constant pressure.
Element : Pure substance in which molecules are made up of only one kind of atoms. .e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, gold, silver,
iron etc.
Atomicity of an element : It is the number of atoms of an element present in its molecule. If atomicity is one it is called
monoatomic e.g. He, Ne, Ar, Kr etc. If atomicity is two it is called diatomic e.g. H2, O2, N2, Cl2, Br2, I2 etc. If atomicity is more
than two it is called polyatomic e.g. P4, S8 etc.
Classification of Elements : On the basis of their properties elements can be classified as metals, non-metals or metalloids.
Metals : All the metals are solids except mercury which is a liquid.
Non-metals : All the non-metals are solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid.
Metalloids : The elements which possess the properties of both metals and non-metals are called metalloids. e.g. Germanium,
arsenic, antimony, selenium, tellurium etc.
Compound : A chemical compound is a pure substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed
ratio. e.g. water which consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms combined together chemically in a definite proportion by
weight (oxygen : hydrogen : : 8 : 1)
Mixtures : These are impure substance. Two or more substances (either elements or compounds) can be mixed together in
any proportion and the resultant substances obtained are called mixtures.
Types of mixture :
(i) Homogeneous mixture : It is a mixture that has the same composition through out. e.g. a solution of sugar in water. The
composition of such a mixture is variable.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture : In such a mixture the properties of each component of the mixture remain separate and can be
observed in individual grains under a microscope. e.g. a mixture of sand and grains.
This types of mixture contain physically distinct parts and leave non-uniform composition.
Classification of Homogenous mixtures :
(i) Solid-solid mixture : Examples are brass, bronze etc.
A homogenous mixture of two or more metals (or non-metals.) is called an alloy.
(ii) Solid-liquid mixture : Example are, solution of salt in water, solution of sugar in water, solution of iodine (I2) in carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4)
(iii) Liquid-liquid mixture : Examples are rectified spirit which is a mixture of alcohol and water, any two miscible liquid such
as bronze and toluene.
(iv) Liquid-gas mixture : Example liquor ammonia which is a mixture of ammonia (gas) in water (liquid).
(v) Gas-gas mixture : Example is air which is a mixture of various gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide etc.
Classification of Heterogeneous mixtures :
(i) Solid-gas mixture : Example- Hydrogen gas adsorbed on palladium.
(ii) Solid-solid mixture : Examples: gun powder, mixture of sulphur and iron filings.
(iii) Solid-liquid mixture: Example: suspension of sulphur in water.
(iv) Liquid- liquid mixture : Example: Benzene in water or any two immiscible liquids.
Methods for separation of constituents of a mixture
various methods used are :
(i) Sedimentation or decantation. (ii) Filtration
(iii) Sublimation (iv) Distillation
(v) Gravity method (vi) Magnetic method
(vii) Evaporation (viii) Fractional distillation
(ix) Chromatography
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128 CHEMISTRY
Multiple Choice Questions : (a) Densities (b) Solubilities

(c) Shape of crystals (d) Size of crystals
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 20 multiple choice 12. Select the mixture that can be easily separated using a
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out separating funnel.
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (a) Milk and water
(b) Sugar and water
1. Select a pure substance (c) Oil and water
(a) Brass (b) Bronze (d) Petrol and kerosene
(c) Magnesium (d) All of these 13. When a mixture of sand, common salt, glass powder and
2. Which one of the following is a heterogeneous mixture? iodine is heated, a sublimate is formed. The sublimate formed
(a) Liquid ammonia (b) Gun powder is
(c) Sugar solution in water (d) both (a) and (c) (a) Sodium chloride (b) Glass
3. If we add potassium nitrate to ice it will result in (c) Iodine (d) Common salt
(a) Increase in m.p. of ice. 14. The noble gases or rare gases exist as
(b) Decrease in m.p. of ice (a) Mono-atomic (b) Di-atomic
(c) Neither (a) nor (b) (c) Tri - atomic (d) Tetra - atomic
(d) Change in colour of ice 15. Which of the following in an element?
4. The atomicity of an element tells about its (a) Marble (b) Graphite
(a) chemical properties (c) Washing stone (d) Stone
(b) physical properties 16. Which of the following is a compound?
(c) number of atoms of element present in a molecule (a) Stainless steel (b) Brass
(d) none of these (c) Iron sulphide (d) Diamond
5. Which of the following is neither an element nor a 17. Which of the following is not a compound?
compound? (a) Common salt (b) Water
(a) Water (b) Air (c) Iron filings (d) Copper sulphate
(c) Glucose (d) Iron 18. Select the one that has a definite boiling point
6. The formation of a chemical compound is accompanied with. (a) True solution (b) Compound
(a) Evolution of energy (c) Colloid (d) All of these
(b) Absorption of energy 19. Which of the following will yield a mixture?
(c) Either absorption or evolution of energy (a) Crushing of marble tile
(d) None of these (b) Breaking of ice-cubes
7. Which one is the smallest unit of a compound? (c) Addition of sodium metal to water in a china dish
(a) An electron (b) An ion (d) Agitating a detergent with water in a washing machine.
(c) An atom (d) A molecule 20. Brass is an example of
8. Which one is suitable method for separation of a mixture of (a) Compound
water and sodium chloride? (b) Element
(a) Decantation (b) Evaporation (c) Homogeneous mixture
(c) Simple distillation (d) Fractional distillation (d) Heterogeneous mixture
9. When a solution of common salt in water is distilled, the
salt is found in More than One Option Correct :
(a) Distilling flask (b) Receiver
(c) Cooling water (d) Condenser DIRECTIONS : This section contains 9 Multiple Choice
10. Which one will be most suitable method to separate a mixture Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride? of which ONE OR MORE may be correct.
(a) Fractional distillation
(b) Sublimation. 1. A pure substance in one.
(c) Sedimentation (a) that has a uniform composition
(d) Chromatography (b) which always have the same texture
11. Separation of a mixture of the solids by fractional (c) which is either an element or a compound
crystallisation depends on the difference in their (d) which is a mixture
2. Hydrogen is 3. The melting point of ice is

(a) An element (a) 273 K (b) 373 K
(b) Diatomic element (c) 300 K (d) 298 K
(c) Gas at room temperature Assertion and Reason :
(d) A non-metal
3. Select the polyatomic elements. DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
(a) O2 (b) O3 followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
(c) P4 (d) S8 on the basis of following options. You have to select the one that
4. Which of the following metals are solid ? best describes the two statements.
(a) Sodium (b) Potassium
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
(c) Mercury (d) Manganese
5. Which of the following are metalloids. (b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not
(a) Selenium (b) Silicon the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Arsenic (d) Antimony (c) If Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
6. Which of the following are homogeneous mixtures. (d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) Brass 1. Assertion : Pure substances in which molecules are made
(b) Bronze up of only one kind of atoms are known as elements.
(c) Copper sulphate solution Reason : Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are elements.
(d) Potassium permanganate solution 2. Assertion : Ozone is a polyatomic element.
7. Which of the following is example of gas-gas mixture ? Reason : A molecule of ozone consists of three atoms of
(a) Mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxygen.
(b) Air 3. Assertion : Germanium, arsenic and antimony are classified
(c) Petroleum as metalloids.
(d) Cold drink Reason : They possess some properties of metals and some
8. Hydrogen gas adsorbed on palladium is properties of metalloids.
(a) A solid-gas mixture 4. Assertion : With rise of temperature Germanium acts as a
(b) A solid-solid mixture semi-conductor
(c) Neither (a) nor (b) Reason : It shows metallic property.
(d) A compound Multiple Matching Questions :
9. Which of the following is an example of solid-liquid
mixture. DIRECTIONS : Each question has four statements (A, B, C and
(a) Suspension of sulphur in water D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
(b) Muddy water Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
(c) Both (a) and (b) matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
(d) None of the above Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
Passage Based Questions : 1. Column 'I' Column 'II'

A. Sugar in water (p) Homogeneous mixture
DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the B. Ethanol and Kerosene (q) Fractional distillation
following questions. C. Iron fillings and (r) Fractional crystallisation
sodium chloride
We can test the purity of a substance by checking its melting D. Common salt in water (s) Heterogenous mixture
point or boiling point. A pure substance has a fixed melting or
boiling point at constant pressure. For pure water the boiling
point at normal atmospheric pressure is 373K but water containing
some salt boils over a range of temperature above 373K
1. The boiling of sea water at normal atmospheric pressure is. (both inclusive).
(a) 373 K
1. Atomicity of Phosphorous
(b) more than 373 K
2. How many among the following are solid-solid mixture?
(c) less than 373 K Gun powder, mixture of sulphur and Iron filling, Benzene in
(d) can't be predicted water, suspension of sulphur in water.
2. Distilled water obtained from sea water will boil at. 3. How many among the followings are compounds?
(a) 373 K (b) 372 K Stainless steel, Brass, Iron Sulphide, Diamond, Sodium
(c) 374 K (d) None of these chloride
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130 CHEMISTRY
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
4. (a, b, d)
Mercury is liquid where as others are solid metals.
5. (a), (c) and (d)
6. (a), (b), (c) and (d) 7. (a) and (b)
1. (c) Magnesium is element where as brass and bronze are 8. (a) 9. (c)
mixtures.
2. (b) It is a mixture of charcoal, sulphur and Potassium Passage Based Questions :
nitrate. 1. (b) sea water contains dissolved salt as impurities.
3. (b) The m.p. of a solid decreases due to presence of 2. (a) Distilled water is pure water.
impurities. 3. (a) 273 K [m.p. of ice is 0° C or 273K]
4. (c) Assertion & Reason :
5. (b) air is a mixture. 1. (b)
6. (c)
2. (a) [ozone is O3]
7. (d) The smallest unit of a chemical compound is a molecule.
3. (c) They possess some properties of metals and some
8. (c) It is a mixture of soluble solid in a liquid.
properties of non- metals.
9. (a) It is left behind as residue.
4. (b)
10. (b) Ammonium chloride is sublime where as sodium
chloride is not. Multiple Matching Questions :
11. (b) It depends upon the difference in their solubilities in a 1. A ® (p, r) ; B ® (p, q) ; C ® (r, s) ; D ® (p, q, r)
solvent.
12. (c) Oil and water are immiscible
13. (c) Iodine is sublime and forms the sublimate. 1. 4
14. (a) Noble gases exist as mono-atomic (He, Ne, Ar etc.). 2. 2
15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (c)
Gun powder and mixture of sulphur and Iron filling
18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (c)
3. 2
More Than One Correct :
Iron Sulphide and Sodium Chloride
1. (a), (b) and (c) 2. (a), (b), (c), (d)
3. (b), (c), (d)
Chapter
STATES OF MATTER
7
INTRODUCTION
Let us notice everything around us. The things or objects around us, the presence of which can be felt with the help of
any of our five senses i.e. sight, touch, smell, hearing and taste are all made up of matter. The food we take, wood,
plastic, petrol, water, steam, even the air we breathe are all examples of matter : each of these object has mass and
occupies space.
Only one object can occupy the same space at the same time as you can
see in figure that first all space in glass is occupied by water but when
piece of stone is dropped into it. The water overflows because the stone
takes the space of water.
Matter may be defined as anything that occupies space, has weight
and offers resistance to any stress (force). e.g. wood, stone, iron, air, The glass filled A stone is dropped into the glass
with water up to of water. The water overflows
water etc. the brim. We canbecause the stone takes the
Some matter is living. It grows, produce other living things like itself see the water space of the water. The volume
inside the glass. of the water that overflows is
and finally dies. Non living things can do none of these things. the volume of the stone.
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CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
The earlier Indian Philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements — “The Panch Tatva” — Air, Earth, Fire, Sky and
Water. It was believed by them that everything living or non-living is made up of these five basic elements.
However the ancient Greek philosophers believed that there were only four basic elements — Earth, Fire, Air and Water.
At present the scientists have classified the matter in the following two ways :
(i) The physical classification based on physical properties of matter, and
(ii) The chemical classification based on chemical composition of matter.
Matter
Physical Classification Chemical Classification
Solids Liquids Gases Mixtures Physical Pure

methods Substances
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Chemical
Compounds Elements
methods
Inorganic Organic
In this chapter we will study only about physical classification of matter. According to the physical classification, on the basis of the
forces of attraction existing between molecules of a substance, matter can be classified as solids, liquids and gases.
HISTORICAL PREVIEW
Empedocles, a Greek Philosopher and scientist who lived on south coast of Sicily between 492 BCE and 432 BCE, proposed one of the first
theories that attempted to describe the things around us. Empedocles argued that all matter was composed of four elements : fire, air, water and
earth. The ratio of these four elements effects the properties of matter. Stone was thought to contain a high amount of earth, while a rabbit was
thought to have a higher ratio of both water and fire, thus making it soft and giving it life. His theory was popular but it had a number of problems.
For example, no matter how many times you break a stone in half, the pieces never resemble any of the core elements of fire, air, water or earth.
Then after few decades, Democritus, another Greek developed a new theory of matter according to which if you continued to cut the stone into
smaller and smaller pieces, at some point you would reach a piece so tiny that it could no longer be divided. Democritus called these infinitesimally
small piece of matter atoms, meaning “indivisible”. He suggested that atoms were specific to the material that they made up of, means atoms of
stone were unique to stone and different from the atoms of other materials.
In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian mathematician showed that air had weight. Thus it must be made of something physical. Then Daniel
Bernouli, a Swiss mathematician, developed a theory that air and other gases consists of tiny particles which are too small to be seen, and are
loosely packed in an empty volume of space.
Joseph priestley in 1773 found red mercury clax on heating gives liquid mercury and a strange gas. Later in 1778, Antoine Lavoisier, a French
scientist, called this gas priestley’s gas oxygen.
• Plasma : This is the state of matter that consists of superenergetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the form of
ionized gases. The fluorescent tubes and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma.
Fluorescent tubes are filled with helium gas and neon sign bulbs contain neon gas.
• The Sun and stars glow because of presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars because of very high temperature.
The plasma glows with a special colour depending upon the nature of gas.
States of Matter 133
Composition of Matter
The smallest particle of matter that is capable of free existence retaining all the characteristics of it is called molecule (Sometimes atom
and ion) and molecules are made up of atoms. Thus molecules are the constituent particles of matter and the characteristics of these
molecules and their arrangement in various states of matter was explained by kinetic molecular theory of matter.
Matter
Molecules
Atoms
The light and heat that comes from the sun and stars and electricity that can make lamps light up and motors
run, these are not matter these are examples of Energy.
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter

This theory visualizes that matter is made up of atoms, molecules or ions that are in random motion and have space between them.
Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Matter
The important postulates of this theory are :
1. Matter is made up of small particles that may be atoms, ions or molecules. The constituent particles of a given substance are
identical in all respects.
2. There is an empty space (gap) between the molecules (atoms or ions) which is known as intermolecular space.
3. Molecules exert an attractive force upon each other which is called intermolecular force of attraction. The magnitude of this force
depends upon the state of substance (i.e. solid, liquid, gas) and also on the magnitude of intermolecular spaces.
4. The force of attraction that exists between similar molecules is called “cohesive force” and that which exists between dissimilar
molecules is called “adhesive force”.
5. The molecules are always in a state of motion and they possess kinetic energy due to their motion.
6. On heating, there occurs an increases in the kinetic energy of the molecules (Kinetic energy µ Temperature).
P oi n t
1. Why matter exist in three different states?
2. What is the fourth state of matter?
SOLUTION
1. Matter exist in three different states because of difference in intermolecular space between molecules of matter. This intermolecular
space is lesser in solids higher in gases and intermediate in case of liquids.
2. Fourth state of matter is plasma. It is composed of ionic matrix which exists only at very high temperatures. Such a high temperature
may be attained during nuclear fusion reactions.
STATES OF MATTER
We will now study the characteristics of these three states of matter.
The Solid State :
The solid state is characterised by, having a definite shape, distinct boundaries, rigidity and incompressibility.
They are like the children in this picture. In this picture children form a tight circle and cannot move easily. Similarly molecules in solids
are tightly packed and cannot move easily.
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134 CHEMISTRY
Amorphous solids are, regarded as ‘Liquids at all temperatures”. Like, if glass is heated gradually, it softens
and start to flow without undergoing a definite and abrupt change in to liquid state
Solids are of different types. In some cases differences would be easily recognizable (such as differences in size and colour) like in case
of ball and brick, but some differences are not as easy to see. Sugar and salt can look alike, but they are not used in the same way : their
functions are different. In case of solids forces are strong and have ionic, covalent, metallic or even hydrogen bonds.
Solids are classified as crystalline and amorphous. A crystalline solid has a definite and sharp melting point at which it becomes a
liquid. Amorphous solids have no precise melting point.
Moreover a crystalline solid has a definite geometry due to definite arrangement of molecules, atoms or ions. In amorphous solid,
molecules, atoms or ions does not have any pattern or arrangement and therefore, does not have any definite geometrical shape.
Substances such as pitch and resin are called semisolids; these are actually very viscous liquids, but their flow or change of shape is
very slow at ordinary temperatures. Properties in which solids differ from one another include density, hardness, ductility, elasticity etc.
Cubes or crystals of common salts or sugar can be converted into powder form, but cube of wood can not be. Though both are
solids and have almost same characteristics as solids have. Discuss this with your friends and teachers and try to find out
answer.
The Liquid State :

The liquid state is characterised as having fluidity, low compressibility and no definite shape. Liquids take the shape of container in
which they are stored.
A liquid flows and changes shape because its particles are free to move about. They are not as tightly packed together as in a solid.
Compare them with the children in the given picture. The children are farther apart and they do not pull so strongly at one another.
They have more space to move about and they can change the shapes of the circle. However, they still have to keep together because
they are holding onto one another. This explains why liquids have a definite volume.
Properties of liquids.
1. Liquids have no definite shape.
2. Liquids have a definite volume.
3. Liquids have much higher density than gases but less than solids.
4. Liquids diffuse like gases but the diffusion is much slower.
5. Liquids are compressible to appropriate extent.
6. Liquids exhibit vapour pressure.
Water is a very important liquid. Roughly 70% of an adult’s body is made up of water. Water covers 70 to 75% percent of the earth’s
surface.
Energy is stored when gases are compressed. Compressed gas exerts a force. Air guns and aerosol cans make
use of compressed gases to shoot things out. The tyres of car contain compressed air. It makes the tyres hard.
The compressed air in the tyres exerts a force large enough to lift a heavy car.
The balloon floats in air because they are filled with helium, a gas that is less dense than air.
The gaseous state is characterised as having fluidity, high compressibility, no definite boundaries, no definite volume and no definite
shape.
A gas has no definite volume or shape because its particles are very far apart. Compare them with the children in the picture above.
They are not bound together and so they can move wherever they like. In a big space they move further apart and in a small space they
are closer together. In the same way a gas expands to fill a bigger volume. In a smaller space it is compressed.
1. Molecules are sufficiently apart from one another.
2. Force of attraction between gas molecules are almost negligible.
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136 CHEMISTRY
3. Gases possess high compressibility and thermal expansion.
(4) Gases neither have definite shapes nor definite volumes.
(5) Gases generally have low densities.
Take two metallic bottles filled with water and other filled with air. Fix a rubber balloon at the mouth of both glass bottles.
Then both glass bottles are heated at same temperature for the same period of time. Balloon fixed in bottle containing air
expands more in comparison to balloon fixed on water containing bottle explain why?
Effusion is the motion of gas molecules from high pressure to Low pressure through a small hole.
P oi n t
1. What are three properties of a gas that you can measure.
2. What will happen when a bicyclist operates the pump to inflate tyre?
SOLUTION
1. (1) Amount of gas
(2) Volume of gas
(3) Pressure of gas
2. This will result in to decrease in the volume of air in the cylinder and increase its pressure. As a result air will be forced into the bicycle
tyre and the tyre will inflate.
COMPARISION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

The following table gives a comparative study of solids, liquids and gases based on the kinetic molecular theory of gases.
Property Solid Liquid Gas

1. Arrangement
of particles
Particles are closely Particles are loosely Particles are very far apart
packed and have an packed and there is and are randomly arranged.
orderly arrangement no orderly arrangement
2. Forces of attraction Very strong force of Strong force of Weak force of
between constituent attraction. attraction. attraction
particles.
3. Motion of particles. Particles can vibrate Particles can roll, slide past Particles are in random
about a fixed point. each other. motion and are moving
about at great speed.
4. Kinetic Energy Posses low kinetic Possess moderate kinetic Possess high kinetic
energy energy energy.
Properties of solids, liquids and gases :

The following table lists the properties of three states of matter :
Property Solids Liquids Gases
1. Mass They have definite mass They have definite mass They have definite mass
2. Shape They have a definite shape. They take the shape of They do not have a
container in which they definite shape i.e. take
are stored. the shape of container.
3. Volume They have a definite They have a definite They do not have a
volume volume definite volume and fill
the container completely
i.e., have the volume of
container.
4. Density In solids the intermolecular Intermolecular space is In gases the intermolecular
space is minimum so they larger than solids so the spaces are maximum
have maximum density. density of liquids is less so gases have least
as compared to solids. density.
5. Rigidity Highly rigid. Particles Less rigid in comparison Not rigid. In gases
in solids can vibrate to solids. In liquids free particles are free
only about their mean movement of particles to move in all
position is possible. directions.
6. Diffusion No diffusion Slightly diffusible Highly diffusible
(or miscibility)
7. Free surface Because of their definite Only one upper free No free surface
shape solids can have surface
any number of free surfaces
Go to your kitchen and observe various things. Now make a list of compounds under the category of solids, liquids and gases.
Ask your friends to do the same activity at their home. Now compare your list with your friends.
Diffusion : Diffusion is the gradual mixing of one substance with another.

Examples of gas diffusion :
1. The steam from a boiling kettle spreads throughout a room.
2. When a gas jar containing clean air is inverted on another gas jar containing bromine (a brown coloured gas) gas,
they slowly mixes and the colour becomes light brown in both the jars.
Examples of liquid diffusion :
1. A dark crystal of potassium manganate (VII) when added to a beaker containing water, the crystal slowly dissolves
and yields a purple solution.
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138 CHEMISTRY
2. The above purple solution [i.e. the solution of potassium manganate (VII)] when diluted with an equal amount of water, it
still remains purple but the colour becomes lighter. If we continue adding more water the purple colour still persists. The
particles are spreading through out the solution.
Kinetic particle theory : The movement of particles is due to the possession of kinetic energy. More the kinetic energy possessed
by particles, faster they move.
Gas : Gas particles move fastest and move to fill in the whole of the available space.
Liquids : They move slowly and are confined to the limit of the vessel in which they are stored.
Solids : They possess only sufficient energy to vibrate while held in a regular arrangement.
INTER-CONVERSION BETWEEN STATES OF MATTER

We know from our observation that water can exist in all the three states (i.e. solid, liquid
and gas) of matter e.g. Gas
Solid ® ice Co
ost
nd
tion
Liquid ® liquid water en

r fr
Bo our
sa
va
lima
Hoa
Gas ® steam or water vapour tio

i
p
li n isat
n
g o i on
Sub
Thus we can say that matter can change its state. Moreover the change in state of matter
r
melting
are reversible. The change in state of matter can be brought about by change of pressure (fusion)
Solid Liquid
or / and by change of temperature.
Solidification
If we apply high pressure on a gas it changes to a liquid.
If we increase the temperature the solid changes to liquid which is then changes to gas. Interconversion between
The different changes occurring in state of matter by absorption or evolution of heat can states of matter
be diagrammatically represented as follows :
P oi n t
A B
(1) Solid Þ Liquid Þ Gas
C
(2) Liquid Þ Solid
In above equations what is A, B and C?
SOLUTION
A = Melting, B = Boiling and C = Freezing.
Effect of Change of Temperature on States of Matter

Matter interacts with heat. It expands when it is heated and contracts when it is cooled.
On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases The cold metal
and because of this increase in kinetic energy the particles start vibrating with greater ball goes
through the ring.
speed. The energy supplied by heat overcomes the intermolecular forces of attraction
between solid particles and the particles leave their mean position and start moving
more freely. heat heat
The heated metal ball The water
A stage is reached when the solid melts and gets converted to a liquid. This temperature expands and cannot go expands and
The air expands
and flows into
is called melting point of solid. through the ring. rises up the tube. the balloon.
Melting or Fusion : It is the process by which a solid changes to a liquid by absorption
of heat.
Melting point : Melting takes place at a constant temperature and this constant temperature is called melting point.
For any pure substance the melting point is fixed. Whenever impurities are present they lower the melting point of a substance.
The melting point of ice is 273.16 K.
An increase in pressure increases the melting point but in case of water increasing pressure lowers the melting
point.
Boiling : It is the process by which a liquid changes into a gas, this change in state takes place inside the liquid.
In the process of boiling heat is absorbed.
Boiling point : The temperature at which a liquid changes into gas/vapour is known as its boiling point. Boiling point is a bulk
phenomenon. Particles from the bulk of liquid gain enough energy to change into vapour state.
Latent heat of fusion : The quantity of heat (in kilocalorie) required to change its 1 kg mass from solid to liquid state at its melting
point is called latent heat of fusion.
For ice latent heat of fusion = 80 kilocal/kg.
Latent heat of vaporization : It is the quantity of heat required to change its 1 kg mass from liquid to vapour state at its boiling point.
For water latent heat of vaporisation = 536 kilocal/kg.
P oi n t
What do you think about gas and vapour ? Does they mean the same thing ? Explain your answer.
SOLUTION
They mean the same thing. The word vapour is used to describe those gases that usually exist as liquid at room temperature e.g. water exists
as liquid at room temperature so when it is in gaseous state it is called water vapour.
Oxygen exists as gas at room temperature so we call it a gas and not vapour.
The temperature of boiling liquid remains constant even if heating is continued. On heating a liquid, the
average Kinetic energy of liquid molecules increases and therefore temperature of liquid increases till
boiling point is reached. At this stage molecule escapes to vapour state resulting in to decrease of energy of
system. Thus the energy supplied on heating the liquid after its boiling point is used in compensating the loss
of energy due to escaping molecules.
Effect of change of pressure on states of matter

Just as we can change the state of matter by change of temperature, it is possible to bring about a change in state of matter by change
of pressure.
For example, with the increase in pressure on gas molecules the volume of gas reduces thus intermolecular distance between gas
molecules decreased which results into increase of intermolecular force of attraction between gas molecules. Thus gas gets converted
into liquid.
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EVAPORATION
The phenomenon of change of a liquid into gas at any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation. Evaporation is a
surface phenomenon. The particles of a liquid present on the surface gain energy and leave the surface.
Evaporation is used as a purification method to get pure solid from its solution.
Addition of a nonvolatile solute in solvent lowers the vapour pressure thus more amount of heat is required to
increase the vapour pressure of solution to atmospheric pressure.
Evaporation is boiling a liquid mixture of a solid dissolved in a solvent so as to evaporate the unwanted solvent and leave the pure
solid as residue.
Particles at surface
can over come attractive
forces and escape to form a gas.
Particles well inside the

liquid are attracted by
particles from all
directions and can't
escape
A blow of air or gases through a liquid surface enhances the evaporation. The blown air takes up the liquid
molecules from the surface with it.
Evaporation dries our washing clothes. Wet clothes Evaporation dries the puddles which form
dry faster when hung lengthwise in open sunny places. on roads and open spaces after a heavy rain.
Water evaporated quickly when it is heated. As the water boils, it turns into steam.
P oi n t
1. Which one out of ethanol and water has more tendency of evaporation?
2. Why Evaporation results into cooling?
SOLUTION
1. Ethanol because intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules is less in comparison to water.
2. Molecules of surface with higher energy escapes out. The remaining molecules are left associated with lower energy, thus temperature
falls down.
Difference between Boiling and Evaporation :

(1) Boiling takes place only at a particular temperature for a liquid. Whereas evaporation occurs at all temperatures.
(2) Boiling is Bulk phenomena i.e. the bubble formation occurs even below the surface. Whereas evaporation is surface
phenomena, i.e. bubble formation occurs only on the surface of liquid.
CONDENSATION
It is the process whereby a gas changes into a liquid. This change in state occurs when a gas is cooled. During the process of
condensation heat is evolved. On cooling the kinetic energy of particles decreases and hence the velocity. Consequently, the
intermolecular distance between the gas molecules decreases and it results in an increase in intermolecular forces of attraction.
Because of this the molecules become less free to move about and the gas attains the molecular arrangement of a liquid.
The outer surface of a glass containing cold water Water condenses on the underside of the cover of a cooking
becomes wet because of condensation. Water droplets pot because the cover is cooler than the rest of the pot.
form when the warm, damp air meets the cold glass surface.
P oi n t
A
Vapour Liquid
In above equation which phenomena A represents?
SOLUTION
A = Condensation
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142 CHEMISTRY
FREEZING OR SOLIDIFICATION
It is the process whereby a liquid changes into a solid. Heat is evolved during this process. Freezing takes place at a fixed temperature
and this temperature is called freezing point.
Freezing or Solidification occurs due to decrease in Kinetic energy of liquid molecules in the form of heat energy. Consequently, the
intermolecular distance decreases and intermolecular force of attraction increases. Molecules lose their movement and they vibrate
about their fixed mean position. Thus the molecules of a liquid attain the molecular arrangement of a solid.
A pure substance has a fixed freezing point. Impurities if present lower the freezing point. Any increase in
pressure lowers the freezing point in case of water but in case of other substances there occurs an increase in
freezing point on increasing the pressure.
SUBLIMATION
It is the process where by interconversion between solid state and gaseous state occurs without passing through the liquid state
heat

Solid gas
cool
When solid changes to a gas there occurs an absorption of heat and heat is evolved when gas changes to solid state.
Sublimation takes place at a fixed temperature.
A substance that shows the property of sublimation is called sublime substance. e.g. Iodine, dry ice (solid
carbon dioxide), ammonium chloride, camphor etc. The solid obtained on cooling the vapour is called
sublimate.
P oi n t
Heat

Solid Camphor gaseous camphor
Cool
Above equation represents which phenomena?

SOLUTION
Sublimation.
SUMMARY
u Matter : Any thing which occupies space and has mass is called matter. Sand, water, oxygen, wood, rock are all different
kinds of matter because all of them occupy space and have mass.
u States of matter : Matter exists in three states :
(a) Solid : A substance that is hard and compact is called a solid. A solid had definite shape and definite volume. e.g. rock, iron etc.
(b) Liquid : A liquid has a definite volume but has no definite shape. It takes the shape of the vessel in which it is poured. e.g.
water, oil etc.
(c) Gas : A gas neither have definite volume nor a definite shape. It fills the container completely and takes its shape. e.g.
hydrogen, oxygen, air etc.
u Plasma : It is the fourth state of matter. This is the state of matter that consists of super energetic and super excited particles.
These particles are in the form of ionized gases.
u Atom : It is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction. Atoms are building blocks for the whole
of matter around us. Atoms may or may not exist in free state.
u Molecule : It is defined as the particle of matter that is capable of free existence in nature. Molecule of an element may be made
up of two or more similar atoms. e.g. O2 (made up of two atoms of oxygen), H2, Cl2, P4, S8 etc. Molecule of a compound is made
up of two or more dissimilar atoms e.g. H2O, NaCl, CS2 etc.
u Kinetic molecular theory visualizes that matter is made up of atoms, molecules or ions in constant motion.
u Evidence of existence of individual particles is provided by diffusion. Diffusion is the gradual mixing on one substance with
another.
u Examples of Diffusion :
(1) Gas diffusion :
(a) the steam from a boiling kettle spreads through out a room.
(b) A gas jar of clear air on top of a gas jar of brown bromine gas (heavier than air) slowly mixes and the colour becomes
light brown in both the jars.
(2) Liquid diffusion :
(a) A dark crystal of potassium magnate (VII) added to a beaker of water dissolves to give a purple solution.
(b) The purple solution of potassium manganate (VII), when diluted with equal amount of water, is still purple (but
lighter) and the purple colour persists even on further dilution with water i.e. particles are spreading throughout the
solution.
u Movement of particles in solid, liquid and gas :
Particle movement is due to the possession of kinetic energy (the more energy they possess, the faster they move)
Gas : Gas particles move fastest and move to fill whatever space is available.
Liquid : Liquid particles move comparatively slowly and are confined to the limit of the vessel in which they are put.
Solid : Solid particles only possess sufficient energy to vibrate while held in a regular arrangement.
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144 CHEMISTRY
u Inter conversion between states of matter :

Liquid
Vap
ng
ion
Co
lti
our
icat
nde
Me
isat
idif
nsa
ion
Sol
tion
Hoar frost
Solid Gas
Sublimation
melting boiling or evaporation

Solid Gas
Liquid
freezing Condensation
u Melting : It is the process by which a solid changes to liquid by absorption of heat.
u Melting point : Melting point (m.p.) is the temperature at which solid melts to a liquid. A pure substance melts at a constant
temperature.
u Boiling : It is the process whereby a liquid changes into gas. This change in state takes place inside the liquid. In this process
heat is absorbed.
u Boiling point : Boiling point (b.p.) is the constant temperature at which a pure liquid boils (changes from liquid to gaseous
state).
[Note : Boiling point is dependent on atmospheric pressure.
lower pressure (e.g. up a mountain) ® lower b.p.
higher pressure (e.g. pressure cooker) ® higher b.p.]
u Melting point of impure solid : The m.p. of impure solid is lower than that of pure substance (e.g. when salt is added to ice
on roads).
u Boiling point of impure liquid : The boiling point of an impure liquid is higher than that of pure solvent (liquid).
u Evaporation : It is the process whereby a liquid changes into a gas. This is a surface phenomenon. This process takes place
at all temperatures below the boiling point of the liquid. Heat is absorbed during evaporation.
u Vapour : Vapour is used to describe those gases that usually exist as liquid at room temperature e.g. water exists as liquid at
room temperature so when it is in gaseous state it is called water vapour.
u Condensation : It is the process whereby a gas changes into a liquid. This change in state occurs when a gas is cooled. During
this process heat is evolved.
u Freezing or solidification : It is the process whereby a liquid changes into a solid. Heat is evolved during this process.
u Freezing point : The constant temperature at which freezing takes place is called freezing point.
[Note : Numerical value of freezing point and melting point is same].
u Sublimation : It is the process whereby inter-conversion between solid and gaseous state occur without passing through the
liquid state.
heat

Solid gas
cool
Sublimation takes place at fixed temperature.
u Sublime substance : A substance that shows the property of sublimation is called a sublime substance. e.g. Iodine, dry ice,
ammonium chloride, benzoic acid. etc.
u Sublimate : The solid obtained on cooling the vapours of a sublime substance is called sublimate.
Multiple Choice Questions : 8. Select the one that diffuses fastest at room temperature.
(a) Petrol (b) Milk
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 19 multiple choice (c) Perfume (d) Camphor
questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out 9. When water vapours condense to form water, the particles
of which ONLY ONE is correct. of water vapour
1. With the increase in pressure the boiling point of a liquid (a) gain energy and also gain freedom of motion.
(a) increase (b) gain kinetic energy and increase their freedom to move
(b) decreases about without any significant attraction.
(c) remains unchanged (c) lose energy and come closer, thus their freedom of
(d) can not be predicted movement gets restricted.
2. When potassium nitrate is added to ice, it (d) lose energy and also lose freedom to move about
(a) increases the melting point of ice 10. Which of the following is likely to happen when we decrease
(b) decreases the melting point of ice the inter-particle space in a substance?
(c) does not effect the melting point of ice (a) an increase in volume occurs.
(d) None of the above is correct (b) a decrease in volume occurs
3. Shown below is venn diagram directing different states of (c) an increase in mass of substance occurs.
matter. Which of the following can be placed at place shown (d) a decrease in mass of substance occurs.
as ‘Q’ in the diagram? 11. What happens to the inter-particle attractive forces on
increasing distance between particles?
Li
lid
(a) it increases
qu
So
id
Q (b) it decreases
(c) there is no change
Gas (d) None of the above is correct
12. The phenomenon of change of liquid into gas at any
(a) Dry ice (b) Table salt temperature below its boiling point is called ______
(c) Jelly (d) Water
(a) melting (b) boiling
4. The correct order on the basis of intermolecular space is :
(c) liquifaction (d) evaporation
(a) solid > liquid > gas
13. Evaporation is a
(b) gas > solid > liquid
(a) bulk phenomenon
(c) gas > liquid > solid
(b) surface phenomenon
(d) liquid > gas > solid
5. The property of diffusion is shown to the maximum extent (c) Both (a) and (b)
in (d) None of these is correct
(a) solid (b) liquid 14. In the process of condensation, a gas changes into liquid
(c) gas (d) Same in all cases and heat is evolved. In the process which form of energy of
6. When a gas is cooled, the temperature falls and gaseous molecules is released as heat energy?
(a) energy is lost by particles (a) kinetic energy (b) potential energy
(b) intermolecular space decreases (c) atomic energy (d) None of these
(c) intermolecular force of attraction increases 15. Out of the following. Which is a sublime substance?
(d) All the above are correct (a) Chlorine (b) Fluorine
7. When a solid is allowed to melt, it results in (c) Iodine (d) Gasoline
(a) moving away of particles 16. Which state of matter consists of super energetic particles
(b) coming closer of particles in the form of ionized gases?
(c) decrease in speed of particles (a) Solid (b) Plasma
(d) decrease in temperature. (c) Liquid (d) All of these
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146 CHEMISTRY
17. With the increase in temperature of liquid its rate of (a) air bubbles escape in cylinder
evaporation. (b) water level increases in beaker
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) water level decreases in cylinder
(c) Remains constant (d) Can not be predicted
(d) water level decreases in beaker
18. On which of the following rate of evaporation of Liquid
depends? 4. A student placed two footballs of the same size and made of
(a) Surface (b) Temperature the same material in two pans of a balance (see figure).
(c) Nature of Liquid (d) All of these
19. The force of attraction between similar molecules is called
(a) Cohesive force (b) Adhesive force
(c) Friction force (d) None of these
Football
Football
B
A
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 10 Multiple Choice
Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out
of which ONE OR MORE may be correct. Which of the following is true ?
1. According to kinetic molecular theory (a) both balls have same volume of air
(a) matter is made up of small particles that may be atoms, (b) both balls have same mass of air
molecules or ions. (c) air in ball A is more compressed than in ball B
(b) the empty space (gap) between the particles is known (d) all the above are correct
as intermolecular space.
5. Select the correct statement about water
(c) molecules exert an attractive force upon each other.
(a) water can exist in all the three forms of matter.
(d) the molecules always remain fixed.
2. Which are/is correct statements? (b) the b.p. of water is 100°C
(a) Matter is continuous in nature. (c) water can not be compressed
(b) Of the three state of matter, the one that is most compact (d) all the above are correct.
is solid state. 6. What is correct on the basis of phenomena of Evaporation ?
(c) In solid state interparticles space (i.e., empty space) is (a) It cause cooling effect.
minimum.
(b) It is favoured by decrease of temperature
(d) The density of solid is generally more than that of a
(c) Evaporation is a surface phenomena
liquid.
3. When air is blown through water placed in a beaker (see (d) Evaporation rate increases with increase of the
figure), we will observe that temperature
Air pushed in 7. A solution of common salt is prepared and freezed by Raj.
Measuring (a) It occurs by evolution of heat
cylinder
(b) Freezing point of solvent is higher than solution.
(c) No heat change occurs in this process
(d) Kinetic energy of Liquid molecule increases.
8. Sumit placed a solid on table and after 20 minutes he found
that volume of solid is reduced and there is no liquid on
table as well.
(a) It represents phenomena of sublimation
Beaker
(b) This phenomena occurs by evolution of heat
(c) Solid substance placed by sumit on table should be
Water
sublimate
(d) It represents the phenomena of Boiling
9. 2. The substance B may be

(a) Hydrogen (b) Liquid
(c) plastics (d) wax
3. The substance C may be
Colored Air Colored Colored
gas Initially gas gas (a) Wax (b) CO2 gas
After 30 minutes (c) Liquid soap (d) Hair oil
Passage - 2
Sheetal once preparing evening tea. In the mean while telephone
bell rangs and she rushed upto attend telephone call. She got
Colored Colorless Colored Colorless busy on phone and suddenly heard a sound from kitchen. When
water water water water she enter back into kitchen. She saw that tea water was boiling
After 30 minutes with steam over it and cover of tea container is flew a side with
A student conduct an experiment. Initially he take two water droplets over it.
connected glass bulbs one containing colored gas other 4. Why cover of tea kettle flew away?
containing air. After few time both bulbs contain colored (a) Not properly tight
gas. When he tries to do the same with colored water in one (b) Tea is explosive in nature
glass bulb and other containing colorless water result (c) Pressure of steam
obtained was not same. (d) None of these
(a) Rate of diffusion of gas molecules is much faster than
5. Water droplets on cover of tea container represents.
Liquid
(a) Condensation
(b) Rate of diffusion of water molecules is more than gas
(b) Evaporation
molecules.
(c) Intermolecular space between gas molecules is very (c) Fusion
large. (d) Sublimation
(d) Colorless water will not get colored because it has 6. Steam over tea represents phenomena of
high density in comparison to gas. (a) Evaporation
10. Which of the following is gas to room temperature? (b) Boiling
(a) Water (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Fusion
(c) Dry ice (d) Nitrogen (d) None of these
Assertion and Reason :
Passage Based Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion
DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the
following questions. followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question
Passage - 1 best describes the two statements.
Observe the diagram and answer the questions.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the
A B C
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
1. The substance A may be
(a) Honey (b) Wax 1. Assertion : Cooking of rice is difficult at higher altitudes.
(c) Hydrogen (d) Plasticide Reason : At higher altitudes the boiling point of water
increases.
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148 CHEMISTRY
2. Assertion : The rate of diffusion is greater in case of gases matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
than in liquids. Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
Reason: The intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger
in gases than in liquids. 1. Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’
3. Assertion : During evaporation of liquid there is no change A. Sublimate (p) Iodine
in the temperature of the liquid. B. Compressibility (q) Liquids
Reason : Kinetic energy associated with particles of matter C. Definite Volume (r) Solid
increases with increase of temperature. D. Expansion on Heating (s) gases
4. Assertion : During extreme winter season the roads get
blocked in Jammu and Kashmir due to snowfall and to remove Integer Type Questions :
ice on roads some salt water is sprinkled on ice.
Reason : The addition of any soluble impurity results in DIRECTIONS : Following are integer based questions. Each
decrease in melting point. question, when worked out will result in one integer from 0 to 9
(both inclusive).
Multiple Matching Questions : 1. How many among the following shows the property of
sublimation
DIRECTIONS : Each question has four statements (A, B, C and Camphor, Napthelene balls, Wax, Iodine, Butter
D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in 2. Properties shown by gases among the following Diffusion,
Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct definite shape, definite volume, regidity high kinetic energy,
Fluidity
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a)

18. (d) 19. (a)
1. (a, b, c) The molecules are always in a state of motion.
1. (a) 2. (b)
2. (b, c, d) 3. (a), (b), (c) 4. (a) and (b)
3. (d) Hint : In this portion different states of water can co-
exist 5. (a) and (b) 6. (a), (c), (d) 7. (a), (b), (d)
4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d) 8. (a), (c) 9. (a), (c) 10. (b), (d)
7. (a) Hint : Solid changes to liquid so the intermolecular Passage Based Questions :
distance increases and molecules move apart, the speed 1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a)
of particles increase and there is no change in
4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b)
temperature because m.p. is a fixed temperature.
8. (c) Diffusion is fastest in gases. Assertion & Reason :
9. (c) When gas (water vapour) changes to liquid (water) it 1. (c) Assertion is correct but reason is incorrect. At higher
loses energy and its freedom of movement is lesser altitudes the pressure is less and due to decrease in
(i.e. restricted). pressure the b.p. of water decreases and not increases.
10. (b) The volume of gases > liquids > solid where as the 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (a)
inter-particle space follows the order gas > liquid >
Multiple Matching Questions :
solid.
1 1. A ® p, r ; B ® q, s; C ® q, r; D ® q, r, s, p
11. (b) Force of attraction µ
interparticle distance Integer Type Questions :
12. (d)
1. 3
13. (b) Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Camphor and Napthelene balls and Iodine
14. (b) potential energy of gas molecules in released in the 2. 3
form of heat energy. Diffusion and high kinetic energy and Fluidity.
Chapter TRANSFORMATION
8 OF MATTER
INTRODUCTION
The science of chemistry mainly deals with the determination of nature and properties of non-living matter which
surrounds us and the preparation of new substances, scientifically interesting and generally useful, from the materials
that nature has provided us. Chemists are generally interested in the changes which these substances undergo on
being subjected to conditions which they normally do not encounter i.e. high temperature, high pressure, extreme
cold, contact with materials under varying conditions etc. It is generally from the changes which materials undergo
when subjected to such conditions that chemists draw conclusions about their nature.
In the world we live, changes are going on all the time. Water changes from a liquid to vapour on boiling. Plants
changes raw materials from air and soil into stems and leaves. Cars and buses burn fuel to move from place to place.
If you look around you can find lots of changes. In some changes the material remains the same. For example no matter
how finely you crush the salt crystals, the powder that you get is still salty. Nothing has changed except the size.
However in some changes a substance changed into a different substance with different properties. For example, on
burning wood, it is changed into completely different substances such as carbon dioxide gas and solid ash.
Based on above observations various changes have been classified into physical change and chemical change.
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150 CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical change
Those properties which describe the look or feel of a substance e.g., colour, hardness, density texture and phase are called physical
properties. Every substance has its own characteristic physical properties that we use to identify the substance.
The physical property of a substance can change on changing conditions but the substance remain same or no new substance is
created. e.g., if the water is subject to boil, the formation of bubbles show that the water is changing into a gas. The gas disappears into
the air as water vapour. If this air touches the lid or plate covering the water, the water vapour will change back into droplet of water.
Therefore a physical change is one in which the substance undergoing the change is not destroyed and no new element or
compound is formed. In some physical changes the properties like colour, shape or size of the substance may change e.g. glowing
of an electric bulb is a physical change, melting of ice is a physical change.
Look at the picture of water boiling and changing into steam. Steam is another form of water. Heating water did not create a new
material. In changing the water from a liquid to a gas, only the state of the water is changed.
P oi n t
The melting of gold is a physical change. Why ?
SOLUTION
During a physical change, a substance changes only one or more of its physical properties; its chemical identity does not change. Because melted
gold is still gold but in a different form, its melting represents only a physical change.
Chemical change :
Those properties which allow a chemical substance to react with other substances to transform from one substance to
another are known as chemical properties for example copper has the chemical property of reacting with carbon dioxide
and water to form a greenish blue solid known as patina.
A chemical change is one in which the identity of the original substance is changed and a new substance or new
substances are formed. In a chemical change the properties of the substance before and after the change are entirely
different. e.g. souring of milk, burning of paper, burning of candle etc.
Look at the picture of the burning candle. The wax of a candle burns into ash and smoke. The original materials are
changing into something different.
Transformation of Matter 151
Pour a small amount of sodium sulfate solution in one test tube and a similar amount of barium chloride solution in
another test tube. Now pour the contents of one of the test tubes into the other test tube. What do you observe ?
One afternoon after returning home from your school go into your kitchen. Try to find out and list 3 physical and chemical
changes occuring in kitchen.
A chemical change involves a change in the way the atoms in the molecules are chemically bonded to one another. A chemical bond
is the force of attraction between atoms that holds them together. A methane molecule for example is made of a single carbon atom
bonded to four hydrogen atoms, and an oxygen molecule is made of two oxygen atoms bonded each. Figure given below shows the
chemical change in which the atoms in a methane molecule and those in two oxygen molecules first pull apart and then form new
bonds with different patterns resulting in the formation of carbon dioxide and water molecules.
Oxygen
Water
Carbon
dioxide
Methane
Therefore, we can say that any change in a substance that involves a rearrangement of the way atoms are bonded is called a
chemical change.
HISTORICAL PREVIEW
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) was exceptionally shy, worked alone, had great wealth, yet rarely spent it. But
he made important scientific discoveries. He produced water by exploding oxygen and hydrogen gases
together. This caused a chemical change, joining one oxygen atom to two hydrogen atoms. He showed water
was a chemical compound. H2O, not an element as others believed.
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152 CHEMISTRY
P oi n t
What is the evidence for the following being examples of chemical change ?
(a) Food spoils.
(b) An antacid tablet fizzes in water.
(c) A ring of scum forms around your bathtub.
(d) Iron rusts
(e) A firecracker explodes.
SOLUTION
(a) When food spoils it represents a chemical change because food changes from one chemical substance to another, sometimes this change
can be observed by smell (a foul smell is observed).
(b) An antacid tablet fizzes in water, it represents a chemical change because a gaseous substance is formed which can be observed easily.
(c) The formation of scum rings around bath tub represents a chemical change. The scum rings are formed because of deposition of a new
substance formed by the action of water in bath tub.
(d) Rusting of iron is a chemical change. Rust is a different chemical substance formed by the action of iron and water in presence of air.
(e) When a fire cracker explodes, new chemical substances are formed so it is a chemical change.
Difference Between Physical and Chemical Change

Physical change Chemical change
(i) It is a temporary change and can be reversed by change (a) It is a permanent change and is an irreversible change.
of conditions
(ii) No new substance is formed and the composition of (b) The composition of the substance changes resulting
the substance remains unaltered. in the formation of one or more new substances.
(iii) No energy changes occur (c) It is generally accompanied by energy changes.
P oi n t
How can you determine whether an observed change is physical or chemical ?
SOLUTION
There are two guidelines by which chemical and physical changes can be identified.
1. In a physical change, a change in appearence is the result of a new set of conditions imposed on the same material. Restoring the original
conditions restore the original appearence.
2. In a chemical change, a change in appearence is the result of the formation of new material that has its own unique set of properties.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
So many changes are occuring around us every time. Iron changes to rust. In your body, food changes to blood, bone and tissue.
Wood burns and changes to gases which go into the air. Certain rocks can be treated with chemicals to remove metals such as
aluminium and iron. Some substances break into simpler substances.
All of these changes are chemical changes. All chemical changes can be written down by means of formulas and equations. What
happens when a chemical change takes place ? Atoms or molecules combine with other atoms or molecules. This action is called a
chemical reaction.
A chemical reaction involves the making or breaking of chemical bonds. For breaking of bond energy is
needed and for making a bond energy is released. Both occur in every chemical reaction. The energy can be
evolved or absorbed in the form of heat, light or electrical energy.
In a chemical reaction one group of substances are changed to form another group of substances or technically we can say.
A chemical reaction is an interaction of two or more substances resulting in the formation of one or more new substances.
During a chemical reaction, atoms rearrange to create one or more new compounds. This activity is nearly summed up in written form
as a chemical equation. A chemical equation shows the reacting substances, called reactants, to the left of an arrow that points to the
newly formed substances, called products :
reactants ¾¾ ® products
Typically, reactants and products are represented by their elemental or chemical formulas. Sometimes molecular models or, simply,
names may be used instead. Phases are also often shown : (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (g) for gas. Compounds dissolved in water
are designated (aq) for aqueous solution. Lastly, numbers are placed in front of the reactants or products to show the ratio in which
they either combine or form. These numbers are called coefficients, and they represent numbers of individual atoms and molecules. For
instance, to represent the chemical reaction in which coal burns in the presence of oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide, we write
the chemical equation using coefficients of 1.
1C(s) + 1 O 2(g) 1CO 2 (g) (Balanced)

Reactants Products
For example,
Iron + oxygen ¾¾
® Iron oxide.
In this example iron and oxygen react to form a new substance iron oxide.
Substances that take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants. In the example given above iron and oxygen are reactants.
Substances that are formed as a result of chemical reaction are called products. In the above example iron oxide is the product.
Whenever a chemical change occurs, a chemical reaction is said to have taken place.
One of the most important principles of chemistry is the law of mass conservation. The law of mass of conservation states that matter
is neither created nor destroyed-during a chemical reaction. The atoms present at the beginning of a reaction merely rearrange to
form new molecules. This means that no atoms are lost or gained during any reaction. The chemical equation must therefore be
balanced. In a balanced equation, each atom must appear on both sides of the arrow the same number of times.
Take a small amount of table salt NaCl solution and put it into one test tube. Now take same amount of silver nitrate.
AgNO3 solution into another test tube. Put both test tubes into a beaker with open end up. Place tubes on one side of a
platform balance and carefully balance with masses on other side.
Now turn both the test tubes upside down in the beaker. The new substances formed are silver chloride AgCl and sodium
nitrate NaNO3.
Now check the weight of new substances formed. What do you observe ?
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154 CHEMISTRY
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

(i) Homogeneous reactions : In case all the reactants and products of a chemical reaction are in the same physical state then such
a reaction is known as homogeneous reactions.
For representation of a physical state of reactants/products we write (g) for gases, ( l ) for liquids and (s) for solids state.
Example :
Hydrogen + Chloride ¾¾ ® Hydrochloric acid
(gas) (gas) (gas)
H2(g) + Cl2 (g) ¾¾ ® 2HCl (g)
(ii) Heterogeneous reactions : If in a chemical reaction, all the products and reactants are not in the same physical state then such
a reaction is known as heterogeneous reaction.
Example :
heat
Calcium carbonate ¾¾¾® C alcium oxide + carbon dioxide
(solid) (gas)
heat
CaCO3 (s) ¾¾¾® CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)
(iii) Exothermic reactions : A chemical reaction which takes place with evolution of heat is known as an exothermic reaction.
Example :
Carbon + Oxygen ¾¾ ® Carbon dioxide + Heat
C (s) + O2 (g) ¾¾ ® CO2 (g) + Heat
In case of an exothermic reaction the energy required to break the bonds of reactants is less then the energy released during
formation of bonds of products and the difference in energy is released as heat energy.
In addition to these reactions we must also know about combustion reaction. Combustion reactions are of great importance. In a
combustion reaction a substance reacts with oxygen and release energy. These reactions are exothermic.
The combustion of natural gas is an important source of energy for homes and industry. Natural gas is mainly methane. Its complete
combustion produces carbon dioxide and water vapour
Methane + Oxygen ¾¾
® Carbon dioxide + Water
CH 4 + 2O 2 ¾¾
® CO 2 + 2H 2 O
Substances such as methane, which undergo combustion readily and give out a large amount of energy, are known as fuels.
Respiration is an exothermic process. We all know that we need energy to stay alive. We get this energy from
the food we eat. During digestion, food is broken down into simpler substances. For example, rice, potatoes
and bread contain carbohydrates. These carbohydrates are broken down to form glucose. This glucose
combines with oxygen in the cells of our body and provides energy. The special name of this reaction is
respiration.
C6 H12 O 6 (aq) + 6O 2 (aq) + 6H 2 O(l) ® 6CO 2 (aq) + 12H 2O(l) + energy
(Glucose)
(iv) Endothermic reactions : A chemical reaction that is accompanied by absorption of heat energy is known as an endothermic
reaction.
Example :
Nitrogen + Oxygen ¾¾ ® Nitric oxide – Heat
(gas) (gas) (gas)
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ¾¾ ® 2NO (g) – Heat.
In case of an endothermic reaction the energy absorbed is more than the energy released and the difference in energy is
absorbed during the reaction.
Rocket ship left off into space and campfire glow red hot as a result of exothermic reactions.
Take about 2 g barium hydroxide in a test tube. Add 1 g of ammonium chloride and mix with the help of a glass rod. Touch
the bottom of the test tube with your palm. What do you feel ? Is this an exothermic or endothermic reaction?
(v) Combination reactions (or Synthesis reactions) : Those reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a single
substance are known as combination reactions.
Examples :
(a) When magnesium is burned in air, it combines with the oxygen of air to form magnesium oxide :
Magnesium + Oxygen ¾¾ ® Magnesium oxide
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ¾¾ ® 2 MgO (s)
In this reaction two elements, magnesium and oxygen combine to yield a single compound magnesium oxide.
(b) Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) releasing a large amount of heat.
CaO(s) + H 2O(l) ¾¾
® Ca(OH) 2 (aq)
(Quick lime) (Slaked lime)
(vi) Decomposition reactions : Those reactions in which a compound splits up into two or more simpler substances are known as
decomposition reactions.
Examples :
(a) When we heat calcium carbonate, it decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
heat
Calcium carbonate ¾¾¾
® Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide.
heat
CaCO3 (s) ¾¾¾
® CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)
(b) When water is electrolysed, by passing electric current through acidulated water, it decomposes to give hydrogen and
oxygen.
Electric current
2H 2 O(l) ¾¾¾¾¾¾® 2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g)
These reactions are endothermic. Most of them require heat energy. Decomposition caused by heat energy is called thermal
decomposition.
Generally Synthesis or Combination reactions are usually exothermic, though they often require an input of
heat energy to start them.
However, there is one very important synthesis reaction which is endothermic; namely photosynthesis. This
reaction is essential for life on Earth. It takes place in the green leaves of plants and requires energy from
sunlight.
P oi n t
When hydrogen burns in oxygen, water is formed and when water is electrolysed, then hydrogen and oxygen are produced.
What type of reaction takes place :
(a) in the first case ?
(b) in the second case ?
SOLUTION
(a) Combination reaction.

(b) Decomposition reaction.
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156 CHEMISTRY
A solution of slaked lime produced by the reaction given is used for white washing walls. Calcium hydroxide
reacts slowly with the carbon dioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate on the walls. Calcium
carbonate is formed after two to three days of white washing and gives a shiny finish to the walls. It is
interesting to note that the chemical formula for marble is also CaCO3.
Ca(OH) (aq)++CO
Ca(OH)22(aq) (g) ¾¾
CO22(g) ¾¾
®
®CaCO (s)+ H
CaCO33(s) H2O(l)
(Calcium (Calcium
hydroxide) carbonate)
(vii) Displacement reactions : Those reactions in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound is known as
displacement reaction.
Example :
When a piece of zinc metal is placed in copper sulphate solution, zinc sulphate and copper are obtained.
Zn(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) ¾¾ ® ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
In the above reaction zinc has displaced copper from copper sulphate and copper is set free.
Note : Displacement reactions are useful in working out the pattern of reactivity of elements of the same type.
The above displacement reaction occurs because zinc is more reactive as compared to copper.
In general, a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound.
P oi n t
What happens when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to iron filings ?
SOLUTION
Hydrogen gas and iron chloride are produced due to displacement reaction.
The digestion of food in the body is an example of decomposition reaction. When we eat foods like wheat, rice
or potatoes, then the starch present in them decomposes to give simple sugars like glucose in the body; and the
proteins decompose to form amino acids.
Chemical behaviour of metal –
Cu
Ag
Au
Metals undergo similar kind of reactions. However the “vigour” with which they react is not the same. Some metals are more
reactive than others. Metals along with hydrogen (a non-metal) are arranged in order of their reactivity in a series, called the
activity series (see figure)
This series helps us in understanding the reactivity of metals.
Displacement reaction can be more easily explained by taking example of iron and copper sulphate solution.
When iron nails are dipped in copper sulphate solution the iron nails become brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper
sulphate solution fade.
Fe(s) + CuSO 4 (aq) ¾¾

® FeSO 4 (aq) + Cu(s)
(Copper sulphate) (Iron sulphate)
In this reaction, iron has displaced or removed another element, copper from copper sulphate solution.
(viii) Double displacement reactions : Those reactions in which two compounds react by an exchange of ions to produce two new
compounds are referred to as double displacement reactions.
A double displacement reaction usually occurs in solution and one of the products (being insoluble) precipitates out.
Example:
When silver nitrate solution is added to sodium chloride solution, a white precipitate of silver chloride is formed alongwith
sodium nitrate solution.
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) ¾¾ ® AgCl(s) ¯ + NaNO3 (aq)
AgCl (s) formed appears as a white precipitate.
The above double displacement reaction can be represented in ionic form as follows:
Ag + NO3- + Na + Cl - ¾¾
® Ag + Cl - + Na + NO 3-
(ix) Isomerisation reactions : It is a special type of reaction in which the rearrangements Iron
nail
Iron nail taken
of chemical bonds takes place in such a way that a molecule of one compound is out from copper
sulphate solution
changed into the molecule of another compound.
Example:
Ammonium cyanate on heating gets converted into urea.
heat
Ammonium cyanate ¾¾¾
® Urea
heat
NH 4 CNO ¾¾¾ ® NH 2 CONH 2
(x) Neutralization reaction: In fact neutralization reaction is a double decomposition type reaction. In neutralization reaction, an
acid and a base react to form salt and water.
acid + base ¾¾
® salt + water (neutralization reaction)
Examples:
NaOH + HCl ¾¾
® NaCl + H 2 O
(base) (acid) (salt) (water)
Sodium Hydro - Sodium
hydroxide chloric acid chloride
KOH + HCl ¾¾
® KCl + H 2O
(base) (acid) (salt) (water)
In a chemical reaction the evolution of gas is represented by an upward arrow ( ) and a precipitate is
denoted by a downward arrow (¯).
OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS
In addition to various categories of chemical reactions discussed so far, some chemical reactions are classified as Redox reactions as
they involve Reduction and Oxidation reactions. Which are discussed in detail below.
Oxidation : It is defined as addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen from a compound.
Both the compounds in such a reaction can be represented by same chemical formula but they have different
structures.
EBD_7027
158 CHEMISTRY
Examples : (a) copper powder

(i) Carbon + Oxygen ¾¾® Carbon dioxide air in
C + O2 ¾¾ ® CO2 (addition of oxygen)
(ii) Iron + Oxygen ¾¾ ® Iron oxide
heat
3Fe + 2O2 ¾¾® 3O4
Fe (b) black copper (II) oxide
(iii) Magnesium + Oxygen ¾¾ ® Magnesium oxide excess
hydrogen in hydrogen
2Mg + O2 ¾¾ ® 2MgO burning
(iv) Hydrogen Sulphide + Chlorine ¾¾® Hydrogen Chloride
H2S + Cl2 ¾¾® 2HCl + S (Removal of Hydrogen) heat
(v) Hydrogen chloride + Manganese dioxide ¾¾® (a) The oxidation of copper to copper oxide.
Manganese Chlorine (b) The reduction of copper oxide back
4HCl + MnO2 ¾¾ ® MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2 to copper using hydrogen
This type of neutralization is also used to remove carbon dioxide from air-conditioned buildings.
• If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is oxidised.

• If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is reduced.
The most common case of indigestion is the presence of too much acid in the stomach.
The antacids, the medicines used to cure indigestion caused due to presence of too much acid in stomach,
contain a suitable miled alkali such as milk of magnesia (i.e. a suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water).
Reduction : It is defined as the addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen from a compound.

Examples :
Copper oxide + Hydrogen ¾¾

® Copper + Water
CuO + H2 ¾¾
® Cu + H2O (Removal of oxygen)
Lead oxide + Carbon ¾¾

® Lead + Carbon dioxide
2PbO + C ¾¾
® 2Pb + CO2
Iodine + Hydrogen Sulphide ¾¾

® Hydrogen Iodide + Sulphur
I2 + H2S ¾¾
® 2HI + S (Addition of hydrogen)
A close look at the above oxidation-reduction reaction reveals that if one substance is reduced the other substance of the reactants
is oxidized. Thus reduction and oxidation occurs simultaneously. Due to this such reactions are known as Redox reactions.
Consider this reaction :
Zinc oxide + Carbon ® Zinc + Carbon monoxide
oxidation
ZnO + C ® Zn + CO
reduction
OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENTS

Oxidising agent or oxidant : Any substance that is capable of giving oxygen to bring about the process of oxidation (or combustion).
Reducing agent : A substance which gives hydrogen or removes oxygen thus causing reduction is known as reducing agent.
Following example helps to understand these.
2CuO + H2 ¾¾
® Cu + H2O
Copper oxide + Hydrogen ¾¾

® Copper + Water
In this hydrogen (H2) removes oxygen from copper and thus hydrogen (H2) acts as reducing agent.
Since copper oxide gives oxygen to hydrogen and hydrogen is oxidised to water so in this reaction copper oxide acts as oxidizing
agent.
P oi n t
When a magnesium ribbon is heated, it burns in air to form magnesium oxide. Write a balanced chemical equation for this
reaction.
(a) substance oxidised, and
(b) substance reduced.
SOLUTION
(a) Magnesium (b) Oxygen
As you have studied there are many types of chemical reactions in chemistry. Study about each of them thoroughly call your
friends and also remind them that they should also go through types of chemical reaction. Now play a game with your
friends in which you become host and make your all friends contestant. Give them a hint about type of chemical reaction
and they have to make a right guess 10 points for right answer and 5 points will be deducted for wrong answer. Let see who
wins ?
CHEMICAL EQUATION
A shorthand notation of describing an actual chemical reaction in terms of symbols and formulae alongwith the number of atoms and
molecules of the reactants and products is called chemical equation. For example, the word equation.
Respiration and photosynthesis, the two life giving reactions, belong to Redox reactions.
In respiration, the food we eat is oxidized and this releases the energy our body needs.
In photosynthesis process, in plants, the carbon dioxide from air get converted to sugar and starch.
Zinc + Sulphuric acid ¾¾ ® Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen

Now symbol of zinc is Zn.
Formula of sulphuric acid is H2SO4
Formula of zinc sulphate is ZnSO4
Formula of hydrogen is H2
Putting the symbols and formulae of all substances in the above word equation, we get the following chemical equation.
Zn + H 2SO 4 ¾¾
® ZnSO 4 + H 2
E5555555F E55555555 F
Reactants Products
The arrow (®) sign pointing towards right side is put between the reactants (i.e. the substances which react or combine) and products
(i.e. the new substances produced).
EBD_7027
160 CHEMISTRY
Information Conveyed by the Chemical Equation

To make the point clear, let us consider a chemical equation
2H2 + O2 ¾¾ ® 2H2O
This equation conveys the following information :
(i) Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water.
(ii) Two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water.
(iii) Two moles of hydrogen combine with one mole of oxygen to form two moles of water.
(iv) 4 (4 × 1 = 4) parts by weight of hydrogen combine with 32 (2 × 16 = 32) parts by weight of oxygen to form 36 (4 × 1 + 2 × 16 = 36)
parts by weight of water.
(v) A molecule of hydrogen consists of two atoms of hydrogen, a molecule of oxygen contains two atoms of oxygen and a molecule
of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
(vi) The total weight of reactants is equal to the total weight of products.
Information not conveyed by chemical equation
Or
Limitations of chemical equation
A chemical equation fails to provide the following information.
It does not tell
(i) why and how the reaction occurs ?
(ii) the conditions under which the reaction occurs.
(iii) about the heat changes taking place in the reaction i.e. whether heat is absorbed or evolved.
(iv) about the physical state of reactants or products (i.e. whether they are solid, liquid or gas).
(v) whether the reaction is reversible or irreversible.
(vi) about the concentration of the reacting substances and the products.
SUMMARY
Physical change : A change in which the state of an object changes but its chemical make up does not change is called
physical change. e.g. melting of paraffin, evaporation of petrol etc.
Chemical change : A change in which new substances with new properties are formed is called a chemical change. e.g.
changing of milk into curd, rusting of iron objects, digestion of food in our body etc.
Characteristics of physical and chemical changes :
Physical change Chemical change

1. Produces no new kind of matter 1. Always produces a new kind of matter.
2. Generally reversible 2. Generally not reversible
3. not accompanied by great heat changes (except 3. Generally accompanied by considerable heat changes.
latent heat effects accompanying change of state)
4. Produces no change of mass 4. Produces individual substances whose masses are
different from those of original individual substances.
Chemical Reactions : The chemical changes are called chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is an interaction of two or
more substances resulting in the formation of one or more substances. For example
Iron + Oxygen ¾¾
® Iron oxide
Reactants : Substances that take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants. e.g. Iron and oxygen in above example.
Products : Substances that are formed as a result of chemical reaction are called products. For example, iron oxide in the
above example.
Types of Chemical Reactions :
(a) Combination Reaction : Reactions in which two or more reactants combine to form one product are called combination
reaction. For example, hydrogens combines with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride (H2 + Cl2 ¾¾
® 2HCl).
(b) Decomposition Reaction : In such a reaction a chemical compound decomposes into simpler substances. These reactions
generally occur under the influence of heat, light, electricity or catalyst. For example Potassium chlorate on heating
decomposes to give Potassium chloride and oxygen.
Heat
2KClO3 ¾¾¾¾® 2KCl + 3O 2
[MNO2 ]
(c) Displacement Reaction : In such a reaction, an element reacts with a compound to displace one of the elements in the
compound. For example
Zn + CuSO4 ¾¾
® ZnSO4 + Cu
(Element) (Compound) (Compound) (Element)
(Note: In this type of reaction the element displaces another element from compound because it is more reactive than the
element already present]
(d) Double decomposition reaction : In such a reaction two compounds react to form two new compounds. The positive ion
of one compound combines with the negative ion of the other and vice-versa. For example
AgNO3 + NaCl ¾¾
® AgCl + NaNO3
(e) Isomerization Reaction : It is a special type of reaction in which rearrangement of chemical compounds takes place in
such a way that a molecule of one compound is changed into the molecule of another compound. For example.
heat
NH4CNO ¾¾¾® NH2CONH2
Ammonium cyanate Urea
EBD_7027
162 CHEMISTRY
(f) Neutralization Reaction : It is actually a double decomposition type reaction. In neutralization reaction, an acid and a
base react to form salt and water.
NaOH + HCl ¾¾® NaCl + H2O

Sodium Sodium
Hydroxide chloride
Exothermic and Endothermic reactions :
(a) Exothermic reactions : Those reactions in which heat is evolved are known as exothermic reactions. For example
N2 + 3H2 ¾¾
® 2NH3 + Heat
(ammonia)
(b) Endothermic reaction : Those reactions in which heat is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions. For example
N2 + O2 + Heat ¾¾
® 2NO
or N2 + O2 ¾¾
® 2NO – Heat
Homogeneous reaction : When all the reactants and products are in the same physical state, the reaction is known as
homogeneous reaction. For example
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ¾¾
® NaCl (aq) + H2O
Heterogeneous reactions : When reactants and products are in different physical states, the reaction is known as a
heterogeneous reaction. For example
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) ¾¾

® CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O
Irreversible reaction : The reactions which proceed only in one direction are called irreversible reactions. For example
h eat
2KClO3 ¾¾¾¾®
[MnO ]
2KCl + 3O2
2
Reversible reactions : Those reactions in which products can react to reform the original reactants are called reversible
reaction. For example
NH4Cl (s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
Oxidaton : It is the process that involves addition of oxygen (or electronegative element) or removal of hydrogen (or
electropositive element) from a compound. For example
C + O2 ¾¾
® CO2
H2S + Cl2 ¾¾
® 2HCl + S
[Notes : Oxidation reaction are generally exothermic]
Reduction : It is the process that involves addition of hydrogen (or electropositive element) or removal of oxygen (or electro
negative element) from a compound. For example.
CuO + H2 ¾¾ ® Cu + H2O
I2 + H2S ¾¾ ® 2HI + S
Redox reactions : The oxidation and reduction reactions taking place simultaneously are called redox reactions.
Oxidising agent or oxidant : Any substance that is capable of giving oxygen to bring about the process of oxidation (or
combustion). Thus oxidising agents are chemicals that oxidise other chemicals. For example in the reaction.
4Fe + 3O2 ¾¾ ® 2Fe2O3
O2 Oxidises Fe to Fe2O3, so O2 is oxidising agent. Common oxidising agents are O2 (g), Cl2 (g), Cl2 (aq), conc. H2SO4
(sulphuric acid)
Reducing agent: A substance which gives hydrogen or removes oxygen thus causing reduction is known as reducing
agent. For example, in the reaction
CuO (s) + H2(g) ¾¾ ® Cu (s) + H2O (l)

CuO (s) is reduced to Cu (s) and H2 (g) which brings about this change is called reducing agent common reducing agent are
H2 (g), metals (Na, K etc.), carbon, KI (aq) etc.
Combustion Reaction: The burning of fuel in presence of oxygen is an example of such a reaction.
In this case fuel is oxidised and oxygen is the oxidising agent.
Chemical Equation: A chemical equation is a shorthand representation of what happens in a chemical change. It shows
which chemicals are involved and in a symbol equation, the ratio of numbers of molecules of reactants and products.
Word equation, e.g.
Iron + Sulphur ¾¾
® iron (II) sulphide
Symbol equation:
Fe(s) + S(s) ¾¾
® FeS(s)
Essentials of a chemical equation
(i) It should represent an actual chemical change.
(ii) It should be balanced.
(iii) It should be molecular.
Limitations of a chemical equation
(i) It does not indicate the physical state of the reactants and the products.
(ii) It does not indicate whether heat is evolved or absorbed in the reaction.
(iii) It does not indicate the specific conditions required for the reaction like pressure, catalyst, temperature.
EBD_7027
164 CHEMISTRY
Multiple Choice Questions : 6. A change is said to be a chemical change when

(a) it is accompanied by energy change
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 14 multiple choice
(b) it is accompanied by formation of new substances
of which ONLY ONE is correct. (c) it is accompanied by change in physical properties
(d) All the above are correct
1. Select the one that is not a chemical change ?
7. Which one is a decomposition reaction ?
(a) Dissolution of ammonia in water.
heat
(b) Dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. (a) 2HgO ¾¾¾® 2Hg + O2
heat
(c) Dissolution of oxygen in water. (b) CaCO3 ¾¾¾ ® CaO + CO2
(d) None of the above is a chemical change. Electrolysis
(c) 2H2O ¾¾¾¾¾¾
® 2H2 + O2
2. Select the one that represents a displacement reaction. (d) All the above reactions are decomposition reactions.
(a) NaCl + AgNO3 ¾¾
® AgCl + NaNO3 8. The reactions in which two compounds exchange their
radicals to form two new compounds are called
(b) Zn + CuSO4 ¾¾
® ZnSO4 + Cu
(a) displacement reaction
(c) HCl + NaOH ¾¾
® NaCl + H2O
(b) decomposition reaction
(d) C + O2 ¾¾
® CO2 (c) double displacement reaction
3. Which one of the following is a combination reaction ? (d) isomerisation reaction
(a) Formation of a mixture of carbon monoxide and 9. Consider the following reaction and tell which one is the
hydrogen. When steam is passed over red hot iron. oxidising reagent.
(b) Reaction of water with sodium metal to form sodium SO2 + 2H2S ¾¾
® 2H2O + 3S
hydroxide and hydrogen. (a) SO2 (b) H2S
(c) H2O (d) S
(c) Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 ¾¾
® 2NaOH + CaCO3 ¯
10. CuO + H2 ¾¾ ® Cu + H2O
(d) Preparation of stannic chloride (Tin (iv) chloride) by
Above reaction is an example of
passing chlorine gas into molten tin (Sn).
(a) redox reaction
4. Which of the following involves combination of two (b) synthesis reaction
elements?
(c) neutralisation reaction
(a) CaO + CO2 ¾¾
® CaCO3 (d) decomposition reaction
(b) 4Na + O2 ¾¾
® 2Na2O 11. A substance which gets oxidised, during a redox reaction,
(c) 2SO2 + O2 ¾¾
® 2SO3 is known as
(a) oxidizing agent
(d) NH3 + HCl ¾¾
® NH4Cl
(b) reducing agent
5. When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through a blue (c) either oxidising or reducing agent
solution of copper sulphate, a black precipitate of copper
sulphide is formed. This is an example of ?
12. In the reaction :
(a) combination reaction
PbO + C ¾¾ ® Pb + CO
(b) displacement reaction
(a) PbO is oxidised (b) PbO is oxidant
(c) decomposition reaction
(c) C is reductant (d) Both (b) and (c)
(d) double decomposition reaction
13. Which of the following is an isomerization reaction ? 5. The reaction :

(a) 2Na + 2H2O ¾¾
® 2NaOH + H2 N2 (g) + O2 (g) + heat ¾¾ ® 2NO (g)
(a) a homogeneous reaction
(b) 2KBr + Cl2 ¾¾
® 2KCl + Br2
(b) a heterogeneous reaction
heat
(c) ZnCO3 ¾¾¾ (c) a combination reaction
® ZnO + CO2
(d) an endothermic reaction
(d) NH4CNO ¾¾
® NH2CONH2 6. The reaction;
14. Chemical equations are balanced in accordance with the 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ¾¾ ® 2 MgO (s) is
(a) Dalton’s law (a) a combination reaction
(b) Law of conservation of mass (b) a synthesis reaction
(c) a reaction in which an element and a compound react
(c) Law of definite composition
to produce a compound
(d) None of the above (d) a reaction in which two elements react to produce a
More than One Option Correct : compound
7. In the respiration
DIRECTIONS : This section contains 9 Multiple Choice (a) the food that we eat is oxidised
Questions. Each question has 4 choices (a), (b), (c) and (d) out (b) the food that we eat is reduced
of which ONE OR MORE may be correct. (c) energy is released
(d) energy is absorbed
1. The reaction 8. A burning of candle represents
NaOH + HCl ¾¾
® NaCl + H2O (a) physical change (b) volume change
is an example of (c) chemical change (d) none of the above
(a) Displacement reaction 9. A balanced chemical equation should represent
(a) Temperature of reaction
(b) Double decomposition reaction
(b) Catalyst involved
(c) Neutralization reaction (c) Atomicity of each element
(d) Isomerisation reaction (d) Physical states of reactant and products
2. Most of the chemical changes are found to undergo
(a) a change in the weight of the reacting substances
(b) a change in temperature DIRECTIONS : Study the given paragraph(s) and answer the
following questions.
(c) a change in energy
(d) all of the above are incorrect Passage
Take appropriate quantity of CuSO4 from your school laboratory
3. Select the incorrect statements. and dissolve it in small quantity of water to obtain blue coloured
(a) A physical change can be easily reversed by a slight aqueous solution. Now put 3-5 pieces of medium size iron nail in
change of conditions. it. After sometime colour of solution starts changing from blue to
green.
(b) A physical change is accompanied by a change in color 1. Which type of reaction is responsible for this change ?
of the reacting substances. (a) Displacement (b) Combination
(c) It is possible to characterise a chemical reaction by (c) Decomposition (d) Double decomposition
only a change in state 2. Correct chemical equation for process.
(d) All the above are incorrect. (a) 2Fe ∗ CuSO4 ¾¾ ↑ Fe 2SO 4 ∗ Cu
4. The reaction : (b) Fe ∗ CuSO4 ¾¾
↑ FeSO4 ∗ Cu
C (s) + O2 (g) ¾¾® CO2 (g) + heat is (c) FeSO 4 ∗ Cu ¾¾
↑ CuSO 4 ∗ Fe
(a) a homogeneous reaction (d) None of the above
3. Above phenomena represents ?
(b) a heterogeneous reaction
(a) Physical change
(c) an exothermic reaction (b) Chemical change
(d) an endothermic reaction (c) Both physical and chemical
EBD_7027
166 CHEMISTRY
Assertion & Reason : Multiple Matching Questions :
DIRECTIONS : Each of these questions contains an Assertion DIRECTIONS : Each question has four statements (A, B, C and
followed by reason. Read them carefully and answer the question D) given in Column I and four statements (p, q, r and s) in
Column II. Any given statement in Column I can have correct
best describes the two statements.
matching with one or more statement(s) given in Column II.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the Match the entries in column I with entries in column II.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not 1. Column I Column II
the correct explanation of Assertion. A. C + O2 ® CO2 + heat (p) Exothermic
D
(d) If Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. B. CaCO3 ¾¾ ® CaO + CO2 (q) Combination
1. Assertion : Burning of paper is a physical change. C. N2 + O2 ® 2NO (r) Endothermic
Reason : The products formed on burning of paper can not D. HCl + NH4OH ® (s) Decomposition
be easily converted back to paper. NH4Cl + H2O + 12.3kJ
2. Assertion : The change of water from liquid to steam on heat
heating is a physical change. 2. Column I Column II
Reason : The volume remains same and the change involves A. C + O2 ® CO2 (p) Displacement
a change in composition. B. H2S + Cl2 ® 2HCl + S (q) Oxidation
3. Assertion : By passing electric current through water, we C. I2 + H2S ® 2HI + S (r) Combination
can decompose it into hydrogen and oxygen.
D. H2 + Cl2 ® 2HCl (s) Reduction
Reason : Water is a compound whereas hydrogen and
oxygen are elements. Integer Type Questions :
4. Assertion : The formation of rust is a chemical change.
Reason : For the formation of rust iron must be exposed to DIRECTIONS : Following are integer based questions. Each
air and water. question, when worked out will result in one integer from 0 to 9
(both inclusive).
5. Assertion : A redox reaction involves both oxidation and
reduction. 1. In the following reaction
Reason : SO2 + 2H2S ¾¾ ® 2H2O + 3S is an example of heat
redox reaction. 2KClO3 ¾¾¾¾
[MnO ]
® 2KCl + xO
2
2
The value of x is
2. How many of them are chemical changes.
melting of ice, glowing of bulb, souring of milk, burning of
paper, burning of candle
SO L U T I ON S
Brief Explanations
of
Selected Questions
7. (a, c)
8. (a, b, c)
9. (a, b, d)
1. (c)
1. (a) This is because of the displacement reaction.
2. (b)
3. (d) [ Hint : Sn + 2Cl2 ¾¾ ® SnCl4] 2. (b) CuSO 4 (aq)+ Fe ¾¾
® FeSO 4 + Cu(s)
(Blue) (Green)
4. (b) [ Hint : Both Na and O2 are elements]
5. (d) [Hint : CuSO4 + H2S ¾¾ ® CuS ¯ + H2SO4] 3. (a) As the proportion of salt dissoved in water is changing
(Blue) (Black) because of formation of new salt (FeSO4). Thus as the
proportion of solution is changing and new salt is
6. (d)
formed which have different physical properties. Thus
7. (d) [Hint : In all these the reactants decompose to form
phenomina also represents physical change.
simpler products.]
8. (c) Assertion & Reason :
9. (a) In this reaction SO 2 acts as the oxidising reagent. 1. (d)
10. (a) [Hint : It involves oxidation and reduction.] 2. (c) Both incorrect.
11. (b) 3. (b)
12. (d) [Hint : In this carbon reduces PbO to Pb so carbon (C) 4. (b)
is reducing agent (reductant) PbO acts as oxidising
5. (b)
agent (oxidant) as it oxidises C to CO.
13. (d) Multiple Matching Questions :
14. (b) 1. A ® (p, q); B ® (r, s); C ® (q, r); D ® (p)
More Than One Option Correct : 2. A ® (q, r); B ® (p, q, s); C ® (p, s, q); D ® (r, s)
1. (b, c) Integer Type Questions :
2. (a, b, c)
3. (b,c) 1. 3
4. (b, c) heat
2KClO3 ¾¾¾¾ ®
[MnO ] 2KCl + 3O2
5. (a, d,) 2
6. (a, b, d) 2. 3
souring of milk, burning of paper and burning of candle.

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è Exercise 3 & 4: M CQs 1 Correct, MCQs >_ 1 Correct,

Typeset by Disha DTP Team

For further information about the books from DISHA,

2. Materials : Metal & Non-metals 23-50

3. Coal and Petroleum 51-70

4. Combustion and Flame 71-92

5. Language of Chemistry 93-112

6. Classification of Matter on the basis of Chemical Composition 113-130

7. States of Matter 131-148

8. Transformation of Matter 149-167

MAN MADE MATERIALS

Acryline is extremely strong. If it breaks or gets damaged, it will not shatter.

1. Effect of heat Soften at 70°C to 90°C Do not soften easily

PLASTICS – A NEW AGE MATERIAL

PLASTICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

u Terylene is one of the most famous types of polyester.

Fill in the Blanks : Match the Following :

Text-Book Exercise : 14. ‘Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping for

Multiple Choice Questions : 8. A synthetic fibre obtained from renewable resources is

Assertion & Reason : 7. Assertion : Handles of utensils are made up of

4. Rayon is a natural-based material that is made from the

METALS AND NON-METALS :

1. It is because of high melting point and hard character of metals.

Potassium Most reactive

Hydrogen H Non metal

Gold Least reactive

Reactivity Series of the Metals

iron magnesium copper

2. Reaction with water :

3. Reaction with acids :

4. Reaction with bases :

Aluminium corrodes less than iron inspite of being more reactive.

Summary the Chemical Reactions for Metals :

Reaction with O2 Reaction with H2O Reaction with mineral acid

Potassium K Violent reaction to give

(iii) Magnetic separation Crushed and

materials. As shown in figure a magnetic separator consists of a leather Magnetic

We should conserve and recycle metals

Physical Properties of Non-metals:

Chemical Properties of Non-metals

Instruction : Do this experiment with your teacher as it can be dangerous.

COMPARISION BETWEEN METALS & NON-METALS

Fill in the Blanks : Match the Following :

Short Answer Questions : Long Answer Questions :

Multiple Choice Questions : (a) Sodium (b) Calcium

Assertion & Reason : C. Mercury (r) highly unreactive

Fill in the Blanks : (b) 2Ca + 2H2O ¾¾

COAL AND PETROLEUM

Different types and their uses

Sugar charcoal is a very pure form of carbon.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

1. What is producer gas ? Short Answer Questions :

Long Answer Questions :

DIRECTIONS : Answer the following questions in detail.

Text-Book Exercise : Exemplar Questions :

(a) CO + CO2 (b) CO + N2 (b) it is a mixture of various constituents