Environmental Issues

UNIT 4 ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Environmental Sustainability: Targets and Indicators
4.3.1 Millennium Development Goals
4.3.2 Sustainable Development Goals
4.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment
4.4 National and International Conventions
4.4.1 Earth Summit 1992
4.4.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the
Kyoto Protocol.
4.4.3 Convention on Biological Diversity
4.4.4 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
4.4.5 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer
4.4.6 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
4.4.7 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
4.4.8 Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES)
4.4.9 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
4.4.10 Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Substances
4.5 Environmental Ethics
4.5.1 Anthropocentric View
4.5.2 Bio-centric View
4.5.3 Eco-centric View
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Suggested Further Readings\References
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The idea of sustainable development has been there, ever since human beings started
using natural resources for their development. All forms of development, be it economic,
educational, technological, agricultural, or social, have taken a toll on the consumption
of environmental resources. Sustainable development talks about a development
scenario where resources are consumed so that humans’ needs are not compromised
in the present, and resource availability is also ensured for the future.Since the beginning,
we have consumed natural resources, but the consumption rate has increased
exponentially after the industrial revolution.

On an international platform, the idea of environmental equity and sustainable use of

resources was first discussed in the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment (UNCHE), held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972. For the first time, the
representatives of 114 countries attended a conference that brought the environment
to the forefront and established that economic development is not independent of
environment conservation (Sharma, P.D., 2016). The declaration of the United Nations 71
Concepts of Environmental Conference on Human Environment recognized the finite nature of resources
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available on earth and emphasized its judicious use to remain available for future
generations. It also recognized that developmental needs are different for developing
and developed nations. A large population in developing countries is living below
a decent standard of living required in food, clothing, shelter, and health. The
developing countries must strive to meet the needs of the population and, at the
same time, manage the resources well. On the other hand, the developed nations
need to balance the resource consumption pattern and increasing demands (https:/
/www.ipcc.ch/apps/njlite/srex/njlite_download.php?id=6471).

In 1983, the UN General assembly established a commission, which later came to

be known as the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED),
to come up with a report on the state of the environment and propose sustainable
development to the year 2000 and beyond. The Commission, also known as the
Brundtland Commission, named after its Chairman Gro Harlem Brundtland, the former
Prime Minister of Norway, came up with a report in 1987. The report titled “Our
Common Future”discussed various environmental challenges like food security,
biodiversity conservation, industrial pollution, energy crisis, urbanization, and possible
solutions. It also defined sustainable development as “the development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future generations
to meet their own needs”https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/
5987our-common-future.pdf.

Sustainable development is a broad term that incorporates the concept of environmental

systems’ carrying capacity and that economic development is possible only through
resource conservation. For an idea to be sustainable in the long run, it has to be
successful on three parameters, i.e., Environmental viability, Economic feasibility,
and Social acceptability (Wright &Boorse, 2015). These are also known as the
three pillars of sustainability (Fig. 4.1)

Environmental Viability: This aspect focuses on developing ideas and products that
put the least risk on the environment and minimizes resource consumption. The life-
cycle assessment of any product can describe its production, usage, and impact as a
waste dumped on the environment. The products with lower water and carbon footprints
can be sustained environmentally for a longer period.

Economic Feasibility: From the business and profitability perspective, economic

viability/profitability is the most important driving force. In the long run, a
business pattern in coherence with the concept of environment conservation is
likely to last longer successfully.The industrial sector anywhere in the world
relies on natural resources, e.g., coal, freshwater, wood, metals, minerals, etc.
They all are essential raw materials for major industrial processes. Ensuring their
availability, in the long run, is crucial to the health of the industry. Whenever the
supply starts reducing, the manufacturing and processing cost increases, reflected in its
final pricing.

Social Acceptability: For any environmentally sustainable idea to be successful, it

must be accepted and adopted. The social acceptance comes with the convenience of
use, appropriate pricing, upliftment of the local, indigenous talent, and resources. All
the stakeholders in the society, employers, employees, consumers have to be
satisfactorily involved.

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 Environmental Sustainability
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss the concept of sustaianable development;
• discuss the steps to achieve sustaianable development through specific targets
and indicators;
• discuss the international efforts towards sustainable future for climate change,
biodiversity conservation and movement of hazardous substances; and
• identify different ethical viewpoints towards environment.

4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY:

TARGETS AND INDICATORS
As discussed earlier, sustainable development is achieved when all three pillars
stand strong (Fig. 4.1). The environmental viability pillar, in particular, focusses on
ecosystems and the support they provide to humankind. Achieving a sustainable solution
must involve an understanding of economic processes (procuring raw material,
production, and disposal of waste) and its impact on the environment and health (Miller
Jr, G.T., 2007).

Sustainable Development

Sustainable
Development
Socially acceptable

Economically
Environmentally
feasible
viable

Figure. 4.1: Sustainable solutions: where the common concerns of environment, economics,
and society overlap. Source: Wright and Boorse, 2015.

To objectively identify and describe environmental sustainability, certain goals and targets
are set, and the changes these targets would reflect on the environment are measured
using specific indicators. All the targets underline the fundamentals of environmental
conservation and minimal harm to society. From time to time,the world has come
together to incorporate environmental values in the economic system. Some of the
targets that have played a defining role in the world’s modern environmental history are
discussed here.
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Concepts of Environmental 4.3.1 Millennium Development Goals: In the year 2000, the United Nations
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Millennium summit adopted certain goals known as Millennial Development
Goals (MDGs) to be achieved by 2015 (Fig 4.2). The eight MDGs and seventeen
targets under them have specific indicators to measure their success (https://
www.un.org/millenniumgoals/). Table 4.1 gives MDGs and the targets assigned under
environmental sustainability.

Fig 4.2: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Table 4.1: The Millennial Development Goals, targets, and indicators (Figures
in 1990 are compared to that in 2015).
Goal 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education
Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women
Goal 4 Reduce child mortality
Goal 5 Improve maternal health.
Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability.
Targets for Integrate the principle of sustainable development into country’s
Goal 7 policies and programs, and reverse environmental resource loss.
Indicator:
• The proportion of land area covered with forests.
• Consumption of ozone-depleting substances.
• The proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected.
Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
Indicator
• The proportion of people using improved drinking water
sources.
• The proportion of people using improved sanitation facility.
Achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100
million slum dwellers by 2020.
Indicator:
• The proportion of the urban population living in slums.
Goal 8 Forge a global partnership for development.
Source:http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Host.aspx?Content=Indicators/OfficialList.htm.
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The Millennium Development Goals targets were partially met in terms of Environmental Sustainability
children’s education (goal 2), decreasing mortality rate (goal 4), and removing
extreme poverty (goal 1). However, the target that was far from being successfully
implemented was goal 7 on environmental sustainability (Fehling et al., 2013).
The goals’ incomplete success can be linked to limitations like inadequate
resources, lack of focus and accountability, and ambiguity on how the targets
were designed (Fehling et al., 2013). Carrying on the momentum developed during
MDGs implementation, a set of 17 new goals known as Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) were designed to be fulfilled in the next 15 years till 2030.

4.3.2 Sustainable Development Goals

To achieve sustainable development, addressing all the environmental challenges
the world is facing today, a comprehensive plan to implement sustainability is a
must. To achieve that, United Nations member states adopted seventeen goals
known as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Fig 4.3) in 2015. The goals
are quite comprehensive, covering all the aspects of development.These seventeen
goals strive for sustainability, taking up different social and environmental causes,
and successfully attaining them by 2030. They are as follows:

Fig 4.3: The Sustainable Development Goals adopted in 2015 with a target to be
achieved by 2030.

1. No poverty: Much progress has been made on eradicating poverty since

1990, but the poverty figures indicate that a large population of the world is
still poor. Population living on wages of less than 2$US/day is huge in South
Asia. It is important to address poverty imperatively as it is mostly the poor
who are more vulnerable to climate change impacts.

2. Zero Hunger: With the development of agricultural technology, food

production has increased, and the number of people dying of hunger has
decreased drastically. Food security remains a major challenge, as the quality
parameters of food are not met. In many developing countries, malnutrition is
affecting millions of children and adults.
3. Good health and wellbeing: This goal is to achieve good health for all and
wellbeing at all ages. Good health is primary for the development of a healthy
society. A large population in developing countries does not have access to
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Concepts of Environmental health services and insurances. Much progress has been made in increasing
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life expectancy and medicines availability for chronic and life-threatening
diseases like diabetes and blood pressure, etc., yet, a lot is left to achieve.
The goal would be fulfilled only when the health services reach the poorest
of the poor.
4. Quality education: Aims to achieve quality and inclusive education from
learning and obtain skills for a lifetime providing job opportunities.
5. Gender equality: Much work that women do in the formal and informal
sectors goes unnoticed, as women are either not paid or paid less than their
male counterparts. This goal is set to achieve gender equality for women in
all spheres of life. The work done by women can contribute substantially to
the economic growth of the country.
6. Clean water and sanitation: There is a large part of the world’s population
that do not have access to clean drinking water, and many more do not have
access to clean sanitation services. Both are primary requirements for a healthy
life. Lacking these, people are subjected to many water-borne diseases. Huge
infrastructural investments are needed to provide clean drinking water and
sanitation services to all.
7. Affordable and clean energy: Energy is an essential requirement for
development in the industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors. In India,
we have been dependent on energy from non-renewable sources for a long
time. The need of the hour is the availability of energy for all generated in an
environment-friendly manner. Non-conventional sources hold the key to the
future of energy. India has taken a key step towards developing solar energy
through the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, giving subsidies to set
up solar power plants. International Solar Alliance, to increase the use of
solar energy through solar panels is a great commitment of India towards a
sustainable future.
8. Decent work and economic growth: This goal aims to promote sustainable
economic growth and simultaneously provide decent working conditions.
This also tries to support technological innovations that are environmentally
friendly and save resources.
9. Industry innovation and infrastructure: This goal promotes technological
innovations to address problems like urbanization, mass transportation, cheaper
renewable energy, etc., and even internet connectivity that is crucial in the spread
of information and knowledge.
10. Reduced inequalities: This goal intends to reduce the economic inequality that
exists in society. A top few percent of the population owns or governs the majority
of the resources. This inequality is less in developed countries and high in developing
countries. The ecological footprint data from across the world highlights this
disparity.
11. Sustainable cities and communities: This goal is about making our cities and
urban areas more sustainable. With technological development and industrialization
on the rise, urban sprawls come up and spread very fast. A large population
of the world would be living in urban areas than rural by 2050. To make
those cities able to thrive populations, growth pattern has to be sustainable.

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12. Responsible consumption and production: Natural resources on earth are Environmental Sustainability
limited, limiting the economic growth rate. To keep a balance between
resource availability and meeting the entire population’s basic needs,
sustainable consumption, and production hold the key.
13. Climate action: Climate change is an environmental emergency experienced by
all the world countries to a different extent. The effect comes from an increase in
the earth’s average temperature and frequent recurrence of natural calamities.
Mostly, it is the poor that bear the brunt of it. Huge infrastructural investment in
shifting to lower carbon emissions, industrial processes and energy production is
must to keep climate change under control.
14. Life below water: Oceans are major carbon reservoir and host to a great
biodiversity. Fish and other seafood are a major source of food throughout
the world. Fish stocks are too over-exploited to maintain a sustainable
population. Mechanized fishing, pollution, climate change, ocean
acidification is harming biodiversity like never before. This goal aims to
manage marine and coastal systems sustainably.
15. Life on land: land and forest resources are extensively utilized and diverted for
urbanization, industrialization, agricultural uses, and roads. Biodiversity
conservation is a must to maintain the ecosystem processes, food chain, and
prevent further degradation of land leading to desertification.
16. Peace justice and strong institutions: The three pillars of sustainable
development would only be fulfilled when there is peace and functioning
law and order situation in the community. Disturbance, gender inequality,
insecurity, and violence in the community hampers the region’s economic
growth and prosperity. Strengthening of institutions for the establishment
of peace and security in society is essential for complete sustainability.
17. Partnerships for goals: Environment sustainability is a comprehensive process
that requires coordination between developed and developing countries to cope
better with natural disasters and technological exchange for environment-friendly
industrial production and processes. According to the United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development investments, trillions of dollars are required to
accomplice SDGs.

All these goals may seem independent but work holistically to make an environmentally
sustainable state. A comprehensive set of indicators (global indicator framework) is
developed and updated regularly to measure these goals’ implementation status. The
targets’ indicators are divided into subcategories based on age, sex, ethnicity, migratory
status, or other categories. The global indicator framework has 247 indicators, out of
which 231 are unique, while a few are repeated under multiple goals as they encourage
and indicate comprehensive growth of the society. The environment-based goals like
access to energy (goal 7) measure the population’s proportion with primary reliance
on clean energy sources (indicator 7.1.2). Goal 12 on sustainable production and
consumption considers material footprint, material footprint per capita, and material
footprint per GDP (indicator 12.2.1). For the goal to take urgent action to combat
climate change, indicators like the number of lives lost in natural disasters (13.1.1) and
the measures taken for disaster risk reduction on the lines of Sendai framework,
2015-2030 (13.1.2) are there. Goal 15 of promoting sustainable ecosystems has
indicators like the proportion of forest cover for the total land area (15.1.1),
coverage of protected sites to conserve mountain biodiversity (15.5.1), and the
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Concepts of Environmental proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked (15.c.1).
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The link for the latest set of indicators, upgraded in 2020, is given here (https://
unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/).

4.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment

Apart from the above measurable inputs for SDGs, there are indicators like Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) that “quantifies all relevant emissions and resources
consumed, the related environmental and health impacts and the depletion of the
resource associated with any product or services”(EC-JRC, ILCD Handbook,
2010). A thorough life cycle analysis of products and services needs to be carried
out based on the definition. With detailed information about resource consumption
and the product/service’s impact on the environment, the consumer/local bodies
and governments can make informed decisions that may increase sustainability.
LCA aims to compare alternatives, impacting the environment in relative terms
(Dong and Hauschild, 2017). The impacts on health and the environment can be
local/regional and may vary over the temporal scale. The financial concerns,
along with the environment, can be a guiding principle for further usage.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: (a) Write you answer in 50 words.
            (b) You can check your answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Why is there a need of sustainable development?
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2. What are the three pillars of sustainable development?
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4.4 NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL

CONVENTIONS
Efforts on the national and international fronts are required for sustainability to survive
in the long run. Internationally, many conventions are held, treaties and protocols are
signed to better society and conserve the environment. Some of the major conventions
and protocols are discussed here.

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4.4.1 Earth Summit 1992 Environmental Sustainability

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),

also known as Earth Summit/Rio Summit held in Rio-de-Janeiro, Brazil, from
June 3 to June 14, 1992, is considered one landmark conference. The idea of
environmental conservation, sustainable development, and the efforts to bridge
the gaps between environment and economy were discussed internationally. After
the Stockholm conference in 1972, the Earth Summit was a step forward in taking
concrete actions on the ground. Leaders from 170 countries worldwide, including
115 heads of the states, participated in the event. The conference was held to
bring the member states on a common platform to achieve a bigger sustainability
objective.The conference’s major outcomes include theRio Declaration,
Convention on forestry, also known as forest Principles, and Agenda 21. Some
legally binding agreements like the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biodiversity, and Convention to
Combat Desertification were also opened for signature to the member states. These
are discussed briefly below:

Rio Declaration(Earth Charter): The declaration states 27 guiding principles

for the conservation and restoration to maintain different ecosystems. The document
was signed by all the heads of the States and Government representatives. It
mentions the “Polluter Pays Principle,” which makes the polluter responsible for
the damage caused to the natural environment and bear the clean-up cost. When
we start to form a common baseline, it is observed that developed countries have
caused a lot more pollution than developing countries. The cost they have to bear
for clean-up is huge. The developing countries, which are still fulfilling basic
requirements for their countrymen, may pollute in the time to come (Sharma, 2015).
The great outcome for bridging these gaps was the principle of “Common but
differentiated responsibilities” to conserve ecosystems.

Convention on Forestry or Forestry Principles: It is a document that lays down

forest conservation and sustainability principles. Initially, there was a lot of controversy
over this issue as developed nations, like the U.S.A., Germany insisted on having an
internationally binding agreement for global conservation and forest management. This
would help them globalize the forest resources of developing nations and use them for
industrial processes. Countries like India were principally against this as forests are a
resource and part of tradition (Sharma, 2015).It remains a non-legally binding agreement.

Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is a comprehensive document that lays down the principles of
sustainable development covering all the aspects of society and came with a concrete
plan for the implementation. It addresses the contemporary environmental problems
and the social aspects aggravating poverty, social injustice, consumption patterns, human
health conditions, etc. The agenda explicitly discussed the financial mechanisms and
partnerships among the countries to achieve the goals mentioned above. It postulated
that partnerships should be such that developing countries should get appropriate
financial and technological assistance to meet sustainable growth targets. Environment-
friendly technology would enable the developing countries in the long run by reducing
the damage done to the environment. Countries receiving any form of international
assistance has to work out a detailed analysis of the existing situation and the basis on
which the funding is to be given, like determining the research areas where and how the
changes in the environment affect the people, understanding social aspects, ways to
alleviate poverty, providing health care facilities for all, etc. and extensive regular
monitoring of situation to account for improvement over time. 79
Concepts of Environmental Overall, the Earth Summit was a successful convention in formulating the idea of
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earth conservation and taking it one step ahead on a global platform except for a
few setbacks where developed countries did not successfully contribute financially
for technological assistance to developing countries. Not enough funds were
collected through the Global Environment Facility (GEF). No specified limits of
pollution reduction were set to achieve within a time frame of 8-10 years. It
requires a great deal of commitment on the part of the countries to meet the
designated targets without compromising development.

4.4.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the first UN
body involved in making policy to prevent climate change. It is a parent treaty of
the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the Paris agreement of 2015 (https://unfccc.int/about-
us/about-the-secretariat). Under UNFCCC, annual meetings of member countries are
held. It helps its 197 member states decide upon plans and policies to mitigate existing
climate change and prevent further increase. It also helps them in devising new
mechanisms for achieving the same goal.

Kyoto Protocol: The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December
1997 and came into force in February 2005. The protocol was set to reduce the
emission of six major Green House Gases (GHG) like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluor-ocarbons (PFCs),
and sulfurhexafluoride (SF6).The protocol also encouraged financial mechanisms to
achieve the targets through a carbon-credit system and coming up with non-renewable
energy sources with fewer carbon emissions.It guided developed countries to provide
funds for new technological implementation in developing countries yet to install and
develop it. The percent reduction targets were different for developed countries under
the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.

Paris Agreement: In 2015, a major follow up agreement was signed by the member
countries having to relook on the existing targets and reformulate them. It became
more specific by setting the average global temperature limit to well below 2.0oC
above pre-industrial levels. In this agreement, the member countries set their own
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to prevent climate change. It came into
force on 4thNovember 2016. Only 189 countries out of 197 member nations have
ratified the agreement. India has committed herself to the cause of the prevention of
climate change and working hard to achieve the targets. The United States of America,
one of the world’s largest economies, walked out of this agreement during the Paris
meeting. India remains committed to its cause of the environment.

4.4.3 Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international agreement to conserve
biodiversity, use its products sustainably, and share the benefits of utilizing biological,
genetic resources. The convention came into force on December 29, 1993, and was
ratified by 196 member nations (https://www.cbd.int/ ).The Conference of Parties of
the Convention, in due course of time, have developed important supplementary
treaties contemporary to developing science and technology. Two such treaties
are Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.

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Cartagena Protocol: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Environmental Sustainability
Biodiversity. It was adopted on January 29, 2000, in Montreal, Canada (originally
scheduled for Cartagena, Quebec) and came into force on 11thSeptember 2003. A
total of 173 of the member nations have ratified it.The protocol is about the movement
of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) across the countries as it can be a potential
risk to any country’s native biodiversity. The biosafety protocol encourages countries
to declare complete information about such organisms to make an informed decision
by the importing countries.

Nagoya Protocol: The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the
Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention
on Biodiversity.The protocol provides a framework for fulfilling one of the objectives
of CBD. It was adopted on 29th October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, and came into force
on 12th October 2014. Providing legal clarity and transparency and distributing benefits
of utilizing genetic resources fairly is the protocol’s main aim. It also details the
mechanisms at national levels to attain the objectives.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: (a) Write you answer in 50 words.
            (b) You can check your answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Why the Earth Summit, 1992 is considered a landmark conference in the field of
environment?
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2. Which international protocol work towards the prevention of climate change?
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4.4.4 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

(UNCCD)
The UNCCD is an international legally binding agreement focussing on
preventing land degradation and achieving sustainable land management (https://
www.unccd.int/). The Convention was adopted on 17th June 1994 in Paris and came
into force in December 1996. In all, 197 member parties have ratified it. The convention
is strategic towards preventing land degradation through natural processes as the
drylands (arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas) lose soil productivity and tend to
expand, which may lead to desertification over time. In its 2018-2030 target, the
convention is committed to achieving Land degradation Neutrality (LDN) to restore
degraded lands’ productivity.

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Concepts of Environmental
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4.4.5 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer
The ozone hole over the South Pole was first discovered in 1985 by the British
Antarctic Survey team led by Joseph Farman.The absence or reduction of ozone
in the stratosphere can have harmful impacts on humans, flora, fauna, and other
essential ecosystems on earth. Soon after discovering the ozone hole, an
international convention was held in Vienna, Austria, in 1985, laying a framework
for protecting the ozone layer by reducing the emission of Ozone Depleting
Substances like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The convention was adopted on
22nd March 1985 and came into force on 22ndSeptember 1988.
Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol under Vienna convention specifies
phasing out production of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) to protect the ozone
layer present in the stratosphere. It came into force on 16thSeptember 1987, and in
the year 2012, it became the first treaty to be universally ratified by all the countries
of the world ( https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/ozone/montreal-
protocol). The protocol has a comprehensive list of ODS like
chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs), halons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons(HCFCs), and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), etc. to be phased out with deadlines. The deadline
may vary for developed and developing countries based on the principle of common
but differentiated responsibilities.

4.4.6 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

The convention, also known as the Bonn Convention, was adopted in 1979 and
came into force in 1983. There are 117 parties to the agreement (https://
www.cms.int/). The convention on the conservation of migratory species lays
down a framework for the conservation of wildlife species (terrestrial, aquatic
and avian) that migrate from one region to another to complete their life cycle.
The states through which the migratory species pass are called the Range states,
and a strong commitment on the part of the states is required to protect them as
long as their stay in foreign territories. In order to achieve this, it coordinates not
only with the states but NGOs and other partners as well. A list of species
threatened for extinction is provided in its Appendix, and the convention encourages
its range states to coordinate for the successful protection of the species.

4.4.7 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

It is a membership union of around 1400 member organizations across the world.
The member’s organizations include governments, wildlife organizations, NGOs,
and other stakeholders working on environmental conservation (https://
www.iucn.org/about). The variety of members worldwide help IUCN pool data
and information required to conserve the environment and use natural resources
sustainably. The organization was found in Fontainbleau, France, in 1948. IUCN
collaborates with different organizations and guides governments at the national
level to shape the biodiversity conservation strategy. The IUCN’s in-situ protection
status categories help in establishing national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and
biosphere reserves. The IUCN’s red list is a comprehensive list of flora and
fauna facing different levels of extinction threat. It also works closely with
UNESCO in the conservation of natural heritage sites. IUCN helps conventions
like CBD, CITES and Ramsar Convention, etc., in implementing biodiversity
conservation.

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4.4.8 Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species Environmental Sustainability

of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)

It is an international agreement between member nations to check on international
trade of wildlife species of plants and animals so that their existence is not
threatened.https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.php. The CITES resolution was
adopted in 1963 and came into force on 1st July 1975. The convention maintains
a check on live animals and plants’ trade and a wide range of products derived
from them, e.g., exotic leather and furs, timber products, elephant tusks, tiger skin,
other body parts, etc. CITES ensure that the trade of any such plants, animals, and
products is authorized through a licensing system, and scientific authorities are guiding
on the extent of trade. Convention has an extensive list of species covered under
appendix I, II, and III and the levels to protect them from exploitation. To date, over
35000 species of plants and animals are listed under CITES. Not all the species listed
are endangered or threatened in existence but enlisting them makes the sustainable use
of natural resources more viable for the future.

4.4.9 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (waterfowl convention) is a framework
convention for conserving wetlands and wise use of its resources. The Convention
was adopted on 2nd February 1971 in the city of Ramsar, Iran, and came into force
in 1975 (https://www.ramsar.org/about/). The convention uses the term wetlands
broadly and includes water bodies like lakes, rivers, deltas, mangroves, coastal
areas, and man-made bodies like ricefields, reservoirs, etc. In order to become a
member of the convention, the country has to designate at least one site of
ecological importance in the country and cooperate to manage the transboundary
wetlands. To date, there are 171 member parties to the convention. The convention
works in close association with six other International Organisation Partners (IOPs)
working on nature conservation that includes IUCN, World Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) International, Wetlands International, Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust and
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and Birdlife International for
proper management of wetlands. India has 37 Ramsar sites (wetlands of
international importance) that include some of the major lakes like Chilika Lake
in Odisha, Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, Hussainsagar Lake in Hyderabad,
and others. Under the convention, a register is maintained where a change in any
Ramsar site’s ecological character has occurred because of natural or human
activities, and the record is referred to as Montreux Record.

4.4.10 Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of

Hazardous Substances
It is a convention to check on the movement of hazardous substances across
borders and prevent it from being disposed of in any particular region. The
convention aims to reduce the generation of hazardous waste and ensure its disposal in
an environmentally sound manner. In its annexures I, VIII, and IX, it classifies and
describes two types of waste: hazardous waste and ‘other wastes that require
special consideration for management and disposal. The convention was adopted
on 22nd March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland, and came into force on 5th May 1992
(http://www.basel.int/theconvention/overview/tabid/1271/default.aspx). The
transfer of hazardous waste can only occur between countries as a bilateral
agreement, even when one of the countries may not be a party to the convention.
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Concepts of Environmental The convention also provides technical assistance for the management and disposal
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of wastes, especially to developing countries, to prevent its impacts on people’s
health.

4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Ethics is a philosophical term based on the morals of what humans believe is
right and wrong. Environmental ethics describes the views of human beings
towards the environment. (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/
).Broadly, how we perceive the environment, ecosystems, and natural resources
can be classified into three categories.

4.5.1 Anthropocentric View

It is a belief that puts humans, their needs at the focus and considers human beings
the most important and dominant species on earth. It believes that all the earth’s
resources belong to humans, and we can manage them. Some authors (Miller, Jr.,
G.T., 2007; Miller, and Spoolman,2013) explains it as a human-centered and life-
centered world view. It further explains that we would never run out of resources
because of technological development and management, leading to the possibility
of unfettered economic growth.This view considers that all the natural resources
on earth belong to humans.

4.5.2 Bio-centric View

It states that human beings and other creatures of the world are part of nature and
all are equal life forms. All the creatures of earth exist in interdependence with
each other to maintain balance.This theory also suggests that we, as humans, have
a moral responsibility towards fellow life forms. Conservationist Aldo Leopold,
in an essay “Land Ethic” from the book ‘A Sand County Almanac’ published in
1949, described human beings’ responsibility to protect wilderness as part of the
ethical treatment of fellow life forms (Misra and Pandey, 2018; Wright and Boorse,
2015). This view is sometimes also referred to as Environmental Stewardship,
which highlights that we should not waste natural resources and our success
depends on how well we manage earth’s life support system for us and the rest of
nature (Miller, 2007).

4.5.3 Eco-centric view

It states that the environment and the nature in which we exist are far wider and
more creative on their own. Humans are only one of the species found on earth
and exist as part of the larger community. It acknowledges and appreciates the
fact that every species has an intrinsic value attached to it. Every species plays an
important role in the functioning of natural processes and is valuable for the
ecosystem.

Environmental sustainability is intricately linked to environmental ethics as far as

the conservation of resources for future generations is concerned (Sulphey and
Safeer, 2017). The environmental ethics we follow today, says a lot about our
sustenance on earth, and certain ethics have been part of our tradition for a long
time.The existence of Sacred Groves in different parts of our country shows that
conservation to protect all the essential ecosystem functions is not a new concept
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for us. Religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, all preach Environmental Sustainability
to conserve the environment (Misra and Pandey, 2018). Development accompanied
by the code of ethics can take us a long way on the road to environmental
sustainability.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: (a) Write you answer in 50 words.
          (b) You can check your answers given at the end of the unit.
1. How environmental ethics and culture help in environmental protection?
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2. What are the different viewponts towards environment?
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4.6 LETS US SUM UP

In this unit, we discussed the concept of sustainable development and the essential
criteria to make it applicable. Various goals, like, the Millenium Developmet Goals
and the Sustainable Development Goals are set from time to time along with their
indicators to check its implementation status. As the idea of sustaianble development is
holistic and comprises of environmental conservation and social justice, it can be
successful only when the whole world takes action in a concerted manner.With the
help of international organisations like United Nations, many international conventions
and protocols have been formulated and implemented successfully for environmental
conservation and climate change prevention. Conferences like the Stockholm
Conference, 1972, the Earth Summit, 1992, the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and many
more are landmarks to show that if the countries are willing and come forward to take
action, the earth can be saved. The success of all the efforts ultimately depends on how
we perceive the Earth and the environment. Are we, a part of the earth, or some
species that is there to consume the earth’s resources. We can only answer such
questions with the understanding of environmental ethics, that are the guiding principles
for interactions of humans with environment.

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Concepts of Environmental
Science 4.7 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/
REFERENCES
Cunningham, W.P. and Cunningham, M.A., 2007. Principles of Environmental
Science, Inquiry and Solutions. Special Indian Edition. McGraw Hill Education
(India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Dong, Y. and Hauschild, M.Z., 2017. Proceedings of the 24th CIRP Conference on
Life Cycle Engineering, 697-702.
EC-JRC, ILCD handbook: General guide for Life Cycle Assessment—Detailed
guidance, 2010. doi:10.2788/38479.
Fehling, M., Nelson, B.D., and Venkatapuram, S., 2013. Limitations of the Millennium
Development Goals: a literature review. Global Public Health. Vol.8 (10), pp. 1109-
1122.
McKinney, M.L., Schoch, R.M., Yonavjak, L., 2007. Environmental Science,
Systems and Solutions. 4th edition. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, MA, USA.
Miller, G.T. and Spoolman, S.E., 2013. Environmental Science. 14th edition.
Environmental Science. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, USA.
Miller, Jr., G.T., 2007, Living in the Environment, Principles, Connections and
Solutions. 15th edition. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, USA.
Misra, S.P. and Pandey, S.N., 2018. Essential Environmental Studies. 4th edition.
Ane Publications, New Delhi.
Sharma, P.D., 2015-16. Ecology and Environment.12 th edition. Rastogi
Publications, Meerut.
Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P. and Gupta, S.R., 2019, Ecology, Environmental Science
and Conservation. 1st edition. S. Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi.
Sulphey, M.M. and Safeer, M.M., 2017. Introduction to Environment
Management. 4th edition. PHI learning Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.
Wright, R. T. and Boorse, D.F., 2015. Environmental Science: Towards a
Sustainable Future. 12th edition. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd.,
NOIDA, India.
Important Links
Agenda 21, a comprehensive document. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
content/documents/Agenda21.pdf
International Union for Conservation of Nature, https://www.iucn.org/about
The Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Substances, http:/
/www.basel.int/theconvention/overview/tabid/1271/default.aspx
The Convention on Biodiversity, https://www.cbd.int/
The Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species, https://www.cites.org/
eng/disc/what.php
The Convention on Migratory Species, https://www.cms.int/
The Millennium Development Goals and indicators, http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/
Host.aspx?Content=Indicators/OfficialList.htm.
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The Montreal Protocol, https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/ozone/ Environmental Sustainability
montreal-protocol
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, https://www.ramsar.org/about/.
The report of World Commission on Environment and Development, “Our Common
Future”, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-
common-future.pdf
The SDGs India report, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/
16693India.pdf
The Stockholm Declaration. https://www.ipcc.ch/apps/njlite/srex/njlite_
download.php?id=6471
The Sustainable Development Goals indicators, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/
indicators/indicators-list/
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, https://www.unccd.int.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), https:/
/unfccc.int/about-us/about-the-secretariat

4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. There is a strong need for sustainable development as:
• To fulfil the basic human requirements of food, clean water and energy.
• The natural resources available on earth are exhausting fast and their quality
is deteriorating.
• The future generations should be able to sustain thelselves on earth.
• The economy of the world would be suatainable only when the environment
2. The three pillars of sustainabilityare:
• Environmental viability:any progress or developmental project should include
environmental conservation and protection and cause least possible
disturbance to environment.
• Economical feasibility: for ensuring long term economical growth, natural
resources must be available in plenty, therefore use of resources must be
wise.
• Social Acceptability: the needs of the society should be fulfilled being mindfull
of conservation.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. The Earth Summit is considered a land mark conference because:
• It was attended by a large number of delegates from different countries,
including the heads of the states.
• It came up with a concrete action plan to protect environment -Agenda 21.
• It also came up with treaties and protocols like Convention on
Biodiversity, Convention to Combat Desertification and Earth Charter.
2. The protocol that works towards prevention of climate change is the Kyoto
protocol.The protocol works towards prevention of climate change by 87
Concepts of Environmental reduction in emission of Green House Gases (GHG) like carbon dioxide,
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sulphur heaxafluoride, nitrous oxide, hydrofluoro carbons and perfluorocarbons.
The mechanisms like emissions trading and clean development mechanisms
for sharing of technology are adopted for the emission reduction in
coordination with developed and developing nations.
Answers to Check Your Progress 3
1. The environmental ethics and culture helps in protection of environment in
multiple ways:
• Ecocentric view of environment propogates conservation and protection
of other species as they all have a role to play in nature.
• Culturally we have been protecting nature-Sacred Groves.
• Different religious practices also teaches us to conserve environment
e.g. “ahimsa” towards other life forms in Jainism.
2. The are three major viewpoints about environment:
• Anthropocentric view: keep the needs of human beings at the core utilising
natural resources.
• Biocentric view: all life forms on earth are interdependent on each other and
humans being most evolved have the moral responsibility to maintain the
balance on earth.
• Eco-centric view: all living forms on earth have a specific role to play in the
maintenance of natural processes including humans who plays a role in the
larger ecosystem.

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