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Genesis of the granitoid afﬁliated Paleoproterozoic copper-molybdenum

deposit at Malanjkhand: a review of status
Chapter · August 2009
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MAGMATISM, TECTONISM AND MINERALIZATION
Editor: Santosh Kumar
© 2009, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., New Delhi, India, pp. 265–292.
Genesis of the Granitoid Affiliated

Paleoproterozoic Copper-Molybdenum
Deposit at Malanjkhand: A Review of Status
M. K. Panigrahi1, Dinesh Pandit2 and R. K. Naik3
1, 2, 3
Department of Geology & Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur – 721 302, India
Email: 1 mkp@gg.iitkgp.ernet.in
ABSTRACT
The Malanjkhand granitoid complex dominantly comprises a coarse grained hornblende
and biotite bearing granodiorite/tonalite that occurs as regionally dominant gray and
locally dominant (mine pit) pink varieties, furnishing identical emplacement age
(2476+9 Ma), thus belong to a large single episode of granitic activity (MGC–I).
Subordinate leucogranite/microgranite with sporadic occurrence within the MGC–
I constitutes the other member of the complex (MGC–II). Age relationship between
these two phases is uncertain. The complex is host to copper (+molybdenum and
gold) mineralization, concentrated mainly in the form of an arcuate (N–S) mineralized
quartz reef of about 1.8 km strike length. The deposit displays significant deviations
from typical porphyry copper deposits that can be provisionally explained on the basis
of some fundamental differences in the origin and evolution of the granitoid complex.
The parent melt of MGC-I was of low oxidation state (FMQ–NNO), was devoid of
sulfurous species and was emplaced at a greater depth. The end stage fluid evolved
internally causing deuteric alterations with remobilization of K, Si and the metals (Fe
and Cu) and converged to a fracture zone that gave rise to the mineralized quartz
266 | Magmatism, Tectonism and Mineralization
reef. Sulfide deposition was possibly triggered by S and CO2–rich fluid that exsolved
from the leucogranite (MGC-II) and channeled through the fracture zone. Thus the
Malanjkhand deposit might represent an ancient geothermal system with multiple
sources of metals and fluid associated with two phases of granitic activities (one major
and the other minor), with close spatial but uncertain temporal relationship. Temporal
relationship of the two phases of granitic activities and mineralization remains as an
unresolved issue on the genesis of the Malanjkhand deposit. Besides, tectonic
environment of emplacement and evolution of the granitoid complex vis-à-vis
mechanism of generation of the fracture zone needs to be worked out more definitively
to have a better understanding of the granite-ore system at Malanjkhand.
KEYWORDS
Palaeproterozoic granitoids, Leucogranite, Age, Oxygen fugacity, Fracture zone, Hydrothermal
INTRODUCTION
“Each ore deposit is a characteristic part of a particular type of environment in the crust”– this
statement (Stanton, 1972) provides a powerful insight into the relationship of ore deposits and
identifiable geological elements in any crustal segment. The statement also reiterates the fact
that ore mineralization is essentially a crustal process-any one or any suitable combination of the
endogenous/exogenous processes can result in enrichment of metals in the form of ore bodies
of diverse geometry and size. Out of all the possible rocks that are directly or indirectly linked
with mineralization, granitoids constitute a distinct class that hosts deposits of Cu, Mo, Au, Sn,
W, Nb, Ta, U, etc., displaying diverse types and styles, represented in almost all the eons of
crustal evolution. Granitoids are an integral part of crustal evolution and are also considered as
indicators of the tectonic environment. Granitoid-hosted copper (with molybdenum and
sometimes gold) deposits are widespread throughout the evolution of the crust, but are most
prominent in the post-Mesozoic era. This is evident from Figure 1 where each interval in the
abscissa represents an age span of 200 million years. From the figure, the vanishing trend of
granitoid-hosted copper deposits beyond ~700 million years is conspicuous. Data have been
taken from Singer et al. (2005) who listed about 645 granitoid-hosted copper (molybdenum,
gold) deposits broadly under the porphyry-type category. The temporal distribution is very
much in accordance with the spatial distribution of such deposits with a high frequency of
occurrence in young active continental margins (mostly continental arc type settings, typified
by the western margin of the North and South America). The deposits in destructive continental
margins all around the world exhibit some commonalities with respect to their mode of
occurrence, alteration associated with mineralization, metal zoning, and nature of ore fluid.
Genesis of the Granitoid Affiliated Paleoproterozoic Copper-Molybdenum Deposit . . . | 267
Figure 1: Temporal distribution of granitoid-hosted copper (± Mo ± Au) deposits

of the world (data from Singer et al. 2005).
These deposits, essentially of magmatic hydrothermal origin being referred to as ‘porphyry-

type’, have been studied extensively over the last three decades resulting in voluminous literature
on many aspects related to generation of the host granite, physicochemical processes operating
in the orthomagmatic and hydrothermal stages responsible for metal enrichment in the fluid,
deposition of metals and resultant alteration of the host rock. Quite a number of qualitative and
semi-quantitative models have been proposed in the context of porphyry deposits. The association
of continental arc-type subduction setting and porphyry copper deposits is so strong that they
have almost become synonyms of each other. Deposits as old as 3234 Ma and many more in
the Precambrian (Late-Archean to Early-Proterozoic) are also categorized as porphyry type. This
shows the extent to which the porphyry model has dominated ideas on granitoid-hosted copper
deposits. A review of the morphology of granite-hosted Cu-Mo (± Au) deposits occurring in
older (Late-Archean to Early Proterozoic) granitoids reveal that there are significant differences
in the style of mineralization compared to their younger analogues. The following line of
arguments may be put forward against the existence of porphyry copper deposits hosted in
Precambrian granitoids.
• Deposits like porphyry-copper are formed in immature orogenic belts having very low
preservation potential, with half lives on the order of 95 ± 41 million years (Veizer et
al. 1989). Therefore, porphyry copper deposits, if at all formed in the Precambrian,
under similar kind of tectonic settings as their Phanerozoic analogues, are the least
likely to have been preserved.
• If we accept that the preservation potential of ore deposits can be treated with the
concept of population dynamics (as applied by Veizer et al., 1989), it is less likely that
ore bodies will get selectively destroyed leaving their host rocks intact. In other words,
the vast tract of granitoid bodies occurring, as batholiths belonging to Late-Archean/
Early-Proterozoic, if formed due to accretion of magmatic arcs, surely were not

mineralized.
• As has been inferred in many recent studies on granite-ore systems, any granite may
bear mineralization (Cu-Mo) provided the granitic melt followed an appropriate path
of crystallization evolution under favourable physical conditions in the crust (Cline and
Bodnar, 1991). Sparsely mineralized or unmineralized older granitoids and those
resulting in deposits lacking porphyry-type morphology would indicate that they evolved
through different physicochemical paths. It would be interesting to bring out those
differences to address the broader issue of metallogeny through time. Recent arguments
against plate-tectonism in the early phase of evolution of the lithosphere may provide
important clues in this regard (de Wit, 1998; Hamilton, 1998).
Before getting into a debate on porphyry versus non-porphyry nature of a deposit, it must
be ensured that the genetic criteria are being adhered to, not the economic definitions as
previously argued by Sikka and Nehru (1997, 2002). Economic definitions should be kept
separate from genetic connotations. A review of literature on porphyry-type deposits (Misra,
2000) leads to a certain number of strict genetic criteria as follows. First there should be an
unequivocal potassic alteration zone at the core also coinciding with sparse mineralization, high
temperature (well in excess of 500o C) and high saline nature of the fluid. Second, the deposit
must exhibit metal zoning (Fe: Cu) spatially conformable with alteration zones. Third, the host
granite should be ideally a stock (plug-like geometry), intrusive into the older country rocks.
Fourth, the host granite (or the country rock, if the mineralization is there) must exhibit evidence
of hydrofracturing in the form of stockwork and hydrothermal breccia pipe. White (2003) has
added some more criteria such as the presence of a volcanic unit, very high oxidation state and
near-surface condition of emplacement of the host pluton. He also emphasized that a thick
enriched blanket containing chalcocite and covellite also is a characteristic of porphyry copper
deposits of North America. The porphyry copper systems have been recently reviewed by Seedorf
et al. (2005) and Candela and Piccoi (2005). Seedorf et al. (2005) defined porphyry copper
deposits in much stricter terms as regards to the nature of the intrusive body and thermal state
of the mineralizing fluid. According to them, porphyry deposits are magmatic-hydrothermal
deposits in which sulfide and oxide ore minerals are precipitated from aqueous solution at elevated
temperatures. The porphyry copper deposits draw their name from the porphyritic texture of
dike- and plug-like intrusions commonly associated spatially and genetically to ore. The intrusive
rocks associated with mineralization, porphyries, can be distinguished from other porphyritic
rocks by their fine-grained aplitic (sugary) groundmass texture, which is closely linked to their
genesis.
Review of Candela and Piccoi (2005) indicates a very strong relationship of melting of
oceanic slab at convergent margins and development of porphyry copper deposits. The high
oxidation state of the pluton and the end-stage fluid, source of sulfur and metal, are all ascribed
to a prolonged interaction of the oceanic slab with sea water before they get subducted. Burnham
(1997) discussed various scenarios of emplacement of hydrous granitic magma. In situations of
generation of hydrous granitic magma within continental interior, the FeO/Fe2O3 ratio is
markedly higher even though the melt broadly correspond to I-type (metaluminous) character.
The lower oxidation state is due to the fact that subcratonically derived magmas were never
exposed to surface oxidation. Mineralization associated with such granitoids is expected to be
different in style as compared to porphyry systems in destructive plate margins.
In the context of many deposits where the typical porphyry-type alteration is missing, it is
often argued that the original zones were overprinted by later fluids. Overprinting by later
fluids is always a possibility, but it would be quite difficult to substantiate that the original
zoning and the original high temperature signatures of the fluid could be totally erased in such
processes.
On these premise, older granitoid associated ore systems need to be examined more carefully
to reveal the subtle differences in the way that these systems originated and evolved in the early
phase of evolution of the crust. It would be inappropriate to classify these deposits as porphyry-
type, and then begin looking for subduction-type tectonic environment in the crustal segment
in which they are present. The deviations in style of mineralization, nature of ore fluid, and
associated alteration must be quantitatively worked out to highlight the possible differences in
crustal regimes for deciphering the metallogenic evolution of the older continental crust. The
present communication is a modest attempt to highlight these aspects through a discussion on
one of the most interesting, as yet poorly understood Paleoproterozoic granite-ore system at
Malanjkhand. This present review is restricted to the granitoid complex and the mineralized
zone only.
THE MALANJKHAND GRANITOID COMPLEX

The Malanjkhand granitoid complex with about 1400 km2 of aerial extent is very crucially
placed in the regional tectonic map of Central India (Fig. 2). Its juxtaposition with the Central
Indian Suture (CIS-the southernmost element of the Central Indian Tectonic Zone) is particularly
important. There has been quite a debate on the tectonic significance of the CIS (Mishra et
al. 2000; Acharyya and Roy, 2000; Acharyya, 2003; Roy and Prasad, 2003) but none of the
works clearly states the temporal relationship of the CIS to the Malanjkhand granitoid complex,
with uncertainties over the timing of the CIS itself still prevailing. Models proposed by Acharyya
(2003) and Roy and Prasad (2003) would indicate an age gap of more than 600 million years
between the Malanjkhand granitoid (MGC–I) and CIS (Panigrahi et al. 2004). It would be
difficult to visualize a cause and effect relationship between the CIS and Malanjkhand granitoid
complex. The regional geological maps furnished by earlier workers only show a conjectural
western boundary with the unclassified gneisses without any well constrained temporal
relationship. The southern part of the granitoid complex is partly covered by the Dongargarh
Group of volcanic rocks and the eastern margin is covered by Chilpi Group and Chhatisgarh
sediments. The exposed part of the granitoid complex thus does not represent the original
geometry. In spite of that, a more or less equant shape can be deciphered. Internally, the granitoid
complex constitutes dominantly of a coarse grained granodiorite with sporadic occurrence of
unmappable outcrops of the leucogranite/microgranite. Occurrence of a granophyre unit has
Figure 2: Geological Map of the Malanjkhand Granitoid Complex (after Jain et al., 1995).
also been reported (Neogi, 2006). Two prominent occurrences of the leucogranite has been
noted (see Fig. 2) – one proximal to the Malanjkhand mine and the other at about 12 km south
of the mine pit. The mineralized quartz reef is the largest quartz body within the complex with
subordinate and sporadic occurrences of quartz bodies of negligible size. The complex also
witnessed later phases of magmatic activities in the form of aplitic and mafic dykes, clearly
observable in the exposed mine pit. The granitoid complex is covered at parts by Chilpi Group
of sediments that occur as outliers.
TYPES AND AGE RELATIONSHIP

Previous workers (Panigrahi et al., 1993; Sarkar et al., 1996) categorized the Malanjkhand
pluton on the basis of observed petrographic variations. Panigrahi et al. (1993) categorized the
pluton into three: Gr-I– leucogranite, Gr-II– gray granitoid and Gr-III – pink granitoid of the
mine pit and established their age relationship on the basis of Rb-Sr whole rock dating. Sarkar
et al. (1996) proposed a different grouping and combined the aplite and leucogranite into one
group. The Rb-Sr ages are summarized in figure 3 with their uncertainties. It was concluded
that the younger age of the pink granitoid of the mine pit with larger error was a result of
greater extent of fluid activity and disturbance of the Rb-Sr isotopic system implying that the
gray and the pink granitoids belong to the same phase of granitic activity. This was later confirmed
through zircon dating of the two types yielding identical age of 2476 ± 9 Ma (Panigrahi et al.,
2004). The leucogranite yielded a much younger Rb-Sr age (2106±124 Ma) with large
uncertainty. The aplite body, mainly exposed in the mine pit, intrusive into the granitoid and
mineralized reef has not been dated so far. Provisionally, the granitoid complex has been
categorized into two, Malanjkhand Granitoid Complex Phase-I (MGC– I) and Phase–II
(MGC–II). The former is represented by the major phase giving rise to the coarse grained
hornblende-biotite bearing granodiorite/tonalite pluton and the latter represents the minor
leucogranite/microgranite. Our MGC–I corresponds to MG of Kumar and Rino (2006). It
may be noted that the zircon dates reported by Panigrahi et al. (2004) was based on samples
of the two types in close vicinity of the mineralized zone and needs to be substantiated through
analysis of samples from the entire pluton. Reconnaissance zircon dating of the leucogranite
(unpublished data) indicates discordant dates with upper intercept of 2537 ± 81 Ma with the
U-Pb concordia and zero lower intercept. As discussed in a later section, MGC–II seems to
have an important bearing on the mineralization, and correct emplacement age of the same is
crucial to genesis of the deposit. It may be noted that Stein et al. (2004) reported ages as old
as 2491 ± 9 by Re-Os dating of molybdenite from the mine pit as summarized in Figure 3.
Further Stein et al. (2006) reported still older Re-Os dates of > 4000 million years on
molybdenite from MGC–II occurring at Devgaon (Fig. 2). From the above discussion, it may
be surmised that the age relationship between the members of the Malanjkhand granitoid
complex and the timing of mineralization remains largely obscure and needs to be ascertained
in more clearer terms in order to address issues of the origin and evolution of the granitoid
complex vis-à-vis metallogeny.
Figure 3: Summary of ages obtained by different methods for the Malanjkhand

granitoid complex and mineralization.
MGC–I is essentially a coarse grained hornblende and biotite bearing rock varying from
granite to tonalite in modal composition, containing plagioclase, quartz, biotite, K-feldspar with
accessory apatite, primary titanite, and zircon. Occurrence of stout grains of epidote with
conspicuous zoning, often surrounded by biotite indicates its primary magmatic origin. MGC–
I is characterized by extensive deuteric alteration in form of saussuritization of plagioclase,
breakdown of hornblende (to biotite + epidote + titanite) as well as chloritization of the same
and also chloritization of biotite with secondary titanite. K-feldspar megacrysts invariably contain
inclusions of saussuritized plagioclase and the feature is more extensive in the part of MGC–
I exposed in the mine pit where it has a conspicuous pink color. Such a feature, often associated
with myrmekite possibly points to the fact that in most cases, K-feldspar deposition was more
dominant after the magmatic-hydrothermal transition (Hibbard, 1979). However, mineral
chemical data on the myrmekite is inadequate at the moment to examine the proposition any
further. The pervasive nature of the deuteric alteration suggests the prolonged interaction of
the end-stage hydrothermal fluid that remained within the system.
PETROGENESIS
Many previous workers (Rai and Venkatesh, 1990; Panigrahi et al., 1993; Sarkar et al., 1996;
Kumar and Rino, 2006) discussed major element variations in MGC–I and II). MGC–I largely
conforms to calc-alkaline affinity and shows weakly peraluminous to metaluminous type. Though
Figure 4: The REE distribution patterns of MGC-I. Normalizing values are from Rollinson (1993).
The pattern shows a MREE depleted concave upward pattern.
discrimination diagrams fail to classify them as strictly I-type, MGC–I is broadly belived to be
of I-type affinity on the basis of mineralogy and chemistry. MGC–II was described as an I-SC
(strongly contaminated) by Panigrahi et al. (1993) on the basis of major element chemistry. It
has been generally agreed that MGC–I is a product of melting of mafic (amphibolitic) lower
crust. The rare earth element distribution pattern has also been studied by previous workers
and our data on MGC–I are plotted in figure 4. The REE distribution patterns of MGC-I can
be interpreted as a moderately fractionated (CeN/YbN values that range from 8.85 to 61.56
with an average of 49) and MREE depleted type (Hanson, 1980). The moderately fractionated
nature (less depleted HREE) rules out the presence of either clinopyroxene or garnet in the
residue, rather the MREE depleted pattern is suggestive of the dominance of hornblende in
the residue. The pattern roughly points towards an amphibolitic progenitor. The pattern without
any significant negative Eu anomaly indicates either (i) no substantial retention of plagioclase
in the residue or (ii) low fo2 condition (Eu2+ stable) during crystallization of felsic melt.
An attempt has been made to compute the degree of partial melting in case of MGC–I
using the concentration ratio method of Maaloe (1985). We have taken P as the most
incompatible element and considered REEs such as Nd, Gd, Dy, Er, Yb and Lu as less
incompatible elements for pairing with P to compute the degree of partial melting using the
concentration ratio method. The calculated results are furnished in figure 5 a-f. The figure
shows the enrichment factor (R) of the less incompatible element calculated from the bulk
distribution values for granitic system from literature (Rollinson, 1993) plotted against degree
Figure 5: (a-f) R (concentration ratio) versus f1 plots for different less incompatible elements (Nd, Gd, Dy,
Er, Yb and Lu) in ppm with P2O5 in wt% ( taken as the most incompatible species). Solid triangles
(observed R values) indicate degree of partial melting for each sample.
of partial melting (f). The curves are trajectories of R with increasing degree of partial melting.
In the present case, an amphibolitic source with modal abundance of plagioclase and hornblende
in the ratio of 60:40 has been chosen. The plots indicate that the degree of partial melting
could not have been more than 10% for generation of MGC–I melt. Melting possibly took
place in a water-present condition at temperatures of ~850oC and pressure <6 kb to have left
a hornblende rich residue that agrees with the concave upward pattern of the REE distribution.
A maximum pressure of 4.5 kb was reported by Panigrahi (1992) and temperatures of 850±30o
has been obtained from zircon saturation thermometry agrees well with this proposition. An
initial water content of 2.5 to 4 wt% can be envisaged for MGC–I from the presence of
hornblende as an early crystallizing phase. Panigrahi (1992) calculated a maximum water content
of 6.5 wt% using the formulation of Burnham (1979). Calculation of maximum water content
from major element chemistry using the formulation of Behrens and Jantos (2001) yields a
value of about 5.2 wt%. In the absence of further constraint on the exact water content of
MGC–I melt, it can only be speculated that the melting must have been triggered by presence
of water in excess of what could have been contributed by melting of hornblende only. It may
be noted that we do not favour fluid absent dehydration melting of the source that usually
results in garnet/clinopyroxene at the source reflected in a HREE depleted pattern (Tepper et
al., 1993).
In MGC–I, perfect positive correlation is observed between the LREEs and HREEs with
weak cross correlations between them. Following Allegré et al. (1977), Hanson (1978, 1989),
elements of identical bulk distribution coefficients are perfectly correlated in case of equilibrium
crystallization of the melt. Using the equation of equilibrium partial melting as Cli = C0i/Di
(1 – F) + F for element i and similar equation for element j with Di ≅ Dj, the relationship of
Cli or Cl j reduces to Cli = Cl j (C0i/C0j). In other words, plots between elements of identical bulk
distribution coefficient should show linear relationship with constant slope. In the present case
plots of a few such pairs (La vs Ce, Sm vs Gd, Dy vs Lu and Nb vs Ta) are shown in figure
6 a-d. These plots indicate that MGC–I melt possibly evolved through equilibrium crystallization.
This however needs to be confirmed through more rigorous exercise.
Kumar and Rino (2006) on the basis of comparative mineralogical and geochemical studies
of microgranular enclaves and host granitoids at Malanjkhand concluded subduction-related,
calc-alkaline affinity for the Malanjkhand granitoid and suggested mixing of mafic and felsic
magmas to form hybridized enclaves which mingled, undercooled and chemically equilibrated
into relatively cooler, partly crystalline felsic host in plutonic condition. Pandit and Panigrahi
(2007) attempted to work out the geodynamic environment of emplacement of MGC–I using
the methodology outlined by Cruden (1998) and Thompson (1999). On the basis of pressure
of ~3 kb (Kumar and Rino, 2006) estimated from hornblende composition and temperature
of 750o C obtained from hornblende-plagioclase pairs, the water content of the melt was
computed (Behrens and Jantos, 2001). This led to estimation of viscosities and densities of the
MGC–I melt and the dry rock. In turn, three parameter such as the rate of extraction (QW),
rate of ascent (QA) and rate of emplacement (QE) were calculated taking a disc shaped geometry
of MGC–I and a calculated average vertical thickness of 3 km. On the basis of the parameters
Figure 6: (a-d) Plots of trace element pairs (La versus Ce; Sm versus Gd; Dy versus Lu,
and Nb versus Ta) indicating equilibrium crystallization of MGC-I.
(Qw = 40 m3/s; QA = 21.6 m3/s and QE = 29.6 m3/s), the strain rate in the MGC–I melt was
calculated to be 3.621 × 10–12 s–1. Further calculation following Cruden (1998) resulted in a
strain ratio of 0.0385 to 1.0, which is less than what would be expected in a convergent
setting. The relationship of QE > QA, QE < QW and QW > QA in combination of the low strain
ratio indicates emplacement of MGC–I in a divergent setting which may be ascribed to
decompression melting due to mantle upwelling or melting due to underplating of basaltic
magma at the base of the continental crust (Tepper et al., 1993). Such a mechanism of generation
of MGC–I would indicate a fundamental difference between the Malanjkhand pluton and
those hosting porphyry deposits in convergent settings. This aspect needs to be worked out in
more details.
Panigrahi (1992) attempted to work out the nature of end-stage fluid in MGC–I through
fluid inclusion study on quartz, and inferred a dominantly low temperatures (<100 to 240oC)
of the fluid that vary in salinity from 3 to 41 wt% NaCl equivalent with maxima in the range
of 8-12 and 24-28 wt% NaCl equivalent. Follow up fluid inclusion work on samples covering
the total exposed part of MGC–I was carried out. The histogram of temperature of
homogenization and plot of temperature versus salinity are furnished in Figure 7 A-B. The
temperature range obtained is still quite low in comparison to thermal state of fluids that exsolve
from crystallizing granitic melts. It may be noted that the observed temperature and salinity
range has a fairly large degree of overalap with the ore fluid in the mineralized zone where the
temperature range obtained from fluid inclusion study is corroborated by temperature ranges
obtained from chlorite, biotite and epidote (Naik, 2006). Though the low temperature nature
of the fluid is usually suspected to be of secondary (such as meteoric) origin, the salinity range
indicates that the fluid bears the signature of its derivation from the parent granitoid melt but
evolved to a lower temperatures during precipitation of quartz. Freezing study of inclusions
from MGC-I confirm Ca-rich nature and total absence of anhydrite/gypsum as daughter crystals
in fluid inclusions, which also indicate the absence of oxidized S-species (SO42–) in the end-stage
fluid. It may also be noted that MGC-I is completely devoid of sulfide minerals beyond the
confines of the mine pit.
Figure 7: (A-B) Histogram of salinity (wt% NaCl equivalent) and fluid evolution diagram
(Th in oC vs. salinity) of MGC-I).
In the absence of the exact value of initial water content of MGC–I melt and quantitative
evaluation of the physicochemical conditions at which the fluid was exsolved from the melt, the
scenario of evolution of the late-stage fluid can not be worked out. However, from the pervasive
deuteric alterations in MGC–I and extensive mobilization of silica and potash in the
system, involvement of extraneous fluid (possibly meteoric) is plausible and awaits
confirmation from stable isotope signatures of fluids. The deuteric alterations mainly observed
in MGC-I is saussuritization of plagioclase, chloritization of hornblende and biotite and also
breakdown of hornblende to fine grained assemblages of biotite, epidote with minor titanite.
Chloritization of biotite and hornblende is also associated with formation of secondary titanite
or rutile. The compositional characteristics of the primary and secondary titanite have not been
investigated.
THE ORE BODY

The morphology of the ore body, the style of mineralization and associated features have been
discussed and debated by previous workers (Sikka, 1989; Rai and Venkatesh, 1990; Panigrahi
et al., 1991; Sarkar et al., 1996; Panigrahi and Mookherjee, 1997; Bhargava and Pal, 1999;
Stein et al., 2004). The mine scale geological map is reproduced in Figure 8 that depicts the
arcuate shaped mineralized quartz reef, the pink granitoid enclosing the ore body, aplite and
mafic dykes. A porphyry-type affinity of the deposit was argued by many workers (Sikka, 1989;
Bhargava and Pal, 1999; Stein et al., 2004) who identified stockwork veins in the granitoid of
mine pit. Further they proposed a two-stage quartz vein activity and visualized that the mineralized
quartz reef represents remobilized quartz (stage-2) from veins/stringers (stage-1) in the host
granitoid. There has also been a proposition that the quartz reef represents the enriched cap
of the porphyry system that was later tilted during tectonic activity (Stein et al., 2004). Such
a mode of origin for the quartz reef is difficult to visualize since the reef is emplaced in the midst
of a granitoid pluton and is primarily a pyrite-chalcopyrite bearing ore body. Panigrahi and
Mookherjee (1997, 1998) and Panigrahi et al. (2002) argued strongly against the existence of
stockwork veins and emphasized that the 1.8 km long arcuate mineralized quartz reef is a unique
feature of Malanjkhand deposit. Sarkar et al. (1996) stated that the deposit can be broadly
categorized as porphyry-type without stockwork and with intense silicification. Rai and Venkatesh
(1990) favoured a non-porphyry affinity of the deposit and ascribed the quartz reef to fracture
filling by hydrothermal fluid. Panigrahi and Mookherjee (1997) considered the quartz reef and
veins/stringers in the host granite to be belonging to a single phase of fluid activity in a fracture
zone with identical thermal regime and salinity of fluids from the reef and the veins.
The following is a summary of the mode of occurrence, mineral paragenesis, fluid
characteristics and hydrothermal environment of the Malanjkhand deposit.
1. The quartz reef ore body is a result of fluid-deposited quartz+sulfides (+ K-feldspar) in
the main fracture zone within the granitoid complex, and the mineralized veinlets and
stringers are the result of similar activity in subsidiary fractures in close vicinity.
2. There is no imprint of pre-quartz reef shearing in the host pink granitoid. The shearing
event post-dated reef formation, pronounced in the hanging wall contact zone of the
pink granitoid. Quartz is very coarse–grained throughout the reef and commonly shows
peripheral granulation and evidence of intense post–deposition brittle-ductile
deformation. Quartz veins and stringers suffered feeble deformation being encapsulated
in the host granitoid.
3. The quartz reef, and the quartz–rich veinlets and stringers do contain perceptible
amounts of pink K–feldspar. Epidote, chlorite and biotite are associated with ore
minerals in the stringers and host granitoid but are scanty in the reef ore. As concluded
in earlier studies (Panigrahi, 1992; Panigrahi et al. 1993; Sarkar et al. 1996; Panigrahi
Figure 8: Geological map of the Malanjkhand Cu ± Mo mine

(Courtesy: Malanjkhand Copper Project, HCL).
and Mookherjee, 1997), the pink granitoid in and around the mine pit is a microclinized
equivalent of the gray granitoid due to protracted and greater extent of fluid activity
in the vicinity of the fracture zone. The pink granitoid does not strictly represent an
equivalent of the “potassic” alteration zone typically associated with porphyry copper
deposits. Moreover, the centrally located quartz reef contains the richest and chalcopyrite–
dominated mineralization, which is in contrast to the relatively poorly mineralized central
potassic zones of porphyry copper deposits.
4. Alteration such as saussuritization of plagioclase, breakdown of hornblende to epidote
+biotite±chlorite assemblages, and chloritization of biotite are pervasive in the area
affecting both the gray and the pink granitoids. These alteration assemblages, interpreted
in almost all previous studies as deuteric, do not define a porphyry–type propylitic
alteration. Also, there is no feature in the mine pit that can be labeled as a phyllic or
argillic zone in terms of the silicate assemblage or an enriched ore blanket that are
characteristic of porphyry deposits.
5. Mineralogically, the Malanjkhand ores are simple, dominated mostly by primary
chalcopyrite and pyrite and magnetite with subordinate sphalerite, haematite and
molybdenite. Sarkar et al. (1996) reported cassiterite and galena and some rare Ag-
telluride and Pb-selenide phases on the basis of micro-probe analysis. There is a general
agreement that the quartz-sulfide ores at Malanjkhand is devoid of pyrrhotite and
attempts to reconstruct the hydrothermal environment have been based on this premise
(Jaireth and Sharma, 1986; Panigrahi et al., 1991; Panigrahi and Mookherjee, 1997
and Panigrahi et al., 2008). There have been a number of secondary ore minerals that
resulted from supergene oxidation and sulfide enrichment process. A paragenetic
sequence of deposition of ore minerals was first proposed by Seetharam (1976), which
was later refined by Panigrahi and Mookherjee (1997). It may be noted that both
Seetharam (1976) and Panigrahi and Mookherjee (1997) considered mineralization at
Malanjkhand as a result of a single episode of fluid activity and suggested a common
paragenetic sequence for ores at diverse sites. There is still some uncertainty in the exact
timing of molybdenite deposition because of rare occurrence of the same with other
sulfide minerals vis-à-vis its occurrence as aggregates in fracture spaces of quartz and
K-feldspar.
To characterize the physico–chemical condition of ore deposition, fluid inclusion studies
were attempted by Jaireth and Sharma (1986), Ramanathan et al. (1990) and Panigrahi and
Mookherjee (1997). Jaireth and Sharma (1986) inferred a CO2-bearing hydrothermal fluid
with an appreciable amount of Na and K at 210°–470° C. They also inferred boiling at 370°
C that caused precipitation of ores. Later separation of a CO2-rich fluid of low salinity and a
higher saline fluid with less CO2 was also proposed by them. Based on phase equilibria
considerations, they inferred the ranges of log (–30.2 to –34.4) and (–8.8 to –11.6) conditions
of deposition of ores and deduced a pH range of 4.5–6.5. On the assumption of boiling of
fluid, they inferred the pressure range of 225–440 bars during ore deposition. Panigrahi and
Mookherjee (1997) gave a detailed account of the characteristics and evolution of the ore fluid
at the Malanjkhand deposit. The following is a summary of the fluid characteristics based on
fluid inclusion studies.
• The main mineralized quartz reef and subordinate veins and stringers have identical
fluid characteristics and are therefore product of the same fluid activity.
• The bulk of mineralization resulted from a dominantly low–temperature (375–150o
C) and moderately saline (8-12 wt % NaCl eq.) fluid. Deposition of ore minerals resulted
by mixing of two fluids: (i) a low–temperature moderately high saline fluid of much
higher proportion (F2) and (ii) a relatively higher temperature and lower salinity fluid
of much lower proportion (F1).
• F1 fluid component was hotter (~350o C or higher) and CO2- bearing and the F2-
component was dominantly aqueous and metal-rich. The carbonic component of the
fluid is well preserved in the stringer and vein regions as aqueous carbonic and pure-
carbonic inclusion.
• The F2 component was contributed by the surrounding granitoids – a pervasive fluid
phase that evolved internally, acquiring enough metal, silica, and potash through
prolonged fluid – rock interaction that caused the pervasive deuteric alteration therein,
converged to the fracture zone and deposited microcline and silica in the immediate
vicinity and continued precipitating quartz and ore minerals in the fracture zone on
mixing with F1 fluid. The F2 component was inferred to be devoid of CO2 and sulfur.
• The F1 fluid component though small in volume was crucial and supplied the necessary
sulfurous species and CO2 and possibly was vapour dominated, exsolved from some
deeper source. The situation visualized was more akin to ‘steam–heating’ by hyposulfurous
vapour similar to the situation inferred by Brimhall and Ghiorso (1983).
• Pressure estimated from assemblages of aqueous, aqueous carbonic, and pure carbonic
inclusions range from 500 to 1700 bars in the mineralized veins and stringers and
1100 bars from the reef quartz ores. This is indicative of intermittent building up of
pressure (through sealing of fractures) and release (through continued fracturing) that
is common in most fracture controlled hydrothermal systems. The values also indicate
conditions intermediate between lithostatic and hydrostatic.
• The fluid evolved through a two–stage process, first being mixing that brought about
deposition of sulfides and the second being unmixing of CO2liquid as a consequence of
deposition of sulfides, that explains the later rise of salinity/density in the fluid.
• Mineral chemistry of biotite, chlorite and epidote furnish temperatures broadly
conforming to results of fluid inclusion study. Biotite in MGC-I (mine pit) indicates
that it is unaltered to partially altered in nature and is distinguishable from biotite in
known porphyry deposits on the basis of halogen chemistry (Panigrahi et al., 2008).
Biotite compositions, mainly from MGC-I from the mine pit and in the close vicinity
were used to infer the oxidation state. As shown in Figure 9 the oxygen fugacity mostly
corresponds to the fayalite-magnetite-quartz (FMQ) buffer, with some points between
the FMQ and NNO (Ni–NiO) and very rarely exceeding the NNO buffer. Biotite
Figure 9: Fe2+–Mg–Fe3+ triangular plot of biotite from MGC-I.

The allocation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ is as per calculation
procedure implemented in Yavuz (2003).
from host plutons of most porphyry deposits plot between NNO–HM (hematite-
mganetite) buffers. Thus, it may be surmised that MGC-I is primarily a reduced type
granitoid. The reduced nature is also qualitatively corroborated by low values of magnetic
susceptibility (~0.3 × 10-3 SI unit in 90 percent of the cases) of MGC-I (S. Ishihara,
unpublished data). Magnetic susceptibility mapping of Malanjkhand and surrounding
regions also reveal that ilmenite series reduced type (75%) granite dominates over
magnetite series oxidized type (25%) granites (Kumar and Rino, 2007).
FLUID IN THE LEUCOGRANITE

The leucogranite (MGC-II) is poorly exposed on the surface and one occurrence in close
proximity to the mine pit (near Birsa, as shown in Fig. 2) has been studied in details. The
leucogranite is characterized by its biotite-poor and hornblende-free nature and was earlier
described as an I-type but strongly reduced type (Panigrahi et al., 1993). Disseminations of
pyrite in this unit and also of rare molybdenite in at other locations (near Devgaon as reported
by Stein et al., 2006) is also characteristic and distinguishes the leucogranite from MGC-I which
is devoid of any ore mineral disseminations. Fluid inclusion study was carried out in quartz
hosted in the leucogranite to decipher the characteristics and evolution of the late stage fluid.
The histogram of temperature, salinity and plot of temperature versus salinity are furnished in
Figure 10 A-B. It is observed that late-stage fluid in MGC-II is not much different from MGC-
I in terms of salinity and temperature. However, presence of aqueous-carbonic inclusions in
MGC-II as against their total absence in MGC-I is significant and possibly accounts for the
source of the carbonic fluid in the mineralized zone. Data on total homogenization of aqueous-
carbonic inclusions in MGC-II is limited. From two such instances of carbonic phase
homogenization of these inclusions, a pressure of about 2.5 kbar was estimated. This observation
tentatively accounts for the source of the carbonic (high-temperature) fluid that played an
important role in the mineralization, which also provided the necessary S-species for bringing
about sulfide deposition. In the absence of precise emplacement age of MGC-II, it may be
Figure 10: (A-B) Histogram of salinity (wt% NaCl equivalent) and fluid evolution diagram
(Th in oC vs. salinity) of the leucogranite (MGC–II).
speculated that its emplacement had a close temporal overlap with development of the fracture
zone in MGC-I. The deep-seated fracture zone possibly provided an easy escape of the volatile
species from the crystallizing MGC-II at shallow levels.
A WORKING MODEL OF THE MALANJKHAND

GRANITE-ORE SYSTEM
Sarkar et al. (1996) attempted to make a comparison of the Malanjkhand situation with
Phanerozoic porphyry systems. Ignoring comparison on the basis of tenor and tonnage, the
other points may be examined critically. They considered:
(i) close spatial and temporal relationship with ‘epizonal’ granitoid intrusion,
(ii) calc-alkaline composition of the host granitoid,
(iii) strong hydrothermal alteration around the ore body, and
(iv) mineralization following a syn-orogenic fault-shear system grading upward to a
stockwork.
They stated that all but the last point make a case for comparison with porphyry copper
deposits speculating that the ‘stockwork’ zone was eroded out. Published subsurface sections
(Sikka, 1989; Sikka and Nehru, 2002) show the dilated part of the reef at mid-depth tapering
towards the top and branching out at deeper levels. These sections show that the ore body is
well preserved and does not warrant a speculation that the top part is eroded out. If porphyry
copper deposits are associated with ‘epizonal’ granitoid intrusion, then MGC-I certainly does
not have these characteristics. The leucogranite does satisfy the criteria of being epizonal, but,
in all probabilities, is not the sole contributor of metal and fluid, and also is not the host to
mineralization. MGC-I is calc-alkaline in nature by virtue of its derivation from lower crustal
amphibolitic source. However, all calc-alkaline granitoids do not give rise to porphyry type
deposits. Hence, this point cannot be considered strong enough to establish or refute a porphyry-
type affinity for Malanjkhand deposit.
The Malanjkhand granite-ore system – the 1.8 km long quartz reef, stringers and veins in
host granitoid – at the first sight indicate extensive mobilization of silica. The amount of quartz
within the mineralized zone (1.8 × 0.8 km2 area) would be of much higher proportion compared
to a porphyry deposit of identical dimension. This is one of the most significant points of difference
that requires proper explanation. Mineralogically, absence of pyrrhotite in the ores resembles
younger porphyry systems, but paucity of bornite and total absence of anhydrite in Malanjkhand
ores are significant differences. An enriched blanket is absent. The localized occurrence of
chalcocite-rich supergene zone below the (paleo) water table is common to fracture-controlled
tabular pyrite + chalcopyrite rich primary ore body of hydrothermal origin. A truly magmatic
fluid signature is missing.
Identical emplacement age (2478 Ga, U/Pb zircon) of the gray and the pink granitoids
reaffirms the proposition (on the basis of field relations, petrography, alteration, major element
chemistry and REE signatures) that the two granitoids represent the same phase of magmatic
activity (MGC-I). This implies that only a very small part of a granitoid complex of batholithic
dimension has been mineralized, the mineralization being confined essentially to a fracture zone
(the quartz reef). Porphyry-type copper deposits, on the other hand, are associated with smaller
stocks and the intrusive body rarely extends beyond the confines of the mineralized zone.
A pressure of 4.5 kb for MGC-I estimated from hornblende barometry and a pressure
range of 550-1700 bars estimated from aqueous-carbonic fluid inclusions in quartz from the
ore zone (Panigrahi and Mookherjee, 1997) indicates a significant difference in the crustal
levels of granitoid emplacement and mineralization. In a typical porphyry copper deposit (e.g.
Sillitoe, 1973), in contrast, the mineralization occurs at the same level as the emplacement at
the apical part of the pluton. The generalized porphyry model envisages involvement of a much
larger volume of the granitoid in terms of contribution of metal and fluid. The apical mineralized
part represents a metal+fluid-enriched zone, as a consequence of late stage evolution. In the
Malanjkhand context, the pink granitoid exposed in the mine pit is certainly not representing
an apical part of an intrusive granitoid. If the metals and fluids are contributed by the granitoid,
a much larger volume of the granitoid should have been involved, than what is exposed in the
mine pit. Panigrahi and Mookherjee (1997) inferred that the ore fluid was derived from the
surrounding granitoids on the basis of similarity of the fluid inclusion characteristics in the ores
and that in the surrounding granitoids, the pink and the gray granitoids taken together. A
necessary implication is that the scenario of granite emplacement and hydrothermal mineralization
seems to be different from typical porphyry copper deposits.
At this juncture, there could be three possible lines of argument. First, the granitoid body
is just a passive host, with metal- and sulfur-rich hydrothermal fluids from an unknown source
focused into the fracture zone and deposited silica (+K) and ore minerals with only a K-feldspar-
and chlorite-rich halo. Second, it was a actually a system identical to younger porphyry copper
mineralization, but thoroughly affected and modified by deformation and later low temperature
fluid destroying the stockwork and alteration zones (as suggested by some workers). Third, the
Figure 11: The working model for the evolution of the Malanjkhand granitoid-ore system.
deposit is directly affiliated to the granitoid, which contributed metal and fluid, but because of
differences in some key parameters, evolved differently, giving rise to the observed morphology
of the ores and associated alteration. The third alternative is preferred here. The close temporal
relationship of MGC-I and mineralization (zircon dates and overlapping molybdenite dates)
and close spatial association of the leucogranite and nature of its late stage fluid has been taken
into account to formulate the working model depicted in the form of a cartoon in Figure 11.
Naik (2006) examined two possibilities to account for the quartz reef. It may be noted that the
quartz reef implies mobilization of enormous quantity of silica from some source. The proposed
model envisages derivation from the host MGC-I as most deuteric alterations such as
saussuritization of plagioclase, chloritization of biotite and hornblende liberate silica to the fluid.
Naik (2006) attempted a one-dimensional dissolution and diffusion transport of silica to estimate
the possible time span of formation of the quartz reef following Wangen and Munz (2004).
Results indicate that the quartz reef (of ~70 m average width) would need anything from 4.7
to 21 million years if the temperature of the fluid was anything between 300 and 250o C. Such
models are very much dependent on assumption of many parameters such as the porosity of
the host rock, surface area and kinetic factors. These limitations notwithstanding, such a time
span of hydrothermal activity would indicate a fundamental difference with porphyry systems
where hydrothermal stage lasts for less than a million year. More rigorous exercise is possibly
needed to address the issue.
CONCLUSIONS
The Malanjkhand Cu-Mo deposit is comparable to porphyry-type ore deposits in terms of the
chemical package – an amphibolitic source giving rise to a calc-alkaline pluton that hosts the
copper mineralization (Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980). On the basis of information generated
so far, it looks as if this chemical package had a different physical manifestation. The
tectonomagmatic evolution of the part of the central Indian craton, is as uncertain as the tectonic
evolution of the crust in the Late-Archean to Early-Proterozoic period. The deviations in the
morphology and style from typical porphyry type may be ascribed to: (i) generation of granitic
magma from a lower crustal mafic parent in a cratonic interior where the parent material was
not oxidized to the extent that a subducting oceanic slab is in modern convergent settings, and
(ii) higher pressure of emplacement as compared to epizonal plutons giving rise to a porphyry-
style mineralization.
A fluid-present (may not necessarily be water saturated) condition of melting of the
amphibolitic source gave rise to a weakly peraluminous melt and hornblende-rich residue. In
case of MGC-I the overall coarse-grained nature indicates deeper level of crystallization, though
the temperature at the onset of crystallization is not constrained. In a water-saturated melt the
solidus is depressed and crystallization takes place late and at shallower level and results in
exsolution of volatiles that accumulate in the apical part of the pluton. Dehydration melting of
mafic source results in relatively anhydrous melt with higher liquidus temperature, wider
temperature interval of crystallization and faster ascent in the crust. The Malanjkhand situation
can be best visualized as somewhat intermediate between the two. Granitic magma emplaced
at divergent tectonic regimes (decompression and mantle upwelling or basalt underplating as
depicted in Tepper et al., 1993) are expected to experience slower ascent in the crust. A longer
residence time of the melt at higher pressures may result in crystallization of magmatic epidote
that would fix a fraction of the dissolved water from the melt (Beard et al., 2005) and influence
the late-stage hydrothermal stage.
Felsic melts that give rise to porphyry copper deposits have higher initial fugacity of oxygen
(Burnham, 1997; Candela and Piccoi, 2005). Data generated so far indicate that the fugacity
of oxygen during crystallization of MGC-I was low. The Malanjkhand deposit possibly is an
example of copper mineralization associated with a granitoid which is not as oxidized as porphyry
systems and at the same time is not as reduced as the ‘reduced porphyry copper gold’ (RPCG-
type) (Rowins, 2000) deposits characterized by Au-rich and pyrrhotite-present ore assemblage
and predominance of methane in the carbonic fluid. It may be noted that Candela and Piccoi
(2005) ascribes the sea-water interaction of the oceanic slab as the mechanism of enrichment
of sulfur and metal. If the parent amphibolite of MGC-I melt did not have a pre-melting
interaction with sea water, the sulfur deficient nature of the fluid is a likely outcome. In that
case, the most likely source of sulfur is the mantle. This needs to be substantiated from isotopic
signature of sulfur in the deposit. It can only be assumed that metals were fractionated into the
granitic melt during the melting of parent amphibolite and remained sequestered to the early
crystallizing phases as suggested by Candela (1991), only to be scavenged later during the
hydrothermal stage. This needs to be substantiated from further mineral chemical data for their
metal contents. If sulfur is of deeper source, the deep seated fracture zone (where the quartz
reef is emplaced) is most likely to have acted as the channel for its escape and mixing with fluids
there. Since volatile emanations from deeper source are usually mixtures, other species such as
CO2 is also likely to be present. In light of origin of leucogranite in the crust through melting
induced by CO2-rich fluid at low temperatures as suggested by Sirbescu and Nabelek (2003),
the leucogranite at Malanjkhand and its CO2 + S enriched fluid is explicable. Therefore, MGC-
I with its imprints of hydrothermal activity, mineralization in the fracture zone and leucogranite
(possibly aplite) are a part of a jig-saw puzzle that needs to be properly assembled. The proposed
model is a working hypothesis that needs to be fine tuned with more data. In summary, it is
a long way to go before the Malanjkhand deposit is actually understood. A quantitative model
will help to understand the intricate details of evolution of Late-Archean/Early-Proterozoic
copper-bearing granitoids.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
MKP acknowledges support from the Department of Science and Technology (ESS/16/246/
2005). We are thankful to Dr. Reimar Seltmann of Natural History Museum, London for his
generous help in ICP-MS analysis of rock samples. DP and RKN acknowledge support in the
form of research fellowships from CSIR and MHRD, Government of India respectively. We
thank Prof. Santosh Kumar for inviting to contribute to this volume and for his editorial advice
and support. The paper is dedicated to Late. Prof. Asoke Mookherjee.
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Genesis of the granitoid afﬁliated Paleoproterozoic copper-molybdenum

Chapter · August 2009

Evolution of Indian Sub-continental Lithospheric Mantle View project

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Genesis of the Granitoid Affiliated

Figure 1: Temporal distribution of granitoid-hosted copper (± Mo ± Au) deposits

These deposits, essentially of magmatic hydrothermal origin being referred to as ‘porphyry-

Early-Proterozoic, if formed due to accretion of magmatic arcs, surely were not

THE MALANJKHAND GRANITOID COMPLEX

TYPES AND AGE RELATIONSHIP

Figure 3: Summary of ages obtained by different methods for the Malanjkhand

THE ORE BODY

Figure 8: Geological map of the Malanjkhand Cu ± Mo mine

Figure 9: Fe2+–Mg–Fe3+ triangular plot of biotite from MGC-I.

FLUID IN THE LEUCOGRANITE

A WORKING MODEL OF THE MALANJKHAND

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