Nucleic Acids & Protein Synthesis

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Biology CIE 
6.1 Structure of Nucleic Acids & Replication of DNA
CONTENTS
6.1.1 Nucleotides
6.1.2 The Structure of DNA
6.1.3 Semi-Conservative DNA Replication
6.1.4 The Structure of RNA
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6.1.1 Nucleotides YOUR NOTES


Nucleotide Structure
Nucleic acids such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are
macromolecules (giant molecules)
Like proteins (polypeptides) and carbohydrates (polysaccharides), these nucleic acids are
polymers (‘poly’ meaning ‘many’)
This means they are made up of many similar, smaller molecules (known as subunits or
monomers) joined into a long chain
The subunits that make up DNA and RNA are known as nucleotides
Therefore DNA and RNA can also be known as polynucleotides
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are made up of three components:
A nitrogen-containing base (also known as a nitrogenous base)
A pentose sugar (containing 5 carbon atoms)
A phosphate group
The basic structure of a nucleotide

Nucleotide structure table
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YOUR NOTES

The nucleotides found in DNA and RNA

ATP
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy-carrying molecule that provides the energy to YOUR NOTES
drive many processes inside living cells 
ATP is another type of nucleic acid and hence it is structurally very similar to the
nucleotides that make up DNA and RNA
It is a phosphorylated nucleotide
Adenosine (a nucleoside) can be combined with one, two or three phosphate groups
One phosphate group = adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
Two phosphate groups = adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Three phosphate groups = adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The structure of AMP, ADP and ATP
 Exam Tip
Don’t worry – you are not expected to know the structural formulae for the
nucleotides that make up DNA and RNA or AMP, ADP and ATP (as in the diagram
above)! You just need to learn the different groups that they are made up of
(phosphate groups, pentose sugars and nitrogenous bases).Remember that
adenine is a nitrogenous base whereas adenosine is a nucleoside (a base –
adenine, attached to a pentose sugar).
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Purines & Pyrimidines YOUR NOTES

The nitrogenous base molecules that are found in the nucleotides of DNA (A, T, C, G) and 
RNA (A, U, C, G) occur in two structural forms: purines and pyrimidines
The bases adenine and guanine are purines – they have a double ring structure
The bases cytosine, thymine and uracil are pyrimidines – they have a single ring structure
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YOUR NOTES
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YOUR NOTES

The molecular structures of purines and pyrimidines are slightly different
 Exam Tip
You don’t need to know the structural formulae of these bases, just which are
purines and which are pyrimidines.
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6.1.2 The Structure of DNA YOUR NOTES


DNA Structure
The nucleic acid DNA is a polynucleotide – it is made up of many nucleotides bonded
together in a long chain
A DNA nucleotide
DNA molecules are made up of two polynucleotide strands lying side by side, running in
opposite directions – the strands are said to be antiparallel
Each DNA polynucleotide strand is made up of alternating deoxyribose sugars and
phosphate groups bonded together to form the sugar-phosphate backbone. These
bonds are covalent bonds known as phosphodiester bonds
The phosphodiester bonds link the 5-carbon of one deoxyribose sugar molecule to
the phosphate group from the same nucleotide, which is itself linked by another
phosphodiester bond to the 3-carbon of the deoxyribose sugar molecule of the
next nucleotide in the strand
Each DNA polynucleotide strand is said to have a 3’ end and a 5’ end (these numbers
relate to which carbon on the pentose sugar could be bonded with another
nucleotide)
As the strands run in opposite directions (they are antiparallel), one is known as the 5’
to 3’ strand and the other is known as the 3’ to 5’ strand
The nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide project out from the backbone towards the
interior of the double-stranded DNA molecule
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YOUR NOTES

A single DNA polynucleotide strand showing the positioning of the ester bonds
Hydrogen bonding
The two antiparallel DNA polynucleotide strands that make up the DNA molecule are held
together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases
These hydrogen bonds always occur between the same pairs of bases:
The purine adenine (A) always pairs with the pyrimidine thymine (T) – two hydrogen
bonds are formed between these bases
The purine guanine (G) always pairs with the pyrimidine cytosine (C) – three hydrogen
bonds are formed between these bases
This is known as complementary base pairing
These pairs are known as DNA base pairs
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YOUR NOTES

A section of DNA – two antiparallel DNA polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen
bonds
Double helix
DNA is not two-dimensional as seen in the diagram above
DNA is described as a double helix
This refers to the three-dimensional shape that DNA molecules form
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YOUR NOTES

DNA molecules form a three-dimensional structure known as a DNA double helix
 Exam Tip
Make sure you can name the different components of a DNA molecule (sugar-
phosphate backbone, nucleotide, complementary base pairs, phosphodiester
bonds, hydrogen bonds) and make sure you are able to locate these on a
diagram.You must know how many hydrogen bonds occur between the different
base pairs.Remember that the bases are complementary so the number of A = T and
C = G, as you could be asked to determine how many bases are present in a DNA
molecule if given the number of one of the bases.
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6.1.3 Semi-Conservative DNA Replication YOUR NOTES


Semi-Conservative DNA Replication
DNA replication occurs in preparation for mitosis, when a parent cell divides to produce
two genetically identical daughter cells – as each daughter cell contains the same number
of chromosomes as the parent cell, the number of DNA molecules in the parent cell must be
doubled before mitosis takes place
DNA replication occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle (which occurs during
interphase, when a cell is not dividing)
The hydrogen bonds between the base pairs on the two antiparallel polynucleotide DNA
strands are broken
This ‘unzips’ or unwinds the DNA double helix to form two single polynucleotide DNA
strands
Each of these single polynucleotide DNA strands acts as a template for the formation of a
new strand – the original strand and the new strand then join together to form a new DNA
molecule
This method of replicating DNA is known as semi-conservative replication because half
of the original DNA molecule is kept (conserved) in each of the two new DNA molecules
Semi-conservative replication was shown to be the method of replication by Meselson
and Stahl in 1958. They used E.coli (a bacteria) and two nitrogen isotopes, a heavy form 15N
and the ‘normal’ form 14N, to demonstrate how the density of DNA changes over
generations as the 15N isotope was replaced with the 14N isotope
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YOUR NOTES

Semi-conservative replication of DNA

DNA Polymerase
In the nucleus, there are free nucleotides to which two extra phosphates have been
added (these free nucleotides with three phosphate groups are known as nucleoside
triphosphates or ‘activated nucleotides’)
The extra phosphates activate the nucleotides, enabling them to take part in DNA
replication
The bases of the free nucleoside triphosphates align with their complementary bases on
each of the template DNA strands
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The enzyme DNA polymerase synthesises new DNA strands from the two template YOUR NOTES
strands 
It does this by catalysing condensation reactions between the deoxyribose sugar and
phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides within the new strands, creating the sugar-
phosphate backbone of the new DNA strands
DNA polymerase cleaves (breaks off) the two extra phosphates and uses the energy
released to create the phosphodiester bonds (between adjacent nucleotides)
Hydrogen bonds then form between the complementary base pairs of the template and
new DNA strands
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YOUR NOTES

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YOUR NOTES

Nucleotides are bonded together by DNA polymerase to create the new complementary
DNA strands
Leading & lagging strands
DNA polymerase can only build the new strand in one direction (5’ to 3’ direction)
As DNA is ‘unzipped’ from the 3’ towards the 5’ end, DNA polymerase will attach to the 3’
end of the original strand and move towards the replication fork (the point at which the
DNA molecule is splitting into two template strands)
This means the DNA polymerase enzyme can synthesise the leading strand continuously
This template strand that the DNA polymerase attaches to is known as the leading strand
The other template strand created during DNA replication is known as the lagging strand
On this strand, DNA polymerase moves away from the replication fork (from the 5’ end to
the 3’ end)
This means the DNA polymerase enzyme can only synthesise the lagging DNA strand in
short segments (called Okazaki fragments)
A second enzyme known as DNA ligase is needed to join these lagging strand segments
together to form a continuous complementary DNA strand
DNA ligase does this by catalysing the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the
segments to create a continuous sugar-phosphate backbone
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YOUR NOTES

The synthesis of the complementary strands occurs slightly differently on the leading and
lagging template strands of the original DNA molecule that is being replicated
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6.1.4 The Structure of RNA YOUR NOTES


RNA Structure
Like DNA, the nucleic acid RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a polynucleotide – it is made up of
many nucleotides linked together in a long chain
Like DNA, RNA nucleotides contain the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), guanine (G) and
cytosine (C)
Unlike DNA, RNA nucleotides never contain the nitrogenous base thymine (T) – in place of
this they contain the nitrogenous base uracil (U)
Unlike DNA, RNA nucleotides contain the pentose sugar ribose (instead of deoxyribose)
An RNA nucleotide compared with a DNA nucleotide

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Unlike DNA, RNA molecules are only made up of one polynucleotide strand (they are YOUR NOTES
single-stranded) 
Each RNA polynucleotide strand is made up of alternating ribose sugars and phosphate
groups linked together, with the nitrogenous bases of each nucleotide projecting out
sideways from the single-stranded RNA molecule
The sugar-phosphate bonds (between different nucleotides in the same strand) are
covalent bonds known as phosphodiester bonds
These bonds form what is known as the sugar-phosphate backbone of the RNA
polynucleotide strand
The phosphodiester bonds link the 5-carbon of one ribose sugar molecule to the
phosphate group from the same nucleotide, which is itself linked by another
phosphodiester bond to the 3-carbon of the ribose sugar molecule of the next
nucleotide in the strand
An example of an RNA molecule is messenger RNA (mRNA), which is the transcript copy of a
gene that encodes a specific polypeptide. Two other examples are transfer RNA (tRNA)
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Messenger RNA (mRNA) provides a good example of the structure of RNA
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You need to know the difference between DNA and RNA molecules (bases, number

of strands, pentose sugar present).
Page 20 of 20

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6.1 Structure of Nucleic Acids & Replication of DNA

6.1.1 Nucleotides YOUR NOTES

The basic structure of a nucleotide

The nucleotides found in DNA and RNA

The structure of AMP, ADP and ATP

Purines & Pyrimidines YOUR NOTES

The molecular structures of purines and pyrimidines are slightly different

6.1.2 The Structure of DNA YOUR NOTES

DNA molecules form a three-dimensional structure known as a DNA double helix

6.1.3 Semi-Conservative DNA Replication YOUR NOTES

Semi-conservative replication of DNA

6.1.4 The Structure of RNA YOUR NOTES

An RNA nucleotide compared with a DNA nucleotide

Messenger RNA (mRNA) provides a good example of the structure of RNA

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

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