CHAPTER-1 Introduction to Descriptive Statistics 1.1 Definition and Classification of Statistics In day to day usage, you may have heard the word statistics in different contexts. Here, under Iet’s see the different meanings of the word ’Statistics’, i) In the singular sense, statistics refers to the subject area that deals with the methods and techniques of collecting, classifying, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting statistical data. ii) In the plural sense, statistics refers to numerical measures obtained from a sample. In other words, statistics means a collection of numerical facts, figures or statistical data. Branches of Statistics: There are two broad categories of statistics. i) Descriptive Statistics: It deals with the methods of collecting, describing, organizing, tabulating, and summarizing the collected set of data without making conclusion or generalizations for the whole population. ii) Inferential (Inductive) Statistics: It focuses on making inferences, drawing Conclusions or generalizations about the whole population based on information obtained from samples of that population. Examples: Suppose a teacher noticed the mark of 8 students in the course Math ; 241 to be 70,30,90,95,55,60 and 40. Then, if the teacher reports that » “The average mark of these 8 students is 55”, it is descriptive statistics. it) “The average mark of the whole class is less than 60” based on the sample marks of the 8 students, it is inferential Statistics. Importance or functions of Statistics: dit helps in Policy making or to formulate Policies on social issues ii) It facilitates comparisons using averages, percentages, ratios, etc. iv) It helps in making ae ee es vii) It condenses and s\ i iS. i) ; : n to understandable and precise form viit) To provide numerical evidences (even though approximate) ix) To measure the degree of uncertainty e 1 aLimitations of Statistics: ) Deals only numerical or quantifiable data ii) Deals about aggregates of data Individual cases are not studied iti) Approximate results are obtained-Misleading iv) Can be misused- Statistic results are contextual or timely valid v) Liable to subjectivity- Statistics results can be (biased) distorted Vi) Statistics is only a means to take remedy or improvement but not an end Basic Terms in Statistics: ; In statistical investigation, the following words are frequently encountered. Y Population: The word “Population” has a different meaning in statistics than it has in general life. In general life, population refers the number of people in the given area. For instance, population of Bahir Dar means the number of people residing in Bahir Dar, population of Ambo means the number of people residing in Ambo, population of Hawassa means the number of people residing in Hawassa, population of Mekele means the number of people residing in Mekele and so on. But in statistics, the word population refers the full or complete collection (enumeration) of individuals, objects, or measurements under investigation. It is also known as Universe. For instance; a) If we are interested to study the living tradition of Awramba people, population refers all people living in Awramba. 'b) If we are interested to study the living habits of Nyalas in Semien Mountain, population refers all Nyalas living in the mountain. ii) Sample: It refers part or subset of a population under investigation. The number of the elements used as a sample is known as sample size. iii) Parameter: It is descriptive statistical measure obtained from a population. iv) A static: It is statistical measure obtained from sample of the population, Example: Suppose an investigator wants to conduct a study on first year Engineering students in Debre Markos University to compare skills of female and male students in solving Optimization Problems using Calculus. Since the total number of first year students under consideration is too many to manage, the investigator intends to select 80 female and 120 male students for the study. In this study, we can identify the population and the sample as follow: Population: All first year Engineering students of Debre Markos University. Sample: The 200 first year Engineering students (80 female and 120 male). The measures or observation values that could be obtained from these 200 students that what we call a static.es of Statistical Investigations: From the first definition of stat ie investigation are identified. basic stages of statistical in : : oe i) Collection of data: This is the first step in statistical "nvestigation, I process of gathering and assembling of raw data from the Subjects unde In this stage, the researcher has to be careful not to obtain faulty data the generalization to be made will be fallacious and misleading. ii) Organization of data: This refers editing, classification (the Process of arranging ‘data according to some common characteristics) and tabulation of data. This means once data are collected, they have to be edited, classified and tabulated to understand them, to eliminate unnecessary details and then to simplify further manipulations. iii) Presentation of data: This is the stage where data are represented or expressed in the form of tables, graphs or diagrams. The main advantage of data presentation is to have summarized and condensed form of the original data, to see what the data actually look like, to facilitate comparison and further statistical analysis. iv) Analysis of data: This is the stage where the researcher applies mathematical techniques to point out useful information for drawing conclusion. It includes determinations of Measures of central tendency (Mean, Mode, Median), Measure of dispersion (Range, variance, Deviations), correlations, regression equations and interpolation. v) Interpretation of data: This is the last stage concerned with drawine conclusions from the data collected and analyzed. It is a difficult task that needs a high degree of skill and experience to interpret numerical results obtained from analysis of the data. If the analyzed data are not interpreted carefully, the basic objective of the study is liable to be distorted. istics, five t is the study, because 1.2 Data and Classifications of Data Data: Any collection of facts, figures or numerical result of any count oF measurement collected from a population or part of a population and express in numbers. It is the raw material in any statistical investigation. Classifications: Based on different criteria, data are classified as follow: 1. Based on their nature : Based.on their nature, data are classified into ne . a) Qualitative (Categorical) Data: A type of statistical data th i. described only in words. They are non-numerical (not directly quantifiab| le). aExamples: All of the following are examples of qualitative data a) Marital status: Married, Single, Divorce, Widowed. b) Letter grades: Like A, B,C,D,E,F c) Rating scales: Low, Medium, High or Good, Very good, Excellent a) Blood type: Type A, type B, type Ab, type O e) Data on religion: Christians, Muslims, Catholics f) Education level: Diploma, Degree, Masters, PHD,-Professor bh) Quantitative(Numerical) Data: A type of data that can be obtained by counting or measuring a quantity and expressed in numbers. Examples: a) The number of car accident per month. b) The height and weight of students c) The diameters of different pipes produced by a company. d) The speed of cars as passing a traffic light. A quantitative data can further be classified into two: Discrete and Continuous. i) Discrete data: These are quantitative data obtained by counting and take only whole numbers like 0,1,2,3,.. Examples: a) The number of students in a given college b) The number of car accident per month. c) The number of children per family. d) The number of graduate students in different departments of BDU. e) The number of people visiting a Museum per day. ii) Continuous data: These are data obtained by measurement and take any value within a specific range. That means they could take integer or decimal. Examples: a) Data obtained by measuring heights and weights of people. b) Data obtained by measuring speeds of cars. c) Data obtained by measuring rainfall records of different cities. d) Data obtained by measuring the lengths of different objects e) Data obtained about income of different people. Remark (Types of Variable): A quantity which can assume a range of numerical values is called a variable. Based on the values that the variables can assume, there are two types of variables. i) Discrete Variable: A variable whose values are discrete. That means a acuble that can take only INTEGER numbers or values. The values oF such variables are obtained by counting, and there is a gap between any two values. 4For instance, a variable X denoting the number of family, the number of cars in different parking, the number of accidents EeueTe per week, the number of typing errors per page, the number of tourist sites, etc are examples of discrete variables, In each of these the variable X can take the values X =0,1,23,... but 13) like X =-, not values 4 ii) Continuous variable: A variable which can take any real number including fractions and decimals. The values of such variables are obtained by measurement and there is no gap or interruption between two values. For instance, a variable X denoting the heights and weights, speed and distance, time, mark of students, GPA, temperatures, ages, volume and area etc are examples of continuous variables. That is by measuring heights or weights of students, we can get decimal values like X =17.Semand 68.74kg. 2. Data based on level of measurement scale (By Scale of measurements): The forms of data measurements possess the property of order, distance and fixed zero (true zero) in their measurement scale. As a result, there are four types of measurement scales: Nominal Scale, Ordinal Scale, a) Nominal scales: These are Possess the Property of order, > That is what we mean by discrete variable. Interval Scale and Ratio Scale. qualitative scales of measurements that do not measurenigi are called nen distance and fixed zero. Data obtained by these are names or labels on} a data. Nominal data are qualitative data which coding the various Sue “hese data are converted in to numerical data by because we cannot oe oe they are numerical in appearance on!) cannot apply mathematical o, 4 Inequalities (no meaningful order) and W° Examples: Data related - eee like addition, subtraction, multiplication Political party, ee a) Here, we can code particular purpose but os se category as Male=1, Female-0, fo" b) We can code the Teligion cate, fi oe fee and so on, to obtain nominal data, S "Y a8 Orthodox=1, Muslim=2, Catholi¢ b) Ordinal scales: These are *ut we cannot Sayl<2or3>2. i 5Examples: Data collected on opinions (Strongly agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly disagree), Marital status (Married, Single, Divorce, Widowed), Letter grades (Like A, B,C), rating scales (Fair, Good, Very good, Excellent), Pain level (Low, moderate, severe), Education level ( Diploma, Degree, Masters, PHD, Professor), Military ranks and satisfaction level are ordinal data. a) In military ranks, we can code Captain=0, Major=1. Here, 0<1or1>Ois meaningful. b) The hardness of a wood board, glass and a metal plate size can be coded as 2, 5 and 8, respectively. Then, inequalities 2<5,5<8and 5>28>5 are meaningful (such that the meaning is harder than or softer than). However, one cannot say 8—5=5—3. This means the range of differences or the interval between two consecutive values is not measurable. c) Interval scale: These are quantitative scales of measurements that possess the property of order and distance but not the property of fixed zero, Data obtained by these measurements are called Interval data. These are quantitative data which are more refined than the above two because in these data we have meaningful inequalities and meaningful differences but not meaningful quotients or products. i Examples: Data on temperature readings in degree Fahrenheit: We can say 37° <50° or 88” > 75° (such that the meaning is warmer than or colder than). Also we can write 89° —74° =142°-127° ( This means equal temperature differences are equal). But we cannot say that 120° is three times as hot as 40° even though 120° =3x40° d) Ratio Scale: These are quantitative scales of measurements that possess the property of order, distance and fixed zero. Data obtained by these measurements are called Ratio data. These are data which could be discrete or continuous. All measurement data like height, weight, area, volume, and speed are ratio data. In these types of data, one can apply any arithmetic operation (Inequalities, differences, quotients and multiplications). 3, Data by Sources: Based on their source data can be classified as: a) Primary data: These are data collected by the investigator himself from primary sources. They are accurate and detail but it may be costly. b) Secondary data: These are data obtained from already collected data by some other agency for the same other purposes. They are cheap and easily obtained but may not be accurate, relevance and up-to-date for the present study.z role of time | ; 4, Data classified oe of observations collected at one point in time, a: ‘ion dai f a) Cross section data collected for a sequence of periods, usually at f jes data: The data b) Time series equal intervals for several times seriously. 1.3 Methods of Data Collection Based on the sources of the data, there are types of data collection methods: Primary Methods and Secondary Methods. : i) Primary Method-This includes the methods of collecting data diel from the selected sources or samples of the study. It refers these methods which are useful to collect first hand information from the relevant or primary sources, It includes; a) Direct Observations b) Direct personal Interviews c) Indirect oral Interviews d) Correspondents Information e) Mailed Questionnaire f) Questionnaires by Enumerators t) Secondary Method: This method is also known as Library method. The method of collecting secondary data from secondary sources is known as Secondary Method or Library method. Secondary sources of data or secondary methods of data collection includes a) Bulletins, Journals, Magazines and Newspapers b) Museums, Books, History, Previous Researches and Reports ©) Internets, Data from official records (Like Registrar office) 1.4 Methods of Data Representations . Once raw data are - a4 That is what Collected, they have to be organized and summarized That we m : ae co. by as Tepresentation. The purposes of data presentation are n Out the overall view a + analysis. of tl ate further analy There are three hy asic way the data and to facilita' 's of data rey i i ; 1) T: Presentation techniques y ables (Tabular Representation of data) ) Diagrams (Diagray a 3) Grate (Gane, Tmmatical Representation of data) Now let’s see €ach of . Presta are) Se Tepresentation methods one by one in details.1.4.1 Tables (Tabular Representation of Data) ipequensy Distribution (FD): The systematic presentation, of observations with one respective frequencies using a table is known as Frequency Distribution or Frequency table. It is a summanzed or reviewed representation of the values of a variable arranged in order of magnitude together with their eas Frequency means the number of observations or counts how many times a given value, or a category occurs. eats of Frequency Distribution: Any frequency distribution has two parts: - Class magnitude (Values of variables or categories of groups) ii. Frequency: The number of times a value occurs in a set of data Types of Frequency Distribution: There are two types of frequency distributions: i) Numerical or Quantitative Frequency Distributions ii) Categorical or Qualitative Frequency Distributions i) Numerical or Quantitative Frequency Distributions These types of frequency distributions, are used to summarize interval and ratio data. In this FD, data are classified based on their numerical size. We have two types of Numerical Frequency Distributions: Discrete and continuous. a) Discrete Frequency Distributions: This is a distribution table with two columns where the first Colum shows a particular value and the second column the number of repetitions (frequencies) of that value. Steps to construct Discreet Frequency Distributions First: Determine that really the given set of data is discrete. Second: Prepare a table with two columns first column for values and second column for frequencies. Third: Write the values from smallest to largest in the first column and the corresponding frequencies in the second column. Repeat this as many times as there are different values in the given data. Example: In a certain private school, a survey is conducted on 15 students, to assess how many times per week students go to Library was recorded and obtained as follow: 3,4,2,1,3,1,5,2,354,1,2,3,1,4. Prepare a frequency distribution table for this data. Solution: First of all observe that how many times a student will go to library is adiscrete variable. Next let’s arrange the data in the increasing order. 1,1,1,1,2,2,2;3,3.3,344,4,4,9-onstruct the distribution table as follow: Ne No. of times 4 student No. Students goes to library (Values) | (Frequency) 1 4 —oe |S | 3 4 | 4 3 5 1 | b) Continuous Frequency Distribution Basic Terms in a continuous frequency distribution To be effective in constructing continuous FDs, one has to understand the meaning of the following words or phrases properly. 1. Classes or groups: The attributes or categories in to which the observations are placed or found are called classes or groups. There are two types of classes or class intervals: a) Qualitative or non-numerical classes: These types of classes are called categories. For instance; Sex, Departments, Demography (urban, rural), Education level, satisfaction level and Martial status are types of qualitative ot non-numerical classes. b) Quantitative or numerical classes: Classes or class interval consisting of numbers or numerical sizes. Examples: Marks, heights, weights, time, speeds, Incomes (salaries, daily wages), and so on are numerical classes. 2 Class Frequency: It refers to the number of observations or items tht is e table below which shows the number of students in different departments. Identify the different classes and the corresponding class frequencies. Departments No. Students Biology 780 Chemistry 120 Mathematics 60 Physics mG = accel Statistics 240 |Here, there are five departments which are used as classes or class intervals. Such types of classes what we mean by categorical or qualitative classes. So, first category, Biology with class frequency-180, second category Chemistry with class frequency-120, third category Mathematics with class frequency-60, fourth category Physics with class frequency-45, fifth category Statistics with class frequency-240. 2. Consider the the table below which shows heights of 100 students in a certain University. Identify the different classes or intervals and the corresponding class frequencies. Height (in inches) No. Students (Frequency) 60-62 5 63-65 18 66-68 42 69-71 27: 72-74 8 Here, there are five classes or class intervals: first class 60-62 with class frequency-5, second class 63-65 with class frequency-18, third class 66-68 with class frequency-42, fourth class 69-71 with class frequency-27, fifth class 72-74 with class frequency-8. 3. Class Limits (CL): The lowest and highest values that can be included ina class (left and right end value of a class) are called class limits. There are two types of class limits: i) Lower Class Limit (LCL): It is the lowest value of the given class. That means there is no value lower than it which belongs to that class. ii) Upper Class Limit (U.C_L.): It is the highest value of the given class. That means there is no value higher than it which belongs to that class. Examples: Consider the above table. 60-62 (First class) 5 (First class frequency) 63-65 (Second class) 18(Second class frequency) 66-68 (Third class) 42(Third class frequency) 69-71 (Fourth class) 27(Fourth class frequency) | 72-74 Gifth class) 8(Fifth class frequency) For the first class, LCL=60,UCL=62, for the second class, LCL=63,UCL=65 and so on.): Class boundaries are the lowest and the : hi between successive classes ighes, dary (CB): Cla ass when there 1S no ‘gap of class boundaries: Boundary (LCB) oundary (UCB) 4, Class Boun' values in each cl There are two types i) Lower Class é it yer Class : How . ais these class boundaries? e First; Identify LCL of a class and UCL a previous g ass and their difference i. That is d=LCLofa class - UCL of a previous (preceding) class. Inshort, d =LCL,,, -UCL,. Here, the constantd is known as correction factor, Second: Add 4 toall upper class limits to get the upper class boundaries and 2 subtract Zz from all lower class limits to get the lower class boundaries, Z If the upper and lower class limits of the i” — class are UCL, and LCL, respectively, then the corresponding class boundaries are given by: d d UCB, =UCL, = LCB, = LCL, cuss boundary is also obtained as follow: CB= (Upperlimit of one class) + (Lower limit of the next higher class) 2 Examples: Consider the above table and determine all class boundaries. Height (in inches) No. Students 60-62 So 63-65 18 hae. a2 = +, 72-74 8 Here, q=LcL, SUCE = 63-62 =] aThus using UCB, =UCL, + g LCB, = LCL, -4 , we obtain the class boundaries of each class as follow: ’ UCB, = UCL, + 0.5 = 62+0.5 = 62.5, LCB, = LCL, - 0.5 = 60-0.5 = 59.5 UCB, = UCL, +0.5= 6540.5 = LCL, - 0.5 = 63-0.5 = 62.5 UCB, = UCL, + 0.5 = 68+ 0.5 = 68.5, LCB, = LCL, -0.5 = 66—0.5 = 65.5 UCB, = UCL, + 0.5 =71+0.5=71.5, LCB, = LCL, -0.5 = 69-0.5 = 68.5 UCB, = UCL, +0.5=74+0.5=74.5, LCB, = LCL, —0.5=72-0.5=71.5 5. Class width (w): The size or length of a class interval which is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of that class. That is the i* —class width is given by w, =UCB, — LCB, or w, = LCL,,, - LCL, Examples: Using the above table, we get the class, width of each class to be w=UCB, - LCB, =62.5-59.5=3. You can use any other class boundaries but it is uniform (constant class width). 6. Class Mark (CM) or Class midpoint: It is the mid-point of the class interval, It is used to represent all the values of a class in further analysis. It is obtained as CM = fees or CM = Bee If the class width is uniform (all class intervals have the same class width), then the class marks of different classes form arithmetic sequence. That is CM, =CM, + Examples: In the above data find the class marks of each class. For the i —class, the class mark is given by i LCB, +UCB, Oe a eaaraet 2 2 Hence, LCL, +UCL, _ 60+62 _ _ LCB, +UCB, _ 59.5 + 62.5 -61 Ca ne gee RE ae a LCL, +UCL, _ 63465 _ a LCB, +UCB, _ 62.5+ 65.5 eA Me ae 264 or CM, == aioe 2 te eee 65,5+685 _ 67 3) 2 % 2 69+71 LCB, +UCB, 6854715 _ gg Eee ee - SB54TS -70 2+ 74 LCB, +UCB, _11.5+745 _ 3 cM, ae ae ee 7.Steps in constructing continuous Frequency Distributions Step-1: Determine the number of classes ): The number of classes & is usually determined by a rule known as § rule-of-thumb: &=1+3.322logn by rounding up or down to the integer, where n is the sum of all frequencies or it is the nu observations and log is the common logarithm. Step-2: Determine the Class Width (w) ; If the number of classes is once determined by the Sturge’s-rule of thumb, urge Nearest Imber of 5 Ran; then the class width is determined by w= = where Range = (Maximu value in the set of data) -(Minimu value in theset of data) Step-3: Determine the Class Limits The lower class limit of the first class is determined in such a way that it is less than or equal to the smallest value of the data. Usually the lower limit of the first class is a multiple of 5 near to the smallest value of the data, Once the’ lower class limit of the first class is selected, add the class width or size ofa class on the lower class limit to obtain the lower class limit of the second class, again add the class width or size of a class on the lower class limit of the second class to obtain the lower class limit of the third class and so on. Inthis way the lower class limits of all classes are determined. Step-4: Determine the frequency of a class Frequency of a class can be determined by counting the number of values belonging to that class, Add the frequencies of each class you assigned to check whether it is equal to the total number of data under consideration. Examples: 1. Suppose the final exam in Math 241 of 12 students out of 50 is recorded # follow: 48, 35, 47, 27, 40, 44, 26, 27, 32, 42, 46, 33 Then, determine the class limits, the class frequencies, the class boundaris class marks and construct its frequency distribution table. Solution: the i) Since n = 12, using the Struges’ rule — of-thumb, the number of classes . k= 1+ 3,322 log 12 =4.58 = 5 : if) Range = 48-26 =29 53 Range 22 ui) w=——S ==. ) ; 3 td 4iv) Since the smallest value is 26, the LCL, can be 25 (a multiple of 5 near 26). Then, by adding the class width w=4repeatedly, the lower classes of all class are obtained to be 25,30,35,40,45. Besides, upper limits of all classes are determined to be 29, 34, 39, 44 and 49 .Then, the class intervals of the five classes are determined to be: 25 — 29,30—34,35 — 39,40 —44,45 —49 v) Now let’s determine the class boundaries. Here, d=LCL, -UCL, =25-24=1 UCB, = UCL, + 0.5 = 29+0.5 = 29.5, LGB, = LCL, —0.5 = 25—0.5 = 24.5 UCB, = UCL, + 0.5 = 34 +0.5 = 34.5, LCB, = LCL, -0.5=30-0.5 = 29.5 UCB, = UCL, + 0.5 =39+ 0.5 = 39.5, LCB, = LCL, - 0.5 = 35-0.5=34.5 UCB, =UCL, +0.5 = 44+0.5 = 44.5, LCB, = LCL, -0.5 = 40 ~0.5 =39.5 UCB, =UCL, +0.5 = 49+ 0.5 = 49.5, LCB, = LCL, -0.5=45-0,5= 44.5 vi) Next determine the class marks _ LCL, +UCL, _ 25+29 _ LCB, +UCB, _ 24.5+29.5 _ CM, = SPT oF CM, == 7 2 cM, = HE UE mee ss 2 2UCR MOEBS =32 cM, ets FU ee ce : ——— gee Ue, +UCh 2 pete < a2 orc, LOB a . se a ou, =: ne fi ae Seba, 2s —_ es “eee an Hence, the Frequency Distribution table is constructed as follow: 2 Classes "| Frequency | Class Boundaries (CB) | Class marks (CM) 25-29 SI 24,.5-29.5 aT. 30-34 2 29,5 -34.5 32 [35-39 1 34.5~39.5 37 medias 39.5- 44.5 a 45-49 3 44.5-49.5 47 2, For 150 measurements, the data ranges from 3.19 to 7.43. Then, gi a) The class size (x) and the class width (w) : b) The class limits c) The class boundariesSolution: _of-thum, & = 1+3.222log150 = 8.02 ~g 7325.19 224 Besides, the widthis, w=—> ; °; -& as ;5-5.27,5.28—5.55,5.56—5.83,5.84_ 6 1 ae b) The class limits 6d 667,668 ~6:95,6.96-7.23, 7.24.7 5, 8%, 3. The class marks of a distribution of the daily number of crimes a - na One ca : | Tes wh by The class boundaries c) The Class limits Solution: a) Recall that if the class width is uniform, then the class marks form atithn.: progression as we discussed’ earlier. That is if the class Width have CM,,, =CM, +w> w= CM,,.. —CM,,. Particularly, w=CM, -CM, =13-4=9. b) For classes with uniform class width w, class boundaries are Obtained as : 7 Siw, then yy i) Forall classes, lower class boundaries are given by LCB, = CM, oi ii) Forall classes, upperclass boundaries are given by UCB, = CM, a LCB =CM,-4.5=4-45~ 705, LCB, =CM, —4.5 =13-45=85 mals, £CB, =CM,-4.5=31-45=755 LCB;=CM,-45=49-45~ 35.5, i) Since w =9, theupperclass boundaries are given by UCB, = CM, +45 UCB, = CM, +45 44.45 _ 85, UCB, = CM, +4.5 =13+4.5=175 CB, = CM, +45 = 29.4.4 5 26:5, UCB, = CM, +45 =31445=355 B= CM $4.5 =40.44.5- 44 5 : lence, CBs : ~05-85,8.5 17.5 bes ie 445. ‘Class limits: Once we haye 26.5,26.5-35.5,35.5 " biracting or adding ¢ — 9 5 _ boundaries the class Yimits are i 0 ding d=0.5t0 the comesn 4.1 8 All the lower class limits ar¢ ssi obtained by subtracting ting class boundaries and the upper (# Nce, the class |i tits d =0, ‘©m the corresponding class boul » Me class limits are CBs; 9-89-17, 1836 97-35,36-4-Relative and Percentage frequency distribution The relative frequency ofa class shows the relative concentration of values in that class. It is obtained by dividing the —_ of each class by the total frequency. -That is Relative Frequency R.F =— ee nis total frequency and n f,is class frequency. Percentage frequency also tells us that what percent of values belong to that class. It is obtained by multiplying the class relative frequency by 100. That is percentage Frequency %RF = a x100" n Example: The daily wages of 50 workers is recorded as shown in the table below. Construct the relative and percentage FDs using a single table. Daily wages 50-59 | 60-69 70-79 80-89. 90-99 No. Workers 15 13 12 6 4 Solution: Here, we use RF =“ and WRF =1.100, For the ete RF= 8 RF = 5 100= 30% For the second class, RF = — = 0.26,%RF =x100- 26% For the third class, ey e =0.24,%RF = 2 x 100 = 24% For the fourth class, RF = = 0.12, %RF =Sxi0d= 12% For the last class, RF + 3 = 0.08, %RF = 4 x100 =8% Hence, the distribution table becomes: Daily wages | Frequency | Relative F. | Percentage (% R) F. 50-59 15 03 30% 60-69 13 0.26 26% 70-79 12 0.24 24% 80-89 | 6 0.12 12% 90-99 4 0.08 8% Total 50 1 100% 16istributions : : ey Distributions Cumulative as Distribution is useful to determing The cumulative freq dd below or above a given value - Ww ey observation values are 2 aah citations ete ate types of Cumulative oe Frequency Distribution: This ig obtained i) The less than a lati Bn er previolstclassestinciy ding the ‘ Udy the frequency, ee bate I the frequencies from the first Men of that class (simply by adding eas St class YD to ty current class where we are considering) . Bear ae ; ii) The more than cumulative Frequency Distribution: This is obtaneg adding all the frequency of the succeeding, or higher lasses including frequency of that class (simply by adding all the frequencies from the last clas up to the current class where we are considering). x Remark: We use upper class boundaries (UCBs) for /ess than cumulative kp and lower class boundaries (LCBs) for more than cumulative FD. Examples: 1, The following data shows the weekly salary (in birt) of employees of; certain company. (Hint: The the minimum pay is 61 and maximum pay isl48) 99 139 126 Peek 8 SRB 77 91 86 fe eS) Sean te Die 05. 95 80 89 108 106 148 93 Be 135: 7127) 116: 6oieata For the data; a) How many classes can be used to prepare FD? b) What class width is appropriate? c) Find the lower class limit of the first class. 4) Prepare the frequency distribution table. a “the less than” and “the or more” cumulative FD table. oe by simple Counting of the data, we have n= 30.So, we obtain the class width by Sturge’s-Rule of thumb as k~ | +3.322log30~5.91~6. ®) Class width(w): w=2=8 148-61 _g7 k — Ge 14.5~15, ice: Bea, to ee Sa We select the lower class limit of the fist l# multiple of 5 as In our case, the minimum below the minimum value of the data ais i ‘ low 60. Hence, LCL, =gp, 61 andthe nearest multiple of 5 fe class limits to be: ~119,120-134135—149 WThen, the FD table looks like: Salary 60-74 | 75-89 | 90-104 | 105~119 | 120-134 | 135-149 Frequency 2 8 Pp 8 2 3 e) To construct “the less than” and “the or more” cumulative FD table, first we _ have to find the class boundaries. Here, d= LCL, -UCL, =75-74=1. From the general relation, EB = LEE, ea UCB, =UCL, a 1 gaia 7 LCB, =59.5, UCB, =74.5, LCB,=74.5, UCB, =89.5 LCB, =89.5, UCB, =104.5, LCB,=104.5, UCB, =119.5 LCB,=119.5, UCB, =1345, LCB,=134.5, UCB, =149.5 Recall: We use upper UCBs for less than cumulative FD and LCBs for more than C F D. Hence, the two cumulative FD tables together are as follow: i) The less than cumulative FD table | ii) The or more cumulative FD table Salaries OF alari Less than 54.5 uh 49.5 or more G Less than 59.5 19 54.5 or more 58 | Less than 64.5 37 59.5 or more 46 Less than 69.5 51 64.5 or more 8 Less than 74.5 59 69.5 or more 14 Less than 79.5 65 74.5 or more 6 a) This is answered using the less than cumulative FD table. That is the number of students whose mark is at most 64 ( it means 64 or less). This is equivalentto the number of students whose mark is less than 64.5. Hence it is found to be 37. b) This is answered using the or more than cumulative FD table. That is te number of students whose mark is at least 64 ( it means 64 or more). This isnot Possible ‘o determine because we do not know how many of them scored 64 ©) This is answered using the or More than cumulative FD table. That is te number of students whose mark is at least 75 ( it means 75, or more). This ® e uivalent to the number of Students whose mark is 74.5 or more. Hence it# Ound to be 6 as shown in the table. 4) We are given in th ri and 64 which j table, the number of students whose mark is betwee" his 18. But of tly 60 is impossible to fae se 18 students how many of them scored eX ©) The number of s ; tudent i ei €quivalent to the n ts who Scored a mark between 60 and 69 inclusi¥ 95 . oe which is 32 (46-14=39 10). Since 10 is a lower class limit, it is not possible to determine the number of items whose value is exactly 10 out of the 6 items in the class. c) The number of values more than 14 ( it means > 14). Since 14 is an upper class limit, it is possible to determine the number of items whose Value is strictly larger than 14, that is there are 8 items (Items in the 4”, 5" and 6” classes). Therefore, the percentage of values is %RF =56% ii) Categorical or Qualitative Frequency Distributions This is a type of FD useful to present observations with non-numerical classes or categories. That means it is used to present nominal and ordinal data. For instance, classifications or groupings of data based on Sex, Departments, Demography (urban, rural), Education level, Martial status are categorical or qualitative frequency distributions. Example: Suppose the responses of 16 tourists for their means of transportation to a hotel are recorded as follow. Construct the FD table. Means of Transportations: Bus Motor Car Bus Motor Car Bus Motor Motor Bus Car Car Car Bus Car Planetive data and thus we need 0 construct Walt ion, we use the categories in the Place of Veh i Vales: d we count how many of them Preferreg oud i This is quali y “tn such types of distributi ouive data as class an’ transportations. means of Bis ot Transportations aaa 4 ] 4.2 Diagrams (Diagrammatical Representation of Data) 14. : Solution: Car Motor Plane 5 Diagrams are used to present qualitative data = ieelnann types include. }) One Dimensional Diagrams ( Bar-charts or bar lagrams) ii) Two Dimensional Diagrams (Rectangles, Squares and Circles) iii) Three Dimensional Diagrams (Cubes, Cylinders, Spheres and Prisms) i) One Dimensional: In one-dimensional diagrams, only height is used y represent the size of figures or data but widths are not considered. One- dimensional diagram includes: Bar-diagrams or bar charts: Line diagram, Simple bar-diagram, Component bar- diagram, Multiple bar- diagram, Percentage bar- diagram. i) Simple bar-chart: It is Tepresentation of data using equally spaced bars of Constant width. The heights of the bars represent the class frequencies or data values and the bases of the bars represent the Classes or categories (they are ised simply to beautify the diagram). This type of bar diagram is commonly oo " ee Seales on different months or years, weather number of students in ditfeent eee oe Oe different years or months, Pattments, number of products exp Examples: |. The followi the Science College a the number of students in six Department of Department Biology ._, Chemistry. Number of students * +3..950Solution: First label the six Departments along the horizontal axis and the number of students on the vertical axis. Finally, draw equally spaced bars with equal width and put at the top of the bars the number of students. Bar-chart Representation of the data Number of students Bio Chem Eart Departments Maths Phy Stat 2. The following table shows the number of shoes exported to different countries in the years from 2000-2004. Construct a simple bar chart of the data. Years 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 No. Shoes (in thousands) 50 5 100 170 90 Solution: First label the years along the horizontal axis and the number of shoes on the vertical axis. Finally, draw equally spaced bars with equal width and put at the top of the bars the number of shoes in each year. The diagram beccomes: Number of shoes S88 Acar 180 160 140 120 100 50 20 0 22ii) Two Dimensional Diagrams: These are representation of data using two dimensional figures. Here, both length and width are considered in such a way that the area of the diagram represents the data. As a result, two dimensional diagrams are also called area or surface diagram. The most popular two dimensional diagrams include Pie-charts, rectangles and squares. Pie-Chart (Pie-diagram): It is a circular presentation of categorical data by dividing a circle into sectors whose area is proportional to the number of items or to the size of the component in the category. Pie-diagrams are constructed based on percentage frequency but not absolute. Pie-diagrams are commonly used by newspapers and magazines to display budgets for national, state or local governments. They are also used to display the proportion of allocation of a given resource for different offices or sectors. To construct pie-chart: First: Find the percentage frequencies of each class. That is F100 n f, Second: Compute the central angles using @, = -+x 360° n Third: Draw sectors whose size is proportional to each central angle 6,. Examples: 1. The following table shows the number of students of a certain university in different Faculties. Construct a pie-chart representation of the data. Faculty Number of students FBE 2500 Engineering - ; 4500 Social Science 500 Law 1000 Science , 1500 ee Solution: First let’s compute the percentage frequencies —x100 and the n f, central angles using 6, = —x360° where 7 denotes the total number of students n in all faculties. 23All the results are displayed using the table below. Faculty No. Sts RE C. Angles (8, ) FBE 2500 25% 90 Engineering 4500 45% 162 Social Science 500 5% 18 ‘Law 1000 10% 36 Science 1500 15% 54 Total 10,000 100% 360° Therefore, the pie-chart looks like the following. Pie-chart presentation of the data Eocial Science 5% 2. The following table show: s the average expenditures per month in birr of different items. Construct a pie-chart representation of the data. Items Expenditures Food 1200 Clothing 600 Transportation 300 Others 00 a A Solution: First let’s compute the percentage frequencies sah 00 and the i i i | amount of money- central angles using 6,= pee where 7 denotes the total amo 24Items Expenditure RF C. Angles (0, ) Food 1200 48% 172.8 Clothing 600 24% 86.4 Transportation 300 12% 43.2 Others 400 16% 57.6 Therefore, the pie-chart looks like the following. Pie-chart presentation of the data Transportation 12% 1. 4.3 Graphs (Graphical Representation of Data) This is a method of data presentation using graphs. It is manly used to present continuous data. Common types of graphs in this method includes: i) Histograms ii) Frequency Polygons or Frequency Curves iii) | Cumulative Frequency curves (Known as O-gives) i) Histogram: It refers a series of interconnected bars (adjoining rectangles) whose bases and heights are proportional to the class width and the class frequencies of the corresponding classes. We can use the class limits, class boundaries or class marks in constructing Histograms. Tips to construct Histograms: : First: Select which one to use (class limits, class boundaries or class marks) and plot or label your choice along horizontal axis (in the increasing order). Second: Identify the class frequencies and plot them on a vertical axis. Third: Identify the class width and draw interconnected bars (with no gap between rectangles) whose bases are proportional to the class width. 25 aji) pee ueney polygon or Frequency Curve: It is a line graph where the class marks are plotted against class frequencies. Here, class marks are labeled along horizontal axis while class frequencies are labeled along vertical axis. Besides, add two extra class marks (one before the first class mark and one after the last class mark) voth of them with zero frequencies. This is just to make closed polygon. Tips: To construct frequency polygon: First: Put points (dots) indicating, one class mark versus the corresponding class frequency. Repeat this as many as the number of classes. (Don’t forget to add two additional class marks with zero frequencies). Second: Connect or join all the points or dots using straight lines (if you are constructing Frequency Polygon) or using smooth curve. Examples: Suppose the mark of 100 students in Engineering skills is recorded as follow. Construct the frequency polygon for the data. Marks 30-39 | 40-49 | S50 59 | 60-69 | 70-79 80-89 Frequency 10 18 30 22 15 5 Solution: Since we use class aos ‘on the horizontal ‘axis to draw frequency polygons, first indicate the class marks and the corresponding frequencies as a point on the plane. In the data, the first class mark is 34.5. Then, let’s add one class mark with zero frequency before 34.5. That is 24.5. Besides, the last class mark is 84.5. Then, the next class mark after 84.5 with zero frequency is 94.5. Hence, using dot (a) indicate ~ the points (24.5,0), (34.5,10), (45,18) (54.5,30)(64.5:22)(745,19).(68 5) and (94.5,0). Then connect these dots using a line segment. Therefore, the polysor s like: Frequency polygon for marks of students in 5 Engineering skills ae __ Engineering a Bo 20 7 aso 10 54 ‘Number of students pas 345 445 545 G45 745 O45 945 Class marks 26iii) Cumulative Frequency Curves (O-gives) This is a graphical representation of Cumulative Frequency Distributions, These curves are also called O-gives. There are two types of O-gives. 1) The less than O-give: This is a graph plotted or drawn using the less than cumulative frequencies versus upper class boundaries of the corresponding classes such that the points are connected or joined using straight line segments or smooth curves. Here, add one class boundary with zero frequency at the . beginning. ‘ ii) The or more than O-give: This is a graph plotted using the more than cumulative frequencies versus the lower class boundaries of the corresponding classes. Here, add one class boundary with zero frequency after the last class boundary of the data. In many problems, we draw the two O-gives on the same axis. In such case, the two O-gives intersects at some point. The foot of the perpendicular from the intersection point to the x-axis gives the median of the data. Examples: The following frequency distribution shows the number of workers and their experiences in years at HAMS. Years of experiences Frequency 0-1 16 2-3 Bs 4-5 13 le 6-7 4 8-9 a a) Find the class marks and class boundaries of the data b) Draw the frequency polygon and bar chart c) Draw the two O-give curves of the data Solution: a) The class marks of each class are the mid points the corresponding class limits. So, the class marks are: 0:5,2'5:4.5; 6.5,8.5, The class by boundaries are given by LCB, = LCL, ea UCB, =UCL + d 2 » Po cc. where d=LCL,,, -UCL, Tepresentation of the data ep Therefore, the class boundaries are: —0.5-1.5,1.5-3.5,35-5.5,5.5~ 71.5,7.5-9,5 27Frequency Polygon Representation (ihren is ee oe ? shart is drawn as follow using class marks. Bar-Chart Representation Years of Expriences o O-gives are drawn on the same axis as follow using CBS. O-give curves ‘The less than O-give4 Review Problems on Chapter-1 PART-I: TRUE-FALSE ITEMS 1. In statistics, the word population refers to people. : 2. In statistics, a study is conducted only when the population is finite. 3. A sample is always a proper subset of a population. 4. It is possible to infer quantitative differences from nominal data. 5. We can have a meaningful difference between two sets of ordinal data, 6. In constructing frequency polygon, the class limits are used on the x-axis, 7. In ordinal data, there is a natural order among the categories. 8. To draw O-give curves, we need the class marks and their frequencies. PART-II: Multiple-Choice Items 1. Which of the following is not true about statistics? A) Statistics facilitates comparisons of data B) Statistics in the singular sense refers statistical methods C) Statistics is a science of analyzing qualitative data D) All 2. ‘The universe or "totality of items or things" under consideration is called A) asample 8B) a population C) parameter D) a statistic 3. Anumerical measure that is computed to describe a characteristic of an "entire population is called A) ‘a parameter B)a statistic. C) Statistics D) All 4. The process of using sample statistics to draw conclusions about true population parameters is called A) Statistical inference B) the scientific method. C) Sampling D) descriptive statistics 5. The classification of student class designation (freshman, sophomore, Junior, senior) is an example of A) a categorical variable C) acontinuous variable D)a parameter 6. Which of the following is different from the other? A) The amount of uric acid in mg/l00ml__B) T; i i . i ypes of cars in a parking C) The number of cars sold in a year — D) Number of workers in a university 7. In which of the following step, a ti i i . " » 8 Mgorous mathematical techniques may b¢ ~~ to dig ‘Out useful information for decision making? ’ > Interpretation of data B) Analysis of data Presentation of data D) Organization of. data B) adiscrete variable. 29_ Which of the following is not an Ordinal data? ) Mili ) evra B) Academic level ) Level of job satisfaction D) Phone numbers Pi number of observations that indicates how many times a value occurred : known as. A) Variable B)Sampie —C) Frequency 0. Which of the following will give meaningful relation among interval data? \) Inequalities B) Quotient C) Difference D) All E)A&C 1. Which of the following is useful to collect primary data? \) Bulletins B) Magazines C) Internet —_D) Observations 2. Which of the following affects the selection of data collection methods? \) The nature of the study B) Availability of resources >) Experiences of the investigator D) All 3. Which of the following is primary source of data? A) Previous Research B) Books C) Intemet D) All [4, Which of the following is not usefull to construct Histograms? A) Class Limits B) Class Marks C) Class Boundaries D) Class frequencies E) None 15, Which of the following is useful in constructing Frequency Polygon? A) Class Limits B) Class Marks C) Class Boundaries D) Class frequencies E) BandD 16. Which one is manly used in constructing cumulative FD? A) Class Limits B) Class width C) Class marks D) Class boundaries 17, Which graphical and diagrammatical prese! categorical variables? f A) Histogram B) Frequency Polygon _C) Pie-chart D) All 18, Which one is most appropriate to represent a continuous frequency distribution? A) Bar diagram 19. Which of the following type present Nominal and Ordinal data? A) Numerical Frequency Distributions B) Categorical Frequency Distribution C) Continuous Frequency Distribution D) Cumulative Frequency Distribution 20, Which of the following types of data is continuous? A) Ratio B) Ordinal C) Nominal D) All ntation is appropriate for B) Line chart C) Pie-chart D) Histogram f frequency Distribution is mostly useful to 30| 21. Which type of frequency Distribution is useful to present Intervaj and Ratio data? A) Numerical Frequency Distributions B) Categorical Frequency Distribution C) Qualitative Frequency Distribution D) Band C 22. The two types of graphical techniques that are useful ue Present Noming data A) Bar chart and Histogram B) Pie chart and histogram C) O-gives and bar charts D) Bar chart and pie chart 23. The or more than O-give is a line that can be plotted using the more than cumulative frequencies against of their Bespective classes A) Lower class limits B) Upper class boundaries C) Upper class limits D) Lower class boundaries 24. Which of the following is a continuous quantitative variable? A) The amount of milk produced by a cow in 24-hour period B) The color of a student’s eyes C) The number of employees of an insurance company D) The number of gallons of milk sold at the local grocery store yesterday 25. The classification of students’ major departments (accounting, economics, marketing management, other) is an example of A) A discrete random variable B) A continuous random variable. C) A categorical random variable D) a parameter 26. Placing in a horse race is an example of: A) Nominal *B) Ordinal data 27. Class ranking of students on a test is: A)Nominal —_*B) Ordinal data 28. Someone's annual income (in doll; A) nominal B) ordinal data C) Interval data D) Ratio data C) Interval data D) Ratio data lars) could be usually coded as: C) interval data *D) Ratio data B) Ordinal data C) Interval data PART-II: Short Answer Items 1. Explain the following Pairs of terms and identi: i ' 4) Pecan “ies identify them with examples. : B) Paramete: ji 2. List at least four basic im oe 3. Classify the variables as Discrete or Conti, omnes ‘Ontinuous. ae © Occurring in a year b) The time ittake to run a given distance Deine ¢) The number of car accidents per month ¥ size in a household £) GPA of students 31 a4. Classify the data as qualitative, continuous. a) The number of brothers a person has c) The height of trees in a garden €) The brand of a car that a person drives f) The score out of 10 in a diving competition g) The temperature records of various cities h) The amount of water you drink in a day i) The items you ate in your breakfast J) The number of televisions in each house 1) The most popular holidays in a year , m)The time children spend brushing their teeth n) Student grades (A to F) é 5. Classify the following as: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio data. a) The rating of text books as : Fair, good, excellent b) Phone numbers of students and parents c) Level of agreements as: Disagree, Agree or Strongly agree d) Temperatures of the ocean at various depths e) Weights and heights of children in a family f) Grouping of students as: Low, Medium or High achievers g) Nationalities of peoples in a given city h) The sample of spheres categorized from softest to hardest. i) Salaries of college professors _j) Colors of eyes or hair k) Ages of survey respondents _!) Types of cars 6. The class marks:of a distribution of the daily number of crimes reported to a police are 128, 137, 146, 155, 164, 173 and 182. If the class width is uniform, find a) The class size b) The class boundaries _c) The class limits ‘Answer: a) w=9 5) 123.5~132.5,132.5 -141.5,141.5~150.5, 150.5 —159.5,159.5 —168.5,168.5-177.5 ¢) 124-132,133-141,142—150,151-159, ete : 7. The class marks of a distribution are 4, 12, 20, 28, and 36. If the class width is uniform and the class frequencies are 5,6,3, 6 and 2 respectively, quantitative discrete or quantitative b) The color of cars ina parking ) The number of animals in a zoo a) Determine the class limits ofeach class _b) Construct the Hy table 8. Suppose you want to group the marks of 200 students using constant class width where the minimum mark is 10and the maximum mark is 90. » ; Then the number of classes is k= and the class width is w= 329. If the data for the output units for 30 working ocean om 4.1 t0 96 then the number of classes is k= and the cles pace i sa . 10. Given the class marks: 25,34, 43, 52,61, 70 of a i ion. » the class idth i limit of the first class is and the class a 7 E 11. Fill the four columns of the following frequency dis! - Class] The or Class ae — ia more CF marks boundaries | aaa 2-6 3 4 TA 5 : —— 12-16 8 17-21 4 12. The following table shows the production capacity a the products in tones per year. Tea, Coffee, Sugarcane and Fruits. Construct a pie-chart Tepresentation of the data. Type of Product Production (in tones) Tea 180 Coffee 30 Sugarcane 60 | Fruits 90 13. Consider the following simple frequency distribution table showing the marks of students on a test out of 30. Marks 10-12 | 13-15 16-18 | 19-21 | 22-24 25-27 | No. students |~5 10 3 15 10 7 | i) Construct; a) The less than cumulat itive frequency distribution table tive frequency distribution table ercentage distribution tables lygon and the two O-give curves b) The or more cumulat ¢) The relative and Pp d) The frequency pol ii) Fina; a) Find (if; Possible) the number of students whose mark is at most 21 b) Find (if; i Possible) the number of Students whose mark is at least 22 ¢) Find (if Possible) the number of g me tudents whose mark is at most 16 d) Find (if Possible) the Aumber of gf tudents whose mark is exactly 24 ©) How many Students scored a mark between 19 and 24 inclusive? 33 eeCHAPTER-2 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Central tendency refers the location of a distribution into which more values of a distribution are concentrated. The main types of measures of central tendency include: The Mean, the Median and the mode. 2.1 Mathematical Means (Averages) The three basic types of means or averages include: 1. Arithmetic Means 2. Geometric Means 3. Harmonic Means 21.1 Arithmetic Means (A.M) Thereare two types of arithmetic means: Simple Arithmetic Mean and Weighted Arithmetic Mean a) Simple Arithmetic Means: The simple arithmetic mean x of n numerical values or observations, is their sum divided by ”. That is x= 13, ; ee Examples: 1. Find the mean of the numbers x, = 4x, =5,x3 = 8%, = 8,5 alee Solution: Here, Ds 2x, +%p t%j ths tM =4454+64+8+12=35. 338 ’ Therefore, the mean is given by x= ae es r= u x, -8). Solution: Here, X, =5% +8 % = 5% -92 3% oe » 2. Given Sx, = 600, X, =5Y, +8. Thea, find yy, and the mean Y . ia 1 = aad. Titi, Sy 53%, 23a $600) 3060) 88 and Y 343. Two variables x and y with 8 observations are related by J; mean of xis 47, then find the mean of y. Solution: Here, using the given relation and summation property, we have 8 8 12 3 1 te Fg Y= Ve -9= 31 -Y51=21470)-568) Therefe S =56 ae Y =S= = y, erefore, 2 ¥, = 56> ; Short Cut to calculate Mean: Usually, if m sets of data values x,, a3 "consists of large numbers, calculation of their sum could be difficult or tedious This is then results difficulty in computing their mean. In such cases, chose arbitrary constant 4 from the middle of the data (it is called assumed mean) and calculate ‘the difference x, — A=d,.This is called deviations of items measured from 4 ..Now take both sides s eee eG oy, => a me ummation. That is os fei I n 1 Pee) x=—(ndt Yd =A+—S'd. = ater 24) nal Therefore, if, the sum of the deviations measured from a given constant 4 is a » then the mean of the data is x= ae - (This is short cut formula isl nia : for computing mean), Notice: The assumed mean 4 is the deviation on either side is chosen from the middle of the data such that not very large. If the mean of the deviation, io... ; aot 1s positive, the actual mean is larger than the assumed mean 4 and if the- Examples: 1. Find the mean of the followin, Solution: Here, the given di Then the deviation becom ig data: 751,755, 759,765,770 . lata set have large vales. So, fix 4=750, les d, =x, 7-4:1,5,9,15,20 such that the sum of the 5 i, =14549+15+20=59. -Hence, by ae short cut formula, the mean of the original set of data is given by Se Resist 35 1.50 xa Ay 5 24 = 750+ a 750+10 = 760. If you use direct calculation, we get = 751+755+759+765+770 380 FD a0, 2. If the sum of the deviations of 10 items from 27is 70, find mean of the data. : — 10 Solution: The sum of the deviations of 10 items from 4=27is ¥'d, = 70. A = 10 Hence, by the short cut formula, x = 4+ a = 27420 oF ode 107m 10 Correcting incorrect values: In many situations, it is common to get incorrect means due to incorrect record of observations. For instance in recording the value 96 you may record as 69, the value 23 as 32 and so on. In such cases, you can get the correct mean by subtracting the wrong record from the total sum and adding the correct value instead. That is Correct sum = Wrong sum - wrong value + Correct value Examples: 1. The mean mark of 50 students was given to be 68. But latter, it was discovered that a mark of 99 wrongly read as 19. Find the correct mean. Solution: Here, since the mean is incorrect, the incorrect sum is also obtained so x, = 3400. Then, the correct sum is ial 50 . ~—_ 3480 = 3400-19 +99 = 3480. Therefore, the correct mean is x = ane = 69.6. 2. In an Accounting course, the mean mark of 10 students was 25 before correction. But after correction, the teacher added 2 extra points to each of 4 students and 1 point to each of 2 students. Find the mean after correction. 10 2 Solution: Before, correction, the total mark is ae, =10.x =10(25) = 250. ia But after correction, a mark of 4(2)+ 2(1) = 10 is added to the total mark before correction. That is the total mark after correction becomes 20 Dix, +10 = 250 +10 = 260. a ‘Therefore, the mean mark after correction becomes x 36a The mean mark of 20 students was given to be 65. Bue it was discovereg thy of items 84and 96were wrongly read as 48 and 66 . Find the correct ™Mean, ‘olution: Here, since the mean is incorrect, the incorrect sum is also Obtaing " 20 ye S r-65>15',, =65=> ))x, =1300. Then, the correct sum is 20 st 7 20 >) x, = 1300-48 - 66 +84 +96 = 1366. herefore, the correct mean is x = a = 68.3. - The mean of 98 items is 45. But it was discovered that two items 94 and 96 ere left out of calculations. What is the correct mean of all the 100 items? olution: Here, since the mean is incorrect, the incorrect Sum is also obtained - 98 $x=45> i iat 100 Iding the two items as a i 98 i = 45>)" x, = 4410. Then, the correct sum is obtained by ist = 4410+94+96 = 4600. herefore, the correct mean is 30 00 6. I : extra numbers is 25, find the other number. lution: Here, since the mean of the five number is Siven, we can find the m of the five numbers as follo W. Let the five number be x,, iT Ss. 5 =15> - =15 = 5h 1 a =75. Now, let the two extra numbers be x,, x; ch that it is given x, =25. We need to find x. + . me %p,X3,X4,X5. Using the two extra numbers, ‘Rew sum is calculated as: ¥ = 29, 1 : : ee = 20 : 7a i. ao 140. Eta Ss +5,52 ie =) : Bots -i40—., Arithmetic Mean of Discrete Srouped Data: ¥2X3505X, with frequencies Site a 2 hx, mby xa Bt At hn sy = x3 tnt f, Si Ath eee dsl tt R =40 For discrete grouped data, ectively, then the mean is 37Examples: 1. Find the mean of the following grouped data: Data Values: x, 3 5 6 7 8 Frequencies: f 4 7 3 a 3 Solution: To facilitate computation, first let’s construct a table showing apeate Data Values: x, 2) 5 6 ii 8 Total Frequencies: f; 4 q. 5 a 3 20 fe, 12 35 18 21 24 110 Sir tet IeXs NOs Airtot Ss 20 2. The table below shows the number of family having the indicated number of children. If the mean of the data is x =3,-find the missing frequency hae No Children 1 2 Ne) 4 5 Therefore, the mean becomes 5.5 ‘No Family 6 15 12 Fi 10 Solution: Here, using the given mean we have = Af, +122 = = 4 22 = ras 39 4f, +122=3(4,+43) Af, H122=3f, +129 => 4f,-3f, =129-122 = fy =7 3, Ifthe mean of the data below is X=17, find the value of k. ¥ 8 k+6 26 29 i 5 2 1 T Solution: Here, using the given mean, we have = 2k 91 17 > 2k +91= 110) =119 = 2k+91=119 => 2k = 28k =14 Combined or Grand Mean: If two sets of data with different means and different sample sizes OF with different number of observations are to be combined for a particular purpose, the mean of the combined set is known as combined or grand mean. 38Particularly, if one set of data has a mean of x, with 7, observations and g second set of data has a mean of x, with n, Ene faith observations, then the combined mean is given by x, = “7 Examples; 1. Ina class Consisting of 75 stu 1.74em and the rest are girls with a-mean height of 1.68cm . Find dents, there are 50 boys with 4 mean height of the Mean height of the whole class, Solution: This is a problem of finding combined mean. Let », and n, be number boys and girls Tespectively. Since there are SOboys out of 75 Students, the number of girls is 25. So, ”, =50and n, =25. Therion, MEENA 50.74 250.68)_ 87442 126 Ln nn, 50+25 aS sh problem, we are given %, =70, x =55, number of boys and girls, Then, =A 0m +550, mtn, ~~ 459 = 60=> 70m, +55n, = 9000, fence, we get the system { PO, *55n, = 9000 ™ +n, =150 olving, this system gives ys ns - The arithmetic mean of 100 ite; 0. What is the mean of all the 25 olution: This is a Problem of 50, n, =100, MS is SO and another group of 150 items is 0 items? findi = 150. Besides, * =50and x erefore, a MX +n, x, = 109650) + 150100) 20,000 ny +R 100+ 159 2355, = 5 80 * 39 ee4. For two groups of data, the following results are obtained. For group -1:)"(x—5) = 8,n, =20 For group -2: )(y +8) =362,n, =25 Find the combined mean of the data. Solution: Here, Y'(x-5)=8= D)x-'5=8= Yx-100=8> Px=108 Similarly, LO+8)=362—> Yy+ P8=362> Py +200=362 Py =162 +My _108+162 _ 270 _ thy. 20425 Beas | 5. The average mark in Economics course of 200 students is 45. If the mean of the top 50 students is 60 and the mean of the least 50 students is 20, find the mean mark of the remaining (the middle 100) students. Solution: The total marks of all the 200 students is yx = 200(45) = 9000. Besides, the total marks of the top 50 students is }\7 = 50(60) = 3000 and that of the least 50 students is }'Z = 50(20) = 1000. Then, the total mark of the middle 100 students is DM =D X-(HT + LD = 9000-4000 = 5000. Therefore, the combined mean is x Therefore, the mean mark of the middle 100 students become 1 = Ba =50. ii) Arithmetic Mean for Grouped Continuous Data To find the arithmetic mean of grouped continuous data, we use the class marks of each class as x, and the corresponding class frequencies as /,. : Sse where x, and f, denote the class mark and the Dh r= corresponding class frequency of the i” — class, k— the number of classes. Examples: ‘ : : oO 1. Find the mean of the data given by the following continuous distribution. | Classes 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 2 | Frequencies 6 3 4 5 40Solution: To calculate the mean, first let’s construct the distribution tab showing, the class marks. — Classes | Class marks(x,) | Class Frq. /; pe | 0-10 5 8 . | 1020] 15 : e 2030 25 Rie og Sceaaanl 35 5 is | 40-50 | 4% 2 20 440 3 a Lhe 30+45+100+175+90 440 io Se ee ys 643444542 20 ; i 2. Ifthe mean of the distribution is x = 178, find the missing frequency /,. oe a Solution: To calculate the mean, first let’s showing the class Marks, using the given mean We have ‘ Six, 72 wr 22h +225 Sy Ads 8s 224 +225 =17.8¢7, +15) & > 224, #225178, 4967 * 227, - os PABh 42 Zo1y 3 ~17.8f, = 267-205 os ib) Ryaelited Arithmetic Mean: This is a type of mean that we encounter when there is a difference in the relative importance of values. For instance, first year students take different courses with different credit hours. So, computation of their GPA is a good example of weighted mean. Matherhatically, the weighted mean, denoted byx,, for the set of values X;»Xqo--00X, Whose weights are w,,w,,...,W, Tespectively is computed by Wey + Wyky tenet Wyk, DM, Weta, | LM Examples: 1. If a student was registered for four courses with 2, 4, 3 and 1 credit hours and obtained grades of B, A, B and C, respectively, calculate the GPA . Solution: First notice that the numerical value of the letter grades for A, B,C,D and F are 4,3,2,1 and 0 respectively. So, in this problem, the credit hours represent weights of the course while the numerical values of the grades represent data values. This is as shown below. Grades B A B Cc Values x, 3 4 é| 2 Weights,w, | 2 4 3 T Wi 6 16 9 2 Hence, GP Az = Mat mm tM tots SHS B33 Ww, +, + Ws + Wy 2+4+3+1 10 2. Suppose a Book Printing Company employed three group of workers: 10 for duplicating, 6 for cutting and 4 for packaging. If the daily wages for these groups are 80 birr, 50 birr and 25 birr per day respectively. Find the average wage per day that the company pays. Solution: Here, the wages are the data values and the number of workers are the frequencies. This is presented using table as follow. ‘Values (Wages in birt): x, 80 50 25 | Frequency (N. Workers): W, 10 6 4 Therefore 5 = Ewe ts ODS _ 1200 Ww, + Wy + Ws 10+6+4 20 This means on average, the company pays 60 birr per day. 42: is useful to find average rates jf the ayy Remark: The weighted mean is ; ' S iF the \d reciprocally ( rates wit reciprocal units). When we say recip pare se like A/B and B. For instance, the units of speeq ken ‘units we mean : : ; and the unit of time Ar, the unit of price birr/kgand kg correspond reciprocally. ‘ — Ber 3 eo owner sold 100kgs of commodity with a price of | (bin . aa 10kg of another commodity with a price of 40birr. Find the averag. Drie, Solution: Here, the price represents data value while the amount of commogiy in kg represents the frequency. This is displayed using table as fo! low: Commodity | Price/kg, | Number ofkg,w, | Total, wx, | Type-A 10 100 1000 [Types 40 10 400 Hence, the average price is i = — Totalamount spent _ 1000 +400 _ [400 Se bits "~ Totalamount bought 110 110 4. A car traveled at a speed of 45km 2hrs . Find the average speed of the Solution: Here, appropriate. Whfor 4hrsand at a speed of 48ki/h {or car. since the units correspond reciprocally, Weighted mean i Speed, Values, oe 4Skm/h 48kmihr | Hours, weights, w, | 4hrs 2hrs ‘4 Hence, the average speed is v= 454)+48) ae 46km/h . 442 6 : 2.1.2 Geometric Mean (G.M) on hs of 7 positive values 1S defined as the n"—root of thei ucts. Pp oe AM ites aes nt” numerical values, then their geometri¢ mean = 1s given by OM This mean is Speciall find average rates of changes, " GM of discreet Srouped Data; Tp, applicable ‘9 © geometric . m iscrete grouped dat@ X3 0005, With Correspondi Wan of discrete grouped da G.M= re frequencies Sishrs, f,, is given by X," where n = 7 ‘Ke trG.M of continuous grouped Data: The geometric mean of continuous grouped data is given by G.M=4/x/x,/..x, where x,denotes the class marks of a class and f; denotes the corresponding class frequency. Examples: Find the geumetric means of a) 2and 8 b) 2,4and8 jhe 3°27°81 Solution: a) For twonumbers, G.M = V28=V16=4 b) For threenumbers, G.M = ¥/2.4.8 =V/64 =4 3 2 ¢) For four numbers, G.M = [1.2 Lt lS =4 2) (ae 3) 81 81 3 3 2 2.1.3 Harmonic Mean (H.M) The harmonic mean of n numerical values is obtained by dividing nby the sum of the reciprocal of the values or numbers. That is if x,,X2,%3,-+%, are n numerical values, then their harmonic mean is given by H.M=— - Le Examples: Find the harmonic means of 1 1 2,=5~ and = a) 10 and 30 b) 1,5and 10 °) 5 =m i Solution: 2 Diet Ok Ol oe a) For twonumbers, HM Sarre b) For threenumbers, H.M = ZHarmonic Mean of Grouped Data : Harmonic means of discreet grouped Data: The harmonic mean of x Aisery grouped data values X1,Xq5X3,-%, With frequencies f,, /,, f,,....f/, Tespective) ‘ . Dan sae Ltt th, is given by H.M=-41_ = yh eee (te mr XX Xt If the data is continuous grouped data, we use the same formula but in this case %, denotes the class mark and J, denotes the corresponding class frequency Example: Find the H.M of the following discrete grouped data. x 2 co 4 12 fi 1 a 2 4 iz Solution: First, find S Ff, where k denotes the number of different classes. fl ‘A That is DHA Neston =12. 4 yi 4 12 Therefore, HM = “1 _ iia = A, a Be Os Ga 20K 604. ag itm 4 2. 12 Applications of HM( Computatio n of Average rates of changes) : Bali a re Of the basic applications of harmonic mean is © theese ao a Bee changes: Like Prices, speed, fuel consumption, and are said to be in aes are nen the units are in “HARMONIC”. Two units IONIC if, they are Telated as 4/B and 4. In such cases, the data with unit A is used as i “pe tay frequency and with unit A/B is data value. . os Unit of density kg/m? and the unit of mass kgare in h i ae a u larmonic. lash Fen oo pute Unit of distance Amare in harmonic. nie, NHRD Llee tim ana, the Unit of distance kmare it 1. An atitomobil ; which are at a dines nae Of 60km/h from station A to station B ~SPeed of 30km/),. Find the aes oe ae eet: A wil’ Speed of the Sutomobile for the round tip aSSolution: Since the units km/hand kmare in harmonic, H.M is appropriate to find the average speed. Besides, in such problems, the distance represents the frequency and the speed represents the data value. Thane | 504508 2a Mig 2504 505 A a % %, 60 30 60 30 60. 2, Suppose a man derived at a speed of 30km/h for 10km, at a speed of 20km/h for 50km and at a speed of 60km/h for 30k Find the average speed of the man. Solution: Since the units km/hand kmare in harmonic, H.M is appropriate to find the average speed. Aithtf, — 10+50+30 90 90 _ 540 = cae = = = 2k bh Aff 10 50,301,553) 20° 20 Thatis v= Peli 30 20 60.3.2 6, 6 3. Suppose the Ethiopian Post office in a certain city has three centers A, B and C which are located at equidistant from each other. A motorist travels from A to be at a speed of 15km/h, from B to C ata speed of 20km/hrand from C to A ata speed of 30km/h Find the average speed of the motorist. Solution: Since the unitskmand km/hrare in harmonic, H.M is appropriate. Besides, the centers are located at equidistant from each other, say D. Te actly ion yo Dict DA Dine nis wo 3 _ 180 f Hence, v= ay = 9 - 20kmih D, DD Aye alge *30730 15°20 30 60 St 10 Relation between the three types of Means: i) Arithmetic mean (AM) is greater than or equal to the geometric mean and geometric mean (GM) is greater than or equal to the harmonic mean. That is AM>GM>HM : ; ii) The product of arithmetic mean (AM) and harmonic mean (GM) is equal to the square of the geometric mean (GM). That is (AM).(HM)=(GM)’. Examples: 5 L. If AM =Sand G.M =4, then find the harmonic mean, H.M. és 16 _ Solution: Here, (AM).(HM) = (GM)" => SH.M =16 > HM ="> = 3.2 2. For two observations xand y, if their arithmetic mean 4.M =10and their geometric mean G.M =8, then find the values of xand y. 46Solution: Here, AM =10=>* > —10=>x+y=20= y= 20» But G.M =8= yay =8> xy = 64 => x(20-x) = 64 => x? -20x+64=0> x=4,16 Therefore, the two values are x=4and y=16 or x=l6and y=4. 3. For two observations xand y, if their geometric mean GM = 20and their harmonic mean H.M =8, then find the two observations x and y. 100 Solution: Here, G.M =10 => yxy =10= xy =100=> y=— 2. . 100 Besides, Fees p> 8) Then, using, y=—,we W/xtl/y x+y oy + have 2 Bs 100 0 x 228415 - 205 ase ey Xo Therefore, if x=20, y=5 orif x=Sand y=20. 2.2 The Median It is the value that divides the data into two equal parts, it is obtained by arranging the data in an increasing or decreasing order of their values. Median of Ungrouped data: First, arrange the data in the ascending or descending order. Then, a) If the total number of the data is ODD, the median is the middle value. b) If the total number of the data is EVEN, then the median is the mean of the two middle values. ~ That is » data values are arranged in order %5Xq5X}5....%, , then, Some +1)" i) The median ax-(*21) ~ value for odd number of data. th ‘h -) E) ii) The median is x = “~~ Value for even number of data. Examples: 1, Find the median of the following data, a) 2, 3, 7, 8,9 b) 10,14,9,15,8,20 41Solution: a) Since n = 5 is odd and the data is already arranged in increasing order, the ee (er) 547 median is x = Ce ic “(ey = Svapeni, ov b) First, arrange the data in increasing order as:8,9,10, 1215, 20. Sincen =6 is even, the median is oh n ze i) 4 —val.+4" val. 10414 2 re 2. The median of the observations : 24,33,37, x—1,x+5,47,51,55 arranged in ascending (increasing) order is known to be 42. Find the variable x . Solution: Here, the number of observations is n=8which is even. So, the median is the mean of the two middle values. Hence, using the given value of rent eS a wp AS AA gt x= M0. Median of Grouped discrete Data: In this case, to get the median: First: Construct the less than cumulative frequency distribution table. Second: Using the less than cumulative frequency table, value =12 : , i) Themedian is x = ) — value for odd number of data. ce ii) Themedian is x = Bear) — value for even number of data. a Examples: 1. Find the median of the following grouped data. a 25 2 29 32 36 if, 2 6 4 3 4 Solution: First, let’s construct less than the cumulative frequency distribution. Values, x; Frequencies, /; Less than Cum. Freq. 25 2 2 ’ 27 6 es 29 “a, 12 32 3 15 ie 4 19 48; : ~ figety Since n= 19 is odd, themedian is x = (2) -value =10" —value. But the 10” —value is located in the 3" raw. Therefore, x =10" -value=29. 2. Find the median of the following grouped data. x, 3 7 9 4 16 7 4 a 2 a 4 Solution: First, let’s construct less than the cumulative frequency distribution. Ey oH Less than Cum. Freq. 5 q a D 5 a 9) 2 11 14 ls 18 16 4 22 Since n= 22 is even, then the median of the data is given by 5 — 22/2)" +2724" _ 1" ~val.+12" ~ val. mora 2 2 2 Median of Grouped continuous Data: To find the median of grouped continuous data, use the following procedures: First: Identify the median class. The median Class is the class that contains the LS. i : (3) value of the data regardless of whether nis odd or even. Second: Obtain L = The lower. class boundary of the median class. Fret = The frequency of the median class, CF =Thecummulative frequency of theclass before the median class w=Thecommon class width Third: Apply the formula: The median is be A a cr). ‘med Examples: 1. The following frequency distribution Shows the mark of 55 students Corrected out of 60. Find the median mark. Class limits [10-19 [20-29 iE ¥ [39-39 40-49 30-59 | Frequencies Hl 12 20 10 é | 49Solution: First: Construct the less than cumulative frequency distribution together with the class boundary: Class boundaries Frequencies fy =23 3 Binthermore, f; +f, +56—100 => 23+ f, +56=100=> f, =100-79=21. 502.3 The Mode (Modal Value) Modal value or mode is the value which occurs more than once with the highest frequency of all other values. It is denoted byx.- Mode for ungrouped data: The mode of ungrouped data (if any) is obtained by identifying the value with the maximum frequency. A given set of data may have exactly one mode (uni-modal data), more than one mode (multi-modal data) or may not have mode at all. Examples: Identify the mode of the following sets of data. a) Values: 2,3,4,5,4,6,4,3,3,3. Here, the frequency of 2 is 1, the frequency of 3 is 4, the frequency of 4 is 3 and that of 5 is 1. In this set the mode is 3 because it has the maximum frequency as compared to the others. b) Values: 3,4,6,5,4,6,4,1,6. Here, the values 4 and 6 have the same maximum frequency of 3. Hence, the modal values are 4 and 6.The data is bi-modal. Mode for grouped discrete data: In a grouped discrete data, the modal value is the one with the highest frequency in the table. Example: The following table shows the number of students in a certain class whose name starts with English vowels. Find the mode of the data. First letter A E T oO U No. Students 7 Dt 2 3 1 Solution: There are more students whose name starts with E. So, the modal letter is E. Mode for grouped continuous data: In grouped continuous data, with constant class width and no two classes have equal frequency; the mode is determined as follow: First: Identify the modal class (The class with maximum frequency). Second: Identify L, f,, f,,w where Z = the lower class boundary of the modal class J; = the frequency of theclass just BEFORE the modal class (preceding the modal class) J, = the frequency of theclass just AFTER the modal class (succeeding the modal class) Soa = the frequency of the model class itself w = thecommon class width 4, = Soo ~Si> 42 = Sowa ~ So Third: Compute the mode using x=L+w. a, A, +A, 51