204 M.A. HRM - RM

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
M.A (H.R.M), Semester – II, Paper-IV
LESSON WRITERS
Dr.B. Nagaraju Dr. V. Tulasi Das
Associate Professor Associate Professor
Dept. of HRM, ANU Dept. of HRM, ANU
Dr. M. Rama Satyanarayana Dr. K. Madhu Babu

Faculty, Dept. of HRM, ANU Faculty, Dept. of HRM, ANU
Dr. V. Naga Nirmala

Faculty, Dept. of HRM, ANU
EDITOR
Dr. V. Tulasi Das
Associate Professor
Dept. of Human Resource Management
Acharya Nagarjuna University
Director
Dr. NAGARAJU BATTU
MBA., MHRM., LLM., M.Sc. (Psy).,MA (Soc)., M.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

ACHARAYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY
NAGARJUNA NAGAR – 522 510
Ph: 0863-2293299, 2293214,
0863-2346259 (Study Material)
Website: www.anucde.info
e-mail:anucdedirector@gmail.com
M.A. (H.R.M)
First Edition : 2021
No. of Copies :
©Acharya Nagarjuna University
This book is exclusively prepared for the use of students of M.A (HRM) Centre for
Distance Education, Acharya Nagarjuna University and this book is meant for limited
circulation only.
Published by:
Dr. NAGARAJU BATTU,
Director
Centre for Distance Education,
Printed at:
FOREWORD
Since its establishment in 1976, Acharya Nagarjuna University has been forging
ahead in the path of progress and dynamism, offering a variety of courses and research
contributions. I am extremely happy that by gaining ‘A’ grade from the NAAC in the year
2016, Acharya Nagarjuna University is offering educational opportunities at the UG, PG
levels apart from research degrees to students from over 443 affiliated colleges spread
over the two districts of Guntur and Prakasam.
The University has also started the Centre for Distance Education in 2003-04 with
the aim of taking higher education to the door step of all the sectors of the society. The
centre will be a great help to those who cannot join in colleges, those who cannot afford
the exorbitant fees as regular students, and even to housewives desirous of pursuing
higher studies. Acharya Nagarjuna University has started offering B.A., and B.Com
courses at the Degree level and M.A., M.Com., M.Sc., M.B.A., and L.L.M., courses at the
PG level from the academic year 2003-2004 onwards.
To facilitate easier understanding by students studying through the distance mode,

these self-instruction materials have been prepared by eminent and experienced teachers.
The lessons have been drafted with great care and expertise in the stipulated time by these
teachers. Constructive ideas and scholarly suggestions are welcome from students and
teachers involved respectively. Such ideas will be incorporated for the greater efficacy of
this distance mode of education. For clarification of doubts and feedback, weekly classes
and contact classes will be arranged at the UG and PG levels respectively.
It is my aim that students getting higher education through the Centre for Distance
Education should improve their qualification, have better employment opportunities and
in turn be part of country’s progress. It is my fond desire that in the years to come, the
Centre for Distance Education will go from strength to strength in the form of new
courses and by catering to larger number of people. My congratulations to all the
Directors, Academic Coordinators, Editors and Lesson- writers of the Centre who have
helped in these endeavors.
Prof. P. Raja Sekhar

Vice-Chancellor (FAC)
SYLLABUS
UNIT – I
Scientific Method and Social Phenomena Meaning of Research-Objectives of Research Motivation in
Research- Types of Research - Research Approaches - Significance of Research - Research Methods versus
Methodology- Research and Scientific Method Importance of Knowing How Research is Done - Research
Process -Criteria of Good Research
UNIT–II
Formulating A Research Problem and Research Design
Reviewing the literature- The place of the literature review in research Bringing clarity and focus to your
research problem Meaning of Research Design Need for Research Design-Features of a Good Design-
Important Concepts Relating to Research Design-Different Research Designs-Basic Principles of
Experimental Designs
UNIT – III
Sampling : Random, stratified Random, Cluster and Purposive sampling; Data collection and Research
Tools : Documentary Information, Observating, Interview, Questionnaire, Schedule, Interview Guide,
Scaling Techniques : Likert, Gutman and Thurstone scales. Pilot Study; and pretesting for validity and
reliability of the tools. Data analysis : Qualitative and Quantitative Data analysis,
UNIT – IV
Constructing hypotheses The definition of a hypothesis The functions of a hypothesis The testing of a
hypothesis, The characteristics of a hypothesis, Types of hypothesis, Errors in testing a hypothesis
Hypotheses in qualitative research
UNIT – V
Interpretation and Report Writing-Techniques of Interpretation, Precaution, Significance of Report
writing, Different steps in Report Writing, Layout of Research Report, Type of Reports, Oral Presentation,
Mechanisms of Report writing, Precautions of Writing Reports
Prescribed Books:
Allen L. Edward : Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction
Festnger and Katz : Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
Elhance : Fundamentals of Statistics
Goode and Hatt : Methods in Social Research.
Gopal, H.M. : Introduction to the study of Research Procedures in
Social Sciences.
Gupta C.B. : Statistical Methods
Gupta S.P. : Statistical Methods
ICSSR Survey Reports : I.C.S.S.R. Publication.
Michael V.B. : Research Methodology in Management
Sadhu and Singh : Research Methodology in Social Sciences.
Singh V.B (Ed) : Labour Research in India .
Young P.V. : Scientific Social Surveys and Research
CONTENTS
LESSON Page No.

1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH 1.1 – 1.13
2 SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND SOCIAL SCIENCE 2.1 – 2.9
PHENOMENA
3 SOCIAL RESEARCH AND SOCIAL SURVEY 3.1 – 3.12
4 RESEARCH PROCESS 4.1 – 4.11
5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5.1 – 5.12
6 RESEARCH PROBLEM 6.1 – 6.10
7 RESEARCH DESIGN 7.1 – 7.7
8 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 8.1 – 8.22
9 SAMPLING: RANDOM, STRATIFIED RANDOM, CLUSTER 9.1 – 9.12
AND PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
10 DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH TOOLS 10.1 – 10.13
11 SCALING TECHNIQUES 11.1 – 11.16
12 PILOT STUDY,PRE – TESTING, VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, 12.1 – 12.13
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
13 CONSTRUCTING OF HYPOTHESIS 13.1 – 13.13
14 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES 14.1 – 14.9
15 ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING 15.1 – 15.11
16 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND 16.1 – 16.12
HYPOTHESES
17 DATA INTERPRETATION 17.1 – 17.18
18 REPORT WRITING 18.1 – 18.9
19 LAY OUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT 19.1 – 19.16
20 TYPES OF REPORTS 20.1 – 20.12
LESSON - 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Learning Objectives
 To study the Characteristic of Research
 To Understand the Objectives of Research
 To know Types of Research
 To learn The Research Process
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Definition of Research
1.2 Characteristic of Research
1.3 Objectives of Research
1.4 Types of Research
1.5 The Research Process
1.6 Problem Identification
1.7 Role of Information in Problem Formulation
1.8 Approaches to the Problem.
1.9 Summary
1.10 Key words
1.11Self Assessment Questions
1.12 Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
The unique characteristic of human mind is the curiosity to know about the universe.
Innumerable questions arise in our mind about our environment, planet and the universe.
Most of these questions starting with what, why, how and soon. For example, what are stars?
why day and night alternate? How is rain formed and why the mode of life and activities of
human beings vary from place to place? Whenever such questions arise, we seek answer to
them or we try to find out solutions to them. Seeking answers to questions and finding
solutions to the problems have been thebasis of human progress. A systematic search for an
answer to a question or a solution to a problem is called research.
Actually, research is simply the process of arriving as dependable solution to a
problem through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of a data.
Research is the most important process for advancing knowledge for promoting progress and
to enable man to relate more effectively to his environment to accomplish his purpose and to
Centre for Distance Education 1.2 Acharya Nagarjuna university
solve his conflicts. Although it is not the only way, it is one of the most effective ways of
solving problems. The term research consists of two words,‟ Re‟+‟Search‟. “Re” means again
and again and “Search” means to find out something. The following is the process;
Observes collection of data

Person phenomena conclusions
Againandagain Analysis of data
Therefore, the research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again
and again and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions.
Research seeks to find out explanations to unexplained phenomena to clarify the doubtful
propositions and to correct the misconceived facts. It simply means a search for facts, answer
to questions and solutions to problems. The search for facts may be made through either
(a) arbitrary (unscientific) method or
(b) scientific method.
Arbitrary method of seeking answer to questions is based on imagination, blind belief or

impression. It is vague and inaccurate.
Scientific method is a systematic rational approach to seeking fact. It is objective, precise

and arrives at conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences. Hence research is systematic
and logical study of an issue problem or phenomenon through scientific method. Following
definitions may reveal the proper meaning of the concept of research.
1.1 Definition of Research

a) According to Black and Champion, “scientific research consists of obtaining information
through empirical observation that can be used for systematic development of logically
related propositions attempting to establish casual relations among variable”.
b) Emory defines research as “any organized inquiry designed and carried out to provide
information for solving a problem”.
c) Kerlinger defines research as a” systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical relations among natural phenomena”.
d) L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Morry have defined “systematic effort to gain new knowledge
we call research”.
1.2 Characteristic of Research

The above definitions reveal the following characteristics of research.
a) Research is a systematic and critical investigation to a phenomenon.
b) It aims at interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
c) It adopts scientific method.
d) It is based on empirical evidences and observable experience.
e) It develops generalizations, principles or theories.
f) It directed towards finding answer to the questions and solutions to the problems.
1.3 objectives of research

The objectives of research are varied. They are,
a) Research extends knowledge of human beings‟ social life and environment.
Research methodology 1.3 Introduction to research
b) Research reveals the mysteries of nature.

c) Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory
building in various fields of knowledge.
d) Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory.
e) Research helps us to improve our knowledge and ability to handle situation.
f) General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions
of events.
g) Research aims to analyze inter-relationship between variables and to derive causal
explanations, which help us to better understanding of the world in which we live.
h) Research aims to finding solutions to the problem, e.g.:- socio-economic problems,
health problems, organizational and human relational problems and so on…
i) Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for better
understanding to unknown phenomena.
j) Research helps national planning board to focus our national development. It enables
the planners to evaluate alternative strategies, on-going programs and evaluation etc.,
k) Research provides functional data for rational decision making and formulation of
strategies and policies.
1.4 Types of Research

It is imperative that a marketer has to have a broad understanding of the various types of
research, in general. There are eleven types of research depending on whether it is primarily
“fundamental” or “applied” in nature. They are as follows:
1. Applied research, also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid
to the solution of some given problem or set of problems.
2. Fundamental research, frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to extend the
boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate application to
existing problems.
3. Futuristic research: Futures research is the systematic study of possible future

conditions. It includes analysis of how those conditions might change as a result of the
implementation of policies and actions, and the consequences of these policies and actions.
4. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It

tries to discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how. Here the
researcher attempts to describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group of
problems, people, or events. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present
5. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to

explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed. The
research would use theories or at least hypothesis to account for the forces that caused a
certain phenomenon to occur.
6. Predictive research: If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has
occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations the event will
occur. This research is just as rooted in theory as explanation. This research calls for a high
order of inference making. In business research, prediction is found in studies conducted to
evaluate specific courses of action or to forecast current and future values.
7. Analytical research: The researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
8. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity

or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
9. Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena

relating to or involving quality or kind. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques
of such research are word association test, sentence completion test, story completion tests
and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed
to find out how people feel or what the think about a particular subject or institution is also
qualitative research.
10.Conceptual research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or

theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
11.Empirical research: It is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is
today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a give hypothesis.
1.5 The Research Process
Eight Steps in Research Process
There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of

whether it is applied research or basic research. Each particular research study will be unique
in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place in which it is
being undertaken.Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our
understanding of the problem and thus all traverse through certain basic stages, forming a
process called the research process.
An understanding of the research process is necessary to effectively carry out research and
sequencing of the stages inherent in the process.
These 8 stages in the research process are;
 Identifying the problem.
 Reviewing literature.
 Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses.
 Choosing the study design.
 Deciding on the sample design.
 Collecting data.
 Processing and analyzing data.
 Writing the report.
The research process outlined above is, in essence, part and parcel of a research proposal. It
is an outline of your commitment that you intend to follow in executing a research study.
A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these stages, by and large, is
dependent upon the others.
One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected data (step 6). It is also true that one
cannot write a report (step 8) unless he has collected and analyzed data (step 7).
Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of this sequence can
cause irreparable harm to the study. It is also true that several alternatives are available to the
researcher during each of the stages stated above. A research process can be compared with a
route map. The map analogy is useful for the researcher because at each stage of the research
process, and there are several alternatives to follow.
Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and human
resources in our research decision is our primary goal.
Before explaining the stages of the research process, we explain the term „iterative‟
appearing within the oval-shaped diagram at the center of the schematic diagram. The key to
a successful research project ultimately lies in iteration: the process of returning again and
again to the identification of the research problems, methodology, data collection, etc. which
lead to new ideas, revisions and improvements.
Often, by discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one will find that
new research questions need to be added, variables to be omitted, added or redefined, and
other changes to be made. As a proposed study is examined and reexamined from different
perspectives, it may begin to transform and take a different shape.
This is to be expected and is an essential component of a good research study.
Besides, it is important to examine study methods and data to be collected from different
viewpoints to ensure a comprehensive approach to the research question.
In conclusion, there is seldom any single strategy or formula for developing a
successful research study, but it is important to realize that the research process is cyclical
and iterative.
Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important
phases of the research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research
methodology.
But the core question is: whether all problems require research. We have countless problems
around us, but all that we encounter do not qualify as research problems, and thus, these do
not need to be researched. Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a
research problem and a non-research problem. Intuitively, researchable problems are those
who have a possibility of thorough verification investigation, which can be affected through
the analysis and collection of data, while the non-research problems do not need to go
through these processes.
Researcher need to identify both Non-research Problem, and Research Problem.
Non-Research Problem
A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to arrive at a solution.
Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved
through research.
It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management
level. The answer to any question raised in a non- research setting is almost always obvious.
The outbreak of cholera, for example, following a severe flood, is a common phenomenon in
many communities. The reason for this is known. It is thus not a research problem. Similarly,
reasons for the sudden rise in prices of many essential commodities following the
announcement of the budget by the finance minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a
problem that needs research.
Example A recent survey in District A found that 1000 women were continuous users of
contraceptive pills. But last month‟s service statistics indicate that none of these women were
using contraceptive pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4). The discrepancy is that „all 1000 women
should have been using a pill, but in fact, none is doing so. The question is: why the
discrepancy exists? Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills
reaching District A, and all old supplies have been exhausted. Thus, although the problem
situation exists, the reason for the problem is already known. Therefore, assuming that all the
facts are correct, there is no reason to research the factors associated with pill discontinuation
among women. This is thus a non-research problem.
Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may well be considered as
non-research problems:
 Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;

 Preferring admission in public universities over private universities;
 Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer
 Traffic jam in the city street after office hours;
 High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.
Research Problem
In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary concern to a
researcher.
A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a discrepancy
between the common belief and reality.
As noted by Fisher et al. (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential research problem when
the following three conditions exist:
There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should have
been.” This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists” and the “ideal or
planned situation”; A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the
reason(s) for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a
research question); and There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the
questions or problems. The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible
answer to the question about the discrepancy, then a research situation does not exist.
It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or administrative level.
Example The Government of Bangladesh has been making all-out efforts to ensure regular
flow of credit in rural areas at a concession rate through liberal lending policy and
establishing a large number of bank branches in rural areas. Knowledgeable sources indicate
that expected development in rural areas has not yet been achieved mainly because of
improper utilization of the credit. More than one reason is suspected of such misuse or
misdirection. These include, among others: Diversion of credit money to some unproductive
sectors Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders, who exploit the rural
people with this money Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.
Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been so far researched.
Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also
equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.
Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between
the results of his study and those of the others.
A review of previous documents to similar or related phenomena is essential even for the
beginning researchers. To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part
of the researchers. Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already
done? If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he will be in a
much better position to assess the significance of his work and to convince others that it is
important. A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in his questioning of the others‟
methodology, the choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study
results.
In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favour of reviewing the literature:
 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the
problem.
 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed by
others.
 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his
area of investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies,
contradictions, and inconsistencies in findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his research that he
might not otherwise have thought about.
Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.
An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of
information that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The
best expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by
empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.
Step -4: Choosing the study design

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.
It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct his or her study;
 survey,
 experiment,
 secondary data study, and
 observational study.
Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of
sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or
portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.
It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the
population is included. Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.
A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some
inference or generalization. A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to
represent that population. If certain statistical procedures are followed in selecting the
sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population as a whole. These
procedures are embedded in the sample design. Sample design refers to the methods to be
followed in selecting a sample from the population and the estimating technique, vis-a-vis
formula for computing the sample statistics.
The basic question is, then, how to select a sample?
To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods.
These methods are basically of two types: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling ensures every unit a known nonzero probability of selection
within the target population. If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling
method may be employed.
The basis of such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher‟s discretion. This
approach is variously called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling,
and purposive sampling.
The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling,
stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. They have been
classified by their representation basis and unit selection techniques.
Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use are multistage sampling
and probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling. Multistage sampling is most commonly
used in drawing samples from very large and diverse populations.
The PPS sampling is a variation on multistage sampling in which the probability of selecting
a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal number of elements are sampled within each
cluster.
Step – 6: Collecting data

The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any
defined population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on
the objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money, and
personnel. With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected,
the method of data collection also varies. The most common means for collecting
quantitative data is the structured interview. Studies that obtain data by interviewing
respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-administered
questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected. Other
means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the census, vital
registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.
Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to
ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.
In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies
unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.
Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to
reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing. This
coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent
opportunity in data editing and coding processes. Data analysis usually involves reducing
accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and
applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings in the light of
the research questions.
Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings are consistent
with the formulated hypotheses and theories.
The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to
very complex multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design
employed, and the nature of data collected.
As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in
one situation may not be appropriate for another.
Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,

Disseminating and Utilizing Results
The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal.
A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent
or commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or
render a service to a potential client or sponsor.
The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in the research
process. The proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.
It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the
purpose of the study (the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.
It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the
procedures that will be utilized at each stage of the research process.
The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.
1.6 Role of Information in Problem Formulation

Problem formulation starts with a sound information seeking process by the
researcher. The decision maker is the provider of information pertaining to the problem at
the beginning of the research process (problem formulation) as well as the user of the
information that germinates at the end of the research process. Given the importance of
accurate problem formulation, the research should take enough care to ensure that
information seeking process should be well within the ethical boundaries of a true research.
The researcher may use different types of information at the problem formulation stage.
They are:
1. Subjective information termed as those based on the decision maker‟s past experiences,
expertise, assumptions, feelings or judgments without any systematic gathering of facts.
Such information is usually readily available.
2. Secondary information are those collected and interpreted at least once for some
specific situation other than the current one. Availability of this type of information is
normally high.
3. Primary information refers to firsthand information derived through a formalized
research process for a specific, current problem situation.
In order to have better understanding on problem formulation, the researcher may tend to
categorize the information collected into four types. The categorization of the information is
done based on the quality and complexity of the information collected. They are:
1. Facts are some pieces of information with very high-quality information and a higher
degree of accuracy and reliability. They could be absolutely observable and verifiable. They
are not complicated and are easy to understand and use.
2. Estimates are information whose degree of quality is based on the representativeness of
the fact sources and the statistical procedures used to create them. They are more complex
than facts due to the statistical procedures involved in deriving them and the likelihood of
errors.
3. Predictions are lower quality information due to perceived risk and uncertainty of future
conditions. They have greater complexity and are difficult to understand and use for
decision-making as they are forecasted estimates or projections into the future.

4. Relationships are information whose quality is dependent on the precision of the
researcher‟s statements of the interrelationship between sets of variables. They have the
highest degree of complexity as they involve any number of relationships paths with several
variables being analysed simultaneously.
1.7Approaches to the Problem

The outputs of the approach development process should include the following components:
(i) Objective/theoretical framework (ii) analytical model (iii) Research questions (iv)
hypothesis. Each of these components is discussed below:
(i) Objective/theoretical framework: Every research should have a theoretical framework
and objective evidence. The theoretical framework is a conceptual scheme containing:
a set of concepts and definitions
a set of statements that describes the situations on which the theory can be applied a set of
relational statements divided into: axioms and theorems
The theoretical evidence is very much imperative in research as it leads to identification of
variables that should be investigated. They also lead to formulating the operational definition
of the marketing problem. An operational definition is a set of procedures that describe the
activities one should perform in order to establish empirically the existence or degree of
existence of a concept.
application of the concepts. Operational definition would specify a procedure that involves
say, for example, a weighing machine that measures the weight of a person or an object.
(ii) Analytical model: An analytical model could be referred to as a likeness of something.
It consists of symbols referred to a set of variables and their interrelationships represented in
logical arrangements designed to represent, in whole or in part, some real system or process.
It is a representation of reality making explicit the significant relationships among the
aspects. It enables the formulation of empirically testable propositions regarding the nature of
these relationships. An empirical model refers to research that uses data derived from actual
observation or experimentation.
(iii) Research Questions: Research questions are refined statements of the specific
components of the problem. It refers to a statement that ascertains the phenomenon to be
studied. The research questions should be raised in an unambiguous manner and hence,
would help the researcher in becoming resourceful in identifying the components of the
problem. The formulation of the questions should be strongly guided by the problem
definition, theoretical framework and the analytical model. The knowledge gained by the
researcher from his/her interaction with the decision maker should be borne in mind as they
sometimes form the basis of research questions.
The researcher should exercise extreme caution while formulation research questions as they
are the forerunner for developing hypothesis. Any flaw in the research questions may lead to
flawed hypothesis. The following questions may be asked while developing research
questions:
Operationalizing the concept gives more understanding on the meanings of the concepts
specified and explication of the testing procedures that provide criteria for the empirical
a) Do I know the area of investigation and its literature?
b) What are the research questions pertinent to the area of investigation?
c) What are the areas that are not explored by the previous researchers?
d) Would my study lead to greater understanding on the area of study?
e) Are enough number of literatures available in this topic area?
f) Is my study a new one thus contributing to the society or has it been done before?
(iv) Hypothesis: Hypothesis could be termed as tentative answers to a research problem. The
structure of a hypothesis involves conjectural statements relating to two or more variables.
They are deduced from theories, directly from observation, intuitively, or from a combination
of these. Hypothesis deduced from any of the means would have four common
characteristics. They should be clear, value-free, specific and amenable to empirical testing.
Hypothesis could be viewed as statements that indicate the direction of the relationship or
recognition of differences in groups. However, the researcher may not be able to frame
hypotheses in all situations. It may be because that a particular investigation does not warrant
a hypothesis or sufficient information may not be available to develop the hypotheses.
1.8 Summary
The unique characteristic of human mind is the curiosity to know about the universe.
Innumerable questions arise in our mind about our environment, planet and the universe.
Most of these questions starting with what, why, how and soon.
Problem formulation starts with a sound information seeking process by the
researcher. The decision maker is the provider of information pertaining to the problem at
the beginning of the research process (problem formulation) as well as the user of the
information that germinates at the end of the research process. Given the importance of
accurate problem formulation, the research should take enough care to ensure that
information seeking process should be well within the ethical boundaries of a true research.
The researcher may use different types of information at the problem formulation stage.
1.9 Key words
Applied research-also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid to

the solution of some given problem or set of problems.
Fundamental research- frequently called basic or pure research, seeks to extend the
boundaries of knowledge in a given area with no necessary immediate application to
existing problems.
Futuristic research-Futures research is the systematic study of possible future conditions.

It includes analysis of how those conditions might change as a result of the implementation
of policies and actions, and the consequences of these policies and actions.
Descriptive research- includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It tries
to discover answers to the questions who, what, when and sometimes how.
Explanatory research-Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to

explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive research only observed.
Quantitative research-Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research-It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena

relating to or involving quality or kind.
Conceptual research- Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.
It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
1.10 Self-Assessment Questions

1) Definition Of Research and the Characteristic of Research?
2) What are the objectives of research?
3) Explicate the types of research?
4) Elucidate Research Process and Problem Identification?
5)What are the Role Of Information In Problem Formulation?
6) Explain the Approaches to the Problem?
1.11Suggested Readings
1. Allen L. Edward: Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction
2. Festnger and Katz: Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
3. Elhance : Fundamentals of Statistics
4. Goode and Hatt : Methods in Social Research.
5. Gopal, H.M.: Introduction to the study of Research Procedures in Social Sciences.
6. Gupta C.B.: Statistical Methods
7. Gupta S.P. : Statistical Methods
8. ICSSR Survey Reports : I.C.S.S.R. Publication.
9. Michael V.B. : Research Methodology in Management
10. Sadhu and Singh : Research Methodology in Social Sciences.
11. Singh V.B (Ed) : Labour Research in India .
12. Young P.V. : Scientific Social Surveys and Research
Dr. B.NAGARAJU
LESSON -2
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

PHENOMENA
Learning Objectives
 To discuss Essentials of scientific method & Basis of scientific method

 To study Difficulties in the use of scientific methods in social science research
 To examine the Contribution of research to theory
 To Know the Social Science Research Meaning and Scope
 To learn the Characteristics of Social science Research
 To identify Nature of Social Science Research
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Essentials of scientific method
2.2 Basis of scientific method
2.3 Difficulties in the use of scientific methods in social science research
2.4 Research and Theory
2.4.1 Meaning of theory
2.4.2 Criteria of Theory
2.4.3 Theory and Facts:
2.5 Contribution of research to theory
2.6 Social Science Research Meaning and Scope
2.7 Characteristics of Social science Research
2.8 Nature of Social Science Research
2.9 Objectives of Social Research
2.10 Functions of Social Science Research
2.11 Scope of Social Science Research
2.12 Ethical Issues in Social Sciences Research
2.13 Summary
2.14 Self Assessment Questions
2.0 Introduction
All scientists use common methods for their enquiry. All sciences whether natural or
social agree up on methods of studying phenomena. But their materials differ. A biologist
studying the structure of some flowers, a chemist studying radioactive properties of an
element and a sociologist studying crime situation in an urban slum. All follows similar
scientific methods of inquiry. But their subjects of study are different. Therefore, they use
different techniques of investigation for their study. As their materials are different, their
purposes also differ. All of them will observe the phenomenon and analyze them to find out
their sequences this is called scientific method. Thus scientific method is a systematic step-
by-step procedure (three steps-observation, hypothesis and verification) following logical
process of reasoning.
According to Prof. Morgan “scientific method being highly elastic, can be applicable
to all domain of human activity where the discovery of truth is the objective”. So the
scientific method is means for gaining knowledge of the universe. As Karl Person observed
“there is no short-cut to truth, no way to gain a knowledge of the universe expect through the
gate way of scientific method”. Two elements of scientific method are, a)Procedural
components and b)Personal Components.
a) Procedural Components
Observation, hypothesis and verification are the three procedural components.
Observation helps to collect data and help to build hypothesis. The second step is formation
of one or more hypotheses. A hypothesis is tentative conclusion. It guides collection of data.
The third stage is verification of hypothesis. It is done by analytical tools.
b) Personal Components
The researcher needs imagination, analytical ability resourcefulness, skill, capacity to
find out the hearts of the problem. Researcher‟s ability and attitude are more important than
the method of approach. Ambitions interest and perseverance are very much required to go
on successfully with research. Researcher should have an objective scientific and professional
qualification and personal quality and interest.
Meaning and essentials of scientific method

Scientific method is a way in which one can test opinion, impressions or guess by
examining available evidences fore and against them. So it is controlling lot of things and
establishing stable belief.
2.1 Essentials of scientific method

1. Scientific method aims at discovering facts.
2. It is itself corrective in nature.
3. It is itself based on systematic doubts.
4. Scientific theories are abstract in nature.
5.
2.2 Basis of scientific method
Following are the major basis of scientific method
(a) Reliance on empirical evidence:

Scientific method involves a systematic process. The answer to a question is not
decided by intuition or imagination.
Relevant data are collected through observation and experimentation. The validity and
the reliability of data are checked carefully and the data are analyzed thoroughly using
appropriate methods of analyses.
(b) Use of concepts:

We use concepts to deal with real facts. Concepts are logical constructs or abstractions
created from sense impressions. They are the symbols representing the meaning that we hold.
(c) Commitment to objectivity:

Objectivity is the hallmark of the scientific method. It means forming a judgment upon facts
unbiased by personal impressions. The conclusion should not vary from person to person. It
should be same for all persons.
(d) Ethical neutrality

Science does not pass normative judgment on facts. It does not say they are good or bad.
Science aims nothing but making true and adequate statements about its object.
(e) Generalization.
Scientist tries to find out the commonality of a series of event. They aim at discovering the
uniformity. Assumed a discovered uniformity a logical class and it‟s observed pattern, a
descriptive generalization is formulated.
(f) Verifiability
The findings of a research should be verifiable. Scientist must make know to others,
how he arrived at his conclusion. He should thus expose his own methods and conclusions to
critical scrutiny. When others test his conclusion under the same conditions, then it is
accepted as correct.
(g) Logical reasoning process.

The scientist method involves the logical process of reasoning. This reasoning process
is used for drawing inference from the finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion. This
logical reasoning process consists of induction and deduction.
Induction:
One of the methods of logical reasoning process. The inductive method consists of
studying several individual cases drawing a generalization. It involves two processes-
observation and generalization. Conclusion from induction method is subjected to further
conformation based on more evidence.
Deduction:
Deduction is reasoning from the general to the particular. This reasoning establishes a
logical relationship between a major premise. A minor premise and a conclusion. A major
premise is a previously established generalization or assumption. A minor premise is a
particular case related to the major premise. The logical relationship of these premise lead to
conclusion.
E.g. major premise: - All men are mortal Minor premise: - A is a man Conclusion: - A is
mortal.
The logical process of both induction and deduction are useful in research studies.
Both are inseparable parts of a system of reasoning. Both processes are often used
simultaneously.
2.3 Difficulties in the use of scientific methods in social science research

Some theorists argue that scientific method is more applicable to physical or natural
sciences: and it can not applicable to social sciences. The following are the major difficulties.
a) Human behavior is different. It s very difficult to categories.
b) When human behavior is studied and analyses by another human, there may be personal
problems.
c) Psychological nature of human behavior can not be measurable.
d) Human behavior is not uniformed and predictable. Uncertainty is existing.
e) Difference in choice and decision.
2.4Research and Theory
2.4.1 Meaning of theory

Research is closely related to theory. Theory provides a conceptual model for
research. Research in turn contributes to theory. It is important to distinguish the modern
scientific usage of the word theory from other meanings the word may have. In common
parlance, theory is frequently identified with speculations, what is theoretical is unrealistic,
visionary. This is a wrong notion; theory is the accumulated stored facts. It may define as a
set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that are advanced to
explain and predict phenomena (facts). Arnold Rose defines theory as “an integrated body of
definitions, assumptions and general propositions covering a given subject matter from which
a comprehensive and consistent set of specific and testable principles can be deducted
logically”.
2.4.2 Criteria of Theory

Theories start out as ideas. How much these ideas conform to the basic demands of
proposition formulation that determines whether or not they will assume the status of theory.
The criteria to be met by the set of ideas are,
a) They must be logically consistent.
b) They must be interrelated.
c) The propositions should be mutually exclusive.
d) They must be capable of being tested through research.
2.4.3 Theory and Facts

Theory and facts are interrelated. Facts are empirically verifiable observation and
theories establish relationship between facts and order them in meaningful way. Theory
summaries facts in to empirical generalizations; and it predict facts. Facts in turn, help to
initiate theories; facts lead to the reformulation of an existing theory and modify them.
Role of Theory in Research
Theory helps research in several useful ways. Following are the major contributions of theory
to research.
a) Theory delimits the study.
Theory narrows the range of facts to be studied. It helps to select a few relevant
aspects of a phenomenon. Any phenomenon may be studied from different angles. Theory
helps the researcher to work with in framework is science.
b) Theory provides conceptual model.

Theory provides a conceptual framework for a study. It helps a researcher to develop
conceptual structure for the proper formulation of the selected problems.
c) Theory summarizes.
Theory summarizes what is already known about the object of study. From time to
time in any science there will be changes in the structure of relationship between
propositions. In each area, scientist move from older systems of theory towards a more
acceptable new system.
d) Theory states universal law.
Theory states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observation. E.g. A person
sitting under mango tree, observe mangoes falling on ground. But beyond this observation
there is a general law of gravitation.
e) Prediction.
Theory helps to predict further facts. For example we may observe low birth rate in
modern societies. From this, we can predict that if modern way of life is introduced into a
traditional rural or tribal community, its birth rate would decline.
f) Theory fills gap in knowledge.
Theory also points to areas which have not been explored. The gaps in knowledge are
brought to light through the questions arising out of theory.
2.5Contribution of research to theory

The relationship between theory and research is contributory. Research contributes to the
development of theory. Let us discuss major contributions of research to theory.
a) Research initiate theory.

The findings of research may lead to the formulation of theories. Scientific experiment have
led to the development of various theories in physics, chemistry etc,. Similarly research in
social sciences has contributed to the development of several theories.
b) Research tests an existing theory.

One major function of empirical research is to test hypotheses deduced from existing
theories. If a hypothesis is not conformed by research, the theory from which the hypothesis
is deduced in re-examined and tested.
c) Reformulation of an existing theory.

When a theory does not fit in to new findings of research, it is rejected and reformulated to
encompass the new findings.
d) Research refocuses theory.

Empirical research may give a new focus to the existing theory.
e) Research clarifies theory.

Concepts are drawn from theory. But researcher cannot proceed on the basis of their
theoretical meaning. For research purpose the concepts must be operationalized and defined
especially with concrete empirical indications. Such clarifications and redefinitions lead to
the discovery of new hypotheses.
In short, theory and research are inseparable complementary components of scientific
endeavor.
2.6 Social Science Research Meaning and Scope
Sciences are broadly divided in to natural (physical) sciences and social sciences.
Social sciences include various disciplines dealing with human life, human behavior and
institutions.
E.g. Anthropology, History, Economics, Education, Commerce, Demography etc,.
Social sciences are not exact science like physical sciences. It deals with human beings.
Human nature and mans environment are so complex, that it is more difficult to comprehend
and predict human behaviour than the physical phenomena. It is difficult see the underlying
uniformities in the diversity of complex human behaviour.
Social science research

Social science research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and
conceptualizing human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of human
behaviour and social life. Social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained
phenomena, to clarify the doubtful and correct the misconceived fact of social life.
It involves the application of scientific method for understanding and analyzing of social life
inorder to correct and verify the existing knowledge as a system. The main idea behind social
research is to discover new inter relations, new knowledge, new facts and also to verify old
ones.
Human behavior may be involved by certain values and laws. The main purpose of
social research is to discover those laws which can be proper guidelines for studying human
contact and behavior.
According to P.V. Young, we may define social research as “the systematic method of
discovering new facts and verifying old facts. Their sequences inter relationship, causal
explanations and the natural laws govern them”. From the above definition we can identify
the following
2.7 Characteristics of Social science Research

1) Social Science research deals with social phenomena. It studies human behavior and
their feelings.
2) Social science research is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of
the old ones.
3) Social science research tries to establish casual connection between various human
activities.
2.8 Nature of Social Science Research

In contrast to the physical science the social science lack the power of exact
prediction; this is attributed to the “erratic”, idiosynoration and irregular nature of human
behavior. Social scientist point out that the low predictable potential in social science is due
to our limited knowledge of relevant variables operative in the group like customs, traditions
etc,. The cause and effect are difficult to be segregated clearly. The present state of
development of social science is far behind physical science. Merton advises to social
scientist against their despair; it is possible to develop border applicability.

The major objectives of social research are listed as follows:-
a) The aim of social research is to discover new facts and verifying or testing old facts.
b) It tries to understand the human behavior and its interaction with the environment.
c) It tries to find out the casual connection between human activities and natural laws
governing them.
2.10 Functions of Social Science Research

The important functions of social science research are discussed below
a) Discovery of facts and their interpretation.

Social research provides answer to questions of what, when, how and why of man, social life
and institutions. Discover of facts and their inter relationship help us to discard distortions
and contribute to our understanding of social reality.
b) Diagnosis of problems and their analysis.

Our society has innumerable problems such as poverty, unemployment, economic inequality,
social tension etc,. The nature and dimensions of such problems have to be diagnosed and
analyzed. An analysis of problems leads to an identification of appropriate remedial actions.
c) Systematization of knowledge.
The facts discovered through research are systematized and the body of knowledge is
developed. It contributes to the growth of theory building.
d) Control over social phenomena.

Research in social science provides first hand information about the nature of social
institutions. This knowledge helps us to control over the social phenomena.
e) Prediction.
Social research aims at finding an order among social fact and their casual relations. This
affords a sound basis for prediction in several cases.
f) Development planning.
Systematic research can give us the required data base for planning and designing
developmental schemes and programmes.
g) Social welfare.
Social research can identify the causes of social evils and problems. It can thus help in taking
appropriate remedial actions. It also provides guideline for social welfare.
2.11 Scope of Social Science Research

The fields of social science research unlimited and the materials of research are
endless. Every group of social phenomena, every phase of human life and every stages of
past and present development are materials for the social scientist. The area of research in
various social sciences provides vast scope for research in social sciences.
The main scope of social research are
1. Social research provides new insight in to the organized society and its social
structure.
2. Social research also provide new horizon in scientific explanation; advanced and
tested principles of procedure and suggested new concepts.
3. Another scope of social research is that exemplified by studies and attempt to test or
challenge existing theories and revise them the light of new evidence.
4. Social research helpful to establish new theory and established techniques of
exploration.
5. Social research also provides contributions to existing stone of fruitful ideas,
methodology and basis understanding of social life and control of its problems.
2.12 Ethical Issues in Social Sciences Research

An ethic is more than presence of a basic value or values. It is base of action in any
science. The conflict between the ethics of science and personal respects of researcher is the
major problem in social science research. Issues of ethics arise primarily out of researcher‟s
relation with different sections of society. E.g. research respondents, sponsors‟ of research,
sources of data etc,.
When we talk about „ethics‟ in social research, we are addressing those issues that
concern the behavior of social researcher and the consequences that their research bring to the
people they study. As such, ethical issues have the potential to impart at every stage of the
research process andwithin any research project, therefore all social researchers need to have
a clear understanding of the ways in which ethical dilemmas can arise when carrying out their
research.
Ethical issues arise during the research process

1) Some of the ethical issues can arise during the course of the research process are
2) The research problem itself: - determinants of alcoholism or child sexual abuse.
3) The research setting:- hospitals, prisons or schools
4) The procedure of research: - an experiment method has a negative effect on research
participants.
5) The kinds of people serving as research participants:- homeless people, patients,
children and relatively powerless to resist being studied.
6) The type of data collected:- sensitive, personal or financial information.
7) The pressure put upon research participants by external agencies such as government,
employers etc,.
8) The communication of results:- the sponsors withhold certain results that do not
accord with their objectives.
9) Ethical issues relating to the respondents and subject:-
10) Of all ethical issues, the issues concerned with the respondents are far more
important. The respondents constitute the research subjects,
11) Some respondents are made to participate in a research project without their consent
or knowledge; e.g. socio-anthropological studies of rural or tribal community.
12) The purpose of research is not fully revealed to the respondents.
13) Another non ethical practice is to expose participants to physical or mental stress.
14) In depth interviews or disguised projective test and participant observation are may be
an attack on privacy.
15) Other ethical issues related to maintaining anonymity of the respondent. Anonymity
might be violated through report and publications.
16) Another ethical issue in social science research is related to agency or sponsors of
research. The granting agencies impose several restrictions up on the researcher.
17) To overcome above ethical dilemma in social science research, the research must
keep a balance between the moral cost of unethical practices and the potential benefits
of research.
2.13 Summary
All scientists use common methods for their enquiry. All sciences whether natural or social
agree up on methods of studying phenomena. But their materials differ. A biologist studying
the structure of some flowers, a chemist studying radioactive properties of an element and a
sociologist studying crime situation in an urban slum. All follows similar scientific methods
of inquiry. But their subjects of study are different. Therefore, they use different techniques
of investigation for their study. As their materials are different, their purposes also differ. All
of them will observe the phenomenon and analyze them to find out their sequences this is
called scientific method. Thus scientific method is a systematic step-by-step procedure (three
steps-observation, hypothesis and verification) following logical process of reasoning.
According to prof. Morgan “scientific method being highly elastic, can be applicable
to all domain of human activity where the discovery of truth is the objective”.
An ethic is more than presence of a basic value or values. It is base of action in any
science. The conflict between the ethics of science and personal respects of researcher is the
major problem in social science research. Issues of ethics arise primarily out of researcher‟s
relation with different sections of society. E.g. research respondents, sponsors‟ of research,
sources of data etc,.
2.14Self AssessmentQuestions
1) What are the Essentials of scientific method and Basis of scientific method ?
2) Explain Difficulties in the use of scientific methods in social science research
3) Explicate the Research and Theory in detail ?
4) Explain Nature ,Objectives, Functions of Social Science Research ?
5) What are the Scope and Ethical Issues of Social Sciences Research ?
1. Allen L. Edward : Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction

2. Festnger and Katz : Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
5. Gopal, H.M. : Introduction to the study of Research Procedures inSocial Sciences.
6. Gupta C.B. : Statistical Methods
12. Young P.V. : Scientific Social Surveys and Research.
Dr. B.NAGARAJU
LESSON 3
SOCIAL RESEARCH AND SOCIAL SURVEY

Learning Objectives
 To study the Objectives of Social Research

 To learn the Characteristics of Research
 To examine the Significance of Social Research
 To understand Types and Methods of Social Research
Structure
3.0 Introduction of Social Research and Stages in Social Research

3.1 Social Research
3.3 Characteristics of Research
3.4 Significance of Social Research
3.5 Types of Social Research
3.6 Qualitative Research Method (Social Survey)
3.6.1 Procedural Ways of Social Survey
3.6.2 Limitation of Survey Method
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key words
3.10 Suggested Readings
3.0 Introduction of Social Research and Stages in Social Research
Society is an organized group of persons associated together with shared objective, norms
and values pertain to the society. People have social life and social process. Research is
systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem that needs a solution. It
contributes to the general body of knowledge. It also corrects human knowledge. Social
research now can be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalization, principles or
theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events in society. It attempts
to answer or solve social problems.
3.1 Social Research
Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking by means of logical and

systematized techniques. Social research consists of the process of formulating and seeking
answers to questions about the social world. Social research is fundamentally a scientific
enterprise aims to:
1. Discover new facts or verify and test old facts;
2. Analyze their sequences, inter-relationships and causal explanations which are
derived with an appropriate theoretical frame of reference;
3. Develop new scientific tools and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid
study of human behavior.
3.2Objectives of Social Research

3 To facilitate the understanding of human behavior.
4 To acquire knowledge about social phenomena, events, issue, problems etc.
5 To identify functional relationship existing in the social phenomena.
6 To find out the natural laws that regulates or direct social phenomena.
7 To standardize the society concept, e.g. culture, struggle, generation gap, social distance
etc.
8 To formulate solution to social problems.
9 To maintain social organization, remove social tension, misconception, etc.,
10 To develop social revival plan.
3.3 Characteristics of Research
It is directed towards the solution of problems. The ultimate goal is to discover cause-and-
effect relationship between social problems.
1. It emphasis the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
2. It is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
3. It demands accurate observations and description. Researchers may choose from a
variety or non-qualitative description of their observations.
4. It involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existence data for new
purpose.
5. Although social research activities may at time be some what random and
unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedure that
applies rigorous analysis.
6. It requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the problem
and how others have investigated.
7. It strives to the objective and logical applying every possible test to validate the
procedure employed, data collected and conclusion reached.
8. It involves the guests for answer to unsolved problems.
9. It is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. Researcher must expect
disappointment and discouragement as they pursue the answer to difficult question.
10. It is carefully recorded and reported. Each important term is defined, limiting factors
are recognized, procedures are described in detail, reference are carefully
documented, results are objectively recorded and conclusions are presented with
scholarly caution and restraint.
11. It is interdisciplinary in nature
12. It sometimes requires courage.
3.4Significance of Social Research
1. It inculcates scientific and inductive thinking

2. It provides new ideas and insights
3. It promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
4. It evaluate existing policies and helps to formulate new policies
5. It solve various operational problems related to economy, politics, business and
Government.
6. It studies social relationships and helps to solve various social problems
7. It helps to improve the level of living in the society
3.5 Types of Social Research
Social research is an approach adopted by sociologists and researchers to learn about people’s
day to day lives and design the products that best suit their needs. People from different parts
of the world have different ways of living their social lives. They might have various views
about one problem. To satisfy their requirements and know their thoughts and opinions,
social research has always proven to be the best solution. A researcher might want to trigger
social research after coming across a new market trend, a new product development or an
upgrade to the existing one.
Examples: some examples of social research can be a census of a country, investigation of

agricultural lands, literacy rate.
There are various types of research types and you will find different sets of them from
different resources. Here are some of the types of social research that are commonly used:
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research refers to collecting and statistically analyzing numerical data. It

helps in finding patterns, predictions, averages in the collected data. Quantitative data is
collected through conducting surveys, polls, and interviews.
Example: you want to find out how many people who attended the seminar liked it.
You will ask questions like “Did you like the seminar?”
You can use a quantitative research model when you want to have numerical data on which
you can perform statistical calculations.
Advantages:
 It allows the researcher to reach out to a larger sample size.
 Does not require observation.
 Research performed is anonymous and can have honest responses.
Disadvantages:
 It does not study the reason behind a response.

 Quantitative research can be very expensive.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a type of social research which aims at gathering descriptive
opinions of people through open-ended questions in a survey or an interview. The data
collected from this research is vast and needs to be summarized to get to a conclusion.
Example: You know what people think about your seminar, but you want to know
why they think that way and what changes they want in your next seminar. This will allow
responders to briefly tell their views.
This method best suits the research problems that include an in-depth understanding
of a topic or a group of people.
Advantages:
 It gets to the reason behind the attitude of the responders.
 It gives a lot of data to work on.
 It is not very costly.
Disadvantages:
 It does not statistically represent the data.
 There is a chance of data loss due to its large data nature.
 The results acquired from this approach can be influenced by the researcher’s
personal opinions.
Applied research
It is research that provides solutions for real-life problems. Researchers use applied
research to get to the solutions which they can implement immediately. The problems can be
related to health, diet, work-out, etc. the solutions to this research can be technological.
Example: A software solution firm wants to provide a solution that will prompt a
message every time someone tries to take a print from the office printer. This will make them
consider paper use and can be an initiative towards paper reduction.
Applied research is used in everyday life problems as it can provide solutions in a
short period and the solutions are easy to implement as well.
Advantages:
 It helps find solutions for a specific business or other settings.
 Solutions can be implemented right away.
Disadvantages:
 Solutions established from applied research cannot be generalized for other similar
problems.
Pure Research
Pure or basic research, unlike applied research, does not concern about providing
solutions. This research can be explanatory, exploratory or descriptive. The main objective of
this research is to provide a total understanding of a topic.
Example: A researcher conducts a study on how hypertension affects a person’s blood
pressure.
Pure or basic research is conducted when you want to understand a problem statement
without getting into providing any solution for it. This is the major difference between pure
research and applied research.
Advantages:
 It expands our knowledge about everyday life.
 It covers a large part of the topic.
Disadvantages:
 It does not provide the deep learning of how to tackle the problem.
Exploratory Research
This research is helping to get to solutions for the problems that are not clear. It
provides a better understanding of the existing problem but will not provide final solutions. It
is conducted at a preliminary stage of the problem and answers questions like why what and
how.
Example: A company owner is not sure if he should expand the branch and hence
decides to conduct explanatory research. At the end of the research, he will know if it is a
good move to expand an extra branch or not.
Exploratory research can be used when you have to study the scope of the existing
problem for its future. It can help you find the focus for the future.
Advantages:
 The researcher can adapt to the changes during the research.
 It costs very low.
 It can give solutions for the future of the problems.
Disadvantages:
 This research may lead to wrong decisions.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is research that describes the characteristics of the variables. The
characteristics can be the answers to the questions like “what, why, how and when”
It is also called observational research as the variables are not changed during the research.
Example: A person wants to set up a café in a particular area, he wants to know what are the
preferences of the people from the area regarding similar cafes.
When you want to conduct an observational study without touching the integrity of the
variable, descriptive research is the solution for you.
Advantages:
 As it uses primary data collection, the data is rich in information.
 The survey method can be qualitative and quantitative providing flexibility.
Disadvantages:
 Information collected can be misleading.
 The researcher’s biases can affect the result.
 The size of the sample can have representative issues.
Analytical Research
Analytical research focuses on the cause-effect of the variables. While descriptive
analysis tells the facts, analytical research determines what the reason behind those facts is.
Example: A descriptive study says almost all elderly people have joint pain.
Analytical research can work to find out the reason behind the illness. It can tell how old age
affects the bone structure and result in them weakening.
Analytical research come in handy when you have to resolve the “what, when, how and why”
of the existing researched topic.
Advantages:
 Provides more control over the data.
 Determines the reason behind the fact.
 It is inexpensive and simple to implement.
Disadvantages:
 Can include measurement errors.
 Bias in the sample population can affect the results.
 Get Expert's Sampling Guide
Explanatory Research
This research deals with researchers revisiting phenomenon that were not studied in-
depth before. It doesn’t mean that the research has to provide solutions now. It can be done
for the sole purpose of understanding the topic.
Example: A researcher wants to study a literature topic. It may include reading
through existing researches, magazines, articles.
Explanatory research aims towards finding out why the phenomenon occurred and what are
chances of it occurring in the future are.
Advantages:
 Allows the researcher to know more about the topic.
 Gives a scope to have new solutions.
Disadvantages:
Results can have the researcher’s biases affected.
Conceptual Research
It includes observing and analyzing the already existing topic. It doesn’t involve any practical
research. Researchers state their concepts and ideas regarding the topic. It is just and
theoretical ideology of the topic.
Example: Stephan Hawkins had a conceptualization of the black hole on his observation of
the universe. Years later we had the first image of a black hole.
Conceptual research is used more in philosophical research. They use it to come up with new
concepts and enhance the existing ones.
Advantages:
 It requires few resources which saves time and resources.
 It uses existing literature hence making it convenient.
Disadvantages:
 The results may not be considered reliable and factual.
 It is likely to face errors overtime after new concepts are discovered.
 Improve Survey Response Rates
Empirical Research
Empirical research involves concluding only from verifiable shreds of evidence. This
research can be conducted using a qualitative method or quantitative method. The results
have a strong background and can be trusted.
Example: A researcher wants to know if listening to motivational speech cause more
productivity. He tests this by exposing one group to listen to the motivational speech while
the other group doesn’t. Empirical research is useful when you want to prove a hypothesis
based on strong proof. As people need to have something that can be proven, this research
provides exactly just that.
Advantages:
 This makes the conducted research more authentic.
 Strengthens the internal validity.
Disadvantages:
 It can be very time-consuming.
 Data collection can be challenging as it is supposed to be from an authorized source.
Deductive Research
Deductive research is based on an already existing theory. It creates a hypothesis on the
theory and then research is done to test if the hypothesis is true. The theories are tested
against observations.
Example: All animals drink water. Dog drinks water. The dog is an animal. It is assumed that
“all animals drink water” and “dog is an animal” both are correct.
Deductive research stands strong when you have to formulate a hypothesis on a theory, test
that hypothesis and examine the results.
Advantages:
 It explains the cause-effect relationship between variables.
 The results can be generalized to a certain extent.
Disadvantages:
 They may not understand the rules.
 It can be misrepresenting.
 New call-to-action
 Inductive Research
Unlike deductive research, inductive research works with a focus on developing a theory. It
goes from observation to generalizations of the topic. Commonly, researchers prefer to
combine both pieces of research in case of a huge study.
Example: Observation- Dogs is an animal
Observing a pattern- Dog drinks water
Developing a theory- All animals drink water
Inductive research can be used when you want to understand a topic that does not have
enough existing literature. It helps you to observe the topic and then come to conclusions
which you can apply in a broader sense.
Advantages:
 It can be used to predict what can happen in the future.
 It gives deep knowledge about the research topic.
Disadvantages:
 The reasoning can be incorrect.
 The research is limited to how much you can make a result generalization.
Predictive Research
As the name suggests, this research predicts the outcomes, consequences, costs, and
other such factors. These factors are calculated for the existing theories. The predictions are
mostly about the things that are not tested or tried yet.
Example: A company owner will study the employees’ performances, the projects
completed, client satisfaction, speed of project completion, and various other measures to
predict the company’s success and growth in the coming years.
Predictive analysis is an efficient method of research when you want to find the probability of
a phenomenon occurring shortly. It can be used in all types of research problems and is a
common practice.
Advantages:
 It has a competitive advantage.
 It also helps reduce risks and the costs behind solving them.
 Deal with problems before they occur.
Disadvantages:
 Data cannot be relied upon totally because people don’t always give honest answers
in surveys.
 Data collected can be different concerning quality measures.
3.6 Qualitative Research Method (Social Survey Method)
Social Survey Method

Social survey technique is very popular in sociology. Survey research is the
systematic gathering of information about individuals and collectivities. The purpose of
surveying may be description or casual analysis. Large scale descriptive surveys have long
history in social research. National census is the biggest form of social survey in which
surveys, the whole nation regarding its population, their economic condition including their
earning, birth, death etc.
Definition In general social surveys are concerned with

(a) the formation of constructive programme of social reform and
(b) amelioration of current or immediate conditions of social pathological nature, which have
definite social significance.
Duncan Mitchell’s Dictionary of sociology defines social survey as follows, “the social
survey is a systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific geographic, cultural
or administrative area”.
Bogardus says “A social survey is the collection of data concerning the living and working
conditions, broadly speaking of the people in a given community”.
E.W. Burgess defined “A social; survey of a community is the scientific study of its
conditions and needs for the purpose of presenting a constructive programme of social
advance”.
Social surveys are usually for dealing with many related aspects of social problem.
They provide the data for administration, rather than for the illustrative or descriptive
material. They are generally quantitative and the history of the social survey is intimately
bound up with the development of statistics.
Surveys vary greatly in their scope, their design and their content. The specific
characteristics of any survey will determine by the basic objectives, which conducting survey
there must be a specific pattern or design to follow to collect data.
3.6.1 Procedural ways of social survey

The step by step tasks involved in carrying out a survey from the first state off planning to the
preparation of the final report in as follows
a) Statement of the problem or general objectives

The problem which make survey necessary and the general objectives of the survey are
stated. The statement is generally expressed the area and scope of the study.
b) Specific objectives of the survey

Although the general objectives, usually few in number are formulated with out regarding to
the requirements of the survey technique; these general objectives are broken down in to
numerous specific objectives. The specification of data to be gathered and the hypotheses to
be tested by the survey is accomplished at this stage.
c) Sample
Two major divisions in the survey sample are (a) the universe of the survey (b) the size and
design of the sample. After there two are made the actual selection of the sample units take
place.
d) Questionnaire
After the selection of sample units a questionnaire is prepared, to collect facts from
the sample. The questionnaire must be carefully designed with in limits of the problem. The
preparation of questions, degree of probing, the sequence of questions and the establishment
of rapport, a specific pattern and a skill to be applied. The questionnaire is pre-tested in the
field for proper application.
e) Field work
The next important step is field work. Gathering facts from sample through personal
interview and observation. The interviewers are usually provided with an instruction manual
which explain the objectives of the study and the meaning of each question.
f) Data coding and tabulation

After careful coding and editing of the data collected through survey may transcribed
into tables. This may be done by preparing a code, a numbered list of major items such
summing all the responses received to each question.
g) Data analysis and reporting

The data are analysed and a report is written which embodying the survey findings.
The survey process is a highly interconnected chain of events so the above steps are
independent of one another.
3.6.2 Limitation of survey method
Even though the survey method is applicable to wide range problems, it has evident
limitations. The major limitations are;
a) Sample error: survey method is subjected to the selection of sample
b) Errors of measurement: A scone representing a person’s attitude, abilities traits or

behaviours may not match with reality.
c) Limitations of questionnaire: the imitations on length of the questions, that can be

asked in a survey an there are limits to the number of topics that can be covered.
d) Limitations of population: A sample survey designed to represent a population over

a wide geographical area is likely not to given adequate representation to any
population which highly localized in its character.
3.7 Summary
Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn about
people and societies so that they can design products/services that cater to various needs of
the people. Different socio-economic groups belonging to different parts of a county think
differently. Various aspects of human behaviour need to be addressed to understand their
thoughts and feedback about the social world, which can be done using Social Research.
Social Research contains elements of both these methods to analyse a range of social
occurrences such as an investigation of historical sites, census of the country, detailed
analysis of research conducted to understand reasons for increased reports of molestation in
the country etc.
3.8 Key words
Social Research- Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking by means of

logical and systematized techniques. Social research consists of the process of formulating
and seeking answers to questions about the social world.
Pure Research- Pure research is focused to collect knowledge without any intention to apply
it. It is purely intellectual in character. It is also known as basic or fundamental research
Applied Research- Applied Research is focused up on a real life problem requiring an action
pr policy decision. It tries to find out practical and immediate result. It is thus problem
oriented and action directed.
Action Research- Conventional social scientific research is concerned to analyse and explain
phenomena. The role of research is detached, in order to minimize disturbance of the
phenomena under investigation. In action research, research is jointed with action

1) What are the Objectives of Social Research?
2) Explain Characteristics of Research
3) Explicate Types and Methods Of Social Research
4) Explain Significance of Social Research ?
5) What are the Procedural Ways of Social Survey and limitations?

2. Festnger and Katz : Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
5. Gopal, H.M. : Introduction to the study of Research Procedures in Social Sciences.

LESSON 4
RESEARCH PROCESS
Learning Objectives
 To study the research process characteristics and requirements

 To Understand The eight-step model for carrying out research
 To know the steps involved in constructing the data collection
Structure
4.0 The research process characteristics and requirements

4.1 The eight-step model for carrying out research
4.2 The Relation to eight step process
4.2.1 Phase I Deciding What To Research
4.2.1.1 Step I Formulating a research problem
4.2.2 Phase II Planning A Research Study
4.2.2.1 Step II Conceptualising a research design
4.2.2.2 Step III Constructing an instrument for data collection
4.2.2.3 Step IV Selecting a sample
4.2.2.4 Step V Writing a research proposal
4.2.3Phase III Conducting A Research Study
4.2.3.1 Step VI Collecting data
4.2.3.2 Step VII Processing and displaying data
4.2.3.3 Step VIII Writing a research report
4.3Summary
4.4 Key words
4.0 The research process characteristics and requirements
From these definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analysing
and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must
have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic,
valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
Controlled – In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular
event is seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship. Some relationships are more complex
than others. Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and
interacting factors. In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to
link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa. In the study of causation, the establishment
of this linkage is essential; however, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is
extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables,
you set up your study in a way that minimises the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the
research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences it is extremely difficult as
research is carried out on issues relating to human beings living in society, where such
controls are impossible. Therefore, in the social sciences, as you cannot control external
factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
Rigorous – You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers
to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies
markedly between the physical and the social sciences and within the social sciences.
Systematic – This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
Valid and verifiable – This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
Empirical – This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real-life experiences or observations.
Critical – Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any
drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical
scrutiny
4.1The research process: an eight-step model

Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many
academic disciplines at various levels by people committed to a variety of research
paradigms. Though paradigms vary in their contents and substance, their broad approach to
enquiry, in the author’s opinion, is similar. Such ideas have also been expressed by Festinger
and Katz, who in the foreword of their book Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences say
that, ‘Although the basic logic of scientific methodology is the same in all fields, its specific
techniques and approaches will vary, depending upon the subject matter’ (1966: vi).
Therefore, the model developed here is generic in nature and can be applied to a number of
disciplines in the social sciences. It is based upon a practical and step-by-step approach to a
research enquiry and each step provides a smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures.
Suppose you want to go out for a drive.
Before you start, you must decide where you want to go and then which route to take.
If you know the route, you do not need to consult a street directory, but, if you do not know
the route, then you need to use one. Your problem is compounded if there is more than one
route. You need to decide which one to take. The research process is very similar to
undertaking a journey. As with your drive, for a research journey there are also two important
decisions to make. The first is to decide what you want to find out about or, in other words,
what research questions you want to find answers to. Having decided upon your research
questions or research problems, you then need to decide how to go about finding their
answers. The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research
methodology. Just as there are posts along the way as you travel to your destination, so there
are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find the
answers to your research questions . The sequence of these steps is not fixed and with
experience you can change it. At each operational step in the research process you are
required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research
methodology which will help you best achieve your research objectives. This is where your
knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.
At each operational step, the book aims to provide, at a beginner’s level, knowledge
of methods and procedures used by both qualitative and quantitative researchers, though there
is an inclination towards the quantitative way of thinking.
Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies differ both in their underpinning
philosophy and, to some extent, in the methods, models and procedures used. Though the
research process is broadly the same in both, quantitative and qualitative research are
differentiated in terms of the methods of data collection, the procedures adopted for data
processing and analysis, and the style of communication of the findings. For example, if your
research problem lends itself to a qualitative mode of enquiry, you are more likely to use the
unstructured interview or observation as your method of data collection. When analysing data
in qualitative research, you go through the process of identifying themes and describing what
you have found out during your interviews or observation rather than subjecting your data to
statistical procedures. The below table summarises the differences between qualitative and
quantitative research.
Figure 4.1 The Research Process

The research journey – touch each post and select methods and procedures
appropriate for your journey
Since, at a number of steps of the research process, the choice of methods and
procedures is influenced by the quantitative/qualitative distinction, the methods and
procedures discussed in some of the chapters in this book are dealt with under separate
headings for qualitative and quantitative research; however, the author has tried to keep this
distinction to a minimum as the model is applicable to both. Also note that this book is for
beginners, it does not cover extensively the applicability and use of each method, model and
procedure. In addition, the author has elaborated more on methods, models and procedures
associated with quantitative research as compared with those linked with qualitative research.
For a deeper understanding of a method or procedure relating to either, you may wish to
consult other books identified in the text or in the Bibliography.
Differences between qualitative and quantitative research
Figure 4.2Differences between qualitative and quantitative research

the above one shows the proposed model. The tasks identified in arrows are the operational
steps you need to follow in order to conduct a study, quantitative or qualitative. Topics
identified in rectangles are the required theoretical knowledge needed to carry out these steps.
The tasks identified in circles are the intermediary steps that you need to complete to go from
one step to another. It is important for a beginner to work through these steps in the proposed
sequence, though, as already stated, with experience you do not need to follow the sequence.
In this book the theoretical knowledge required is written around each operational step and
follows the same sequential progression as is needed when actually undertaking a research
investigation. For each operational step, the required theoretical knowledge is further
organised, in different chapters, around the operational step to which, in the author’s opinion,
it is most logically related. Again, for a beginner, it is important to study this diagram to
relate the theoretical knowledge to the operational steps.
The research processes
Figure 4.3: Research Process

Figure 4.4 Operational steps and Research Methodology
4.2 Relation to the operational steps
The following sections of this chapter provide a quick glance at the whole process to
acquaint you with the various tasks you need to undertake to carry out your study, thus giving
you some idea of what the research journey involves.
4.2.1 Phase I: deciding what to research
4.2.1.1 Step I: formulating a research problem

Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. A
research problem identifies your destination: it should tell you, your research supervisor and
your readers what you intend to research. The more specific and clearer you are the better, as
everything that follows in the research process – study design, measurement procedures,
sampling strategy, frame of analysis and the style of writing of your dissertation or report – is
greatly influenced by the way in which you formulate your research problem. Hence, you
should examine it thoroughly, carefully and critically. The main function of formulating a
research problem is to decide what you want to find out about.
It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem in the light of the financial
resources at your disposal, the time available, and your own and your research supervisor’s
expertise and knowledge in the field of study. It is equally important to identify any gaps in
your knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics required for analysis. Also, ask
yourself whether you have sufficient knowledge about computers and software if you plan to
use them.
4.2.2 Phase II: planning a research study
4.2.2.1 Step II: Conceptualising a research design

An extremely important feature of research is the use of appropriate methods.
Research involves systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous exploration and description of
what is not known and establishment of associations and causation that permit the accurate
prediction of outcomes under a given set of conditions. It also involves identifying gaps in
knowledge, verification of what is already known and identification of past errors and
limitations. The strength of what you find largely rests on how it was found.
The main function of a research design is to explain how you will find answers to
your research questions. The research design sets out the specific details of your enquiry. A
research design should include the following: the study design per se and the logistical
arrangements that you propose to undertake, the measurement procedures, the sampling
strategy, the frame of analysis and the time- frame. (You should not be confused between
study design and research design. Note that the study design is one part of the research
design. It is the design of the study itself, whereas the research design also includes other
parts which constitute the research process.)
For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in
enabling you to arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions. A faulty design results
in misleading findings and is therefore tantamount to wasting human and financial resources.
In scientific circles, the strength of an empirical investigation is primarily evaluated in the
light of the research design adopted. When selecting a research design it is important to
ensure that it is valid, workable and manageable.
There is an enormous variety of study designs and you need to be acquainted with
some of the most common ones. You must have strong reasons for selecting a particular
design; you must be able to justify your selection; and you should be aware of its strengths,
weaknesses and limitations. In addition, you will need to explain the logistical details needed
to implement the suggested design.
4.2.2.2 Step III: Constructing an instrument for data collection

Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a
‘research tool’ or a ‘research instrument’, for example observation forms, interview
schedules, questionnaires and interview guides.
The construction of a research instrument is the first ‘practical’ step in carrying out a
study. You will need to decide how you are going to collect data for the proposed study and
then construct a research instrument for data collection.
If you are planning to collect data specifically for your study (primary data), you need
either to construct a research instrument or to select one that has already been constructed.
If you are using secondary data (information already collected for other purposes),
you will need to identify what information is needed and then develop a form to extract the
required data. In order to determine what information is required, you need to go through the
same process as for primary data, described above.
Field testing (or pre-testing) a research tool is an integral part of instrument
construction. As a rule, the pre-test of a research instrument should not be carried out on the
sample of your study population but on a similar population which you are not proposing to
study. If you are planning to use a computer for data analysis, you may wish to provide space
for coding the data on the research instrument.
4.2.2.3 Step IV: Selecting a sample

The accuracy of your findings largely depends upon the way you select your sample.
The basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise, within the limitation of cost, the
gap between the values obtained from your sample and those prevalent in the study
population.
The underlying premise in sampling is that a relatively small number of units, if
selected in a manner that they genuinely represent the study population, can provide – with a
sufficiently high degree of probability – a fairly true reflection of the sampling population
that is being studied.
When selecting a sample you should attempt to achieve two key aims of sampling the
avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample; and the attainment of maximum precision for a
given outlay of resources.
There are three categories of sampling design random/probability sampling designs,
non-random/non-probability sampling designs and ‘mixed’ sampling design.
There are several sampling strategies within the first two categories. You need to be
acquainted with these sampling designs – the strengths and weaknesses of each and the
situations in which they can or cannot be applied – in order to select the one most appropriate
for your study. The type of sampling strategy you use will influence your ability to make
generalisations from the sample findings about the study population, and the type of
statistical tests you can apply to the data.
4.2.2.4 Step V: Writing a research proposal

Having done all the preparatory work, the next step is to put everything together in a
way that provides adequate information about your research study, for your research
supervisor and others. This overall plan, called a research proposal, tells a reader about your
research problem and how you are planning to investigate. Broadly, a research proposal’s
main function is to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to your research
questions. In doing so it ensures – and reassures the readers of – the validity of the
methodology to obtain answers accurately and objectively.
Universities and other institutions may have differing requirements regarding the style
and content of a research proposal, but the majority of institutions would require most of
what is set out here. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to
discipline or from supervisor to supervisor. However, the guidelines set out in Chapter 13
provide a framework which will be acceptable to most.
A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and a reviewer the following
information about your study:
1. what you are proposing to do;
2. how you plan to proceed;
3. why you selected the proposed strategy.
Therefore, it should contain the following information about your study
1. a statement of the objectives of the study; a list of hypotheses, if you are testing any;
the study design you are proposing to use; the setting for your study;
2. the research instrument(s) you are planning to use; information on sample size and
sampling design; information on data processing procedures;
3. an outline of the proposed chapters for the report; the study’s problems and
limitations; and
4. the proposed time-frame.
4.2.3Phase III: Conducting a research study
4.2.3.1Step VI: Collecting data

Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, constructed a
research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will
draw inferences and conclusions for your study.
Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a part of the
research design, you decided upon the procedure you wanted to adopt to collect your data. In
this phase you actually collect the data. For example, depending upon your plans, you might
commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct nominal/focus group discussions or
make observations. Collecting data through any one of the methods may involve some ethical
issues.
4.2.3.2 Step VII: Processing and Displaying data

The way you analyse the information you collected largely depends upon two things:
the type of information (descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal); and the way you
want to communicate your findings to your readers.
different ways of analysing quantitative and qualitative data and details various methods of
displaying analysed data.
In addition to the qualitative–quantitative distinction, it is important for data analysis
that you consider whether the data is to be analysed manually or by a computer.
If your study is purely descriptive, you can write your dissertation/report on the basis of your
field notes, manually analyse the contents of your notes (content analysis), or use a computer
program such as NUD*IST N6, NVivio or Ethnograph for this purpose.
If you want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide upon the type of
analysis required (i.e. frequency distribution, cross-tabulations or other statistical procedures,
such as regression analysis, factor analysis and analysis of variance) and how it should be
presented. You will also need to identify the variables to be subjected to these statistical
procedures.
4.2.3.3 Step VIII: Writing A Research Report

There are two broad categories of reports: quantitative and qualitative. As mentioned
earlier, the distinction is more academic than real as in most studies you need to combine
quantitative and qualitative skills. Nevertheless, there are some solely qualitative and some
solely quantitative studies.Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step
of the research process. This report informs the world what you have done, what you have
discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. If you are clear about
the whole process, you will also be clear about the way you want to write your report. Your
report should be written in an academic style and be divided into different chapters and/or
sections based upon the main themes of your study.
4.3 Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of the research process, which has been broken
down into eight steps, the details of which are covered in the remainder of this book. At each
step the research model provides a smorgasbord of methods, models, techniques and
procedures so you can select the one most appropriate for your study. It is like a buffet party
with eight tables, each with different dishes made from similar ingredients. You go to all
eight tables and select the dish that you like the most from each table. The main difference
between the model and this example is that in the model you select what is most appropriate
for your study and not what you like the most. For a beginner it is important to go through all
the steps, although perhaps not in the same sequence. With experience you can take a number
of shortcuts.
The eight steps cover the total spectrum of a research endeavour, from problem
formulation through to writing a research report. The steps are operational in nature,
following a logical sequence, and detailing the various methods and procedures in a simple
step- by-step manner.
4.4 Key words
Research Process- Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways

in many academic disciplines at various levels by people committed to a variety of research
paradigms
Data Collection- Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes
Sample - A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects
from a larger population by using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known
as sample points, sampling units, or observations
Research Report-A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes,
data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a
first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and
accurate source of information.
1) What are the Research Process characteristics?

2) Explain Eight step model for carrying out research?
3) Explicate Phase I and Phase II in carrying out the research?
4) Explain Phase III in carrying out the research?

2. Festnger and Katz : Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences.
5. Gopal, H.M. : Introduction to the study of Research Procedures in Social Sciences.
Dr. B.NAGARAJU
LESSON 5
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Learning Objectives
 To study the purpose of review of literature

 To Understand the types of Literature
 To Learn the Thematic Review of Literature
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Purpose of Review of Literature
5.1.1 Identifying Variables Relevant for Research
5.1.2 Avoidance of Repetition
5.1.3 Synthesis of Prior work
5.1.4 Determining Meaning and Relationship among variables
5.2 Sources of Review of Literature
5.2.1 Reviews
5.2.2 Abstract
5.2.3 Indexes
5.2.4 Internet
5.2.5 Doctoral Dissertation
5.2.6 Supervisor & Research Professor
5.3 Types of Literature
5.3.1 Subject specific Books
5.3.2 Grey Literature
5.3.3 Official Publication and Archives
5.3.4 Writing Aids
5.3.5 Journal articles
5.3.6 Writing process of Review of Literature
5.3.7 Find a focus
5.3.8 construct a working thesis statement
5.3.9 Consider Organisation
5.3.10 Cover basic categories
5.3.11 Organise body of report

5.3.12 Chronological Method
5.3.13 Method by Publication
5.3.14 Method by Trend
5.4 Thematic Review of Literature
5.4.1 A Methodological Approach
5.5 How old should the literature to be
5.5.1 Preparation of Index card for reviewing and Abstracting
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key words
5.8 Self-Assessment questions
5.0 Introduction
Review of literature is a collective body of works done by earlier scientists and

published in the form of books or in the form of articles in journals or published as
monograph etc. Every scientific investigation starts with a Review of Literature. In fact,
working with the literature is an essential part of the research process which help generate
ideas, helps in developing significant questions and is regarded as instrumental in the process
of research design. In this unit we will be dealing with the review of literature, how to go
about it, what is its importance and how the review should be organized and how to relate it
to the present research report.
5.1 Purpose of Review of Literature

A literature review is part of a report. It provides considerable information on the
topic being researched and the various works that had gone on in the field over the years.
These materials are gathered by the researcher from many sources such as journals, books,
documents etc. The review of such a literature could be a matter-of-fact presentation of the
information or it could be a synthesis of a large number of information and put together
subject wise for the purpose of understanding. It can be just a simple summary of the sources,
but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. In
summary all the information is synthesized and given in a capsule form. It synthesizes and
organizes the entire information in terms of its relevance and appropriateness to the topic of
research. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old
interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major
debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and
advise the reader on the most pertinent and relevant information. Difference between
Literature review and Academic research report. The question arises as to how the literature
review differs from an academic research paper. While the main focus of an academic
research paper is to develop a new argument, a research report will contain the literature
review as one of its chapters. In a research report one uses the literature as a basic foundation
and support for newer ideas and insights into the research topic of interest. Literature review
on the other hand summarizes and synthesizes the many arguments and literature and
research findings gathered from such a review and puts forward arguments in favour or
against the particular topic and its findings. Materials to be included in review of literature
The next question is regarding how many and how much of materials to be included in
review of literature. There is no hard and fast rule about this. The researcher has to definitely
include the materials from classic and pioneering works in the area. In addition, the
researcher should also include all the relevant research works published more recently
especially in the last 5 to 10 years. As for the types of sources to be consulted for review of
literature, this includes books, journal articles, monographs, documents, grey literature such
as unpublished documents or research papers read at some conferences etc. In addition, the
internet is an important source from where articles and abstracts could be downloaded for this
purpose. Once all the materials have been gathered from different sources as mentioned
above, the researcher should organize the same according to the year of publication and the
subject matter must be organized to give meaning to the entire literature gathered keeping in
view the present research topic of interest to the researcher. The researcher can evaluate these
materials on the basis of the methodology used, the research findings arrived etc. The
researcher could also include in such a review certain minimal and directly relevant historical
account regarding the research topic.
5.1.1 Identifying variables relevant for research

When the researcher makes a careful Review of the Literature, he becomes award of
the important and unimportant variables in the concerned area of research. A careful Review
also helps the researcher in selecting the variables lying within the scope of his interest, in
defining and operationalizing as well as in identifying variables which are conceptually and
practically important. Thus a Review of the Literature, on the whole, prepares the researcher
to formulate a research problem in whichconceptualization and practically important
variables are selected.
5.1.2 Avoidance of Repetition

A Review of the Literature helps the researcher in avoiding any duplication of work
done earlier. A careful review always aims at interpreting prior studies and indicating their
usefulness for the study to be undertaken. Thus, prior studies serve as the foundation for
present research. In some cases the duplication or replication of prior studies becomes
essential. This is especially true when the researcher wants to test the validity of the earlier
studies. In such a situation, too, a careful review helps the researcher in getting acquainted
with the number and nature of the studies related to the present research whose validity is
being assessed at present.
5.1.3 Synthesis of prior works

Review of the Literature enables the researcher to collect and synthesize prior studies
related to the present study. This, in turn, helps the researcher in building a better perspective
for future research. A synthesized collection of prior studies also helps researcher to identify
the significant overlaps and the gaps among the prior works.
5.1.4 Determining meaning and relationship among variables

A careful Review of the Literature enables the researcher in discovering important
variables relevant to the area of the present research. When significant variables are
discovered, the relationship among them can be identified, Subsequently, the identified
relationship is incorporated into different hypotheses. Thus, for conducting a scientific study,
the relationship between the different variables must be explored by reviewing the literature
so that a good context may be built up for subsequent investigations. In addition to these
specific purposes, there are some general purposes of the literature review:
1. To argue for the relevance and the significance of the research question.
2. To provide the context for one’s own methodological approach
3. To establish one’s own credibility as a knowledgeable and capable researcher.
4. To argue for the relevance and appropriateness of one’s own approach.
5.2 Sources of the review of literature

There are diverse sources of the Review of the Literature. Some of them are enumerated
below. Journals and Books
Different research journals and books relevant to the areas of interest are the primary
sources of the Review of Literature. Most major libraries have a periodical section where
different types of research journals are made easily available. A research journal generally
contains the publication of original research reports with their detailed methodology and
results. Such journals contain original research reports with their detailed methodology and
result. Such journals are referred and therefore are different from non-referred journals. A
referred journal is one which reports only those articles which are carefully reviewed by the
experts before publication. Often, the reviewer rejects several manuscripts and selects a few
for publication. Similarly, books are also direct sources of the Review of Literature. Of these
two, journals are regarded as more useful because they provide the researcher with the latest
and up-to-date information relevant to the area of interest.
5.2.1 Reviews
Reviews are short articles that give brief information regarding the work done in a
particular area over a period of time. Reviews are commonly published in journals,
yearbooks, handbooks and encyclopedias. Reviewers select research articles of their interest,
organize them content wise, criticize their findings and offer their own suggestions and
conclusions. Review articles are a good source for those investigators who wish to have all
the relevant researches at one place without taking pains to look for them. Since the reviewers
organize all the possible research papers of the relevant area in their review articles, review
articles also provide the advantage of prior reviews.
5.2.2 Abstracts
Abstracts provide a summary of the research reports done in different fields
psychological abstract (Washington: American Psychological Association), and Sociological
abstract (New York: Sociological Abstracts, INC) are the two common examples of abstracts.
These abstracts are the useful sources of up-to-date information for researchers. In an
abstract, besides a summary, researchers get all the relevant information such as the title of
the Research Report, name of the author and the journal pagination information, etc.,
regarding the research article. The only limitation of abstracts is that they fail to satisfy those
researchers who desire detailed information regarding the methodology and results of the
research articles.
5.2.3 Indexes
Indexes show the titles of the research report without any abstract. The titles
recategorized and arranged alphabetically in each category so that the researcher can locate
any article of interest easily. The Education Index (New York: H W WilsonCo.) is a good
example of an index. As indexes do not provide detailed information, they keep many a
researcher dissatisfied. They can be best regarded as the supplementary source which, if
combined with other sources, can yield valuable information to the researchers.
5.2.4 Internet
Today Internet is a very easy and quick source of Review of Literature. Internet sites
are very useful for providing easy access to original writings by important researchers. They
also provide such an updated information on the topic that ordinarily is not available in the
library. Internet sites also provide for useful bibliographies related toa particular researcher.
Search on Internet also reveals some relevant professional societies and academic
associations which can provide a lot of support to the studies in the concerned area. Such
organizations also sometimes publish important papers or periodicals which can be of
immense help to the researchers. Some publishers put the brief content and extracts from the
recently published books on the Internet and these can be of valuable help to the researchers.
Sometimes, the Internet sites include articles extracted from encyclopedias which can also be
very useful and informative as background reading. However, they are not normally suitable
for citing in a report.
5.2.5 Doctoral Dissertations

Doctoral dissertations have also been a very good source of the Review of the
Literature. In libraries of universities, doctoral dissertations are available. The researcher can
choose the dissertations of their interest and find useful and relevant information there. There
are no set forms for writing the research report in a doctoral dissertation but most
dissertations contain chapters like an Introduction, Review of the Literature, Purpose of the
Study, Method of the Study, Results, Discussion, Summary and Conclusion.
Some researchers prefer not to add a separate chapter on Discussion, Summary and
Conclusion. Some do not add a separate chapter on the Review of the Literature but
incorporate it into the Introduction itself. Thus, the doctoral dissertations present the
advantage of prior review. Ordinarily, it is not possible for the researcher to move through all
the important libraries in the country to consult all existing doctoral dissertations. Hence,
he/she can have access to those dissertations that interest him through Dissertation Abstracts
International, which publishes the abstracts of the doctoral dissertations submitted to different
universities. In India, the Survey of Research in Education (edited by M B Buch) does much
the same function. The second Survey of Research in Education covering the period between
1972-78 has also been released. Recently, the listing of dissertation abstracts has been
computerized through DATRIX in terms of the key words (usually words appearing in title of
the dissertation).
5.2.6 Supervisors/Research Professors

Supervisors often know the literature well and are able to guide in right direction.
They are the recognized authority on the topic or research problems. Therefore, they should
be consulted and their suggestions and advices should be carefully analyzed. It may also be
that the other research professors have recently sourced and reviewed the literature or an area
very close to the literature the researcher is seeking. So they also constitute one important
source.
Whatever may be the sources of reviews, the process of reviewing literature itself is
not above criticisms. Inevitably, the interpretation of findings insights derived, the manner in
which conclusions are drawn are all solely dependent upon the judgments of the reviewer, In
other words, such reviews fall prey to what is called subjective judgment.
5.3 Types of Literature

In order to work with appropriate literature, it is essential that the researcher must be
able to identify and find it. For this, he/she must have an understanding of various literature
types. Some of the common types of literature are as under:
5.3.1 Subject-Specific Books

Introductory and advanced text books and research report can provide important
background and context for the research. Such literatures also provide information about
theory and method of the research.
5.3.2 Grey Literature

Grey literature means both published and unpublished materials that somehow do not
have International Standard Book Number (ISBN) or an International Standard Serial
Number (ISSN).Grey literature is a broad category that includes unpublished research
newspaper articles, conference paper and pamphlets, etc. During the course of doing research
most researchers do Utilize one or the other type of grey literature.
5.3.3 Official Publications, Archives and Statistics

This type of literature serves the dual purpose. Firstly, such literature can be a
valuable source of background and contextual information and secondly, they can also be
used as a source of secondary data, Document analysis and secondary data analysis are often
based upon this type of literature.
5.3.4 Writing Aids

As its name implies, such literature generally offers a significant support during the
process of writing and can be easily used to improve the linguistic style of the work. Such
literature includes dictionaries, bibliographic works, encyclopedias, thesauruses, yearbooks,
books of quotes, almanacs, etc.
5.3.5 Journal Articles

This type of literature is very common among the researches. It popularity is due to
several factors, First, journal articles are very credible. Second, they are often targeted for
academic audience. Third, they possess. The trait of specialty. Fourth, they possess the
regularity of production which meant that research articles are not only relevant but also
current.
5.3.6 Writing Process of The Review of Literature

Since the Review of Literature may be a very long chapter, it does need some form of
structure. The simplest way of organizing the research works is to discuss them in
chronological order. But this may not prove to be appropriate in all situations. Another way is
that one can group the works on different subjects together with the date of publication as the
only criterion of order. But this may also be confusing. Still another way may be to base the
structure on the different types of publications. For example, chapters from books, journal
articles and single authored books should be separately grouped and structured. The basic aim
of the Review of Literature is to use the literature for informing, establishing and arguing. In
fact, the Review of Literature should go beyond the said report.
5.3.7 Find a focus

A literature review not the sources themselves. This means that the researcher will not
just list the sources but selectively use them in the research topic area. These can be
accommodated in terms of themes, or issues and bring those sources together, and present
them. Some of the questions the researcher should ask self are the following:
1. Do they present one or different solutions?
2. Is there an aspect of the field that is missing?
3. How well do they present the material?
4. Do they portray it according to an appropriate theory?
5. Do they reveal a trend in the field?
6. A raging debate?
One of the above themes should be picked up to focus the Organisation of the review.
5.3.8 Construct a working thesis statement

The thesis statement should argue for a particular perspective on the material. Some
sample thesis statements for literature reviews are as follows:
The current trend in treatment for congestive heart failure combines surgery and medicine.
More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting popular media as a subject worthy of
academic consideration.
5.3.9 Consider Organisation

Once the statement has been made, what is the most effective way of presenting the
information? What are the most important topics, subtopics, etc., that the review needs to
include? And in what order should they be presented? The researcher should develop an
Organisation for the review at both a global and local level:
5.3.10 Cover the basic categories

Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three
basic elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review
containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations
section to end the paper.
5.3.11 Organize the body of the report

Once the basic categories are in place, then the researcher must consider how the
sources should be presented within the body of the report. To work out an overall
organizational framework for the review, the following three typical ways of organizing
should be considered
5.3.12 Chronological Method

If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials
above according to when they were published. For instance, first you would talk about the
studies of the 19th century, then about the book published in the 1970’s and then end up with
articles about the topic in the recent years.
5.3.13 Method by Publication

If the order demonstrates a particular trend, then the researcher can arrange the
reviews in the order of publication chronology. For instance, you could order a review of
literature on the psychological aspects of suicides, if the progression revealed a change in

suicidal practices over the years.
5.3.14 Method by trend

Another way to organise the resources is to examine the sources under another trend
such trends in couple suicide or suicidal pact etc. Under this method, the researcher would
combine the recent studies on suicidal pacts, of a century ago with those that are available
today.
5.4 Thematic reviews of literature

Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the
progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a
thematic review. For instance, the suicidal review could focus on the development of the self-
esteem or disappointment in love affair leading to suicide. These studies could be organized
chronologically. The only difference here between a “chronological “and a “thematic”
approach is what is emphasized the most: the reason of injury Toone’sself-esteem leading top
suicide.
5.4.1 A Methodological Approach

This approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor. Here the focus is
on the method used by the researcher. For the suicidal issue, one methodological approach
would be to look at cultural differences between the method of suicides. Or the review might
focus on the economic impact of suicides. A methodological scope will influence either the
types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.
Once you’ve decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the
sections to be included should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of
theorganizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for
each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate
to the theme or issue.
Sometimes, though, one might need to add additional sections that are necessary for
the study, and a few are given below:
(i) Current Situation:

Information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the literature review.
(ii) History
The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary
to understand the literature review.
(iii) Methods and/or Standards

The criteria used to select the sources in the literature review or the way in which the
researcher presents the information. For instance, one may explain that your review includes
only peer-reviewed articles and journals.
(iv) Questions for Further Research

What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will the researcher use
the review for further work in the area?O’heary (2004) has recommended that for writing a
good literature review, the following steps should strictly be followed:
(v) Relevant reviews

The researcher should give a look on the literature reviews done in several of the
journal articles, from these reviews, good and relevant reviews should be sorted and this
depends upon the research skills of the researchers. Supervisor should help him in selecting
the relevant and good reviews.
Write critical annotations while going through the various reviews. The researcher
should sort and organize the annotations of the reviews by themes, issue of concern and
common limitations, etc While doing so, some patterns would start emerging and this would,
in turn, help in developing researcher’s own argument.
To develop a structure
The researcher should structure the potential reviews according to the most urgent
needs such as topical themes, arguments that the researcher wishes to establish, etc. The
structure so developed is always subject to modification with the emergence of new thinking.
To write purposefully
The researcher should note that he can review the literature without any agenda but he
cannot write a formal literature review without any definite agenda or aim. The reader must
know the reasons why and what are you telling them.
Use the literature to support the argument
The researcher should not use the review only for reporting or borrowing the
arguments from others rather he should use the literature for generating ideas that may help
or support his own arguments.
Make the literature review an ongoing process
The researcher should make the literature review an ongoing process. In other words,
the literature review should answer the researcher’s question, theories and methods and these
should help in setting the parameters of the literature review. Thus, literature review becomes
a cyclical process and should often have a moving target.
Get plenty of feedback
The researcher should not wait up to the last minute of writing process. Whatever has
been written should be passed over to supervisors and other experts for their feedback. Early
feedback gives a chance for rethinking and modification of ideas being incorporated in the
writing process.
Remain prepared for redrafting
In view of the suggestions through feedback, the researcher should redraft the
reviewing a coherent manner so that the argument is reasonably supported. Thus, writing the
literature review is a complex task which can be made easy by following the above-
mentioned steps meticulously.
5.5 How Old Should the Literature Be?

One of the important questions for a researcher is: how old may the literature be?The
simplest answer to this question is that it can be of any age, in fact, academic research is a
cumulative activity. Each generation of researcher learns from the work of previous
generation and current research basically depends upon the work and insights of the previous
researchers. Since in any society the latest and contemporary research and publication are in
great demand it is preferable to cite as many recent publications as possible.
Despite this, almost in any discipline, there are some seminal works which are
centuries old but have become so significant that they are still being preferred by the
researchers. Although their original ideas have been modified by the subsequent researchers
over the years, their original spirit and views still remain significant and are held in
considerable esteem. For example, the work of Sigmund Freud in the field of Psychoanalysis
is of about 150 years back but his ideas, theories, viewpoints are so pertinent and of
importance to any researcher of today, that working in this field is bound to have these
included in the Review of the Literature. However, it would be a healthy suggestion for
researchers that they should always take precaution in citing older works unless they are
confident and convinced in quoting them.
5.5.1 Preparation of Index Card for Reviewing and Abstracting

After going through the different sources of the Review of the Literature, researchers
prepare their own review and abstract on the index card. Usually, for the purpose, a 6" × 10"
index card is recommended. In most journal articles, an abstract in about150 words is
provided. The researcher can incorporate it in the abstract being written. Where the article
seems to be very important and relevant, the researcher can prepare a more detailed version.
Usually, the abstract, thus prepared, is divided into three parts.
i) The first part consists of the purpose and hypothesis of the study. The researcher should
write down the purpose of the study in not more than two lines. If the hypotheses are small.
they can be recorded verbatim but if they are lengthy, they should be synthesized.
ii) The second part consists of the methodology of the study in which size of the sample,
nature of the population, methods for measuring or manipulation of the variables, methods of
data collection, designs and statistics are shown insynthesised form.
iii) The third part consists of the findings and conclusions. In this part, the researcher should
briefly take down the findings relating to each hypothesis and also concisely the conclusion
drawn by the author.
At the top of the index card, a full reference should be clearly written in exactly the
same way in which it appears in the researcher’s own reference list. There are different types
of research formats but that which is followed by the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association is widely popular and has been adopted by most of the important
research journals. The researcher should never trust own memory for recall of the details of
any research article and therefore, all the important and relevant details should be carefully
noted down in the index card.
Thus, the reviewing and abstracting of the literature on the index card, should be done
carefully and systematically. Sometimes it has been reported that researchers trust their
memory for recalling a particular detail. But this is not a healthy practice because they are apt
to forget the details or their memory may be blurred after some time.
Researchers should try their best to accommodate every important and relevant detail under
the three common headings suggested above.
5.6 Summary
A literature review is part of a report. It provides considerable information on the
topic being researched and the various works that had gone on in the field over the years.
These materials are gathered by the researcher from many sources such as journals, books,
documents etc. Literature review differs from an academic research paper in that the main
focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument whereas a research report
will contain the literature review as one of its chapters. To the issue of how many and how
much of materials to be included in review of literature, there is no hard and fast rule about
this. The researcher has to definitely include the materials from classic and pioneering works
in the area. In addition, the researcher should also include all the relevant research works
published more recently especially in the last 5 to 10 years. As for the types of sources to be
consulted for review of literature, this includes books, journal articles, monographs,
documents, grey literature such as unpublished documents or research papers read at some
conferences etc. In addition, the internet is an important source from where articles and
abstracts could be downloaded for this purpose. The specific purposes of a Review of the
Literature are identifying variables relevant for research, avoidance of repetition, synthesis of
prior works and determining meaning and relationship among variables. There are diverse
sources of the Review of the Literature, which includes, journals and books, reviews,
abstracts, and indexes. Internet, doctoral dissertations are other sources. As for the types of
literature available for write up, this includes, subject specific books, grey literature, official
publications, writing aids and journal articles. Since the Review of Literature may be a very
long chapter, it does need some form of structure. The simplest way of organising the
research works is to discuss them in chronological order. The researcher should not use the
review only for reporting or borrowing the arguments from others rather he should use the
literature for generating ideas that may help or support his own arguments. Since in any
society the latest and contemporary research and publication are in great demand it is
preferable to cite as many recent publications as possible. In addition, there are some seminal
works which are centuries old but have become so significant that they have to be included.
As for preparing index cards the details were discussed. It may be added here that the
reviewing and abstracting of the literature on the index card, should be done carefully and
systematically.
5.7 Key words
Reviews- Reviews are short articles that give brief information regarding the work done in a
particular area over a period of time
Grey literature- Grey literature means both published and unpublished materials that
somehow do not have International Standard Book Number (ISBN) or an International
Standard Serial Number (ISSN).
Abstracts- Abstracts provide a summary of the research reports done in different fields
Psychological abstract (Washington: American Psychological Association), and Sociological
abstract (New York: Sociological Abstracts, INC) are the two common examples of abstracts
Doctoral Dissertations-Doctoral dissertations have also been a very good source of the
Review of the Literature. In libraries of universities, doctoral dissertations are available.
1)Why is review of literature important in a report?

2) What are the pre requisites of literature review? Provide examples
3) What are the various methods of writing the literature review
4) What steps do we follow when we go through the source of review?
5) Why are past work so important? Elucidate.
1. Research Methods & statistics A Critical thinking approach by Sherri L.JacksonCenage

Learning Publications, Third Edition, 2009
2. Business Statistics for Contemporary Decision Making, Ken black, Sixth Edition, Springer
Publication, 2010.
3.Research Methodology by Dr.Nishikant Jha Himalaya Publishing House, 2013.

4. Research Methodology, A step-by-step guide for beginners, Kumar, Dr Ranjit Kumar Sage
Publications 2015
5. Introduction to statistics Management Design of Experiment and Statistical quality Control
by Dharmaraja selvamuthu, and Dipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
6. Handbook of Research Methodology ( A Compendium for Scholars and Researchers) by
Dr. Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Edu creation Publishing 2019.
7. Research Design, Qualitative and Quantitative Mixed Method, Approaches, 4th Edition,
Sage Publications, 2019.
Dr.V.TULASI DAS
LESSON 6
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Learning Objectives
 To know the professional Experience and Professional Literature

 To study the Definition and statement of Problem
 To focus on the Sources of Research problem
 To Understand the Criteria for Good Research
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Professional Experience
6.2 Professional Literature
6.3 Interference from theories and other sources
6.4 Definition of Problem
6.5 Statement of Problem
6.5.1 Operationalization of variables
6.5.2 Evaluation of Problem
6.6 Necessary condition for formulation of Research problem
6.7 Sources of Research Problem
6.7.1 Theory of one‟s own interest
6.7.2 Daily Problem
6.7.3 Technological change
6.7.4 Unexplored Areas
6.7.5 Discussion with supervisor
6.8 Criteria for Good Research
6.9 Formulating and stating Problem
6.10 Delimitation of Problem
6.11 Summary
6.12 Key words
6.14 Suggested readings
6.0 Introduction
A thorough understanding of known facts and ideas in the field of your interest as a
researcher constitute the first and the most important step in selecting a problem for your
study. A thorough knowledge of the research studies conducted in the field provides you with
details about the problems which have remained unresolved. A survey of suggestions for
further research given at the end of research reports and reviews of research would help you
to get an idea about the gaps which exist in the knowledge pertaining to your field of
educational research. Periodicals and bibliographies of educational research are helpful in
keeping you informed about the research going on in the field in which you are interested and
show competence. The following, are, however, some important sources which would help
you identify a suitable and significant problem.
6.1 Professional Experience

Professional experience of a researcher is one of the most fruitful resources which
could suggest research problems. For example, if you are a classroom teacher, or academic
counselor or working in any distance learning institute, you must be confronted with a
number of problems in your day-to-day academic activities. In the classroom, there is a
dynamic interaction between you as the teacher and your learners, between learners
themselves, and between learners and learning materials. Such interaction provides you with
a variety of problems to be solved through research. You may also be confronted with a
number of behavioural problems in and outside the classroom. You have to make decisions
about the probable effects of classroom instruction on your learner‟sbehaviour so as to
establish a relationship between instructional objectives, learning experiences and learning
outcomes in terms of behavioural changes in the learners. The learner behaviour may be
analysed in terms of their academic achievement, interests, attitudes, motivation, values and
some personality characteristics. You have to take decisions about the effectiveness of certain
innovative teaching methods and techniques so as to base future classroom instructions upon
empirical evidence rather than upon your subjective opinion. The teacher may wish to get
answers to certain important and significant questions pertaining to certain components of the
teaching- learning process. What are the organisational or management techniques that are
employed? How are learning materials presented? How do students, teachers and parents feel
about the use of certain innovations in the classroom? What out-of-school activities affect
students and the teaching- learning process? How does the isolation of a distance student
affect his/her progress in a course?
The educational administrators and planners may find subjects of research in the areas
concerning decision-making, scheduling, teacher recruitment and placement, instructional
supervision, and several other matters with which they are concerned. Contacts and
discussions with research-oriented people are also helpful to researchers in identifying crucial
problems and issues concerning education. Participation in conferences, seminars and
workshops and listening to the learned speakers are very helpful in locating research
problems. The Distance Education Council in India has identified some areas of research.
They also provide financial aid for doing research in those areas.
6.2 Professional Literature

The study of professional literature will not only expose you to pressing research
problems but will also suggest the way in which research is conducted. Research reports,
bibliographies of books and articles, periodicals, research abstracts, yearbooks, dictionaries,
research guides etc. would suggest areas in which research is needed. Some specialised
sources are:
1. Encyclopedia of Educational Research,
2. Dissertation Abstracts International,
3. Psychological Abstracts, and similar publications are rich sources of research
problems. Some journals are:
4. Open Learning
5. The Journal of Distance Education
6. The American Journal of Distance Education
7. Indian Journal of Open Learning
The above publications are exclusively devoted to identifying and bringing into sharp
focus the varied research needs in the different areas and aspects of Education and
Distance Education in particular. Besides these printed materials, the other important
sources for educational research are computerized databases. Most prominent amongst
them is the Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) database, EBSLO,
PsycINFO etc. International Council for Distance Learning (ICDL) database provides
information about research literature on Open and Distance Education. All published
research reports generally conclude by making suggestions about further research. These
suggestions are helpful to researchers for making decisions about methods and procedures
employed by other researchers in similar studies with different samples. Many research
studies are criticised for weaknesses in design, treatment and analysis of data,
contradictions and inconsistencies in the results, and so on. Thus, researchers can make
significant contributions not by repeating these studies, but by making necessary
modifications in the design and procedures so as to correct the inconsistencies found in
earlier works.
6.3 Inference from Theories and Other Sources

Another important source of identifying the research problems lies in the
generalisations that are drawn from various theories pertaining to education, psychology,
sociology, etc., known to the researcher. For example, the application of general principles
involved in various theories to specific problems of Distance Education makes an excellent
starting point for research in this area. Various theories of personality, intelligence,
motivation, etc. are helpful in identifying problems pertaining to classroom situations and
practices. It is only through research that you can profitably test the validity, scope, and
practicability of various theories in educational situations. Technological and social changes,
and curricular developments constantly give rise to new problems and issues for research.
Such innovations as teaching by television, programmed instructions, computers, and other
hardware and software techniques need to be carefully evaluated through the research
process.
6.4 Definition of The Problem

After a problem has been selected, the next task for you is to define it in a form
amenable to research. The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail and
narrowing it down to workable size. Each question and subordinate questions to be answered
are specified at this stage and the scope and limits of investigation are determined. Usually, it
is necessary to review previous studies in order to determine just what is to be done.
Sometimes, while defining the problem, it is necessary to formulate the point of view or
educational theory on which the research study is to be based. Incase certain assumptions are
made, they must be explicitly stated. Formulation of the problem includes:
i) stating the problem in the form of statements or questions which make the problem clear
and understandable,
ii) identification and operationalization of the variables concisely, and
iii) evaluating the problem in terms of its significance, novelty and feasibility.
6.5 Statement of the Problem

A good statement of a problem must clarify exactly what is to be determined or
solved or what is the research question. It must restrict the scope of the study to specific and
workable research questions. So, you are required to describe the background of the study, its
theoretical basis and underlying assumptions, and specify the issues in concrete, specific, and
workable questions. All questions raised must be related to the problem. Each major issue or
element should be separated into its subsidiary or secondary elements, and these should be
arranged in a logical order under the major divisions.
6.5.1 Operationalization of Variables

In stating a problem, the researcher should make sure that it is neither stated in terms
so general as to make it vague nor specified so narrowly as to make it insignificant and
trivial. The most important step in this direction is to specify the variables involved in the
problem and define them in operational terms. To illustrate, suppose you state that you want
to study the “Effectiveness of television on the performance of students in Course One of
Master of Arts (Distance Education) offered by the Indira Gandhi National Open University”.
This statement is broad and it communicates in a general way what you want to do. But it is
necessary to specify the problem with much greater precision. For this the first step is to
specify the variables involved in the problem and define them in operational terms.
The variables involved in the problem are, “effectiveness” and “performance”. Please
note that these expressions are to be understood beyond their dictionary meanings. For
example, the dictionary meaning of “effectiveness” is “producing the desired effect”. This
meaning is not sufficient for research purposes. It is important for you to specify exactly what
indicator of effectiveness you will use or what you will do to measure the presence or
absence of the phenomenon denoted by the term “effectiveness”. Similarly, you have to
define the other variable “performance” also in terms of the operations or processes that will
be used to measure them. In this study, you might choose to define “effectiveness” as the
improvement made by the Diploma students in scores on a standardized achievement test in
Course One. The term „performance‟ might refer to the scores on the achievement test in
Course One.
It is worth noting that the problem should be stated in a way that it indicates a
relationship between two or more variables. It should involve neither philosophical issues,
values nor questions of judgement that cannot be answered by scientific investigations. For
example, should television be more effective in increasing performance level
ofstudents?Such value questions cannot be answered through research. Similarly, the
question “what is there in television teaching that enhance performances” is a philosophical
question which cannot be probed easily.
6.5.2 Evaluation of the Problem

It is worthwhile for you to ask yourself a series of questions before you undertake the
research. The questions should be helpful in the evaluation of the problem on various criteria.
All such questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is undertaken.
What are the questions that we should ask?
i) Is the problem researchable?
There are certain problems that cannot be effectively solved through the process of
research. A researchable problem is always concerned with the relationship existing between
two or more variables that can be defined and measured. The problem should be capable of
being stated in the form of workable research questions that can be answered empirically.
ii) Is the problem new?
There is no use in studying a problem which has already been adequately investigated
by other researchers. To avoid such duplication, it is essential to examine very carefully the
literature available in the field concerned. The problem should be selected only when you are
convinced that it is really a new problem which has never before been investigated
successfully. However, it must be noted that a researcher may repeat a study when he/she
wants to verify its conclusions or to extend the validity of its findings in a situation entirely
different from the previous one.
iii) Is the problem significant?
The problem should be such that it is likely to fill in the gaps in the existing
knowledge, to help to solve some of the inconsistencies in the previous research, or to help in
the interpretation of the known facts. The results or findings of a study should either become
a basis for a theory,generalizations or principles. Besides, they should lead to new problems
for further research or have some useful practical applications.
iv) Is the problem feasible for the particular researcher?
A research problem may be researchable, new or significant, and yet not feasible
because of the following considerations:
a. Research competencies
The problem should be in an area in which the researchers qualified and competent.
He/she must possess the necessary skills and competencies that may be needed to develop
and administer the data gathering tools, and interpret the data available for analysis. The
researcher should also have the necessary knowledge of research design, qualitative and
quantitative techniques of data analysis etc. that may be required to carry out the research to
its completion.
b. Interest and enthusiasm

The researcher should be genuinely interested in and enthusiastic about the problem
he/she wants to undertake for research.
c. Financial considerations and feasibility

The problem should be financially feasible. The researcher should ascertain whether
he/she has the necessary financial and temporal resources to carry on the study. Each project
has a cost, particularly in the case of DE projects where students are dispersed. The cost is an
important element in feasibility. It is important to estimate the cost of the project and assess
the availability of funds. This will determine whether the project can be actually executed.
d. Administrative considerations
In addition to personal limitations, financial and time constraints, the researcher should
also consider the nature of data, equipment,specialized personnel, and administrative
facilities that are needed to complete the study successfully. He/she should check whether
he/she is able to get the cooperation from various administrative authorities for collecting
various types of data.
e. Time: Projects are a time bound exercise, if not all, are already engaged in more than
one activity in office, at home and at social organizations. It is important to assess the
time required to complete a study. Besides the assessment of total period, it is

necessary to identify the period of the year in relation to the nature of the study. For
instance, if you wish to study instructional transactions in personal
contactprogrammes your project must be timed so that you can actually observe a
series of sessions in personal contact programmes.
6.6 Necessary conditions for Formulation of Research Problem
(i) Systematic Immersion in the subject matter through First hand observation
The researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter area within
which he wishes to pose a specific problem. For example, if the researcher was interested in
the general area of juvenile delinquency, it would serve him well if he visited remained
homes, juvenilecenters, juvenile courts etc., the families of delinquents and the locality where
the incidence is high.
This exercise helps a great deal in suggesting to the researchers that may be posed for the
study to answer.
This process is known by various names, e.g. pilot survey, preliminary survey etc.
(ii) Study of Relevant on Subject

The researcher must be well equipped to experience some difficulty or challenges
which in turn would depend upon the researcher being well conversant with relevant theories
in the field, reports and records. This could help him to know if there are certain gaps in the
theories or whether the prevailing theories applicable to the problem are inconsistent or
whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with theoretical
expectations etc.
(iii) Soliciting help of Experience People

Similarly, discussion with persons having rich practical experience in the field study
also helps the researcher toorganise has study, sharpen his focus of attention on specific
aspects with in the field.
6.7 Sources of Research Problem
The research problem may be selected from the following five sources:
(i) Theory of one's own interest
(ii) Daily Problem
(iii) Technological Changes
(iv) Unexplored Areas
(v) Discussion with Supervisor
6.7.1 Theory of one's own interest

A researcher may select a problem for investigation from a given theory in which he
has considerable interest. In such situations the researcher must have through knowledge of
that theory and should be sufficiently inquisitive to explore some unexplained aspects or
assumptions of that theory.
6.7.2 Daily Problem

Research problem can also be selected on the basis of daily experience of a
researcher. Every day problem constantly present something new and worthy of investigation
and it depends on the sharpness of the researcher‟s intellect to knit has daily experiences into
a research problem.
6.7.3Technological Changes
Technological changes in a fast-changing society are constantly bringing forth-new
problems and new opportunities for research. What has been the impact of a changed
technology on the existing socio-economic set up always interests the researcher and tempts
him to undertake such studies.
6.7.4 Unexplored Areas

Research problems can both abstract and of applied nature. These may also be
selected from these areas which have not been explored so far, such areas may be theoretical
or empirical in nature.
6.7.5 Discussion with Supervisor

Sometimes the researcher, while discussing the interests with the proposed supervisor
may come across a problem that can be researched by the investigator. Similarly, reading
assignments in text books, special assignments, research reports or term papers may also
suggest some additional areas of needed research. Many research articles suggest problems
for further investigation that may prove fruitful.
6.8 Criteria for Good Research

Before the proposal research problem can be finalized,several conditions and
considerations have to be satisfied. Although there are no standard rules to guarantee the
suitability of a research problem, a number of criteria in the form conditions might be listed
for guidance in the selection of a topic.
(i) Novelty
It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable duplication.
While originality is an important consideration the fact that a problem has been
investigated in the past does not mean that it is no longer fit for study.
(ii) Interesting
The problem should be interesting for the investigator himself. He should have a
strong inherent motivation for it to enable him to face and overcome the obstacles.
(iii) Importance
It should be significant enough and involve an important principle or practice. If it is
not worthwhile, it neither adds to knowledge nor leads to any improvements in current
practices, it would be in vain. No research project should be undertaken unless its
consequences give promise of improving significantly in that area.
(iv) Feasibility or Amenability

The suitability of the problem for a particular research worker is the matter of its
feasibility. It may be a very good problem, but it should be good for the investigator.
He should be able to carry it to its successful conclusion. He should possess the
required competence, understanding and knowledge.
(v) Availability of Data

The researcher worker should ensure the availability of valid and reliable data
gathering devices and procedures. In case the study demands a confidential sensitive and
classified information, will it be possible for him to obtain?
(vi) Availability of cooperation

The study may require cooperation from various institutions, authorities and
individuals. The investigator must make sure that necessary permission and
cooperation with be readily available.
(vii) Availability of Guidance

Every research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the approval and sanction of a
competent authority.
(viii) Availability of other facilities

The investigator should be able to meet them expenses involved in data gathering
equipment‟s, printing, test materials, travel, computerization, clerical help, postage,
preparation of reports etc. If the project is expensive in nature, he should explore the
possibility of obtaining financial help from other sources.
(ix) Immediate Application

Will the research help in solving an urgent problem? Supposing the research is on
eradication of unfair means in the examinations how is this work helpful? If the research is
not able to provide the solution to it, then the whole purpose of research is a sheer waste.
(x) Aim of Research

The aim of the research should also influence the selection of the problem. If it is
producer research, the problem will be studied to enhance existing knowledge for its own
sake. If it is consumer type, the results should befit for immediate application.
(xi) Level of Research

The nature and scope of a study will be determined in the light of levels like Master's
degree, M. Phil Degree andPh.D. It may simply be action research or a research to produce a
research paper or an experimental project.
6.9 Formulating and Stating the Problem

After the problem has been selected, it must be definitely formulated and stated. The
type of statement to be employed depends on the preference of the worker and the nature of
the problem.
There are two different ways of stating a problem:
(i) Posing question/questions
(ii) Making declaration statement/statements
Definition of the Problem
It implies the separation of the problem from the context of difficulties and needs.
It is important to define and elucidate the problem as a whole and further define all the
technical and unusual terms employed in the statement. The definition helps to establish the
frame of reference with which the researcher approaches the problem.
6.10 Delimitation of the Problem

Here the investigator states the restrictions and limitations which he imposes on his
study. It will determine the boundaries of the project in hand.
A time schedule should be prepared so that the researcher may budget his time and energy
effectively.
 Justification of the Problem

The problem should be broad-based enough to provide an investigation of real
significance. The research workers would assess to what extent the solution of the problem
would contribute for furtherance of human knowledge.
The lust of objectives of the study magnifies further its utility and importance.
 Common Errors
There are a number of errors, which are committed by an average research worker,
while selecting and formulating a research problem.
 Naming a Broad Field

To choose the broad area of study instead of specific problem makes no justification.
 Stating it such that Investigation is Impossible

Thus, is also common source of error in selecting and formulating the research
problem.
 Narrowing or Localizing a Topic

The problem may be narrowed to such an extent that it becomes too small and
insignificant from research point of view.
 Including in it Terms of Unscientific Emotional or Biased Nature

This bias or prejudice is a constant error e.g. "the blessings of leading profession".
 Lack of Precession in the Instruments

The tools, tests or devices which are proposed to be used in data collection and
analysis may not be precise enough resulting in another constant error.
6.11 Summary
The choice and identification of a suitable problem is usually difficult. For a beginner
to identify a research problem is always a very difficult task. This may be due to his/her
limited knowledge of research processes or his/her unpreparedness for identifying the
problem. He/she may not be familiar with the problems in the field which need solution
through research. Even an experienced researcher finds it difficult to list all the problems that
need to be researched. Each researcher selects a problem because of his/her own needs and
purposes.
6.12 Key words
Professional Literature-The study of professional literature depends on research reports,

bibliographies of books and articles, periodicals, research abstracts, yearbooks, dictionaries,
research guides etc.
Statement of the Problem-A good statement of a problem must clarify exactly what is to be
determined or solved or what is the research question
Definition of the Problem-The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail and

narrowing it down to workable size
Research competencies- The problem should be in an area in which the researcher is

qualified and competent. He/she must possess the necessary skills and competencies that may
be needed to develop and administer the data gathering tools, and interpret the data available
for analysis
1. Discuss the difference between the Professional experience and Professional Literature
2. Describe the Source of Research Problem?
3. Explain the Criteria for Good Research?
1. Research Methods & statistics A Critical thinking approach by Sherri L.Jackson, Cenage
Publication, 2010.
4. Research Methodology, A step-by-step guide for beginners, Kumar, Dr Ranjit Kumar Sage
Publications 2015
by Dharmaraja Selvamuthu, andDipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
Dr. Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Educreation Publishing 2019.
Dr.V.TULASI DAS
LESSON 7
RESEARCH DESIGN
Learning Objectives
 To study the significance of Research Design

 To Understand the types of Research Design
 To Know the Different Research Design
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Meaning of Research Design
7.2 Design Method Vs. Research Design
7.3 Significance of Research Design
7.4 Advantages of Designing Research
7.5 Designing Feminist Research
7.6 Types of Research Design
7.6.1 Design for Descriptive Research
7.6.2 Design for Explanatory Research
7.6.3 Design for Exploratory Research
7.7 Different Research Designs
7.7.1 Exploratory Research
7.7.2 Descriptive Research
7.7.3 Diagnostic Research
7.7.4 Cross Sectional studies
7.7.5 Online Survey Research
7.7.6 Longitudinal studies
7.8 Summary
7.9 Key words
7.0 Introduction
Research simply means search for facts, answers to questions and solution to
problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an „organized inquiry‟. It seeks to find
explanations to unexplained phenomenon. But the task of research is sequential process
involving a number of clearly delineated steps. For a scientific social research, research
design and sampling are two important stages.
Research design consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. To formulate a specific research problem,
constitutes the first step in scientific inquiry. The formidable problem that follows the task of
defining research problem is progress in the research work, popularly known as „Research
design‟.
A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to
complete the project but the work plan will ¯ow from the project's research design. The
function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the
initial question as unambiguously as possible. Obtaining relevant evidence entails specifying
the type of evidence needed to answer the research question, to test a theory, to evaluate a
programme or to accurately describe some phenomenon. In other words, when designing
research, we need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is
needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way? Research design deals
with a logical problem and not a logistical problem' (Yin, 1989: 29). Before a builder or
architect can develop a work plan or order materials, they must first establish the type of
building required, its uses and the needs of the occupants. The work plan flows from this.
Similarly, in social research the issues of sampling, method of data collection (e.g.
questionnaire, observation, document analysis), design of questions are all subsidiary to the
matter of `What evidence do I need to collect?' Too often researchers design questionnaires
or begin interviewing far too early ± before thinking through what information they require to
answer their research questions. Without attending to these research design matters at the
beginning, the conclusions drawn will normally be weak and unconvincing and fail to answer
the research question.
7.1 Meaning of Research Design
It is important for you to understand that developing research design is a challenge to

the researcher because the success of her/his research work is depended on the research
design.
Any research is valid when its conclusions are true and verifiable. It is reliable when
the findings are repeatable. Reliability and validity of the research require the planning of
inquiry, i.e. the detailed strategy of how the research will be conducted. Decisions regarding
what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design.
The term „design‟ means drawing an outline or planning or arranging details. It is a
process of making research related decisions before the situation arises. Research design is
planning a strategy of conducting research.
It plans as to:
1. what is to be observed,
2. how it is to be observed,
3. when and where it is to be observed,
4. why it is to be observed, how to record observation,
5. how to analyses interpret observations, and how to generalize.

Research design is thus, a detailed plan of how the goals of research will be achieved.
Design versus method.
7.2 Design method Vs. ResearchDesign
It is different from the method by which data are collected. Many research methods
texts confuse research designs with methods. It is not uncommon to see research design
treated as a mode of data collection rather than as a logical structure of the inquiry. But there
is nothing intrinsic about any research design that requires a particular method of data
collection. Failing to distinguish between design and method leads to poor evaluation of
designs. Equating cross-sectional designs with questionnaires, or case studies with participant
observation, means that the designs are often evaluated against the strengths and weaknesses
of the method rather than their ability to draw relatively unambiguous conclusions or to select
between rival plausible hypotheses.
Figure 7.1 Relationship between Research design and Particular data collection Methods
7.3 Significance of Research Design

1. It is a plan that specifies objectives of the study and the hypotheses to be tested.
2. It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research questions.
3. It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analyzing the
data.
4. It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
5. It has great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes
the firm foundations of the entire edifice of the research work.
7.4 Advantages of Designing Research

The preparation of a research plan for a study aid in establishing direction to the study
and in knowing exactly what has to be done and how and when it has to be done at every
stage. Let us look at some more advantages of designingresearch.
1. It enables the researcher to consider beforehand the various decisions to be made.
2. The use of a research design prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of
data and guides her/him to proceed in the desired direction.
3. A research plan prescribes the boundaries of research activities and enables the
researcher to channel the energies in the right work.
4. With clear research objectives in view, the researcher can proceed systematically
towards their achievement.
5. A design also enables the researcher to anticipate potential problems of,
operationalization of concepts, data collection measurement etc.
6. Research can be conducted in a scientific way as precise guidelines are provided that
reduces inaccuracies.
7. Wastage of time and money is minimized
8. Optimum reliability is achieved.
9. Designing helps in giving useful conclusions and theories.
7.5 Designing Feminist Research

Researchers categorize research by the kind of data it relies upon, by the kind of
analytical tools that are employed upon or by the method of data collection. This is a
generalized way of approaching research. Butfeminists argue that this approach is guided by
the method rather than the research question. Ackerly and True (2010, p.122) discusses
feminist approach to research design that entails:
1. Being aware of ways of using different kinds of data, tools for analysis and
methodologies of structured inquiry.
2. Designing research meaning selecting cases, deciding how to measure or assess the
concepts under study, choosing best methods for data collection and data analysis.
3. Mapping research plan that is doable (keeping the constraints in mind).
4. Setting the plan to a reliable schedule.
7.6 Types of Research Design

Manheim has pointed out differences in designing three types of research, viz, descriptive,
explanatory and exploratory.
7.6.1 Design for Descriptive Research

The major goal of a descriptive research is to describe events, phenomena and
situations. Since description is made on the basis of scientific observation, it is expected to be
more accurate and praise than causal.
Generally in a descriptive research, the data are collected in a single situation
(S) Pertaining to single period

(t). This is called „One-Cell
Design ‟which can be diagrammatically shown as below:
e.g. studying drug abuse among truck drivers in 2009 in Mumbai.

But the study pertaining to one situation or issue can be made in two time periods also as
shown in below:
e.g. studying drug abuse among truck-drivers in 2009 and again in2010. It is known as „ex-
post facto design.‟
7.6.2 Design for Explanatory Research

Explanatory or causal research is mainly concerned with causes or „why‟ factor about
some phenomenon. It does not involve comparison and factors of change.
The research design in explanatory study focuses on ascertaining the „why‟ aspect of
co-relationship. e.g. the study of voting behavior of people in parliamentary elections, held in
March 2009 and September2010, were explanatory studies which explained how people so
voted because of caste, language, and political ideology, image of candidates.
7.6.3 Design for Exploratory Research

Exploratory studies are conducted for the purpose of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or for developing hypotheses. An exploratory study, may however, have
another function, e.g. Increasing the investigator‟s familiarity with the phenomena s/he
wishes to study in a subsequent, more structured investigation or with the setting in which he
plans to carry out such an investigation.
Exploratory research is necessary to obtain experience that will be helpful in
formulating relevant hypotheses for more definitive investigation. For a general, area of
problems about which little knowledge is available, an exploratory study is most appropriate.
So, exploratory research is mostly carried when there is not sufficient information
available about the issue to be studied, or in other words, the researcher has either no
knowledge or a limited knowledge., study of effect of TV Programmes on Youth.
According to Babbie ( 2010) exploratory studies are conducted for the following purposes:
To satisfy the researchers curiosity and desire for better understanding.
To test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. • To develop the methods to be
employed in any subsequent study.
7.7 Different Research Design
7.7.1 Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is
undertaken to gain background information about the general nature of the research problem.
Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the
problem and needs additional information or desires new or more recent information
Exploratory research is used in a number of situations:
– To analysis a problem
– To discover new ideas
– To develop concept more clearly
– To establish research priorities
A variety of methods are available to conduct exploratory research:
1. Secondary Data Analysis
2. Experience Surveys
3. Case Analysis
7.7.2 Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas,
7.7.3 Diagnostic researchstudies determine the frequency with which something occurs or
its association with something else.
7.7.4 Cross-sectional studies measure units from asample of the population at only one-
pointIntime. Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose samples are drawn in such a
way as to be representative of a specific population.
7.7.5 On-line survey research is being used to collect data for cross-sectional surveys at a
faster rate of speed.
7.7.6 Longitudinal studies repeatedly draw sample units of a population over time.
One method is to draw different units from the same sampling frame.
A second method is to use a “panel” where the same people are asked to respond
periodically.
On-line survey research firms recruit panel members to respond to online queries.
7.8 Summary
Research design is not related to any particular method of collecting data or any
particular type of data. Any research design can, in principle, use any type of data collection
method and can use either quantitative or qualitative data. Research design refers to the
structure of an enquiry: it is a logical matter rather than a logistical one. It has been argued
that the central role of research design is to minimize the chance of drawing incorrect causal
inferences from data. Design is a logical task undertaken to ensure that the evidence collected
enables us to answer questions or to test theories as unambiguously as possible. When
designing research, it is essential that we identify the type of evidence required to answer the
research question in a convincing way. This means that we must not simply collect evidence
that is consistent with a particular theory or explanation. Research needs to be structured in
such a way that the evidence also bears on alternative rival explanations and enables us to
identify which of the competing explanations is most compelling empirically. It also means
that we must not simply look for evidence that supports our favourite theory: we should also
look for evidence that has the potential to disprove our preferred explanations.
7.9 Key words
Research Design-Research design consists of series of actions or steps necessary to

effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Descriptive research- Descriptive research is to describe events, phenomena and situations.

Since description is made on the basis of scientific observation, it is expected to be more
accurate and praise than causal.
Explanatory Research-Explanatory or causal research is mainly concerned with causes or

„why‟ factor about some phenomenon. It does not involve comparison and factors of change.
Exploratory Research- Exploratory studies are conducted for the purpose of formulating a
problem for more precise investigation or for developing hypotheses
On-line survey research is being used to collect data for cross-sectional surveys at afaster
rate of speed
1.Define the Research Design? Discuss the significance of Research Design?

2. Discuss the Types of Research Design?
3. Give a Outline on the Types of Research Design?
4. Elucidate the different Research Designs?

Publication, 2010.
4. Research Methodology, A step-by-step guide for beginners, Kumar, Dr Ranjit kumar Sage
Publications 2015
by Dharmaraja Selvamuthu, and Dipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
6. Handbook of Research Methodology (A Compendium for Scholars and Researchers) by
Dr.V.TULASI DAS
LESSON 8
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Learning Objectives
 To classify experimental research on the basis of applying various kinds of controls;

 To discuss various kinds of pre-experimental designs;
 To focus various kinds of true experimental designs;
 To study various types of quasi-experimental design;
 To enumerate the steps of experimental research;
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Types of Experimental Design
8.1.1 Pre-Experimental Design
8.1.1(a) One short Case study Design
8.1.1(b) Experimental Design
8.1.1(c) One Group Pre-test and Post Test Design
8.1.1 (d) Static Group Comparison Design
8.1.1 (e) Educational Research
8.1.2 True Experimental design
8.1.2(a) Pre-test and Post-test Control Group Design
8.1.2(b) Post-test only control Group Design
8.1.2 (c) Solomon four Group Design
8.1.2 (d) Factorial Design
8.1.3 Quasi Experiment Design
8.1.3(a) Non-Equivalent Control group Design
8.1.3(b) Separate Sample Pre-test and Post Test Design
8.1.3 (c) Counter Balanced Design
8.1.3 (d) Time Series Design
8.2 Steps in Experimental Design
8.2.1 Selecting and Defining Problem
8.2.2 Stating of Hypothesis
8.3 Summary
8.4 Key words
8.0 Introduction
The purpose of experimentation is to study the effect of manipulated independent

variable on the dependent variable. In educational setting, independent variable can be
manipulated indifferent ways. An outline has to be drawn about the way a researcher would
like to manipulate independent variable. The main objective of outlining the experimentations
to find out the true effect of manipulated variable. Certain factors creep in while manipulating
certain functions. These factors either come from the process of experimentation or from
outside. Their presence interferes with the treatment. Under such circumstances true effect of
the treatment cannot be achieved. In order to get true effect the researcher has to apply certain
checks or controls so as to partial out the effect of intervening variables. Process of applying
these controls is basic to the experimental design or lay out of the experimentation.
8.1 Types of Experimental Design
In order to apply the controls, the researcher may:

Assign subjects randomly to the groups Assign treatments to the groups randomly
Equate the groups to the maximum extent with respect to various intervening variables
Have post-test of all the groups involved in the experiment.
Those designs where all the above mentioned four criteria are satisfied in toto are
termed as 'True Experimental Designs'. These designs are very sophisticated involving
rigorous controls and have limited practicability in educational settings. The researcher in
educational settings may not be able to apply such rigorous controls. The reason being that
the controls may take the researcher away from the reality and in that case the conclusions of
the experiment may not be generalizable.
Under such circumstances the researcher may follow some of the above mentioned
four criteria in order to apply required controls. Therefore, those experiments were. some of
the above mentioned four criteria are met are termed as 'Quasi Experimental Designs'. These
designs have greater applicability in education. Further the researcher may sometimes feel
such a situation, where it is difficult to follow even one or two of these criteria. The
experimental designs where criterion like post-testing is possible are designated as 'Pre-
experimental Designs'. These designs have less scientific value for having inadequate
controls.
According to the sophistication and the rigor of controls followed the designs may be
arranged as:
1. pre-experimental designs
2. True experimental designs
3. Quasi-experimental designs
The designs resemble one another from point of view of purpose and their adherence
to the principles of experimentation. They differ in the degree of accuracy with which they
attack the problem or meet the essential criteria of control, manipulation, observation, and
replication. No design solves all the problems. The nature of the problem determines which
type of design is most appropriate and applicable and how the design should be used to meet
the requirements of the experiment.
8.1.1 Pre-Experimental Designs
Pre-experimental designs provide little or no control of extraneous or situation

variables. They are, however, still being used in the study of educational problems. Suppose a
researcher is interested in finding out the effect of educational television programmeon the
general awareness of students. The programme is launched as mass mediaprogrammes in the
public sector with a view to developing general awareness of school students. This
programme is available to particular region of the country. In thiscase, the treatment is
television programme that is already operative in the field. The researcher does not have to
manipulate this programmme with a special objective and he has no control over this
treatment. In order to achieve his research objective, the, researcher will take a group of
students who are being exposed to this televisionprogramme. For comparing the effect of this
television programme with conventional treatment, the researcher may take another group
that has not been exposed to the televisionprogramme. Due to the field constraints the
researcher will not be able to randomly assign the treatment to the groups. Further, he will be
unable to equate the groups on intervening variables. He will be doing only one thing easily,
that is he will be able to measure the general awareness (dependent variable) of subjects of
both the groups after a particular period of time.
Note that in this experiment, the researcher has not formed the groups randomly,
treatments have not been given to the groups randomly and the groups have not been equated
on intervening variables. However, both the groups have been post-tested.
Thus the experimental designs where only the criterion of 'post-testing of all the
groups ‘is met are called as 'Pre-experimental designs'.
There are three types of pre-experimental designs. These are One Shot Case Study, One
group Pre-test Post-test Design, and Static Group Comparison Design.
8.1.1(a) One Shot Case Study Design
The researcher wants to study the effect of free lunch programme on disruptive
classroom activity. The researcher selects a school. The free lunch programmeis launched for
a period of six months. At the end of this period the teachers of the school are interviewed
about the disruptive classroom activities. In this case, treatment (free lunch programme) is
applied tb the institution. At the end of the treatment, the dependent variable (disruptive
classroom activities) is measured. When such a procedure in experimentation is followed, the
design is called as One-Shot Case Study design.
Strengths
In this design -
a) One group of subjects or a single subject or an institution is taken.
b) The treatment is applied for a particular period of time.
c) At the end of the treatment the dependent variable is measured.
Limitations
a) The design is not valid against the criterion of History. For example, on the basis of
observations (interview of teachers) made at the end of the treatment the researcher may
conclude that disruptive classroom activities curtailed because of the free lunch programme.
It is quite possible that curtailment of disruptive activities occurred because of change in

administrative policy in the school or examination drawing near or school timings changed
etc. In other words,such changes or occurrences of events might have affected the dependent
variable rather than the treatment, hence the criterion of History is not met.
b) The design is not valid against the criterion of maturation. You know, in the example being
discussed the free lunch programme continues for a period of six months. During this period
some psychological and biological changes may take place amongst the students. That is
students may become aware of the need to pay attention to the teachers' teaching or the
students may develop positive attitude towards studying. Such types of psychological
changes are called as Maturation and these may influence the dependent variable.
8.1.1(b)Experimental Research
The design is not valid against the criterion of Selection. In the example under
discussion, the researcher took a school where free lunch programmewas launched. It is quite
possible that the students in the school were having positive attitude towards studies or they
might be the wards of educated parents etc. Such types of factors were existing in the group
on which the experiment was conducted, there is every possibility that the findings of the
experiment are not true.
The design is not valid against the criterion of Mortality. The treatment continued for
a period of six months. It is quite possible that some mischievous students might have left the
institution during the treatment period. Because of their leaving the institution, disruption in
the classroom might have been curtailed. In such a situation if the researcher draws a
conclusion on the basis of experimentation that disruption was curtailed due to treatment, it
may not be true. The reason being that going away of some mischievous students from the
school has affected the dependent variable.
The design cannot provide evidence of causal relationship and it cannot add to the
body of knowledge with reliable and valid evidences.
Applicability:
The one-Shot Case Design can be applied in the following situations:
a) The researcher has to carry out the experiment with one group of subjects or an institution.
b) The researcher takes up a variable or experimentation that has already been launched by
some agency say government or any NGO etc.
8.1.1 (c) One Group Pre-test Post-test Design
When an experimenter uses this design, he measures dependent variable, before the
independent variable X is applied or withdrawn and then takes its measurement again
afterwards. The difference in the measurements of dependent variable, if any, is computed
and the amount of change is taken as a result of the application or withdrawing Educational
Research of independent or treatment variable
Strengths
a) Only one group of subjects has been taken and they measured before and after the
treatment.
b) The design is valid against the criterion of Selection and Mortality. In the example under
study the researcher measured the writing efficiency at both the pre-test and the post-test
stage. Suppose the group taken for experimentation consists of highly intelligent, motivated
and creative individuals. These characteristics of the subjects will equally influence the
measurement at the pre-test and post-test stages. Similarly, if some students drop out during
experimentation, the process will be well taken care of at the pre-test and the post-test stages,
that is, at the time of analysis the pre-test scores of the drop outs will not be taken into
consideration. Thus, the design is valid against the internal validity criterion of selection and
mortality.
Limitations
1. This design does not use any control group and, therefore, the experimenter cannot assume
that the difference between the pre-test mean and the post-test mean was brought about by the
experimental treatment or by some extraneous variables.
2. History and maturation are two major extraneous variables that are not controlled in this
design. History refers to the specific events that can occur between thepre-test and the post-
test other than the exposure of subjects to the experimental treatment. In the illustration, for
example, the increase in writing efficiency at the post-test stage could be due to the events
like practicing by the students at home, or reading extra material etc. Occurrence of such
events can increase student achievement in this area. Maturation variable refers to changes in
the subjects themselves that occur with the passage of time. For example, it is quite possible
that during the period of treatment, subjects might have gained mental maturity, accustomed
to writing in English etc. Such biological and psychological factors might have affected
writing efficiency along with treatment. Thus, in a design like this history and maturation
become potent sources of extraneous variance when the time interval between the pre-test
and post-test is long.
3. This design does not provide any procedure for evaluating the effect of post-test
Experimental ~esearch-11itself. There is practice effect when the subjects take a test a second
time or even take a parallel form of the test. That is, subjects perform better at the posttest
stage even without any teaching.
4. There is a problem of reactivity in the design due to a teaching between the subject and
pre-test measure. It is this reaction rather than the treatment variable that produces the change
in the post-test measures. For example, the novel or controversial content of a pre-test may
motivate the subjects to react in a particular manner and it is this reaction that brings about
the observed change in subjects at the post-test stage.
5. The instruments used for measuring writing efficiency at the pretest and post-test stage are
the same. Various characteristics of the instrument such as interpretation of items, subjects,
item difficulty etc. will remain unaltered at both the stages (pre-test and post-test stages). The
experience gained in the interpretation of items at pre-test may be carried over to the post-test
stage.
Thus improvement at the post-test stage may not be due to the treatment only.
Therefore, it can be said that the design is not valid against the criterion of instrumentation.
6. The design is not valid against the external validity criteria of testing and treatment. In the
example under discussion, the exposure to pre-test may make the students aware of the
criterion required in writing efficiency like continuity of ideas, use of specific words etc.
During the treatment of detailed correction, the same criteria are emphasized. So, the students
who have been pre-tested become more attentive and responsive to the treatment of detailed
correction. This in other words means that exposure of subjects to pre-test has interacted with
treatment. This may ultimately affect the post-test performance. The conclusion drawn on the
basis of such design therefore cannot be generalized to the group of students whohave not
been pre-tested.
7. The design is not valid against the extremal validity criterion of interaction of selection and
treatment. It is quite possible that the students selected in the group are highly intelligent,
motivated and creative. Because of these characteristics, they may involve themselves more
during the treatment of detailed correction.
Their remaining active and responsive during the treatment will affect their posttest
scores. So, the improvement in the post-test may be because of the interaction of selection
and treatment. The findings of such a study are limited to particular type of students and these
cannot be generalized to the population.
8. This design is weak and cannot provide true evidence of causal relationship among the
variables.
Applicability: One group pre-test post-test design is applicable to all those situations
where :
a) The interval between pre-test and post-test is of short duration.

b) The equated groups are not available.
c) This design has an edge over the One-Shot Case Study design as the pre-test is added to it.
The addition of pre-test provides information about the selected subjects.
8.1.1 (d) Static Group Comparison Design

In such designs two groups are selected and one of the groups is exposed to the
experimental treatment and the other group is not exposed to any experimental treatment. The
group not exposed to any treatment acts as the control group and the students of this group
continue their usual classroom studies. The design permits the comparison that is required by
a scientific investigation. The experimenter assumes the two groups to be equivalent in all
relevant aspects at the start of the experimentation.
8.1.1 (e) Educational Research

There is no pre-test and the dependent variable is measured for the two groups after
the treatment and then compared (post-test), to determine the effect of independentvariable or
treatment variable. If the experimental group performs better on the posttest, the experimenter
is more confident that the independent variable is more responsible for the change in the
dependent variable.
Table 8.1 Educational research
Strengths
a) The design is valid against the internal validity criterion of History and Testing. Any
special event occurring during the treatment will equally affect both the groups. For example,
the institution may arrange some lectures by experts or arrange some debate, etc.; all these
events will equally affect both the groups. Further since the students have not been exposed
to the pre-test, there will be no learning experience to the students before the treatment. Thus,
the treatment effect will not be mistaken for testing.
b) The design is valid against the internal validity criterion of Instrumentation. Since both the
groups have been administered the same achievement test after the treatment of supervised
library study, the characteristics of the measuring instrument will have a similar effect on
both the groups. So, the effect of type of items or difficulty level of items in the test etc. will
not change the nature and extent of post-test score.
C) The design has an edge over one group pre-test post-test design because in it control group
has been introduced without the pre-test situation.
Limitations
a) Since neither randomization nor matching is used to assign subjects to the experimental
and control groups, the experimenter cannot assume that the groups as equivalent with
respect to relevant extraneous variables before they are exposed to the experimental
treatment. This design, therefore, is also considered to be lacking in the necessary control.
b) The design is not valid against the internal validity criterion of selection. It is quite
possible that (in the example being discussed), the subjects of one of the groups are more
intelligent and creative than the subjects of the other group. Since all these variables affect
the achievement, the differences between the post-test measures of the experimental and
control groups may not be entirely due to the treatment.
The groups, in the example under discussion, are comparable but not equivalent
Experimental Research on the variables of intelligence, aptitude, study habits, etc. If by
chance some of the intelligent students of the group remain absent in the study, the post
achievement will be affected. Thus, the experimental mortality may produce differences in
the groups due to differential dropout of subjects from the groups. Therefore, the two groups
once equivalent may differ later because of selective dropout of subjects.
d) The design is not valid against the criterion of interaction of Selection and Maturation. In
the example given in the box, if by chance one of the groups having more intelligent students
is exposed to some special events like lectures by experts or arrangement of excursions etc,
there is every possibility that these students will fare better in the post-test than their
counterparts in the other group. This means that the design is not valid against the internal
validity criterion of selection and maturation.
e) The design is not valid against the external validity criterion of selection and treatment. In
the example being discussed here, if by chance one of the groups has subjects with good
study habits and this group is given treatment it is quite obvious that such subjects will
benefit more from the supervised library study. In otherwords, the characteristics of the
subjects will interact with the treatment. Because of this interaction the students of treatment
group are apt to achieve more on achievement test than their counterparts. The conclusions
based on such a design cannot be generalized to those students who do not have good study
habits.
Applicability:
The Static Group Comparison Design is applicable in all those situations
where:
a) The researcher does not have control over situations and is unable to alter natural settings
in an educational institution.
b) The groups are comparable.
C) There are chances that the pre-test will sensitize the group and affect the dependent
variable.
8.1.2 True Experimental Designs

True experimental designs are mostly used for experimental research in education
because they seek to control the main effects of history, maturation, testing, measuring
instruments, statistical regression, selection, and mortality (Koul, 1988). The researcher may
be interested in comparing the self-instructional method with the conventional method in
terms of achievement of IX grade students, in science. In order to pursue this objective, the
researcher may form two groups of students.
Before proceeding further with the formation of groups he will try to find out those
variables that may influence the achievement of students irrespective of the method of
teaching. These variables can be - intelligence, motivation, sex,socio-economic status,
previous achievement in science etc. The researcher will equate these groups of students on
these variables and randomly assign the students to the groups. If the mean scores of students
on these variables is computed, it will be found that the means of two groups will not differ
significantly. That is to say, that the two groups are equated on the above-mentioned
intervening variables.
After formation of groups, the researcher will administer the achievement test to the
students of both the groups. This is termed as the pre-test. The pre-test scores will reveal
initial differences, if any, with respect to achievement of students of the two groups. After
this the researcher randomly exposes one of the groups to the self-instructional method and
the other group to the conventional method.
The group exposed to the self-instructional method is designated as the experimental
group and the group exposed to the conventional method is termed as the control group. The
content of teaching and the time of exposure to treatment to both the groups remain similar.
It may be mentioned here that the experiment is conducted in the same institution,
therefore the environmental variables like institutional climate, schedule in the school remain
the same for both the groups. At the end of the treatment (teaching) both the groups are
administered the same achievement test. The scores of students on this test constitute post-
test scores. In this way the dependent variable (achievement of students) has been measured
before and after the treatment in randomized equivalent groups. The layout of such designs is
as follows:
8.1.2(a) Pre-test Post-test Control Group Design

This design is also called as 'Randomized Control-group Pre-test-Post-test Design'.
From the example cited above, it may be observed that the researcher has undertaken a study
with the objective of comparing the self-instructional method with the conventional method
for teaching science at IX grade level. In pursuance of this objective two equated groups are
formed by randomly assigning subjects to the groups. Both groups are administered a similar
achievement test as pre-test. The treatments are randomly assigned to the groups. The
duration of the treatment has been similar. At the end of the treatment, both groups are
administered the same achievement test. The scores on this test are termed as post-test scores.
When a researcher follows this type of procedure during experimentation he employs Pre-test
Post-test Control Group design for the research study. In this design the dependent variable
(achievement test) has been measured before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the treatment
(method of teaching) in the randomized equivalent groups. The difference between means of
pre-test and posttest is found in order to ascertain whether the experimental treatment
produced a significant effect.
The strengths and limitations of this may be enumerated as follow:
Table 8.2 Pre-test and Post Test Control Group Design
Strengths
The main strengths of this design may be listed as:
1. The strength of this design lies in the random assignment of subjects at the initial stage,
which assures equivalence between groups prior to experimentation.
2. The experimenter's control over the pre-test provides an additional check on the equality of
the two groups on the dependent variable.
3. ' This design, with its randomization, seeks to control most of the extraneous variables, like
the main effects of history, maturation, pre-testing, differential
selection of subjects, statistical regression and mortality that pose a threat to internal validity.
Limitations
The main limitation in using this design is a threat to its external validity due to the following
reasons (Koul, 1988).
1. There is interaction between the pre-test and the experimental treatment. This interaction
may change or sensitize the subjects in certain ways. Although the subjects of the
experimental and control groups take the same pre-test and may experience the sensitizing
effect, the subjects of the experimental group because of their increased sensitivity may
respond to the experimental treatment in a particular way. For example, if attitudinal change
were the dependent variable the problem would have been quite highlighted. When the first
attitude scale is administered as the pre-test in such a study, it can sensitize both experimental
and control subjects to the issues or the content included in the scale. But the subjects of the
experimental group may not respond in the same way to the experimental treatment, given in
the form of a lecture, film or the like, as the control group subjects. Therefore, the
experimenter may only be able to generalize findings to pre-tested groups and not to pre-
tested ones from which the experimental subjects were chosen.
2. There is also interaction of selection of subjects and experimental treatment. The cultural
background, or some other characteristics of the subjects, who are selected to participate in an
experiment, may make the experimental treatment more effective for them than it would be
for the subjects elsewhere.
3. The interaction of experimental variable with other factors, such as history, also makes it
impossible to generalize the findings beyond the specific conditions or situations in which the
experiment was conducted. To overcome this difficulty, the experimenter should replicate the
study in different time and place settings so that generalizations concerning the findings can
be made with greater confidence.
4. The reactive effects of the experimental procedures on the subjects of the experimental
group or who administer the treatments may also create problems in making generalizations.
For example, if the subjects of the experimental group know that they are participating in an
experiment, they may not react normally to the experimental treatment. Keeping the
experimental group subjects unaware of the fact that an experiment is being conducted can
minimize the reactive effect of the experimental procedures.
8.1.2(b) Post-test only Control Group Design

In the foregoing paragraph we have studied pre-test-post-test control group design.
From this design if we remove pre-test then it takes the shape of post-test only control group
design. The illustration given in the box will explain that the available subjects are assigned
to two groups through randomization that controls all possible relevant extraneous variables.
No pre-test is used and the random assignment of subjects assures that any initial differences
between the groups are attributable only to chance.
The two random samples from population are obtained in two ways: (i) The subjects
may be drawn individually at random and assigned alternatively to the groups; or (ii)With
different random samples may be selected first and the groups assigned randomly to the
experimental or control condition. Only the experimental group is exposed to the
experimental treatment. At the end of the experiment, subjects of both the groups are
measured on the dependent variable. The means of the two groups are compared with the
help of an appropriate statistical test of significance.
Table 8.3 Post test only control Group Design

The illustration given in the box shows that dependent variable reading speed has
been measured at the end of the treatment (method of teaching) in randomized equivalent
groups. Because of these features the design has been termed as post-test-only Control Group
Design.
Strengths
1. The main advantage of this design is randomization, which assures statistical
equivalence of the groups prior to the introduction of the experimental treatment.
2. Since no pre-test is used, this design controls for the main effects of history, Experimental
research maturation, and pre-testing. Moreover, there can be no interaction effect of pretest
and independent, or experimental variable. Hence, this design is especially recommended for
the experiments in which pre-test sensitization is likely to occur.
3. This design is useful in the experimental studies, especially at kindergarten or primary

stages, in which a pre-test is either not available or not appropriate.
Limitations
In spite of all the advantages mentioned above, this design suffers from the following
limitations:
1. The use of this design seriously restricts the external validity of the experiment. The
experiment can partially overcome this limitation by replicating the experiment with different
groups.
2. There are some situations in which it is not possible for the experimenter to select subjects
at random from the population of interest. In such cases, Ary et a1(1972, p. 243) suggest that
the experimenter must begin with available subjects and assign them randomly to the groups.
3. The post-test only control group design can be applied in all those situations where:
a. A large number of subjects are available. From these subjects equivalent groups can be
formed by randomly assigning the subjects to the groups.
b. Treatment can be randomly assigned to the groups.
c. The groups can be post-tested with the same instrument.
From the discussion presented in this paragraph it may be said that posttestonly
control group design is very much similar to pre-test post-test control group design but for
one difference that pre-test is not held in the post-test only control group design. The design
is valid against all criteria of internal validity such as History, Maturation, Testing,
Instrumentation, Regression, Selection, Mortality and Interaction of Selection and
Maturation. Its findings can be generalized to the population because the design has external
validity with respect to interaction of testing and treatment criterion. It has application to
those situations where the researcher can afford to have rigorous controls.
8.1.2 (c) Solomon Four Groups Design

Till now you have studied pre-test post-test control group design and post-test only
control group design. The researcher is interested in comparing the self-instructional method
with the conventional method in terms of achievement of IX grade students in science. In
order to achieve this objective, the researcher forms four equated groups by randomly
assigning subjects to the groups. These groups are equated on the variables like intelligence,
motivation, previous achievement in science, sex, socio-economic status,etc. Let these four
groups be named as A, B, C, and D. Of these four groups any two groups are randomly
selected and pre-tested by administering an achievement test. Let us say these groups are A
and C. After this one pre-tested group (say A) and another un-pre-tested group (say B)
receives the treatment that they are exposed to self-instructional material. The remaining two
groups (say B and D) are exposed to the usual conventional method. Here it may benoted that
the treatment is randomly. Given to the groups. The duration of treatment has been same to
both the groups. At the end of the treatment all the four groups are given the same
achievement test that was given at the pre-test stage. The scores on this test are termed as
post-test scores.
From the illustration given in the box, it may be observed that the dependent variable
Educational Research (achievement test) has been measured at the pre-test stage in case of
two groups. All the four groups have been measured for the dependent variable at post-test
stage at the end of the treatment. The four groups were randomly formed and treatments were
randomly given to the groups.
Table 8.4 Solomon Four Group Design
Strengths
1. This design provides control over any possible contemporary effects that may occur
between pre-testing and post-testing.
2. This design actually involves conducting the experiment twice, once with pretests and once
without pre-tests. If the results of these two experiments are in agreement, the experimenter
can have much greater confidence in his findings.
Limitations
1. The design is difficult to carry out in practical situations. It involves more time and effort
to conduct two experiments simultaneously and there is the problem of locating the increased
number of identical subjects that would be required in the experiment.
2. Since this design involves four sets of measures for four groups and the researcher has to
make comparisons between the experimental and first control group (Aand C) and between
second and third control groups (B, and D), there is no single elementary statistical procedure
that would make use of the six available measures simultaneously. In the light of this
difficulty, this design is generally recommended for a more advanced level of research.
Applicability: The design can be applied in all situations where:

a) A large number of subjects are available and from these subjects four equivalent groups
can be formed by randomly assigning subjects to the groups.
b) Of the four groups two randomly selected groups can be pre-tested.
C) Treatment can be so assigned to the groups that one pre-tested group and oneun-pretested
group receives treatment randomly.
d) All the four groups are post-tested.
e) The same instrument or parallel form of the instrument can be used at pre-test and post-test
stage.
In short, it may be inferred that the main features of Pre-test Post-test Control Group
Design and Post-test only Control Group Design are simultaneously present in the Solomon
Four Group Design. This design is valid against the criteria of internal validity like- History.
Maturation, Testing, Instrumentation, Regression, Selection, Mortality and Interaction of

Selection and Mortality etc. The findings obtained by applying this design can be generalized
to the population, as it is externally valid against the interaction of testing and treatment
criterion.
The Solomon Four Group Design is a powerful experimental design
The Solomon Four Group Design is a powerful experimental design as there is inbuilt
Experimental ~escarch-1mechanism of verification of results. Its main limitation is that it
requires a rather large sample, more time and much effort on the part of the researcher.
8.1.2 (d)Factorial Designs

The discussion about the various designs thus far has been confined to classical
singlevariable designs, which require that an experimenter manipulates one independent
variable to produce an effect on the dependent variable. Human nature is complex and
experimenter in educational situations cannot always fulfil these requirements. One
independent variable alone may not produce the same effect as it might in interaction with
another independent variable. The findings, therefore, from a one variable design may be
meaningless. For example, the effectiveness of a teaching method depends upon a number of
variables such as the intelligence level of students, the type of the teacher teaching the group,
and so on. In such type of experiment, a classical one-variable design would not reveal any
information about the interactive effect of the method of teaching and intelligence level or
any other variable. The example given in the box below will clarify further.
A factorial design enables the experimenter to evaluate or manipulate two or more
variables simultaneously in order to study the effects of number of independent factors singly
as well as the effects due to interactions with one another. Factorial designs vary according to
the degree of complexity depending upon the nature and purpose of the experiment. They
include two or more independent variables, and each one is manipulated in two or more ways
to assess both their separate (main) and their combined (interaction) effects.
Strengths
1. The differences in the effect of different levels or categories of more than one variable can
be studied with factorial designs simultaneously. An experimenter, therefore, can accomplish
in one experiment what otherwise might require two or more separate experiments.
2. While studying the significance of the differences in the dependent variableunder the effect
of the levels of any of the factors the groups become alike with respect to the different levels
of other factors and thus the groups get controlled as far as the levels of the other factors are
concerned.
3. Besides studying the significance of the differences in the levels of the factors, the factorial
designs provide an opportunity to study interactions between the factors.
Limitations
A factorial design may include any number of independent variables with any number
of levels of each. However, when the experimenter manipulates or controls too many factors
simultaneously, the experiment and the statistical analysis of the data sometimes become
unmanageable. Moreover, the combinations of too many variables also become artificial
(Koul, 1988).
Applicability:
The factorial designs have their applicability in all those situations where:
a) Along with the effect of each of the independent variable on dependent variable, the
researcher is interested in finding out the effect of interactions of the factors (independent
variables) on dependent variables.
b) The same group of subjects is to be utilized in estimating effects of two or more
dimensions of independent variables, thus helping in economizing time and money as well as
personnel.
C) The simultaneous use of independent variables makes it possible to bring out interactive
effects of treatments and may have an accelerating effect on the action of some other
independent variable on dependent variable.
8.1.3 Quasi Experimental Designs

The true experimental designs, as discussed earlier, provide full experimentalcontrol
through the use of randomization procedures. However, in the field experiments, the
researcher may have to take the whole group of subjects in an institution. It may not be
possible for him to divide the group or randomly assign the subjects to the groups.
He may assign the treatments to the groups randomly. Further he may try to equate
these groups up to the maximum extent under the existing circumstances. In such situations,
the researcher has to depend upon quasi-experimental designs, that provideas much control as
possible under the existing conditions. If an experimenter uses aquasi-experimental design, it
is necessary for him to know which of the variables his design may fail to control. He must
also be aware of the sources that represent threats to both internal and external validity and
consider them while interpreting the results of the experiment. Thus, the designs that meet the
criteria of random assigning of treatment to the groups, equating the groups to the maximum
extent, and administration of the post-test are classified as Quasi Experimental designs or
Compromise Designs. There are a large number of Quasi-experimental Designs. A few of
these are explained in the paragraphs to follow.
8.1.3(a) Non-equivalent Control Group Design

In a school situation, it is sometimes practically not possible to upset class schedules
like reorganizing the classes in order to employ randomization procedures for getting
equivalent control and experimental groups. Under these circumstances an experimenter may
use pre-assembled groups, such as intact classes, for framing experimental and control
groups. The pre-assembled groups are selected and are administered pretest.
The pretest scores are analyzed to show that the means and standard deviations of the
two groups do not differ significantly. After determining the groups, the experimental
treatment is administered to the experimental pup and then the posttest is given to both the
groups. The difference between the pre-and post-test scores are compared with the help of
appropriate statistical test to ascertain the effect of the independent variable.
Table 8.5 Non-equivalent Control Group Design

Strengths
1. The design is valid against the internal validity criteria of History. Maturation, Testing,
Instrumentation, Selection, and Mortality on the following counts:
a) If special events like debate, excursions, exhibitions etc. occur during the period of
experimentation, these will equally effect both the groups.
b) The biological and psychological changes like fatigue, loss of interest etc. if any will
manifest itself equally in experimental as well as control group. Thus, controlling the factor
of Maturation.
c) Both the groups will have similar learning experiences from the pre-test.This experience
will affect the post-test performance in a similar manner. So, the testing effect will be
controlled.
d) Whatever way the students respond to the items on achievement test, it will remain similar
at both the stages in both the groups. The instrument being fixed, its effect is controlled.
e) The individual differences if any, will affect the post-test scores in both the
groups. The effect due to individual differences will be balanced when the groups are
compared. In this way the effect. of selection is internally controlled in the design. f) In this
design the data of all the students who have appeared in the pre-test and post-test are
analyzed. The lost cases (Mortality), if any, are not taken up for consideration.
g) The reactive effects of experimentation are easily controlled. When the preassembled
groups are used, subjects are less of the fact that they are subjected to the experimental
treatment than when the subjects are drawn from the class through randomization and put into
experimental sessions.
h) The experiments using this design are conveniently conducted in the school situations
where the researcher has no control to manipulate the variables asper his design.
Limitations
1. The selection of subjects for the experimental and control groups may result in interaction
effect between selection and certain extraneous variables like selection and maturation and
testing and treatment.
a) It is quite possible that one of the groups taken for study has higher rate of maturation than
the other group. Under such circumstances, the treatment given to such a group will show
boosted results that may ultimately affect the dependent variable.
b) When unusual test procedures like pre-test and post-test are used, these affect the mental
makeup of the subjects about the treatment. This perpetual change due to the pre-test in both
the groups may hamper the effect of the treatment. Thus, the external validity criterion is
vitiated because of the interaction of the testing procedure and the treatment.
Applicability: Non-equivalent Control Group Design can be applied in all those field
settings where:
a) Subjects cannot be assigned randomly to the experimental and control groups.
b) The control group receives a conventional or usual treatment rather than not treatment.
C) The groups of subjects are available.
d) Both the groups can be pre-tested as well as post-tested
The design becomes more powerful when the experimental and control groups Experimental
Research are similar with respect to pre-test. This makes the control more effective and
provides valid effect of the treatment.
8.1.3 (b) Separate Sample Pre-test Post-test Design

Measurement of dependent variable in two randomly selected equivalent sub-groups
where one subgroup is pre-tested and the other subgroup is given the treatment and post-
tested is known as separate sample pre-test post-test design. Strengths
1. The separate sample pretest post-test design is valid against the internal validity criteria of
Testing, Regression and Selection on the following counts:
a) All the subjects in the group have been exposed to the treatment. But only one subgroup
has been pre-tested and the other group has been post-tested. There will not be any carry-over
effect of testing, as the group that has beenpre-tested has not been post-tested.
b) The mean pre-test scores of one sub-groups and the mean post-test scores of another
subgroup are compared. Thus, regression effect does not exist in the
c) As only one group of students has been taken, two subgroups form the part of this group.
Randomization has been used while forming the subgroups where every student has equal
chance of being selected to any of the subgroups. In this way the selection effect is inherently
controlled in the design.
2. The design is valid against the external validity criteria of interaction of testing and
treatment, interaction of selection and treatment and reactive arrangements.
a) In this design one of the treatment groups does not have any knowledge ofpre-test items.
Thus, interaction of testing and treatment will not take place.
b) The two subgroups in the design have random equalization. One of the subgroups is pre-
tested and the other subgroup is post-tested. When the pretest and post-test scores of these
separate equivalent subgroups are compared, the effect of the characteristics of selected sub-
groups will be balanced. Thus, the interaction of selection and treatment will not take place.
c) In the design the sensitization to pretest is absent, random equalization does not disturb the
classroom setting (the whole class is involved in the experimentation process) and the
treatment has been given to the whole class. Thus, it does not create unusual expectations in
the subjects. In this way reactive arrangements do not vitiate the effect of the treatment.
3. The design is specifically useful for the large population that cannot be divided in separate
groups for different types of treatments.
8.1.3 (c) Counter Balanced Design

When the random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups is not
possible, the counterbalanced design may be used. This design also uses intact classes and
rotates the groups at periodic intervals during the experimentation. This design is also known
as rotation group design, crossover design or switchover design. In this design each group of
subjects is exposed to each experimental treatment at different times during the experiment.
In short it can be said that in the counterbalanced experimental design the groups of
subjects are taken from different institutions in their natural setting. The number of treatments
could be equal to the number of groups. The selected groups are comparable but non-
equivalent. The treatments are administered to the groups in such a way that each group of
subjects gets each treatment once and for once only at different points of time. The treatments
are administered randomly. At the end of each treatment given to each group the dependent
variable is measured with the same instrument
Table 8.6 Counter Balanced Design
Strengths
This design overcomes and eliminates any differences that might exist between the groups.
Since all the groups are exposed to all the treatments, the result obtained cannot be attributed
to preexisting differences in the subjects.
1. The design is valid against the criteria of History, Maturation, Testing, Instrumentation,
Regression, Selection and Mortality as well as Interaction of Selection and Maturation.
a) If some special event occurs during the treatment at one stage, then each treatment will
also be exposed to the impact of that event.
b) If there are some biological or psychological changes in a particular group, these will be
reflected in post-test and when such a group is exposed to another treatment the maturation
effect will be taken care of.
C) Testing effect will be taken care of when different groups are compared as it will be
counterbalanced.
d) Instrument effect, if any, will be equally present in all the groups and will be
counterbalanced on comparison.
e) In this design the subjects are not pre-tested but only post-tested. So there is no question of
Regression.
f) If by chance one group happens to be more intelligent than the other groups, then each
treatment will profit from this superiority. The same will be balanced on comparison.
g) If some mortality occurs during the process of experimentation, it will equally affect all the
treatments.
h) There is a possibility that all groups may get some fatigue when the experimentation is in
progress. During replication, the factor of fatigue will affect the mean scores of each group.
The counterbalance process implied in the design will take care of this factor.
Limitations
a) The design is not valid against the external validity criteria of multiple treatment
interference. There is carry-over effect of the groups from one treatment to the next.
Therefore, this design should be used only when the experimental treatments are such that
administration of one treatment on a group will have no effect on the next treatment.
b) Since many replications are involved, it is not always possible to have equivalent learning
material during various replications.
C) There is a possibility of boredom when students are exposed to various replications.
Applicability: This design is applicable to those field researches were

a) The researcher has little control over the assignment of subjects to the groups and has to
use intact classes
b) The number of treatments is equal to the groups and treatments can be rotated Educational
Research amongst the groups.
c) The interaction between the treatments, occasions and groups is not desired.
d) There is need to achieve consistency in findings by internal replication of the experiment.
8.1.3 (d)Time-series Designs

There are two types of time-series designs. One-group Time-series Design This
design takes into account a series of measurement on the dependent variable before and after
the group is exposed to experimental treatment. The experimenter takes a number of
measurements on the independent variable, exposes the group to the experimental treatment,
and then again takes additional measurements on the independent variable
Here in this design a single group of subjects has been taken. The subjects are
measured periodically on dependent variable before and after the treatment. When such a
procedure is followed, the design is called Time Series Design.
Table 7.7 One-group Time Series Design
Strengths
1. This design is valid against the internal validity criteria of Maturation, Testing, Regression,
Selection, Mortality and Interaction of Selection and Maturation.
a) The changes that occur due to biological and psychological changes in the subjects are
easily controlled as the subjects are periodically measured beforeand after the treatment.
b) Continuous periodical measurement of the dependent variable controls the effect of testing
as it is counted on different occasions.
C) The interval between different occasion of testing and observation is usually quite small
for the regression effect to take place.
d) Since the testing takes place on many-occasions before the treatment and the same
measurement is repeated on many occasions after the treatment the effect of selection is
automatically taken care of.
e) The drop out or mortality factor does not affect the findings as the - measurement is taken
on many occasions before and after the treatment. In case of the example being discussed
here, it may be pointed out that the attendance of only those students will be counted who are
regular. The attendance of dropouts will not matter as attendance of the students in the class
has been counted for five days before the treatment and for five days after the treatment.
f) The interaction of selection and maturation will be balanced as the periodic observations
made after the treatment are to be compared with the observations made before the treatment.
g) The multi-testing of students in this design provides more check on some sources of
internal validity.
Limitations
1. This design fails to control the effects due to history. For example, the factors such as
climatic changes and examinations may contribute to the observed change in the dependent
variable. In the example under discussion some other teacher might have announced that the
students would be given an internal assessment test and it may affect the attendance of the
students.
2. Because of the repeated tests, there may be kind of interaction effect of testing that would
restrict the findings to those populations, which have been subjected to repeated testing.
3. The usual statistical tests of significance may not be appropriate with a time design (Koul,
1988).
Applicability:
Time series design can be applied to those field situations where: a) It is not feasible
to form a control group.
b) This design is useful in the school settings to study the effects of a major changes in
administrative policy upon various issues concerning discipline.
The researcher is interested in studying the effect of praise on students' participation
during discussion. For this purpose, he takes students of X grade from two institutions of the
same city. He observes student's participation during discussion in both the institutions for
five times at fixed intervals. Later to one of the groups the researcher introduces praise. In
another institution the discussion is organized in usual manner. Later both the groups are
observed periodically for five times for their participation in discussion. In this way two
groups of students are taken as intact groups from the field situation. They are non-equivalent
groups. Both the groups are observed periodically for the variable under study (dependent
variable). One of the groups isgiven treatment. At the end of the treatment both the groups are
again tested on periodic intervals for dependent variable. The observation tool is the same for
all the periodic observations. The observation tool is the same for both the groups.
c) It is also useful in the study of attitude change in the students as a result of the effect
produced by the introduction of a documentary film designed to change attitudes.
d) There is no carry-over effect of testing.
e) The internal and external controls are not possible during experimentation.
f) The measuring Instrument is such that it can be used many times and its repeated use does
not affect the variable under study.
Time series design can provide useful information because the use of additional
measurements preceding and following the experimental treatment makes the design more
powerful.
Table 7.8 Control Group Time Series Design
Strengths
1. This design is valid against the internal validity criteria of History, Maturation, Testing,
Instrumentation, Regression, Selection, Mortality and Interaction of Selection and
Maturation.
a) If any special event like students strike etc. takes place during the observation or treatment
period, it will equally affect both the groups. Thus, the design will overcome the effects due
to history.
b) The maturation on the part of subjects like interest in studies, liking towards the teacher
etc. if any, will be controlled by the presence of control group.
c) The testing effect if any, will be equally present at all the time intervals in both the groups.
d) The instrument effect will be controlled because of repeated measurements and the
presence of control group.
e) The dependent variable has been measured at periodic intervals in both the groups. Even if
the group comprised some specific subjects who may be more motivated or more intelligent it
will be controlled as the repeated measurements have been taken.
f) The mortality will not affect the dependent variable because the data of only those subjects
will be taken into consideration during analysis who are present during periodic observations.
g) If by chance, one of the groups taken has a higher rate of maturation and this group is
given treatment, the effect will be balanced as in the experimental group and there will be
general rate of gain that will be projected in the pretreatment observations.
h) The inclusion of a control group in this design is useful for the necessary comparison.
Limitations
1. There may be interaction effect due to repeated tests and this would restrict the findings to
the populations, which have been subjected to repeated testing. The design therefore is not
valid against the external validity criteria of Interaction
Testing and Treatment as well as interaction of Selection and treatment.
2. The usual statistical techniques may not be applicable with such designs.
Applicability: Control Group Time Series Design can be applied to those situations
where:
a) Subjects cannot be assigned randomly to different groups.
b) One of the groups receives treatment and the other group is exposed to the usual situation.
c) Both the groups can be repeated measured at different time intervals before and after the
treatment.
d) Measuring instrument is such that its repeated use does not affect the dependent variable
e) The design is particularly useful in institutions where repeated measurements on the part of
students are required. Further it is more powerful than the Timeseries Design because of the
presence of non-treatment group and repeated measurements.
In short it may be said that the experimental designs are basically of three types
viz.pre-experimental designs, True experimental designs and Quasi-experimental designs.
They have their own strengths and limitations. It depends upon the researcher and the nature
of his research problem that the design can be selected.
8.2 Steps in Experimental Research

The steps of the experimental method are not different from those of a scientific
method. For the sake of clarification, the major steps as given by Koul(1997) may be
described as under:
8.2.1 Selecting and Defining the Problem

Experimental research starts with the selection of the problem, which is amenable to
experimentation. It needs a rigorous logical analysis and definition of the problem imprecise
terms. The variables to be studied should be defined in operational terms clearly and
unambiguously. It helps the researcher to convert the problem precisely into a hypothesis that
can be verified or refuted by the experimental data.
8.2.2 Stating of Hypotheses

The stating of problem hypotheses is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the
experimental method. Hypotheses are the heart of experimental research. They suggest that
an antecedent condition or phenomenon (independent variable) is related to the occurrence of
another condition, phenomenon.; event, or effect (dependent variable). To test a hypothesis,
the researcher attempts to control all the conditions except the independent 'variable, which
he manipulates. Then he observes the effect on the dependent variable presumably because of
the exposure to the independent variable.
The researcher, therefore, should not only be concerned primarily with experimental
plans and statistical procedures, but should give sufficient attention to formulation of
hypothesis. The experimental plans and statistical procedures merely help him in the testing
of hypotheses and contribute little in the development of theories or advancement
8.3 Summary
To conclude it may be said that you have studied three types of pre-experimental
designs. These are One Shot Case Study Design, One Group Pre-test Post-test Design and
Static Group Comparison Design. These designs have two basic characteristics. One is that
there are no matched groups. secondly groups are not randomly selected and treatments are
not randomly assigned to the groups. Because of these internal weaknesses, the designs lack
in internal and external validity. However, applicability of these designs will depend upon
objectives of the study and fulfillment of essential requirements of the design. If the major
purpose of research is to find out cause and effect relationship, more sophisticated designs
should be opted for. In the next section, we will discuss true experimental designs.
8.4 Key words
Pre-experimental designs- pre-experimental designs provide little or no control of

extraneous or situation variables.
True Experimental Designs- True experimental designs are mostly used for experimental
research in education because they seek to control the main effects of history, maturation,
testing, measuring instruments, statistical regression, selection, and mortality
Quasi Experimental Design -Quasi-experimental design, it is necessary to know which of

the variables his design may fail to control. He must also be aware of the sources that
represent threats to both internal and external validity and consider them while interpreting
the results of the experiment.
1. Define Experimental Design? Briefly Explain the types of Experimental Design?

2. Discuss the Pre-Experimental Design Process
3. Explain the steps in True Experimental Design
4. Give a Outline of Quasi Experimental Design?

Publication, 2010.
4. Research Methodology, A step-by-step guide for beginners Kumar, Dr Ranjit kumar Sage
Publications 2015
Dr.V.TULASI DAS
LESSON 9
SAMPLING: RANDOM, STRATIFIED RANDOM,

CLUSTER AND PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Learning Objectives
 The objective of this lesson is to explain sampling

 To know sampling method and types of sampling
 Examine the Sampling technique and limitations
 To assess the characteristics of good sampling
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1Population and sample
9.2. Probability and Non-probability samples
9.3. Types of samples
9.4. Sampling technique and limitations
9.5 Essentials of good sampling
9.6 Characteristics of a good sample design
9.7. Steps to be taken for selection of sample
9.8 Representative character of the sample
9.9 Reliability of sample
9.10. Summary
9.11. Key Words
9.12. Self-Assessment Questions
9.0 Introduction
Sampling is the selection of a subset of the population of interest in a research study.

In the vast majority of research endeavors, the participation of an entire population of interest
is not possible, so a smaller group is relied upon for data collection.
Before researchwork, theinvestigator has to decide whetherthe entire population is to

be made subject for data collection or a particular group is to be selected as representative
of the entire population. The former method when the entire population is taken into account,
is called „Census Method‟. On the other hand, when a small group is taken into account, as
representative of the whole, is called, sampling method.
When the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes difficult to adopt because of
the resources involved. At times this method is practically beyond the reach of ordinary
researchers. Many a time, it is not possible to examine every item in the population, and
sometimes it is possible to obtain accurate results by studying only a part of total population.
When the universe is a small one, it is no use resorting to a sample survey. When field studies
are undertaken in practical life, consideration of time and cost lead to a selection of
respondents, i.e., selection of a few items. The respondents selected should be representative
of the total, population. The selected respondents constitute what is called a „sample‟ and the
selection process is called sampling.
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population.
Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do
not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights.
It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any
research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey software for optimum
derivation.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug
on the country‟s population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves
everyone. In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and
then researches them, giving him/her indicative feedback on the drug‟s behavior.
9.1Population and sample:
A) Population or universe:
Population or universe is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified characteristics
on which the sample seeks to draw inferences. All units in any field of enquiry constitute a
„universe‟ or „population‟. A complete enumeration of all items in the „population‟ is known
as a census inquiry. In such an inquiry, when all items are covered, there is no way of
checking the element of bias except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides this
type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe, the number of items is certain,
but in case of an infinite universe, the number of items is infinite; We cannot have any idea of
about the total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a
factory and the like are examples of finite universe, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme are examples of infinite universe.
B)Sample design:
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It
refers to the technique or the procedure the research would adopt in selecting items for the
sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the
sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected.
There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are
relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select a sample
design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
C) Definition of sampling method:

Sampling method has been defined by various scholars in various ways, given below
are a few definitions:
(1) Frank Yates – According to Frank Yates, “The term sample should be reserved
for a set of unit or portion of a aggregate and material which has been selected in the
belief that it will be representative of the whole aggregate.
(2) William J.George and Paul K.Hatt- “A sample, as the name implied, is smaller
representative of a larger whole.”
(3) P.V.Young : According to P.V.Young, “ A sampling method is a miniature
picture or cross-selection of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.”
(4) Bogardus: Sampling is the selection of certain percentage of a group of items
according to a pre-determined plan.
D) Uses or importance of sampling:

In social research, sampling method has acquired great importance. In these days, the
sampling method is becoming quite popular in all important studies. Since, „Census method‟
is difficult, sampling method is resorted to because of the convenience of getting reliable
results. It has the following uses and its importance lies because of the following factors.
(a) Study of representative units:

In this method we do not concentrate our attention of the entire units, but select
certain representative units. The results that are acquired after the study of these
representative units, are considered as dependable and reliable. Due to this method, a lot of
time, energy and resources are saved.
(b) Study of large area: Through this method, it is possible to study large area. If we select
the whole area for our study, it shall become difficult for us to achieve maximum results in
shorter possible time and to cover a large area.
(c) Scrutiny of available information:

In other methods it is not possible to test the accuracy of the results. It becomes
difficult in other methods because of the large area and because of the large number of
subjects involved. But in this method, representative units are studied. It is possible to
scrutinize the available information.
(d) Intensive study of selected items:

In this method the whole attention is concentrated on the representative units. If we
study the entire universe, intensive study is not possible. But in this method intensive study is
possible.
(e) Facility in collecting information:

Because of selective nature of the study, it is easy to collect the information. In this
method, we confine ourselves to the selected items. Thus this method has the advantage of
easy and quick collection of information.
(f) Attainment of the same results as that of universe:

Though, we confine ourselves to the study of representative units, we get the same
results as those of the Universe. Thus in this method we attain accuracy of results in short
span of time.
9.2. Probability and Non-probability samples:

One of the steps in the sampling process is that researcher has to decide which of the
two – probability and non-probability samples is to be chosen. Probability samples are also
known as random samples and non-probability samples as non-random samples.
In probability sample, the probability or chance of every unit in the population being
included in the sample is not known. There is probability that every unit in the population
have equal chance of being included in the sample. Further, the selection of specific units in
the sample depends entirely on chance. No substitution of one unit for another is permissible.
This means that no human judgment is involved in the selection of the sample. On the other
hand, in a non-probability sample, the probability of inclusion of any unit within a sample
involves human judgments rather than mere chance.
In case of probability sample, it is possible to measure the sampling error and thereby
determine the degree of precision in the estimates with the help of the theory of probability.
This theory also enables us to consider, from amongst the various possible sample designs,
the one that will give the maximum information. This is not possible when a non-probability
sample is used.
Non-probability sampling does not yield these benefits; on account of its convenience
and economy; it is often preferred to probability sampling. If the researcher is convinced that
the risks involved in the use of a non-probability sample are more than offset by its being
relatively cheap and convenient, his choice should be in favour of non-probability
sampling.
There are various types of sample designs which can be covered under the two
broad groups- random or probability samples and non-random or non-probability samples.
9.3. Types of samples:
A) Accidental and purposive sample

In non-probability sampling, there is no way of estimating the probability that each
element has of being included in the sample and no assurance that every element has some
chance of being included( Wilkinson and Bandarkar, 1977). The four important types of non-
probability sampling and purposive sampling.
B) Accidental Sampling:
Accidental sampling refers to methods of selecting respondents who happens to meet
the researcher and are willing to be interviewed. Thus the researcher may take the first
hundred people he/she meets who are willing to be interviewed.
For example, let us consider the situation where a programme director wishes to
make some generalizations about the programme in progress, selects beneficiaries who have
come to the agency for a service or a community organizer, trying to know how the people
feel about health status in the community, interviews available community dwellers like
shop keepers, daily wage earners, barbers and others who are presumed to reflect public
opinion. In both the situations, those who are available for study are included in the samples.
This is exactly what we call accidental sampling. It is very obvious that the samples so
collected are biased and there is no known way (other than by doing a parallel study with a
probability sample) of evaluating the biases introduced in such samples. However in the
situation illustrated above, most probably, accidental sampling is the only way out because of
the reason that the population parameters of the beneficiaries or the community people are
not available with the researcher.
C) Purposive sampling:
Purposive sampling is based on the presumption that with good judgment can select
the sample units that are satisfactory in relation to one‟s requirements. A common strategy of
this sampling technique is to select cases that are judged to be typical of the population, in
which one is interested , assuming that the errors of judgment in the selection will tend to
counterbalance each other. For example, if a researcher attending out-patient department, it
might be desirable to choose patients for the sample from among those who are frequently
irregular. Because, the causes of irregularity can be described by irregular patients only. If he
selects a random sample, he would have got patients who are regular and that might
influence the findings of the study. It is also possible that in a truly random sample, the
regular patients would nullify the effects of irregular patients.
D) Random sampling:
In this method all the units are given equal importance. Every unit has the possibility
of being included in the sampling. It has been defined by Parten in the followings words:
“ Random sampling is the form applied when the method of selection assures that
each individual or element in universe has an equal chance of being chosen.”
It may not be mistaken for a „chance selection‟. Chance selection may be a random
selection but random sampling is different from chance selection. Random selection is done
with the help of certain method, most important amongst them are
(a) Lottery Method
(b) Tipplets numbers method
(c) Selection from sequential list
(d) Grid system of random sampling
(i) Lottery Method:

In this method, a lottery is drawn by writing the numbers or the names of various
units and putting them in a container. They are thoroughly mixed and certain numbers are
picked up from the container, and those which are picked up are taken up for sampling.
(ii) Tipplet’s numbers Method:

It is called, “Tippets numbers Method” because it was evolved by L.H.C Tippet who
constructed a list of 10,400 four digit numbers written at random on every page. We can
illustrate the procedure by an example.
2452 0280 0490 2370 0670 0160

3170 0560 0450 1396 0430 2720
0010 1112 0340 0370 1920 1160
0150 1300 6107 0420 2070 1540
0180 4167 5060 1270 0140 0140
From the above numbers, it is not very difficult to draw samples at random. For
example if 50 persons are to be selected for study out of the total number of 500, then we
can open any page of Tippet‟s numbers and select first 50 that are below 500 and take
them up for study. On the basis of the experiments carried out through this technique, it has
been found that the results are drawn on the basis of this method of random sampling are
quite reliable.
(iii) Selection from the sequential list:

In this method, the names are arranged serially according to a particular order. The
order may be alphabetical, geographical or only serial. Then out of the list any number may
be taken up. Beginning of selection may be made from anywhere. For example, if we want to
select ten persons, we can start right from the 10th and select 10, 20, 30 and so on.
(iv) Grid System:

This method is generally used for selecting the sample of an area and so in this
method, a map of the entire area is drawn. After that a screen with the squares is placed upon
the map and some of the squares are selected at random. And the area falling the selected
squares is taken as samples. Bogardus has defined the „Random Sampling‟ as given below.
“The common statistical procedure is called Random Sampling, that is choosing not
according to personal interest or convenience but impersonally at random, choosing every
fifth item, for example is random sampling.”
E) Stratified Random Sampling:

Under the process, the entire universe or population is divided/sub-divided into
homogeneous groups or types or classes called strata and a sample is drawn from each
stratum at random. These samples are then combined to form a single sample of the universe.
A stratified sample is thus equivalent to a set of random samples of a number of such
populations, each representing a single type or stratum. The sample drawn will be typical of
the whole population as it will represent all the different segments. Each stratum is based on a
single criterion
A stratified sampling may be either proportionate or disproportionate. In a

proportionate stratified sampling plan, the number of items drawn from each stratum is
proportional to the size of the strata. On the other hand, if an equal number of units are drawn
from each stratum regardless of how the stratum is represented in the universe, then such a
plan is known as disproportionate stratified sampling. In the case of proportionate plan, total
sample would properly represent all the strata. This eliminates difference between strata and
thereby reduces the sampling error. Such a method adds to the precision of the sample
estimate when within strata variability is the least.
This method is suitable for a large heterogeneous population. This method differs
from the simple random sampling in as much as that all the members of the universe are not
taken to be as equally important.
F) Cluster Sampling or Multi-stage or Area Sampling:

In case the area of study is marked by widespread, large expenses are involved,
simple and stratified random sampling is used. For example in the preparation of sampling
frame from the population and in covering the widespread areas by interviews, a large
amount of expenditure is required. The more widely spread the area of the study, the greater
are the travel expenses, the greater is the time spent in travelling, and hence expensive – and
the tasks of administering, monitoring and supervision of the research project and in
particular supervising the field staff become more complicated. For the reasons mentioned
above and few other reasons, large – scale research studies make use of the cluster sampling
methods.
In cluster sampling, first, the whole research is divided into sub-areas, more
commonly known as clusters. The simple random or stratified method method is used to
select clusters. Finally, the researcher arrives at the ultimate sample size to be studied by
selecting sample from within the clusters, which is carried out on a simple or stratified
random sampling basis.
Let us suppose, for example, that we want to conduct a survey of beggars in urban
areas of a state, We may proceed as follows: prepare a list of districts and group them into
clusters, and select a simple or stratified random sample from each cluster. For each of the
districts included in the sample, list the cities/towns and take a simple or stratified random
sample of them. If some or all of the towns/cities thus selected for the sample have more
members of beggars that can be studied, we may take a sample of these towns/cities in each
district. The questionnaires may then be administered to all the beggars in these towns/ cities
or, if it is desirable and administratively feasible to do so, to a sample of the beggars.
Characteristically, the procedure moves through a series of stages-hence the common
term, „multi-stage‟ sampling from more inclusive to less inclusive sampling units until we
finally arrive at the population elements that constitute the desired sample.
9.4. Sampling technique and limitations:
A) Less accuracy:
In comparison to census technique, the conclusions derived from sample are more
liable to error. Therefore, sampling technique is less accurate than the census technique.
B) Changeability of units:
If the units in the field of survey are liable to change or if these are not harmonious,
the sampling technique will be very hazardous. It is not scientific to extend the conclusions
derived from one set of the sample to other sets which are unlike or are changeable.
C) Misleading conclusions:
If due care is not taken in the selection of samples or if they are arbitrarily selected,
the conclusions derived from them will become misleading if extended to all units. For
example, in assessing the monthly expenditure of university students, one selects for sample
study only rich students, the results will be highly erroneous if extended to all students.
D) Need for specialized knowledge:

The sample technique can be successful only if a competent and able scientist makes
the selection. If this is done by average scientist, the selection is liable to be wrong.
E) When sampling is not possible:

Under certain circumstances it is very difficult to use the sampling technique. If the
time is very short and it is not possible to make selection of the sample, the technique cannot
be used. Besides if one needs 100% accuracy, the sampling technique cannot be used. It
cannot also be used if the material is of heterogeneous nature.
9.5 Essentials of good sampling:

The important features (essentials) of a good sampling (technique) is:
1) The sample should be true representative of the universe from where it has been taken,
i.e., the sample must possess all the characteristics of the universe called representative
sampling plan.
2) There should remain no bias in selecting sample.
3) All the items should be independent of each other.
4) Quality and time of the sample should be the same for all the individual items.
5) The „regularity conditions‟ should be the same for all the individual items.
6) Sampling needs to be adequate. A sample is adequate when it is of sufficient size to
allow confidence in the stability of its characteristics.
7) It should be possible to measure or estimate the sampling error.
8) The result of the sample study, in general, should be applicable to all items of the
universe. Hence, a good sample that is not representative is known as a biased sample.
Studies based on biased samples would be unreliable and misleading.
A) Criteria of a good sample design:

In practice, the sample design to be covered for a project would be multi-stage or
multi – design involving a combination of several sampling techniques or procedures. A good
sample design should satisfy four broad criteria.
i) Goal Orientation:
The sample design should be oriented to the research objective, tailored to the survey
design and fitted to the survey conditions. These considerations should determine the choice
of the sampling procedure. The sampling procedure to be selected should be relevant to the
characteristics of the cases to be studied and ensure selection of representative sample.
ii) Measurability:
This denotes that the design should allow the computation from the sample itself of
valid estimation of its sampling error. Probability sampling techniques, i.e., the various types
of random sampling procedures make this possible. On the other hand, the selection of a
sample in a hit and miss fashion does not provide a sound basis for estimating sampling error.
iii) Practicability:
The design should be feasible. It should capable of being implemented. It should be
possible to construct properly the frame or the list of the population for applying appropriate
sampling procedure. The researcher should be careful to use sample, straight forward,
workable methods properly adopted to available facilities and personnel.
iv) Economy:
The sample design should be enabling the fulfillment of the survey objectives at a
minimum cost. Every effort should be made to achieve maximum reliability of the result for
the given cost.
The above criteria frequently conflict and, therefore, the researcher must judiciously
balance and blend them to obtain a good sample design.
9.6 Characteristics of a good sample design:

We can list down the characteristics of a good sample design as under:
a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
9.7. Steps to be taken for selection of sample:
(A) Defining Universe:

The whole population, out of which the samples are selected, is known as „universe‟.
It is this area in which the research is to be conducted. What is needed is to have a clear-cut
definition of the „universe‟. If the universe has geographical limits, it is easy to locate and
define it; but if the universe is dependent upon certain characteristics, it has to be properly
defined. This task is not easy. For example, if it is to be found out that what is the
percentage of education in a particular town, it shall not be difficult, because of the area in
which the study is to be conducted is clearly and categorically defined. But if the opinion of
the people about a particular problem is to be found out, then it would be difficult to define
the universe. For this the investigator shall have, first of all to define the universe.
(B) Decision about the sampling units:

Before we proceed to select samples, we shall have to decide the units of the sample.
It means that we shall have first of all to decide which shall be the unit of the sample. It may
be a house, a family, a group of individuals etc. The unit which we take for study in the
sampling method should be clearly defined in unambiguous terms. This would make the
study easy and efficient.
(C) Source list:

Source list is another important factor that makes the representative selection possible.
Source list is the list which contains the names of the units of the universe from which the
sample may be selected. It may be existing before the project is drawn or it may have to be
prepared afresh by the investigator himself.
(D) Size of the sample:

For proper study of the problem, it is necessary to have proper sampling. It means that
the sample should be of proper size. If the sample is either too small or too big, it shall make
the study difficult. What should be the size of the sample, is a question which should be
answered only after taking into account the various factors of study and the sample. In this
behalf parten has laid down that:
“An optimum sample in survey is one, which fulfils the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility. The sample should be small enough to avoid
unnecessary expenses and large enough to avoid intolerable sampling error.”
The size of the sample is determined by various factors. These factors relate to the
study, the nature of the universe, the type of sample required etc.
9.8 Representative character of the sample:

In order to be useful, the study has to be representative in character. If it does not
possess all the characteristics of the universe, it shall not be representative and so, it shall not
be able to fulfil the object of the study. In social phenomenon, it is not possible to achieve
absolute representativeness, because no two samples can be similar and alike. But in spite of
these drawbacks, maximum degree of similarity should be there so that the generalizations
and the principles drawn may be valid. For this, we have to take precautions so that biased
samples may not be made available for study. A bias may be caused by purposive selection,
imperfect stratification, incomplete source list, convenience sampling, faulty method of
drawing random sample, nature of phenomenon, etc.
9.9 Reliability of sample:

Reliability of sample can be tested by the following tests:
(1) By drawing a parallel sample, the reliability may be tested.
(2) By comparing the measurement of the sample with those of the universe, the reliability of
the sample can be tested.
(3) By drawing sub-sample from the main sample, we can test the reliability of sample.
9.10. Summary
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. In
social research, sampling method has acquired great importance. In this method, we do not
concentrate on all units, but select certain representative units.
One of the steps in the sampling process is that researcher has to decide which of the
two – probability and non-probability samples is to be chosen. Probability samples are also
known as random samples and non-probability samples as non-random samples.
There are various types of sample designs which can be covered under the two broad
groups- random or probability samples and non-random or non-probability samples.
Non-probability types include accidental and purposive sampling. Accidental
sampling refers to methods of selecting respondents who happens to meet the researcher and
are willing to be interviewed. Purposive sampling is based on the presumption that with good
judgment can select the sample units according to the purpose of the study.
Random selection is done with the help of certain methods. Most important amongst them are
(a) Lottery Method, (b) Tipplett‟s numbers method, (c) Selection from sequential list, (d)
Grid system.
Under stratified Random Sampling, the entire universe or population is divided/sub-
divided into homogeneous groups or types or classes called strata and a sample is drawn from
each stratum at random. In cluster sampling, first, the whole research area is divided into sub-
areas, more commonly known as clusters.
Sampling Method has some limitations
(1) Less accuracy
(2) Changeability of units
(4) Misleading conclusions
(4) Need for specialized knowledge etc.
In spite of limitations, the method has advantages
(1) It requires less time, less money
(2) Detailed study is possible
(3) The results of sampling technique are more reliable
(4) It is convenient from administrative point of view.
9.11. Key Words:
Universe or Population –The entire aggregation of items from which samples can be drawn
is known as a population.
Probability sample -Probability sampling is more complex, more time-consuming and

usually more costlythan non-probability sampling.
Non-probability sample -Non-probability sampling is a method of selecting units from a

population using a subjective (i.e. non-random) method.
Cluster Sampling - Investigator divide a population into smaller groups known as

clusters. They then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample.
9.12. Self-Assessment Questions:
1). Explain the uses and importance of sampling.

2).Analyze various types of sampling.
3). Distinguish between probability and non-probability samples.
4). Discuss the characteristics of good sampling.

Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015.
Dr.K.MADHUBABU
LESSON 10
DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH TOOLS

Learning Objectives
 To study the research tools for data

 To assess the interview method
 To examine the survey and schedule method
 To learn the interview guide
Structure
10.0 Introduction and Definition

10.1 Meaning
10.2 Data Collection Tools
10.3Interview Method
10.4 Questionnaire Method
10.5Existing Data Method
10.6 Observation Method
10.7 Documents and records
10.8 Schedule Method
10.9 Interview Guide
10.10 Summary
10.11 Key Words
10.0 Introduction and Definition
There are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judicially
select the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view some factors. The method
selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the
researcher. Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the
method to be used for the collection of data. Availability of time has also to be taken into
account in deciding a particular method of data collection. Precision required is yet another
important factor to be considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data. But
one must always remember that each method of data collection has its uses and none is
superior in all situations.
Data collection is a methodical process of gathering and analyzing specific

information to proffer solutions to relevant questions and evaluate the results. It focuses on
finding out all there is to a particular subject matter. Data is collected to be further subjected
to hypothesis testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon.Hypothesis testing eliminates
assumptions while making a proposition from the basis of reason.For collectors of data, there
is a range of outcomes for which the data is collected. But the key purpose for which data is
collected is to put a researcher in a vantage position to make predictions about future
probabilities and trends.
The core forms in which data can be collected are primary and secondary data. While the
former is collected by a researcher through first-hand sources, the latter is collected by an
individual other than the user.
Paneline V. Young has defined it in his book entitled, “Scientific social surveys and
Research‟, as “a comprehensive study of a social unit, be that unit a person, a group, a social
institution, a district or community.”
H – odum has explained in his book entitled, “An introduction to Social Research‟,
as “ case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an
institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analyzed in its
relationship to any other in the group.”
Goode and Hatt have given their definition of case study method in their book:
„Methods in Social Research‟, According to them, „It is a way of organizing social data so as
to present the unitary character of the social object being studied.”
Start a queen has stated that: case study is “the examination of a single situation,
persons, groups, or institutions as complex wholes in order to identify types and process.”
Burgers has defined in his book entitled: “Research methods in Sociology‟, He used
the words,” the Social Microscope” for the case study method.
Case study is a form of qualitative analysis. It is a careful and complete observation of

an individual or a situation or an institution is done, efforts are made to study such and every
aspect of the concerning unit in minute detail and then from the case data generalization and
inferences can be drawn. In short, case study method is a study of a particular unit in detail.
10.1 Meaning
The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis. It involves a
careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an
institution, a cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method of study by depth
rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals with the
processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus case study is essentially an
intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case study
method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour patterns of the given unit as an
integrated totality.
The underlying need for Data collection is to capture quality evidence that seeks to answer all
the questions that have been posed. Through data collection businesses or management can
deduce quality information that is a prerequisite for making informed decisions.
To improve the quality of information, it is expedient that data is collected so that you can
draw inferences and make informed decisions on what is considered factual.
At the end of this article, you would understand why picking the best data collection method
is necessary for achieving your set objective.
10.2 Data Collection Tools
Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper
questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.
It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in
different ways and for different purposes. The objective behind data collection is to capture
quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible
answers to the posed questions.
The following are the top 7 data collection methods for Academic, Opinion-based or product
research. Also discussed in detail is the nature, pros and cons of each one. At the end of this
segment, you will be best informed about which method best suits your research.
10.3 Interview method
An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of different types
namely; Structured, Semi-structured, and unstructured with each having a slight variation
from the other.
A) Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In

terms of depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For
speed and efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
B) Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist several key questions which
cover the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the
researcher to explore the subject matter.
C) Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to
collect a wide range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is
the freedom it gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is
more time-consuming.
Pros
 In-depth information
 Freedom of flexibility
 Accurate data.
Cons
 Time-consuming
 Expensive to collect.
A)The best Data Collection Tools for Interviews
For collecting data through interviews, here are a few tools you can use to easily collect data.
Audio Recorder
An audio recorder is used for recording sound on disc, tape, or film. Audio information can
meet the needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data
collection tools.
Digital Camera
An advantage of a digital camera is that it can be used for transmitting those images to a
monitor screen when the need arises.
Camcorder
A camcorder is used for collecting data through interviews. It provides a combination of both
an audio recorder and a video camera. The data provided is qualitative in nature and allows
the respondents to answer questions asked exhaustively. If you need to collect sensitive
information during an interview, a camcorder might not work for you as you would need to
maintain your subject‟s privacy.
Want to conduct an interview for qualitative data research or special report? Use this online
interview consent form template to allow the interviewee to give their consent before you use
the interview data for research or report. With premium features like e-signature, upload
fields, form security, etc., Formplus Builder is the perfect tool to create your preferred online
consent forms without coding experience.
10.4 Questionnaire Method
This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of

questions and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to.
Questionnaires are designed to collect data from a group. For clarity, it is important to note
that a questionnaire isn't a survey, rather it forms a part of it. A survey is a process of data
gathering involving a variety of data collection methods, including a questionnaire.
On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale,
and open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.
Pros
 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.

 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Easy to visualize and analyze.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data.
 Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.

 Relatively inexpensive.
Cons
 Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway.
 Questionnaires can't produce qualitative data.
 Questions might be left unanswered.
 Respondents may have a hidden agenda.
 Not all questions can be analyzed easily.
The best Data Collection Tools for Questionnaire
A)Formplus Online Questionnaire
Formplus lets you create powerful forms to help you collect the information you need.
Formplus helps you create the online forms that you like. The Formplus online questionnaire
form template to get actionable trends and measurable responses. Conduct research, optimize
knowledge of your brand or just get to know an audience with this form template. The form
template is fast, free and fully customizable.
B)Paper Questionnaire
A paper questionnaire is a data collection tool consisting of a series of questions and/or

prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Mostly designed for
statistical analysis of the responses, they can also be used as a form of data collection.
C)Reporting Method
By definition, data reporting is the process of gathering and submitting data to be further
subjected to analysis. The key aspect of data reporting is reporting accurate data because of
inaccurate data reporting leads to uninformed decision making.
Pros
 Informed decision-making.
 Easily accessible.
Cons
 Self-reported answers may be exaggerated.

 The results may be affected by bias.
 Respondents may be too shy to give out all the details.
 Inaccurate reports will lead to uninformed decisions.
D)The best Data Collection Tools for Reporting
Reporting tools enable you to extract and present data in charts, tables, and other
visualizations so users can find useful information. You could source data for reporting from
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) reports, newspapers, website articles, hospital

records.
i)NGO Reports
Contained in NGO reports is an in-depth and comprehensive report on the activities carried
out by the NGO, covering areas such as business and human rights. The information
contained in these reports is research-specific and forms an acceptable academic base for
collecting data. NGOs often focus on development projects which are organized to promote
particular causes.
ii)Newspapers
Newspaper data are relatively easy to collect and are sometimes the only continuously
available source of event data. Even though there is a problem of bias in newspaper data, it is
still a valid tool in collecting data for Reporting.
iii)Website Articles
Gathering and using data contained in website articles is also another tool for data collection.
Collecting data from web articles is a quicker and less expensive data collection Two major
disadvantages of using this data reporting method are biases inherent in the data collection
process and possible security/confidentiality concerns.
iv)Hospital Care records
Health care involves a diverse set of public and private data collection systems, including
health surveys, administrative enrollment and billing records, and medical records, used by
various entities, including hospitals, CHCs, physicians, and health plans. The data provided is
clear, unbiased and accurate, but must be obtained under legal means as medical data is kept
with the strictest regulations.
10.5 Existing Data Method
This is the introduction of new investigative questions in addition to/other than the ones
originally used when the data was initially gathered. It involves adding measurement to a
study or research. An example would be sourcing data from an archive.
Pros
 Accuracy is very high.
 Easily accessible information.
Cons
 Problems with evaluation.
 Difficulty in understanding.
A)The Best Data Collection Tools for Existing Data
The concept of Existing data means that data is collected from existing sources to investigate
research questions other than those for which the data were originally gathered. Tools to
collect existing data include:
 Research Journals - Unlike newspapers and magazines, research journals are

intended for an academic or technical audience, not general readers. A journal is a
scholarly publication containing articles written by researchers, professors, and other
experts.
 Surveys - A survey is a data collection tool for gathering information from a sample
population, with the intention of generalizing the results to a larger population.
Surveys have a variety of purposes and can be carried out in many ways depending on
the objectives to be achieved.
10.06 Observation Method
This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered through

observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a complete
observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or as a complete
participant. This method is a key base for formulating a hypothesis.
Pros
 Easy to administer.
 There subsists a greater accuracy with results.
 It is a universally accepted practice.
 It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report.
 It is appropriate for certain situations.
Cons
 Some phenomena aren‟t open to observation.
 It cannot be relied upon.
 Bias may arise.
 It is expensive to administer.
 Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.
A)The best Data Collection Tools for Observation
Observation involves the active acquisition of information from a primary source.

Observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific
instruments. The best tools for Observation are:
 Checklists - state-specific criteria, allow users to gather information and make

judgments about what they should know in relation to the outcomes. They offer
systematic ways of collecting data about specific behaviors, knowledge, and skills.
 Direct observation - This is an observational study method of collecting evaluative

information. The evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment
without altering that environment.
B) The Best Survey Method Data Collections
 Define the goal of your survey - Once the goal of your survey is outlined, it will aid
in deciding which questions are the top priority. A clear attainable goal would, for
example, mirror a clear reason as to why something is happening. e.g. "The goal of
this survey is to understand why Employees are leaving an establishment."
 Use close-ended clearly defined questions - Avoid open-ended questions and ensure
you're not suggesting your preferred answer to the respondent. If possible offer a
range of answers with choice options and ratings.
 Survey outlook should be attractive and Inviting - An attractive-looking survey

encourages a higher number of recipients to respond to the survey. Check out
Formplusbuilder for colorful options to integrate into your survey design. You could
use images and videos to keep participants glued to their screens.
 Assure Respondents about the safety of their data - You want your respondents to
be assured whilst disclosing details of their personal information to you. It's your duty
to inform the respondents that the data they provide is confidential and only collected
for the purpose of research.
 Ensure your survey can be completed in record time - Ideally, in a typical survey,
users should be able to respond in 100 seconds. It is pertinent to note that they, the
respondents, are doing you a favor. Don't stress them. Be brief and get straight to the
point.
 Do a trial survey - Preview your survey before sending out your surveys to the
intended respondents. Make a trial version which you'll send to a few individuals.
Based on their responses, you can draw inferences and decide whether or not your
survey is ready for the big time.
 Attach a reward upon completion for users - Give your respondents something to
look forward to at the end of the survey. Think of it as a penny for their troubles. It
could well be the encouragement they need to not abandon the survey midway.
10.7 Documents and records
Sometimes you can collect a considerable amount of data without asking anyone anything.
Document- and records-based research uses existing data for a study. Attendance records,
meeting minutes, and financial records are just a few examples of this type of research.
Using documents and records can be efficient and inexpensive because you‟re predominantly
using research that has already been completed. However, since the researcher has less
control over the results, documents and records can be an incomplete data source.
10.8 Schedule Method
This method of data collection is verymuch like the collection of data

throughquestionnaire, with little difference is thatschedules (proforma containing a set
ofquestions) are being filled in by theenumerators who are specially appointedfor the
purpose.
A schedule is a structure of set of questions on a given topic which are asked by the
interviewer or investigator personally.
These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from
the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for
the same in the proforma.
Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties
which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or
the definition or concept of difficult terms.
The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the
investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the
implications of different questions put in the schedule.
Schedule include open-ended questionsand close-ended questions. Open-ended questions
allow the respondent considerable freedom in answering.
Close-ended questions has to be answered by the respondent by choosing an answer from the
set of answers given under a question just by ticking.This method of data collection is very
useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results.
It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organisations.Population census all over the world is
conducted through this method.
A)Difference Between Questionnaires And Schedules
The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in

a covering letter. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the
enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary.To collect data through
questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical, to collect data through schedules is
relatively more expensive, considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing
enumerators and in importing training to them.
Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire. Non-response is generally very low in
case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators. In case of questionnaire, it is not
always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of respondent is known.
Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method. But in case of
schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents. Questionnaire method can
be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of schedules the
information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.Wider and
more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in
respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a
relatively wider area.
10.9 Interview Guide
Creating an interview guide helps interview research in a number of ways. An interview

guide is simply a list of the high level topics that you plan on covering in the interview with
the high level questions that you want to answer under each topic. We usually limit the guide
to one page so that it‟s easy to refer to and to make sure that we‟re not getting too low level.
The process of creating such a guide can help to focus and organize your line of thinking and
therefore questioning.
When conducting the interview, we always bring a fresh copy of the guide so that we can
easily cross off questions or topics as they are covered. Often we find that some questions are
answered during the course of our conversation with the interviewee without even asking.
Using the guide, I can check off the question on the guide so that we don‟t ask it explicitly
later. It is important to remember that the interview guide really is only a guide. You don‟t
have to follow the exact ordering and there‟s nothing wrong with “going off script” at times if
a particular line of questioning that you hadn‟t anticipated seems worthwhile. You may also
decide partway through that an entire line of questioning isn‟t appropriate for a particular
interviewee. However, the guide can help you with pacing during an interview. If you‟re ten
minutes into a thirty minute interview and you realize that you‟ve only covered one topic out
of the five on your guide, then you still have time to get back on track.
A)The benefits of using an interview guide
Using an interview guide during the hiring process has several benefits:
 A structured process. When all interviewers follow the same steps in the same order
this creates structure. This, in turn, reduces the chances of people forgetting to ask
candidates certain questions or give them certain information.
 Candidate experience. Using an interview guide ensures all candidates get the same
experience. Of course, not all interviewers are the same so there will always be a
difference, but at least the process and questions are the same for everyone.
 Equal assessment. When you use the same interview method and ask the same
questions to every candidate, you can also use the same scoring to assess them. This
reduces the risk of bias in the interview process.
An interview guide example

Ideally, your interview guide is part of a well-structured selection process. As such, it‟s
aligned with every part of that process.
This means that, for instance, the requirements for a new position as specified in the job
description (i.e. the required skills, personality, and capabilities of a suitable candidate)
should be taken into account during the interview and, hence, included in the interview guide.
Let‟s take a look at 7 key elements of an interview guide.
1. Invitation & Briefing

Make sure all candidates who make it to the interview round get the same invitation including
a briefing of what to expect from the interview (how many people they‟ll talk to, how long
the interview will probably last, whether or not they need to prepare something beforehand,
what documents they need to bring, etc.).
2. Setting the stage

This is a practical issue. Where do you want to interview people? Who will be interviewing
the candidates? If it‟s a video interview, what‟s the best place to make the call? Here too, it‟s
good to have the same setting for each candidate so that everybody gets the same experience.
Include the „setting‟ requirements, both online and offline, in your interview guide.
If interviewers should have a copy of the candidate‟s resume with them during the interview,
or a copy of a work sample they had to make – or the interview guide they need to follow! –
or any other kind of document, this should be in the interview guide too.
3. Welcome
Surely there are things you want to absolutely mention when welcoming candidates. They
may be about the company, its history, the office, the job, you name it. Include the interview
opening and everything it needs to cover in the interview guide.
4. Questions
In a structured interview, a standardized set of questions is used. This provides the
interviewer with a uniform method of recording information and standardizing the rating of
the candidate‟s qualifications. It also enables the interviewer to accurately compare applicants
and to make the best decision based on data.
Besides having standardized questions, a common method used in interviews is the STAR
method. This method offers a structured way to retrieve information from the candidate.
STAR stands for:
 Situation. Ask the candidate to describe the situation that they were in.
 Task. What goal was the candidate working towards?
 Action. Ask the candidate to describe in detail what actions they took to make the best
of the situation and to complete their task.
 Result. Ask the candidate to describe the outcome of the action and what they learned.
5. Candidate questions
Your interview guide should include a section on candidate questions. Usually, towards the
end of the interview, the interviewer asks the applicant if they have any questions, about the
job, the company, the team, you name it. The kind of question people asks – if any – can tell
you a lot about their interest in working for your organization.
6. Wrap-up
Before saying goodbye to a candidate, there are a few things you should do. First of all, thank
them for their time. Second, tell them what the next steps are. When will they know whether
or not they made it to the next stage of the selection process, what is the next stage, and how
will they hear from you (by email, phone, etc.). Third, ask them, if you haven‟t done so
earlier on in the process, who their references are and how you can reach those people. This
will help you with your reference check. Fourth, let them know who they can contact and
how if they have any questions after they leave. Make sure all of this is included in your
interview guide.
7. Scoring
Once the actual interview is over and the candidate is gone it‟s time to rate them. How well
did they score on each of the questions? The interviewer should fill in these scores right away
(if they haven‟t done so during the interview), with the interview and the applicant‟s answers
still fresh in their memory.
The interview questions can be divided into several categories such as person-job and person-
organization fit. The former involves questions that aim to determine how compatible a
candidate is with the requirements of the job they apply for, while the latter involves
questions regarding a person‟s compatibility with the organization (its culture). The weight of
each category will vary depending on your organizational requirements.
While questions around person-job fit will differ depending on the role you‟re hiring for,
questions around person-organization fit won‟t or at least not as much. Therefore, you can
decide to include those in your interview guide directly. Otherwise, you can opt for a link
towards a Google Drive (or similar solution) where you store this kind of interview questions.
An interview guide template
We created a downloadable interview guide template you can use as a basis for your own
interview guide. It covers the 7 sections we described in this article, including some of the
elements to cover in those sections.
The template is just an example, of course. You can add or remove as many elements as
necessary to create an interview guide that works for your organization.
B) The benefits of using an interview guide

The benefits of using an interview guide include
1) it creates a structured process
2) it provides all applicants with the same candidate experience and
3) it makes it easier to assess every candidate in the same way, hence reducing the risk of bias
in the interview process.
10.10 Summary
Many different methodologies can be used for data collection and analysis. Most are based
around a coreset of basic tools. These include interviews, focus group discussions,
observation, photography, video,surveys, questionnaires and case studies. Data may also be
generated through direct measurement,reviewing secondary data, and informal project /
programme management processes.
Although there are many complex M&E methodologies thatcan be used to collect and
analyseinformation, many, if notall, are based around the same core set of tools andmethods
described.
For students new to M&E it is important to remember this. A quick search of the internet will
reveal hundreds of different M&E methodologies with complicated names.Some are designed
for very specific purposes and may require specialist skills to administer. But most are
variants on a theme, or are old ideas re-packaged. If an M&Epractitioner can understand and
apply the most basic tools of data collection then they should be able to apply almost any
methodology for data collection and analysis.
10.11 Key Words
Questionnaire : A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or

other types of prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent.
Observation : Observational research is a research technique where you observe participants

and phenomena in their most natural settings.
Documents and Records : Document- and records-based research uses existing data for a
study. Attendance records, meeting minutes, and financial records are just a few examples of
this type of research.
Schedule Method : A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which

are asked by the interviewer or investigator personally.
Interview Guide : An interview guide is simply a list of the high level topics that you plan
on covering in the interview with the high level questions that you want to answer under each
topic.
1. Discuss about the data collection tools.

2. Examine the survey methods in social research.
3. Write about the difference between questionnaire and schedule.
4. Explain the observation method in social research.

Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015
Dr.K.MADHUBABU
LESSON 11
SCALING TECHNIQUES
Learning Objectives
 To learn the concepts of measurement and scaling

 discuss four levels of measurement scales
 classify and discuss different scaling techniques
 to know types of scaling techniques
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Measurement and Scaling
11.2 Levels of Measurement Scales
11.3 Types of Scaling Techniques
11.4 Comparative Scales
11.5 Non-Comparative Scales
11.6 Thurstone Scale
11.7 Guttman Scale
11.8 Thurstone vs Guttman Scale
11.9 Summary
11.10 Key Words
11.11 Self – Assessment Questions
11.0 Introduction
As we discussed earlier, the data consists of quantitative variables like price, income,
sales etc., and qualitative variables like knowledge, performance, character etc. The
qualitative information must be converted into numerical form for further analysis. This is
possible through measurement and scaling techniques. A common feature of survey based
research is to have respondent‘s feelings, attitudes, opinions, etc. in some measurable form.
For example, a bank manager may be interested in knowing the opinion of the customers
about the services provided by the bank. Similarly, a fast food company having a network in
a city may be interested in assessing the quality and service provided by them.
11.1 Measurement and Scaling
Before we proceed further it will be worthwhile to understand the following two terms: (a)
Measurement, and (b) Scaling.
a) Measurement: Measurement is the process of observing and recording

theobservations that are collected as part of research. The recording of
theobservations may be in terms of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of
objects according to certain prescribed rules. The respondent‘s, characteristics are
feelings, attitudes, opinions etc. For example, you may assign ‗1‘ for Male and ‗2‘ for
Female respondents. In response to a question on whether he/she is using the ATM
provided by a particular bank branch, the respondent may say ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘. You may
wish to assign the number ‗1‘ for the response yes and ‗2‘ for the response no. We
assign numbers to these characteristics for two reasons. First, the numbers facilitate
further statistical analysis of data obtained. Second, numbers facilitate the
communication of measurement rules and results. The most important aspect of
measurement is the specification of rules for assigning numbers to characteristics. The
rules for assigning numbers should be standardised and applied uniformly. This must
not change over time or objects.
b) Scaling: Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a
rule. In scaling, the objects are text statements, usually statements of attitude,
opinion, or feeling. For example, consider a scale locating customers of a bank
according to the characteristic ―agreement to the satisfactory quality of service
provided by the branch‖. Each customer interviewed may respond with a semantic
like ‗strongly agree‘, or ‗somewhat agree‘, or ‗somewhat disagree‘, or ‗strongly
disagree‘. We may even assign each of the responses a number. For example, we may
assign strongly agree as ‗1‘, agree as ‗2‘ disagree as ‗3‘, and strongly disagree as ‗4‘.
Therefore, each of the respondents may assign 1, 2, 3 or 4
11.02 Levels of Measurement Scales
The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned
to the attributes, feelings or opinions for a variable. For example, the variable ‗whether the
taste of fast food is good‘ has a number of attributes, namely, very good, good, neither good
nor bad, bad and very bad. For the purpose of analysing the results of this variable, we may
assign the values 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 to the five attributes respectively. The level of measurement
describes the relationship among these five values. Here, we are simply using the numbers as
shorter placeholders for the lengthier text terms. We don‘t mean that higher values mean
‗more‘ of something or lower values mean ‗less‘ of something. We don‘t assume that ‗good‘
which has a value of 2 is twice of ‗very good‘ which has a value of 1. We don‘t even assume
that ‗very good‘ which is assigned the value ‗1‘ has more preference than ‗good‘ which is
assigned the value ‗2‘. We simply use the values as a shorter name for the attributes,
opinions, or feelings.
Typically, there are four levels of measurement scales or methods of assigning numbers: (a)
Nominal scale, (b) Ordinal scale, (c) Interval scale, and (d) Ratio scale.
a)Nominal Scale is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the simplest scale.
In this scale the different scores on a measurement simply indicate different categories. The
nominal scale does not express any values or relationships between variables. For example,
labelling men as ‗1‘ and women as ‗2‘ which is the most common way of labelling gender for
data recording purpose does not mean women are ‗twice something or other‘ than men. Nor it
suggests that men are somehow ‗better‘ than women. Another example of nominal scale is to
classify the respondent‘s income into three groups: the highest income as group 1. The
middle income as group 2, and the low-income as group 3. The nominal scale is often
referred to as a categorical scale. The assigned numbers have no arithmetic properties and act
only as labels. The only statistical operation that can be performed on nominal scales is a
frequency count. We cannot determine an average except mode.
b)Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic
being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified according towhether they have more or less
of a characteristic. For example, you may wish to ask the TV viewers to rank the TV
channels according to their preference and the responses may look like this as given below.
TV Channel Viewerspreferences
Doordarshan-1 1
Star plus 2
NDTV News 3
AaajTak TV 4
The main characteristic of the ordinal scale is that the categories have a logical or ordered
relationship. This type of scale permits the measurement of degrees of difference, (that is,
‗more‘ or ‗less‘) but not the specific amount of differences (that is, how much ‗more‘ or
‗less‘). This scale is very common in marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research.
c)Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such that
numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in the characteristic being
measured. An interval scale contains all the information of an ordinal scale, but it also one
allows to compare the difference/distance between attributes. For example, the difference
between ‗1‘ and ‗2‘ is equal to the difference between ‗3‘ and ‗4‘. Further, the difference
between ‗2‘ and ‗4‘ is twice the difference between ‗1‘ and ‗2‘. However, in an interval scale,
the zero point is arbitrary and is not true zero. This, of course, has implications for the type of
data manipulation and analysis. We can carry out on data collected in this form. It is possible
to add or subtract a constant to all of the scale values without affecting the form of the scale
but one cannot multiply or divide the values. Measuring temperature is an example of interval
scale. We cannot say 400C is twice as hot as 200C. The reason for this is that 00C does not
mean that there is no temperature, but a relative point on the Centigrade Scale. Due to lack of
an absolute zero point, the interval scale does not allow the conclusion that 400C is twice as
hot as 200C.
Interval scales may be either in numeric or semantic formats. The following are two more
examples of interval scales one in numeric format and another insemantic format.
i) Example of Interval Scale in Numeric Format

Food supplied is: Indicate your score on
Fresh 1 2 3 4 5 the concerned blank
Tastes good 1 2 3 4 5 and circle the appro-
Value for money 1 2 3 4 5 priate number on each
Attractive packaging 1 2 3 4 5 line.
Prompt time delivery 1 2 3 4 5
ii) Example of Interval Scale in Semantic Format
Please indicate your views on the food supplied by XXX Fast Food Shop by scoring them on
a five points scale from 1 to 5 (that is, 1=Excellent, 2=Very Good, 3=Good, 4=Poor,
5=Worst). Indicate your views by ticking the appropriate responses below:
Food supplied is: Excellent Very Good Good Poor Worst

Fresh
Tastes good
Value for money
Attractive packaging
Prompt time delivery
The interval scales allow the calculation of averages like Mean, Median and Mode and
dispersion like Range and Standard Deviation.
d)Ratio Scale is the highest level of measurement scales. This has the properties of an
interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero point allows us to
construct a meaningful ratio. Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and times. In
the marketing research, most counts are ratio scales. For example, the number of customers
of a bank‘s ATM in the last
three months is a ratio scale. This is because you can compare this with previous three
months. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both differences in scores and relative
magnitude of scores. For example, the difference between 10 and 15 minutes is the same as
the difference between 25 and 30 minutes and 30 minutes is twice as long as 15 minutes.
Most financial research that deals with rupee values utilizes ratio scales. However, for most
behavioural research, interval scales are typically the highest form of measurement. Most
statistical data analysis procedures do not distinguish between the interval and ratio properties
of the measurement scales and it is sufficient to say that all the statistical operations that can
be performed on interval scale can also be performed on ratio scales.
It is important to recognise that there is a hierarchy implied in the levels of measurement. At

lower levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be less restrictive and data analyses tend to
be less sensitive. At each level up the hierarchy, the current level includes all the qualities of
the one below it and adds something new. In general, it is desirable to have a higher level of
measurement (that is, interval or ratio) rather than a lower one (that is, nominal or ordinal).
11.3Types of Scaling Techniques
The various types of scaling techniques used in research can be classified into two categories:
(a) comparative scales
(b) Non-comparative scales.
In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to compare one object with another.
For example, the researcher can ask the respondents whether they prefer brand A or brand B
of a detergent. On the other hand, in non- comparative scaling respondents need only evaluate
a single object. Their evaluation is independent of the other object which the researcher is
studying. Respondents using a non-comparative scale employ whatever rating standard seems
appropriate to them. Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating
scales. Figure 5.1 shows the classification of these scaling techniques.
Figure : Scaling Techniques
ScalingTechniques
ComparativeScales Non-Comparative Scales
Paired Rank Constant Q-sort

Comparison Order Sum
Continuous Rating Scales Itemised Rating Scales
Likert SemanticDifferential Stapel

11.4Comparative Scales
The comparative scales can further be divided into the following four types of scaling
techniques: (a) Paired Comparison Scale, (b) Rank Order Scale, (c) Constant Sum Scale, and
(d) Q-sort Scale.
a)Paired Comparison Scale: This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent

is presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one object (rate between two
objects at a time) according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature. For
example, there are four types of cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and Limca. The
respondents can prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite, etc. In all we can have the following
six comparisons.
Brand Coke Pepsi Sprite Limca
Coke — 
Pepsi —
Sprite   —
Limca    —
No. of times preferred 2 3 1 0
A in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in
the corresponding row. In the above recording, Coke was preferred over Sprite, Coke over
Limca, in this case the number of times coke preferred was 2 times. Similarly, Pepsi over
Coke, Pepsi over Sprite, Pepsi over Limca, in this case Pepsi was 3 time preferred. Thus, the
number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the s in eachcolumn.
b)Rank Order Scale: This is another type of comparative scaling technique in which
respondents are presented with several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in the
order of priority. This is an ordinal scale that describes the favoured and unfavoured objects,
but does not reveal the distance between the objects. For example, if you are interested in
ranking the preference of some selected brands of cold drinks, you may use the following
format for recording the responses.
c)Preference of cold drink brands using rank order scaling
Instructions: Rank the following brands of cold drinks in order of preference. Begin by
picking out the one brand you like most and assign it a number1. Then find the second most
preferred brand and assign it a number
2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of cold drinks in order of
preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 4. Also remember no two
brands receive the same rank order.
Brand Rank
(a) Coke 3
(b) Pepsi 1
(c) Limca 2
(d) Sprite 4
d)Constant Sum Scale: In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of
units such as points, rupees, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some
criterion. For example, you may wish to determine how important the attributes of price,
fragrance, packaging, cleaning power, and lather of a detergent are to consumers.
Respondents might be asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of
the attributes using the following format.
Importance of detergent attributes using a constant sum scale

Format
Attribute Number of Points
(a) Price 50
(b) Fragrance 05
(c) Packaging 10
(d) Cleaning Power 30
(e) Lather 05
Total Points 100
e) Q-Sort Scale: This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects
based on similarity with respect to some criterion. The important characteristic of this
methodology is that it is more important to make comparisons among different responses of a
respondent than the responses between different respondents. Therefore, it is a comparative
method of scaling rather than an absolute rating scale. In this method the respondent is given
statements in a large number for describing the characteristics of a product or a large number
of brands of a product. For example, you may wish to determine the preference from among a
large number of magazines.
11.5 Non-Comparative Scales

The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further divided into: (a) Continuous Rating
Scale, and (b) Itemised Rating Scale.
a)Continuous Rating Scales

It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the respondent‘s rate the
objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that runs from one
extreme of the criterion variable to the other. Examples of continuous rating scale are given
below:
Question: How would you rate the TV advertisement as a guide for buying?
Scale Type A
strongly agree strongly disagree
Scale B
Strongly disagree strongly agree
Scale C
Strongly agree strongly disagree
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Scale D
strongly disagree 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 strongly agree
When scale type A and B are used, the respondents score is determined either by dividing
the line into as many categories as desired and assigning the respondent a score based on
the category into which his/her mark falls, or by measuring distance, in millimeters,
centimeters, or inches from either end of the scale. Whichever of the above continuous
scale is used, the results are normally analysed as interval scaled.
b)Itemised Rating Scales

Itemised rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions associated with each
category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents are
required to select one of the limited number of categories that best describes the product,
brand, company, or product attribute being rated. Itemised rating scales are widely used
in marketing research.
The itemised rating scales can be in the form of : (a) graphic, (b) verbal, or (c) numeric as
shown below.
Itemised Graphic Itemised Verbal Itemised Numeric

Scale Scale Scale
–5 —
Completelysatisfied
–4 —
Favourable
Somewhat satisfied –3 —
–2 —
Neither satisfied
–1 —
nor dissatisifed
Indifferent 0—
Somewhat +1 —
dissatisfied
+2 —
Completely +3 —
dissatisfied
Unfavourable +4 —
+5 —
Some rating scales may have only two response categories such as : agree and disagree.
Inclusion of more response categories provides the respondent more flexibility in the rating
task. Consider the following questions:
1. How often do you visit the super market located in your area of residence?
 Never
 Rarely
 Sometimes
 Often
 Very often
2. In your case how important is the price of brand X shoes when you buy them?
 Veryimportant
 Fairly important
 Neutral
 Not so important
Each of the above category scales is a more sensitive measure than a scale with only two
responses since they provide more information.
Wording is an extremely important factor in the usefulness of itemized scales. Table 5.6 shows
some common wordings for categories used in itemised scales.
Quality:
Excellent Good Notdecided Poor Worst
VeryGood Good Neithergood Fair Poor
nor bad
Importance:
VeryImportantFairly Neutral Notso Not at all important important
important
Interest:
VeryinterestedSomewhat NeitherinterestedSomewhat Not very
interested nordisinterested uninterested interested
Satisfaction:
Completely Somewhat Neithersatisfied Somewhat Completely
satisfied satisfied nordissatisfied dissatisfied dissatisfied
Frequency:
All of the timeVeryoften Often Sometimes Hardly ever
Veryofetn Often Sometimes Rarely Never
Truth:
Verytrue Somewhat Notverytrue Not at all true
true
Purchase
Interest:
Definitely will Probably willProbablywillDefinitely
buy buy notbuy will not buy
Level of
Agreement:
Stronglyagree Somewhat Neitheragree Somewhat Strongly
agree nordisagree disagree disagree
Dependability:
Completely Somewhat Notvery Not at all
dependable dependable dependable dependable
Style:
Very stylish Somewhat Notvery Completely
stylish stylish unstylish
Cost:
Extremely Expensive Neither Slightly Very
expensive expensivenorinexpensive inexpensive
inexpensive
Ease of use:
Veryeaseto Somewhat Notveryeasy Difficult to
use easytouse touse use
Modernity:
Verymodern Some what Neithermodern Somewhat Very old
modern nor old-fashioned old fashionedfashioned
Alert:
Veryalert Alert Notalert Not at allalert
Attitude measurement is an important parameter to understand the thoughts and opinions about
a target sample. Attitude measurement surveys have been successful in gaining feedback on
respondents attitudes about the topic under discussion. These surveys are carefully curated with
structured question types and scales.
This is where attitude scales come into the picture. Scales are used to associate a
numerical value with respondent behavior and thoughts. It is possible to have a number
corresponding to attitudes only when the attitude is considered accountable on only one scale
(uni-dimensional scale).
These scales can be classified into: Nominal, Ordinal or Interval scales and practically,
there is a well-constructed process for attitude scaling such as Likert, Guttman, Bogardus or
Thurstone. Thurstone and Guttman scales are two of the most distinctive attitude measurement
scales of all used to refer respondent behavior in real-life phenomenon with observation-based
research.
Thurstone scale was designed by psychologist Robert Thurstone in an attempt to
equate interval scale of measurement with the attitude scale and introduce a scale with
statements appearing at equal intervals. While Guttman scale is a cumulative scale developed
by Louis Guttman in 1944 – 1950 used to analyze the continuum for the topic of research, i.e.,
if in a list of 10 questions, if the respondent agrees to the 8th statement – it depicts that he/she
agrees with the preceding questions as well and does not agree with the 9th and 10th
statements.
In this section we will discuss three itemised rating scales, namely (a) Likert scale, (b)
Semantic Differential Scale, and (c) Stapel Scale.
a)Likert Scale: In business research, the Likert scale, developed by Rensis Likert, is extremely
popular for measuring attitudes, because, the method is simple to administer. With the Likert
scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or
disagree with carefully worded statements that range from very positive to very negative
towards the attitudinal object. Respondents generally choose from five alternatives (say
strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).
Consider the following example of a study or measuring attitudes towards cricket.
Strongly Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly

agree disagree
It is more fun to play a
tough, competitive cricket match 5 4 3 2 1
than to play an easy one.
To measure the attitude, the researchers assign weights or scores to thealternative

responses. In the above example the scores 5 to 1 are assigned to the responses. Strong
agreement of the respondent indicates the most favourable attitudes on the statement, and the
score 5 is assigned to it. On the other hand, strong disagreement of the respondent indicates the
most unfavourable attitude on the statement, and the score 1 is assigned to it. If a negative
statement towards the object is given, the corresponding scores would be reversed. In this case,
the response ‗strongly agree‘ will get a score of 1 and the response ‗strongly disagree‘ will get
a score of 5.
A Likert scale may include a number of items or statements. Each statement is assumed to
represent an aspect of an attitudinal domain. For example, Table 5.7 shows the items in a Likert
Scale to measure opinions on food products.
A Likert Scale for studying opinions on food products.
Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree
Disagree
If the price of raw materials
fall, firms too should reduce 1 2 3 4 5
the price of the food products.
There should be uniform price
through out the country for 1 2 3 4 5
food products
The food companies should
concentrate more on keeping 1 2 3 4 5
hygiene while manufacturing
food products.
The expiry dates should be
printed on the food products 1 2 3 4 5
before they are delivered to
consumers in the market.
There should be government
regulations on the firms in 1 2 3 4 5
keeping acceptable quality and
on the prices
Now-a-days most food 1 2 3 4 5
companies are concerned only
with profit making rather than
taking care ofquality.
Each respondent is asked to circle his opinion on a score against each statement. The
final score for the respondent on the scale is the sum of their
ratingsforalltheitems.TheverypurposeofLikert‘sScaleistoensurethefinal items evoke a
wide response and discriminate among those with positive and
negativeattitudes.Itemsthatarepoor(becausetheylackclarityorelicitmixed
responsepatterns)aredetectedfromthefinalstatementlist.Thiswillensureus
todiscriminatebetweenhighpositivescoresandhighnegativescores.However,
manybusinessresearchersdonotfollowthisprocedureandyoumaynotbeina position to
distinguish between high positive scores and high negative scores
becauseallscoreslookalike.HenceadisadvantageoftheLikertScaleisthatit is difficult to
know what a single summated score means. Many patterns of response other various
statements can produce the same total score. The other disadvantage of Likert Scale is
that it takes longer time to complete than other item is edrating scales because
respondent shave to readeachs tatement. Despite thea bove disadvantages, this scale
has several advantages.Itiseasyto construct, administer and use.
a) Semantic Differential Scale: This is a seven point rating scale with end points
associated with bipolar labels (such as good and bad, complex and simple) that have
semantic meaning. The Semantic Differential scale is used for a variety of purposes.
It can be used to find whether a respondent has a positive or negative attitude
towards an object. It has been widely used in comparing brands, products and
company images. It has also been used to develop advertising and promotion
strategies and in a new product development study.
11.6Thurstone Scale
Predicting results and setting comparison of various feedbacks is much more convenient
than attempting to quantify something as intricate as respondent attitudes. Thurstone is a
systematic technique to perform the process of differentiating and forecasting results.
Thurstone scale was traditionally implemented in sociology and psychology. It is
constructed by taking multiple ―agree-disagree‖ statements with values corresponding to
each of these statements. Thus, Thurstone scale is used to ascertain respondent opinions and
feelings and the intensities of those respective opinions.
11.7Guttman Scale
In many cases, the strength of respondent opinions is more important than the opinions
themselves. Guttman scale, also popularly known as cumulative scale, has a series of
statements chosen by a careful rating process. From this list of statements, it is subsumed
that a respondent agrees particular item also chooses to agree with the preceding statements.
There are multiple grievous issues where it is important to know the strength of respondent
opinions as opposed to just their opinions. Guttman scale project the severity of the opinion
by including a list of dichotomous questions in terms of ―agree-disagree‖ or ―yes-no‖.
11.8Thurstone vs Guttman Scale
Thurstone Scale Guttman Scale

The scale is decided by experts as they submit their
The scale is decided by experts on a scale of agreement with the various statements and the last
1-11 using mean/mode. agreed statement indicates that they agree with the
previous statements.
Guttman scale survey questions are decided by the
Thurstone scale survey questions are decided average degree of agreement for each of the
by assigning relative values to the statements. statements. In case of least agreement, the
statements will not be a part of the survey.
The standard of deciding Thurstone scale is
The standard of deciding Guttman scale is from
from extremely unfavorable to extremely
agreement to disagreement or Yes/No.
favorable.
Either median or mode is used for analyzing Average of opinions is considered for analyzing
Thurstone scale Guttman scale
The limitation of Guttman scale will be in terms of
The only limitation of the Thurstone scale is
difficulty in execution and also similar to
that as corresponding values are allotted as
Thurstone scale, each judge or group of judges can
per the understanding of a judge or a group of
interpret the statements differently – which can
judges are non-uniform, the mathematical
result in margin of error in the collected
calculations can be inaccurate.
information.
11.9Summary
Scaling technique is a method of placing respondents in continuation of gradual

change in the pre-assigned values, symbols or numbers based on the features of a particular
object as per the defined rules. All the scaling techniques are based on four pillars, i.e.,
order, description, distance and origin.

There are four levels of measurements: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.These constitute
a hierarchy where the lower scale of measurement, nominal, has far fewer statistical
applications than those further up this hierarchy of scales. Nominal scales yield data on
categories; ordinal scales give sequences; interval scales begin to reveal the magnitude
between points on the scale and ratio scales explain both order and the absolute distance
between any two points on the scale.
The measurement scales, commonly used in marketing research, can be divided into two
types; comparative and non-comparative scales. Comparative scales involve the respondent
in signaling where there is a difference between two or more firms, brands, services, or
other stimuli. The scales under this type are: (a) Paired Comparison, (b) Rank Order, (c)
Constant Sum, and (d) Q-sort. Further, The non-comparative scales can be classified into:
(a) Continuous Rating Scales and (b) Itemised Rating Scales. The Itemised Rating scales
can further be classified into: (a) Likert Scale, (b) Semantic Differential Scale, and (c)
Stapel Scale. A number of scaling techniques are available for measurement of attitudes.
There is no unique way that you can use to select a particular scaling technique for your
research study. A number of issues, such as problem defintion and statistical analysis,
choice between comparative and noncomparative scales, type of category lables, number of
categories etc., discussed in this unit should be considered before you arrive at a particular
scaling technique.
11.10Key Words
Comparative Scales : In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to compare one

object with another.
Constant Sum Scale : In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of
units such as points, rupees, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some
criterion. Continuous Rating Scales : Here the respondents rate the objects by placing a
mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that runs from one extreme of the
criterion variable to the other.
Itemised Rating Scales : Itemised rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief
descriptions associated with each category.
Interval Scale : In this scale, the numbers are used to rank attributes such that numerically
equal distances on the scale represent equal distances in the characteristic being measured.
Likert Scale : With the Likert scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully worded statements that range
from very positive to very negative towards the attitudinal object.
Measurement : Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations

that are collected as part of research.
Non-comparative Scales : In non-comparative scaling, respondents need only evaluate a

single object.
Nominal Scale : In this scale, the different scores on a measurement simply indicate
different categories.
Ordinal Scale : In this scale, the items are ranked according to whether they have more or
less of a characteristic.
Q-Sort Scale : This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects
based on similarity with respect to some criterion.
Rank Order Scale : In this scale, the respondents are presented with several items
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion.
Scaling : Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a rule.
Semantic Differential Scale : This is a seven point rating scale with end points associated
with bipolar labels (such as good and bad, complex and simple) that have semantic
meaning.
11.11Self – Assessment Questions:
1) Discuss briefly different issues you consider for selecting an appropriate scaling
technique for measuring attitudes.
2) What are the different levels of measurement? Explain any two of them.
3) How do you select an appropriate scaling technique for a research study? Explain
the issues involved in it.
4) Discuss briefly the issues involved in attitude measurement.
5) Differentiate between ranking scales and rating scales. Which one of these scales is
better for measuring attitudes?
6) In what type of situation is the Q-sort technique more appropriate?
7) Name any four situations in commerce where you can use the Likert scale.
1. Research Methods & statistics A Critical thinking approach by Sherri

L.JacksonCenage Learning Publications, Third Edition, 2009
2. . Business Statistics for Contemporary Decision Making, Ken black, Sixth Edition,
Springer Publication, 2010.
3. Research Methodology by Dr.Nishikant Jha Himalaya Publishing House, 2013.
4. Research Methodology, A step-by-step guide for beginners Kumar, Dr Ranjit kumar
Sage Publications 2015
5. Introduction to statistics Management Design of Experiment and Statistical quality
Control by Dharmaraja selvamuthu, and Dipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
6. Handbook of Research Methodology ( A Compendium for Scholars and Researchers)
by Dr. Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Educreation Publishing 2019.
7. Research Design, Qualitative and Quantitative Mixed Method, Approaches, 4th

Edition, Sage Publications, 2019.
8. Rodger, Lesile W. (1984) Statistics for Marketing, McGraw-Hill (UK),London.
9. Research Methodology- 2014 by R. Panneerselvam, PHI Learning,
ISBN9788120349469.
10. Research Methodology and Statistical Analysis, January 2022, by Sai, SIA
Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd.
Dr.K.MADHUBABU
LESSON 12
PILOT STUDY,PRE – TESTING, VALIDITY,

RELIABILITY, QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Learning objectives
 To know the pilot study

 To evalute the per – testing
 To assess the validity and reliability
 To examine the qualitative and quantitative research methods
Structure
12.0 Pilot study

12.1 The main reasons to conduct a pilot study
12.2 Reasons for not conducting a pilot study
120.3 Pre – Testing
12.4 Reliability
12.5 Validity
12.6 Data collection method for qualitative data
12.7 Data collection method for quantitative research data
12.8 Qualitative Research Method
12.9 Quantitative Method
12.10 Qualitative vs quantitative data collection methods
12.11Non-Comparative Scales
12.13Key words
12.14 Self Assessment questions
12.0 Introduction
A pilot study can be defined as a ‗small study to test research protocols, data
collection instruments, sample recruitment strategies, and other research techniques in
preparation for a larger study. A pilot study is one of the important stages in a research
project and is conducted to identify potential problem areas and deficiencies in the research
instruments and protocol prior to implementation during the full study. It can also help
members of the research team become familiar with the procedures in the protocol, and can
help them decide between two competing study methods, such as using interviews rather than
a self-administered questionnaire.
Pilot studies are small-scale, preliminary studies which aim to investigate whether crucial
components of a main study – usually a randomized controlled trial (RCT) – will be feasible.
For example, they may be used in attempt to predict an appropriate sample size for the full-
scale project and/or to improve upon various aspects of the study design. Often RCTs require
a lot of time and money to be carried out, so it is crucial that the researchers have confidence
in the key steps they will take when conducting this type of study to avoid wasting time and
resources.
Thus, a pilot study must answer a simple question: ―Can the full-scale study be conducted in
the way that has been planned or should some component(s) be altered?‖
The reporting of pilot studies must be of high quality to allow readers to interpret the results
and implications correctly. This blog will highlight some key things for readers to consider
when they are appraising a pilot study.
12.1 The main reasons to conduct a pilot study
Pilot studies are conducted to evaluate the feasibility of some crucial component(s) of the
full-scale study. Typically, these can be divided into 4 main aspects:
Process: where the feasibility of the key steps in the main study is assessed (e.g. recruitment
rate; retention levels and eligibility criteria)
Resources: assessing problems with time and resources that may occur during the main study
(e.g. how much time the main study will take to be completed; whether use of some
equipment will be feasible or whether the form(s) of evaluation selected for the main study
are as good as possible)
Management: problems with data management and with the team involved in the study (e.g.
whether there were problems with collecting all the data needed for future analysis; whether
the collected data are highly variable and whether data from different institutions can be
analyzed together).
12.2 Reasons for not conducting a pilot study

A study should not simply be labelled a ‗pilot study‘ by researchers hoping to justify a small
sample size. Pilot studies should always have their objectives linked with feasibility and
should inform researchers about the best way to conduct the future, full-scale project.
A) How to interpret a pilot study

Readers must interpret pilot studies carefully. Below are some key things to consider when
assessing a pilot study:
 The objectives of pilot studies must always be linked with feasibility and the crucial
component that will be tested must always be stated.
 The method section must present the criteria for success. For example: ―the main
study will be feasible if the retention rate of the pilot study exceeds 90%‖. Sample
size may vary in pilot studies (different articles present different sample size
calculations) but the pilot study population, from which the sample is formed, must be
the same as the main study. However, the participants in the pilot study should not be
entered into the full-scale study. This is because participants may change their later
behaviour if they had previously been involved in the research.
 The pilot study may or may not be a randomized trial (depending on the nature of the
study). If the researchers do randomize the sample in the pilot study, it is important
that the process for randomization is kept the same in the full-scale project. If the
authors decide to test the randomization feasibility through a pilot study, different
kinds of randomization procedures could be used.
 As well as the method section, the results of the pilot studies should be read carefully.
Although pilot studies often present results related to the effectiveness of the
interventions, these results should be interpreted as ―potential effectiveness‖. The
focus in the results of pilot studies should always be on feasibility, rather than
statistical significance. However, results of the pilot studies should nonetheless be
provided with measures of variability (such as confidence intervals), particularly as
the sample size of these studies is usually relatively small, and this might produce
biased results.
12.3 Pre – Testing
The tool or instrument of data collection namely the schedule or the questionnaire should be
pre-tested before adopted for data collection on the study. Pre-testing simply means, testing
the validity, reliability, practicability and sensitivity of the tool before it is used for actual
data collection. The only way to gain assurance that questions are unambiguous is to try them
on a selected small group of prospective respondents.
a) Process of Pre-testing
Pre-testing can be done in parts. Different sub-parts in the main part of the
questionnaire/schedule can be differently pre-tested. So a series of small pre-test on different
units of the tool can be done. A full scale pre-test of the whole tool can be done if needed
finally or in lieu of the series of pre-tests is small bits.
Pre-testing must be done on a sample that is representatives of the population. May be 10 to
12 respondents for pre-testing are good.
b) Importance of pre-testing
The following are the objectives of pre-testing of data collection tools:
 To detect discrepancies in the tool and rectify the same. This is needed to find where
the shoe bites and making amends for the same.
 To detect the difficulties encountered by the respondents while filling up the
questionnaire / schedule and make remedies for the same.
 To detect possible misunderstood, un-understood aspects of the tool and rectify the
same.
 The sequence of questions is better ordered in the light of feedback received.
 To get now insights into the problem based on responses received through pre-test
and incorporate them in the tool and thereby enriching the tool.
 To take note of flabby parts in the tool and remove them to make the tool slim and fit.
 To re-size the tool based on time taken for filling up the questionnaire. The tool is
thus right sized.
Goode and Hatt (1952) indicated the following as signs or symptoms of defective schedule /
questionnaire which may be seen during pre-testing:
 Lack of proper order in the responses,
 All are none responses,

 Large number of ―do not know‖ or ―do not understand‖ answers,
 Many qualified answers or irrelevant opinions,
 High proportion of refusals to answer,
 High degree of variance in answers when the questions order is changed,
 Similar type of people giving different types of replies,
 Answers differing known answers,
 In case of questionnaire refusal to answer it,
 Marginal comments of interviewers or respondents concerning particular questions.
c) Advantages of Pre-testing
The advantages of pre-testing of data collection tools are as follows:

 The strengths and weaknesses of the tool are known before-hand.
 The structure and contents of the tool are refined in the light of weaknesses spotted.
 Measurement problems like offensive questions, intrusive or invasive questions get
rectified.
 Effectiveness of the tool is enhanced by rightly working certain questions, removing
confusion causing questions and the like.
 An estimate of resources needed in terms of non-hours needed, enumerates needed,
etc. to conduct the final survey can be made.
12.4 Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. Psychologists consider three types of
consistency: over time (test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across
different researchers (inter-rater reliability).
a) Test-Retest Reliability
When researchers measure a construct that they assume to be consistent across time, then the
scores they obtain should also be consistent across time. Test-retest reliability is the extent to
which this is actually the case. For example, intelligence is generally thought to be consistent
across time. A person who is highly intelligent today will be highly intelligent next week.
This means that any good measure of intelligence should produce roughly the same scores for
this individual next week as it does today. Clearly, a measure that produces highly
inconsistent scores over time cannot be a very good measure of a construct that is supposed to
be consistent.
Assessing test-retest reliability requires using the measure on a group of people at one time,
using it again on the same group of people at a later time, and then looking at test-retest
correlation between the two sets of scores. This is typically done by graphing the data in a
scatterplot and computing Pearson‘s r. Figure 12.1 shows the correlation between two sets of
scores of several university students on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, administered two
times, a week apart. Pearson‘s r for these data is +.95. In general, a test-retest correlation of
+.80 or greater is considered to indicate good reliability.
Figure 12.1Test-Retest Correlation Between Two Sets of Scores of Several College Students on the Rosenberg
Self-Esteem Scale, Given Two Times a Week Apart
Again, high test-retest correlations make sense when the construct being measured is
assumed to be consistent over time, which is the case for intelligence, self-esteem, and the
Big Five personality dimensions. But other constructs are not assumed to be stable over time.
The very nature of mood, for example, is that it changes. So a measure of mood that produced
a low test-retest correlation over a period of a month would not be a cause for concern.
b) Internal Consistency
A second kind of reliability is internal consistency, which is the consistency of people‘s
responses across the items on a multiple-item measure. In general, all the items on such
measures are supposed to reflect the same underlying construct, so people‘s scores on those
items should be correlated with each other. On the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, people who
agree that they are a person of worth should tend to agree that that they have a number of
good qualities. If people‘s responses to the different items are not correlated with each other,
then it would no longer make sense to claim that they are all measuring the same underlying
construct. This is as true for behavioural and physiological measures as for self-report
measures. For example, people might make a series of bets in a simulated game of roulette as
a measure of their level of risk seeking. This measure would be internally consistent to the
extent that individual participants‘ bets were consistently high or low across trials.
Like test-retest reliability, internal consistency can only be assessed by collecting and
analyzing data. One approach is to look at a split-half correlation. This involves splitting the
items into two sets, such as the first and second halves of the items or the even- and odd-
numbered items. Then a score is computed for each set of items, and the relationship between
the two sets of scores is examined. For example, Figure 12.2 shows the split-half correlation
between several university students‘ scores on the even-numbered items and their scores on
the odd-numbered items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Pearson‘s r for these data is
+.88. A split-half correlation of +.80 or greater is generally considered good internal
consistency.
Figure 12.2 Split-Half Correlation Between Several College Students’ Scores on the Even-Numbered Items and
Their Scores on the Odd-Numbered Items of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Perhaps the most common measure of internal consistency used by researchers in psychology
is a statistic called Cronbach‘s α (the Greek letter alpha). Conceptually, α is the mean of all
possible split-half correlations for a set of items. For example, there are 252 ways to split a
set of 10 items into two sets of five. Cronbach‘s α would be the mean of the 252 split-half
correlations. Note that this is not how α is actually computed, but it is a correct way of
interpreting the meaning of this statistic. Again, a value of +.80 or greater is generally taken
to indicate good internal consistency.
c) Interrater Reliability
Many behavioural measures involve significant judgment on the part of an observer or a
rater. Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which different observers are consistent in their
judgments. For example, if you were interested in measuring university students‘ social
skills, you could make video recordings of them as they interacted with another student
whom they are meeting for the first time. Then you could have two or more observers watch
the videos and rate each student‘s level of social skills. To the extent that each participant
does in fact have some level of social skills that can be detected by an attentive observer,
different observers‘ ratings should be highly correlated with each other. Inter-rater reliability
would also have been measured in Bandura‘s Bobo doll study. In this case, the observers‘
ratings of how many acts of aggression a particular child committed while playing with the
Bobo doll should have been highly positively correlated. Interrater reliability is often
assessed using Cronbach‘s α when the judgments are quantitative or an analogous statistic
called Cohen‘s κ (the Greek letter kappa) when they are categorical.
12.5 Validity
Validity is the extent to which the scores from a measure represent the variable they are
intended to. But how do researchers make this judgment? We have already considered one
factor that they take into account—reliability. When a measure has good test-retest reliability
and internal consistency, researchers should be more confident that the scores represent what
they are supposed to. There has to be more to it, however, because a measure can be
extremely reliable but have no validity whatsoever. As an absurd example, imagine someone
who believes that people‘s index finger length reflects their self-esteem and therefore tries to
measure self-esteem by holding a ruler up to people‘s index fingers. Although this measure
would have extremely good test-retest reliability, it would have absolutely no validity. The
fact that one person‘s index finger is a centimetre longer than another‘s would indicate
nothing about which one had higher self-esteem.
a) Face Validity
Face validity is the extent to which a measurement method appears ―on its face‖ to measure
the construct of interest. Most people would expect a self-esteem questionnaire to include
items about whether they see themselves as a person of worth and whether they think they
have good qualities. So a questionnaire that included these kinds of items would have good
face validity. The finger-length method of measuring self-esteem, on the other hand, seems to
have nothing to do with self-esteem and therefore has poor face validity. Although face
validity can be assessed quantitatively—for example, by having a large sample of people rate
a measure in terms of whether it appears to measure what it is intended to—it is usually
assessed informally.
b) Content Validity
Content validity is the extent to which a measure ―covers‖ the construct of interest. For
example, if a researcher conceptually defines test anxiety as involving both sympathetic
nervous system activation (leading to nervous feelings) and negative thoughts, then his
measure of test anxiety should include items about both nervous feelings and negative
thoughts. Or consider that attitudes are usually defined as involving thoughts, feelings, and
actions toward something. By this conceptual definition, a person has a positive attitude
toward exercise to the extent that he or she thinks positive thoughts about exercising, feels
good about exercising, and actually exercises. So to have good content validity, a measure of
people‘s attitudes toward exercise would have to reflect all three of these aspects. Like face
validity, content validity is not usually assessed quantitatively. Instead, it is assessed by
carefully checking the measurement method against the conceptual definition of the
construct.
c) Criterion Validity
Criterion validity is the extent to which people‘s scores on a measure are correlated with
other variables (known as criteria) that one would expect them to be correlated with. For
example, people‘s scores on a new measure of test anxiety should be negatively correlated
with their performance on an important school exam. If it were found that people‘s scores
were in fact negatively correlated with their exam performance, then this would be a piece of
evidence that these scores really represent people‘s test anxiety. But if it were found that
people scored equally well on the exam regardless of their test anxiety scores, then this would
cast doubt on the validity of the measure.
When the criterion is measured at the same time as the construct, criterion validity is referred
to as concurrent validity; however, when the criterion is measured at some point in the future
(after the construct has been measured), it is referred to as predictive validity (because scores
on the measure have ―predicted‖ a future outcome).
Criteria can also include other measures of the same construct. For example, one would
expect new measures of test anxiety or physical risk taking to be positively correlated with
existing measures of the same constructs. This is known as convergent validity.
d) Discriminant Validity
Discriminant validity, on the other hand, is the extent to which scores on a measure are not
correlated with measures of variables that are conceptually distinct. For example, self-esteem
is a general attitude toward the self that is fairly stable over time. It is not the same as mood,
which is how good or bad one happens to be feeling right now. So people‘s scores on a new
measure of self-esteem should not be very highly correlated with their moods. If the new
measure of self-esteem were highly correlated with a measure of mood, it could be argued
that the new measure is not really measuring self-esteem; it is measuring mood instead.
12.6 Data collection method for qualitative data

The best data collection method for a researcher for gathering qualitative data which
generally is data relying on the feelings, opinions and beliefs of the respondents would be
Combination Research.
The reason why combination research is the best fit is that it encompasses the attributes of
Interviews and Focus Groups. It is also useful when gathering data that is sensitive in nature.
It can be described as all-purpose quantitative data collection method.
Above all, combination research improves the richness of data collected when compared with
other data collection methods for qualitative data.
Figure 12.3
12.7 Data collection method for quantitative research data
The best data collection method a researcher can employ in gathering quantitative data which
takes into consideration data that can be represented in numbers and figures that can be
deduced mathematically is the Questionnaire.These can be administered to a large number of
respondents, while saving cost. For quantitative data that may be bulky or voluminous in
nature, the use of a Questionnaire makes such data easy to visualize and analyze.
Another key advantage of the Questionnaire is that it can be used to compare and contrast
previous research work done to measure changes.
12.8 Qualitative Research Method
The qualitative research methods of data collection do not involve the collection of data that
involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a mathematical calculation, rather it is
based on the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. An
example of such a method is an open-ended questionnaire.
Figure 12.4
12.9 Quantitative Method
Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to

deduce. An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive
at figures to be calculated Mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode and median.
Figure 12.5
12.10 Qualitative vs quantitative data collection methods
Some of the methods covered here are quantitative, dealing with something that can
be counted. Others are qualitative, meaning that they consider factors other than numerical
values. In general, questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records are quantitative, while
interviews, focus groups, observations, and oral histories are qualitative. There can also be
crossover between the two methods.
Data analysis can take various formats. The method you choose depends on the
subject matter of your research.
Quantitative methods, such as surveys, large-scale benchmarks, and prioritization,
answer the question ―How much?‖ But these methods can leave the question ―Why?‖
unanswered. This is where qualitative data collection methods come into play.
Understanding qualitative data collection
Qualitative data collection looks at several factors to provide a depth of understanding to raw
data. While qualitative methods involve the collection, analysis, and management of data,
instead of counting responses or recording numeric data, this method aims to assess factors
like the thoughts and feelings of research participants. Qualitative data collection methods go
beyond recording events to create context.
With this enhanced view, researchers can
 Describe the environment. Understanding where observations take place can add
meaning to recorded numbers.
 Identify the people involved in the study. If research is limited to a particular group of
people, whether intentionally or as a function of demographics or other factors, this
information can inform the results.
 Describe the content of the study. Sometimes, the specific activities involved in
research and how messages about the study were delivered and received may
illuminate facts about the study.
 Interact with study participants. Interactions between respondents and research staff
can provide valuable information about the results.
 Be aware of external factors. Unanticipated events can affect research outcomes.
Qualitative data collection methods allow researchers to identify these events and
weave them into their results narrative, which is nearly impossible to do with just a
quantitative approach.
a)Qualitative research methods
There are three commonly used qualitative data collection methods: ethnographic, theory
grounded, and phenomenological.
Ethnography comes from anthropology, the study of human societies and cultures.
Ethnography seeks to understand how people live their lives. Through this method,
researchers veer away from the specific and practical questions that traditional market
researchers use and instead observe the participants in a nondirected way. This approach is
intended to reveal behaviors from a subject‘s perspective rather than from the view of the
researchers.
Ethnography helps fill in the blanks when a participant may not be able to articulate
their desires or the reasons for their decisions or behaviors. Instead of, or in addition to,
asking why a participant acts a certain way, researchers use observation to understand the
why behind these desires, decisions, or behaviors.
Grounded theory arose when sociological researchers sought to provide a level of
legitimacy to qualitative research — to ground it in reality rather than assumptions. Before
this method, qualitative data analysis was actually done before any quantitative data was
collected, so it was disconnected from the collection and analysis process.
Grounded theory uses the following methods:
 Participant observation. Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of

subjects. Another term for this is ―fieldwork.‖
 Interviews. These can vary in formality from informal chats to structured

interviews.
 Document and artifact collection. Grounded theory often is about more than
observation and interviews. Researchers can learn about a group of people from
looking at materials the group used. For example, a local community‘s laws may
shed light on opinions and provide a clearer picture of residents‘ sentiments.
Each of these qualitative data collection methods sheds light on factors that can be hidden in
simple data analysis. Qualitative data is one way to add context and reality to raw numbers.
Often, researchers find value in a hybrid approach, where qualitative data collection methods
are used alongside quantitative ones.
b)Quantitative data collection methods

Marketers, scientists, academics, and others may start a study with a predetermined
hypothesis, but their research often begins with the collection of data.
Initially, the collected data is unstructured. Various facts and figures may or may not have
context. A researcher‘s job is to make sense of this data, and the choice of data collection
method often helps.
1)Experimental research, also known as ―true experimentation,‖ uses the scientific method
to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This method uses controls
for all of the crucial factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Using the
experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants in an experiment to either the
control or treatment groups.
2)Quasi-experimental research, also known as ―causal-comparative,‖ is similar to

experimental research. Since it‘s often impossible or impractical to control for all factors
involved, quasi-experimental methods don‘t control for some factors but otherwise follow the
scientific method to establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
In both of these types of studies, independent variables are manipulated. But experimental
data collection methods use random assignment and sampling, whereas quasi-experimental
methods don‘t randomize assignment or sampling or both.
Experimental methods are known for producing results that are both internally and externally
valid, meaning that the study is conducted, or structured, well (internal validity) and the
findings are applicable to the real world (external validity). Quasi-experimental methods, on
the other hand, produce results of questionable internal validity.
Quantitative interviews are typically conducted face to face, over the phone, or via the
internet. They enable researchers to not only collect information but also tailor the questions
to the audience on the spot. This can help add some ―why‖ to the ―how much‖ collected
through quantifiable means.
12.11Non-Comparative Scales
The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further divided into: (a) Continuous Rating
Scale, and (b) Itemised Rating Scale.
A)Continuous Rating Scales
It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating scale, the respondent‘s rate the
objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that runs from one
extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
In this section we will discuss three itemised rating scales, namely
(a) Likert scale

(b) Semantic Differential Scale
(c) Stapel Scale.
12.12Key words
 Psychological researchers do not simply assume that their measures work. Instead,
they conduct research to show that they work. If they cannot show that they work,
they stop using them.
 There are two distinct criteria by which researchers evaluate their measures: reliability
and validity. Reliability is consistency across time (test-retest reliability), across items
(internal consistency), and across researchers (interrater reliability). Validity is the
extent to which the scores actually represent the variable they are intended to.
 Validity is a judgment based on various types of evidence. The relevant evidence

includes the measure‘s reliability, whether it covers the construct of interest, and
whether the scores it produces are correlated with other variables they are expected to
be correlated with and not correlated with variables that are conceptually distinct.
 The reliability and validity of a measure is not established by any single study but by
the pattern of results across multiple studies. The assessment of reliability and validity
is an ongoing process.
1. Discuss the Main reasons to conduct the pilot study

2. Explain the Data collection Method for qualitative data
3. Describe the Data collection Method for quantitative Research Data?

Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015
by Dharmaraja selvamuthu, andDipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
Sage Publications, 2019
Dr.K.MADHUBABU
LESSON 13
CONSTRUCTING OF HYPOTHESIS
Learning Objectives
 To study the nature of Hypothesis

 To Understand the Characteristics of Hypothesis
 To learn the Basic concepts of concerning testing of hypothesis
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Definition of Hypothesis
13.2 Nature of Hypothesis
13.3 Characteristics of Hypothesis
13.4 Sources of Hypothesis
13.5 Variables
13.5.1 Independent Variables
13.6 Basic Concepts concerning Testing of Hypothesis
13.6.1 Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
13.6.2 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing
13.7 Summary
13.0 Introduction
Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main

function is to Suggest new experiments and observations. In fact, many experiments are
carried out with the deliberate object of testing hypotheses. Decision-makers often face
situations wherein they are interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available
information and then take decisions on thebasis of such testing. In social science, where
direct knowledge of population parameter(s) is rare, hypothesis testing is the often used
strategy for deciding whether a sample data offer such support for a hypothesis that
generalization can be made. Thus hypothesis testing enables us to make probability
statements about population parameter(s). The hypothesis may not be proved absolutely, but
in practiceit is accepted if it has withstood a critical testing. Before we explain how
hypotheses are testedthrough different tests meant for the purpose, it will be appropriate to
explain clearly the meaning ofa hypothesis and the related concepts for better understanding
of the hypothesis testing techniques.
Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or
some suppositionto be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends toresolve. Thus a hypothesis may be definedas a proposition or a set
of proposition set forth as anexplanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena either asserted merely as aprovisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light ofestablished facts. Quite often a research hypothesis
is a predictive statement, capable of being testedby scientific methods, that relates an
independent variable to some dependent variable. For example,consider statements like the
following ones:“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity
than students notreceiving counselling” Or“the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”
These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may
conclude thata hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be
put to a test todetermine its validity.
13.1. Definition of Hypothesis
“A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem, a

possible outcome of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome”. Goode
and Hatt have defined it as “a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity”.
“Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising theory
or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”.
According to Lundberg, “A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity of which
remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation”. Hence, a hypothesis is
a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or
situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. A researcher calls these assumptions/
hunches hypotheses and they become the basis of an enquiry. In most studies the hypothesis
will be based upon your own or someone else‟s observation. Hypothesis brings clarity,
specificity and focus to a research problem, but is not essential for a study. You can conduct a
valid investigation without constructing formal hypothesis. The formulation of hypothesis
provides a study with focus. It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to
investigate. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby
providing focus to the study. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances
objectivity in a study. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It
enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false. Ludberg observes, quite
often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific
methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable.
13.2 Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It should

be specified before research is conducted and openly stated in reporting the results. This
allows to:
✓ Identify the research objectives.
✓ Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research.

✓ Identify its relationship to both the problem statement and the literature review.
✓ A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form.
✓ It is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge and

conducive to further enquiry.
✓ It can be tested – verifiable or falsifiable.
✓ Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions.
✓ It is neither too specific nor to general
✓ It is a prediction of consequences.
✓ It is considered valuable even if proven false. Importance of Hypothesis: Hypothesis

though an important part of research may not be required in all types of research. The
research which are based on fact finding (historical or descriptive research) do not need
hypothesis. Hillway also says that “When fact-finding alone is the aim of the study, a
hypothesis is not required”. Whenever possible, a hypothesis is recommended for all major
studies to explain observed facts, conditions or behaviour and to serve as a guide in the
research process
✓ Hypothesis facilitates the extension of knowledge in an area. They provide tentative

explanations of facts and phenomena, and can be tested and validated. It sensitizes the
investigator to certain aspects of the situations which are relevant from the standpoint of the
problem in hand.
✓ Hypothesis provide the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements

expressed in a logical order of relationships which seeks to describe or to explain conditions
or events, that have yet not been confirmed by facts. The hypothesis enables the researcher to
relate logically known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions. It is a guide to
the thinking process and the process of discovery.
✓ Hypothesis provides direction to the research. It defines what is relevant and what is
irrelevant. The hypothesis tells the researcher what he needs to do and find out in his study.
Thus it prevents the review of irrelevant literature and provides a basis for selecting the
sample and the research procedure to be used in the study.
✓ Hypothesis implies the statistical techniques needed in the analysis of data, and the
relationship between the variables to be tested. It also helps to delimit his study in scope so
that it does not become broad or unwieldy.
✓ Hypothesis provides the basis for reporting the conclusion of the study. It serves as a
framework for drawing conclusions. In other word, we can say that it provides the outline for
setting conclusions in a meaningful way.
✓ So, Hypothesis has a very important place in research although it occupies a very small
place in the body of a thesis.
13.3 Characteristics of hypothesis
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise,
theinferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses,

manya time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done
byresearcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if
otherdeductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by
observation.”
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a

relationalhypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must
rememberthat narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such
hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same
iseasily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of
hypothesishas nothing to do with its significance.
(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with
asubstantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges acceptas
being the most likely.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not
useeven an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for
onecannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This
meansthat by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should
beable to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain
whatit claims to explain; it should have empirical reference.
Hypothesis is usually considered as an important mechanism in Research. Hypothesis

is a tentative assumption made in order to test its logical or empirical consequences. If we go
by the origin of the word, it is derived from the Greek word- „hypotithenai‟ meaning „to put
under‟ or to „to suppose‟. Etymologically hypothesis is made up of two words, “hypo” and
“thesis” which means less than or less certain than a thesis. It is a presumptive statement of a
proposition or a reasonable guess, based upon the available evidence, which the researcher
seeks to prove through his study. A hypothesis will give a plausible explanation that will be
tested. A hypothesis may seem contrary to the real situation. It may prove to be correct or
incorrect. Hypothesis need to be clear and precise and capable of being tested. It is to be
limited in scope and consistent with known or established facts and should be amenable to
testing within the stipulated time. It needs to explain what it claims to explain and should
have empirical reference.
13.4 Sources of Hypothesis
A good hypothesis can only be derived from experience in research. Though

hypothesis should precede the collection of data, but some degree of data collection, literature
review or a pilot study will help in the development and gradual refinement of the hypothesis.
A researcher should have quality of an alert mind to derive a hypothesis and quality of critical
mind of rejecting faulty hypothesis. The following sources can help the researcher in coming
up with a good hypothesis:
✓ Review of literature.
✓ Discussion with the experts in the given field to understand the problem, its origin and
objectives in seeking a solution.
✓ Intuition of the researcher also sometimes helps in forming a good hypothesis.
✓ Previous empirical studies done on the given area.
Understanding Types of Hypothesis
Research Problems are too general by themselves to enable us to carryout meaningful

analysis. They need to be specified in a more focussed way. Hypotheses are specific
statements that relate to the problem, the answers to which are likely to be yes or no,
depending upon what is uncovered from the research. Examples of Hypothesis can be:
✓ Suicide is related to general level of religiosity/secularisation of society.
✓ Alienation and political participation are negatively related. Such statements specify links
between different phenomena, in order to explain different patterns of behaviour that appear
to occur. However, such patterns of association do not necessarily demonstrate that a causal
relationship exists. We cannot for an instance say, „socio-economic deprivation causes
suicide.‟ If that was the case, then all those in Britain defined by various yardsticks as living
in a state of relative poverty would inevitably commit suicide. This is very unlikely to
happen.
13.5 Variables
So, to understand the types of hypothesis,

we need to understand the concept of variables first. The variables are empirical properties
that take two or more values or in other words a variable is any entity that can take on
different values. In simple terms, anything that can vary or that is not constant can be
considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take
different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly,
country can be considered a variable because a person‟s country can be assigned a value. A
variable is a concept or abstract idea that can be described in measurable terms. In research,
this term refers to the measurable characteristics, qualities, traits, or attributes of a particular
individual, object or situation being studied. Variables differ in many respects, most notably
in the role they are given in our research and in the type of measures that can be applied to
them. The statement of problem usually provides only general direction for the research
study. It does not include all the specific information. There is some basic terminology that is
extremely important in how we communicate specific information about research problems
and research in general. So, weight, height, income are all examples of variables. In
Research, there is a need to make a distinction between various kinds of variables. There are
many classifications given for variables. We will try to understand only the Dependent
Variable and Independent Variable.
13.5.1 Independent Variables
The variables which are manipulated or controlled or changed. These are also known
as manipulated variables. Researchers often mistake independent variable and assume that it
is independent of any manipulation. It is called independent because variable is isolated from
any other factor. In research, we try to determine whether there is a cause and effect
relationship. In fact, when you are looking for some kind of relationship between variables
you are trying to see if the independent variable causes some kind of change in the other
variables, or dependent variables.
13.6 Basic Concepts Concerning Testing Of Hypotheses
Basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses need to be explained.
13.6.1 Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk about null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we
proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is
termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or
the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. The
null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative hypothesis as Ha.
If our sample results do not support this null hypothesis, we should conclude that
something elseis true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative
hypothesis. In otherwords, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is referred to as the
alternative hypothesis. If weacceptH0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then we
are accepting Ha.
The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is
drawn (the researchermust avoid the error of deriving hypotheses from the data that he
collects and then testing thehypotheses from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis,
the following considerations areusually kept in view:
(a) Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove and the null
hypothesisis the one which one wishes to disprove. Thus, a null hypothesis represents the
hypothesiswe are trying to reject, and alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities.
(b) If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, it is
takenas null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is (the
levelof significance) which is chosen very small.
(c) Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about or
approximately a certain value.Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null
hypothesis, keeping the alternativehypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on the
assumption that null hypothesis is true, onecan assign the probabilities to different possible
sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceedwith the alternative hypothesis. Hence
the use of null hypothesis (at times also known as statisticalhypothesis) is quite frequent.
(d) The level of significance: This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis
testing.It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen wit great care,
thought andreason. In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that
H0 will be rejectedwhen the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05
probability of occurring if H0is true. In other words, the 5 per cent level of significance
means that researcher is willing to take asmuch as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true. Thus thesignificance level is the maximum value
of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true and is usuallydetermined in advance before
testing the hypothesis.
(e) Decision rule or test of hypothesis: Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis
Ha,we make a rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e.,
reject Ha) orrejectH0 (i.e., accept Ha). For instance, if (H0 is that a certain lot is good (there
are very fewdefective items in it) against Ha) that the lot is not good (there are too many
defective items in it),then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion
for accepting or rejecting thehypothesis. We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our
decision saying that if there are none or only1 defective item among the 10, we will accept
H0 otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept Ha). Thissort of basis is known as decision rule.(d)
Type I and Type II errors: In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two
typesof errors we can make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when
in fact H0 is not true. The former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II error. In
other words, Type Ierror means rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted and
Type II error meansaccepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is
denoted by (alpha)known as error, also called the level of significance of test; and Type II
error is denoted by (beta) known as error. In a tabular form the said two errors can be
presented as follows
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as

the level ofsignificance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5 per cent, it means
that there areabout 5 chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control
Type I error just byfixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1 per cent, we will
say that the maximumprobability of committing Type I error would only be 0.01.But with a
fixed sample size, n, when we try to reduce Type I error, the probability of committingType
II error increases. Both types of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. There is a trade-
offbetween two types of errors which means that the probability of making one type of error
can onlybe reduced if we are willing to increase the probability of making the other type of
error. To deal withthis trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide the
appropriate level of Type I error byexamining the costs or penalties attached to both types of
errors. If Type I error involves the time andtrouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that
should have been accepted, whereas Type II errormeans taking a chance that an entire group
of users of this chemical compound will be poisoned, thenin such a situation one should
prefer a Type I error to a Type II error. As a result one must set veryhigh level for Type I
error in one‟s testing technique of a given hypothesis.
2. Hence, in the testing ofhypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate
balance between Type I and TypeII errors.
(e) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests: In the context of hypothesis testing, these two terms are
quiteimportant and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if,
say, the Sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesised value of the mean
of the population.Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value
and the alternativehypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis.
Thus, in a two-tailed test, there are two rejection regions, one on each tail of the curve
If the significance level is 5 per cent and the two-tailed test is to be applied, the
probability of therejection area will be 0.05 (equally splitted on both tails of the curve as
0.025) and that of theacceptance region will be 0.95 as shown in the above curve. If we
take100 and if our samplemean deviates significantly from 100 in either direction, then we
shall reject the null hypothesis; butif the sample mean does not deviate significantly from , in
that case we shall accept the nullhypothesis.
But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-
tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean is either
lower than or higherthan some hypothesised value.
If our 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from100 in the lower
direction, weshall reject H0, otherwise we shall accept H0 at a certain level of significance. If
the significancelevel in the given case is kept at 5%, then the rejection region will be equal to
0.05 of area in the lefttail as has been shown in the above curve.
If our 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from 100 in the upward
direction, weshall reject H0, otherwise we shall accept the same. If in the given case the
significance level is keptat 5%, then the rejection region will be equal to 0.05 of area in the
right-tail as has been shown in theabovecurve.It should always be remembered that accepting
H0 on the basis of sample information does notconstitute the proof that H0 is true. We only
mean that there is no statistical evidence to reject it, butwe are certainly not saying that H0 is
true (although we behave as if H0 is true).
13.6.2 Procedure for Hypothesis Testing

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data the researcher has
collected) whether ornot the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main
question is: whether to accept thenull hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis?
Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to allthose steps that we undertake for making a
choice between the two actions i.e., rejection andacceptance of a null hypothesis.
13.7 Summary
Hypothesis testing is a form of statistical inference that uses data from a sample to
draw conclusions about a population parameter or a population probability distribution. First,
a tentative assumption is made about the parameter or distribution. This assumption is called
the null hypothesis and is denoted by H0. An alternative hypothesis (denoted Ha), which is the
opposite of what is stated in the null hypothesis, is then defined. The hypothesis-testing
procedure involves using sample data to determine whether or not H0 can be rejected. If H0 is
rejected, the statistical conclusion is that the alternative hypothesis Ha is true.
13.8 Key words
Hypothesis- A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the research problem,

a possible outcome of the research, or an educated guess about the research outcome.
The level of significance-This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis

testing.It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen wit great care,
thought andreason.
Null hypothesis-Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state
about orapproximately a certain value.
Alternative hypothesis- Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which one wishes to prove
and the null hypothesisis the one which one wishes to disprove.
Type I- Type I error means rejecting the null hypothesis when it's actually true,
Type II- Type II error means failing to reject the null hypothesis when it's actually false.
13.9 SelfAssessment Questions
1. Define Hypothesis? Discuss the Characteristics of Hypothesis?

2. Examine the Sources of Hypothesis?
3. Explain the Basic concepts concerning testing of hypothesis?

Publication, 2010.
4. Research Methodology, A step-by-step guide for beginners Kumar, Dr Ranjit Kumar Sage
Publications 2015

Dr.K.RAMA SATYANARAYANA
LESSON 14
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
Learning Objectives
 To understand the Characteristics of Hypothesis

 To learn the Types of Hypothesis
 To Discuss the Difference Between the Hypothesis and Prediction
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Hypothesis of Definition
14.2 Characteristics
14.3 Types of hypothesis
14.3.1 Alternate Hypothesis
14.3.1(a) Directional Hypothesis
14.3.1(b) Non Directional Hypothesis
14.3.2 Null Hypothesis
14.3.3 Simple Hypothesis
14.3.4 Complex Hypothesis
14.3.5 Empirical Hypothesis
14.3.6 Statistical Hypothesis
14.4 Difference between the Hypothesis and Prediction
14.4.1 Hypothesis
14.4.2 Prediction
14.5 How to write Hypothesis
14.5.1 Identify and clearly Describe the Research Questions
14.5.2 Carry out an Initial Preliminary Research
14.5.3 Make first draft of your hypothesis
14.5.4 Stem your hypothesis
14.5.5 Create 3- Dimensional Phrase of Hypothesis statement
14.5.6 Create a Null Hypothesis
14.6 Quick tips on how to write Hypothesis
14.7 summary
14.8 Key words
14.0 Introduction
A hypothesis is one of the essential elements of a scientific research paper. It is an

assumption or idea built on your understanding of evidence and requires you to prove it via
relevant facts and examples.
A hypothesis is an indication of the expected results of an experiment. In scientific
methods, a hypothesis is used as a foundation for future research. Once you fully understand
the concept behind the hypothesis and its appropriate structure, you will not find it harder to
create. However, if it is the first time you are an early-stage researcher, then it might become
an exhausting and frustrating task.
14.1 Hypothesis Definition
A hypothesis is an assumption or perhaps a tentative explanation for a specific

process or phenomenon that has been observed during research. Very often, a hypothesis and
a guess are treated the same. However, a hypothesis is a calculated and educated guess
proven or disproven through research methods.
Based on the facts and evidence you gather during research, you can transform an
initial research question into a logical & rational prediction i.e. the hypothesis. Every research
is conducted to solve a specific problem. To fulfill that, one has to undertake the route of
problem identification, conduct initial research and then, figure out the answer by performing
various experiments and observing its outcome. However, before conducting the experiments
or the surveys related to the research, you must understand and acknowledge what you expect
from the results. At this point, you are supposed to make your educated and calculated
hypothesis and translate it into a scientific statement that you will be either proving or
refuting within the course of your study.
A hypothesis reflects your understanding of the problem statement and as a form of
development of knowledge. Therefore, you need to articulate your hypothesis in a way that
should appear as a justifiable assumption to study the properties and causes of the
phenomenon in the research topic.
14.2 Characteristics and Sources of Hypotheses
Now that you have gained pretty much an idea about a hypothesis, it's time that you
understand its characteristics.
1. A research hypothesis has to be simple yet clear to look reliable and justifiable
enough.
2. It has to be precise about the results.
3. A research hypothesis should be written in a self-explanatory manner with its

significance staying intact.
4. If you are developing a relational hypothesis, you need to include the variables and
establish an appropriate relationship among them.
5. A hypothesis must keep and reflect the scope for further investigations and
experiments.
Similar to the characteristics of a research hypothesis, there exist many sources through
which you can hypothesize your research problem. The primary sources that you can refer to
while creating a hypothesis for your research are:
1. Scientific paper and theories from the domain of your research topic.
2. Observations from previous experiments and recent theories
3. A general paradigm that runs through the research domain of a specific topic
4. Resemblance and relativity among various research topics
While going through these sources, you must ensure all the sources are credible
and scholarly.
14.3 Types of Hypotheses
To create a good hypothesis, you need to understand the concept of hypotheses

completely. Therefore, before starting to write, it is important that you first understand the
different types of hypotheses.
Majorly, there exist only two types, i.e., the Alternative hypothesis and Null Hypothesis.
14.3.1. Alternative Hypothesis
In the academic domain, it is very often denoted as H1. The significance of this kind
is to identify the expected outcome of your research procedure. Additionally, it is further
classified into two subcategories:
14.3.1.a. Directional
A statement that defines the ways through which the expected results will be gathered.
It is generally used in the cases where you need to establish a relationship between various
variables rather than making any comparison between multiple groups. For
example, Attending physiotherapy sessions will improve the on-field performance of
athletes.
14.3.1.b. No directional:
As the name suggests, a non-directional alternative hypothesis doesn't suggest any direction
for the expected outcomes. For example, Attending physiotherapy sessions influence the
on-field performance of athletes.
Now in the above two examples, carefully observe the two statements. The directional
statement specifies that physiotherapy sessions will improve or boost performance. On the
other hand, the non-directional statement helps establish a correlation between the two
variables (physiotherapy sessions and performance). However, it does not emphasize whether
the performance will be good or bad due to physiotherapy sessions.
14.3.2. Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis is denoted as H0. A null hypothesis exists as opposed to an

alternative hypothesis. It is a statement that defines the opposite of the expected results or
outcomes throughout your research. In simpler terms, a null hypothesis is used to establish a
claim that no relationship exists between the variables defined in the hypothesis.
To give you an idea about how to write a null hypothesis, the last example can be
stated as:
The physiotherapy sessions do not affect athletes' on-field performance..
Both the null and alternative hypotheses are written to provide specific clarifications
and examination of the research problem. So, to clarify confusion, the difference between a
research problem statement and a hypothesis is that the former is just a question that can't be
validated or tested. In contrast, the latter can be tested, validated, or denied.
14.3.3. Simple Hypothesis
It is a statement that is made to reflect the relation between the dependent and independent
variables. Follow through the example, and you will understand
a. Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer

b. Intake of sugar-rich foods can lead to obesity
14.3.4. Complex Hypothesis
A complex hypothesis implies the relationship between multiple dependent or

independent variables stated in the research problem. Follow through the below examples for
better clarity on this:
a. Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high
metabolism.
b. Including short breaks during work hours can lead to higher concentration and boost
productivity.
14.3.5. Empirical Hypothesis
It is also referred to as the "Working Hypothesis." This type of claim is made when a
theory is being validated through an experiment and observation. This way, the statement
appears justifiable enough and different from a wild guess.
Here are a few examples through which you can learn to create an empirical hypothesis:
a. Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those women who take
vitamin B12.
b. Canines learn faster if they are provided with food immediately after they obey a
command.
14.3.6. Statistical Hypothesis
A statement claiming an explanation after studying a sample of the population is

called a statistical hypothesis. It is a type of logic-based analysis where you research a
specific population and gather evidence through a particular sample size.
Below are some hypothetical statistical statements to understand how you can conduct
your research leveraging statistical data :
a. 44% of the Indian population belong in the age group of 22-27

b. 47% of the rural population in India is involved in agro-based activities.
14.4 Difference between Hypothesis and Prediction
Hypothesis and prediction are very often used interchangeably, and that creates
confusion. Although both the hypothesis and prediction can be treated as guesses, there lies
much difference between the two terms. Since we are talking about research hypotheses and
in the context of the academic domain, the words bear much relevance here. Therefore it is
forbidden to use hypotheses for prediction or otherwise. So, the significant difference
between a hypothesis and a prediction is that the first is predominantly used in the academic
world related to research on various topics. In contrast, prediction can be used anywhere and
need not be validated, defined, or tested.
In simpler terms, a hypothesis is a calculated, intelligent assumption tested and
validated through research. It aims to analyze the gathered evidence and facts to define a
relationship between variables and put forth a logical explanation behind the nature of events.
On the other hand, predictions are vague assumptions or claims made without backing
data or evidence. You can test it and have to wait to check if the prediction will become true
or not. Although a prediction can be even scientific majorly, it is seen that predictions are
somewhat fictional, not based on data or facts. Predictions are more often observed as a
foretelling of any future event that may or may not ever happen.
To emphasize in a better manner the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction, follow
through the below-mentioned example:
14.4.1 Hypothesis: Having smaller and frequent meals can lead to a higher metabolism rate.
This is a pure scientific hypothesis based on previous knowledge and the trends that
have been observed in many individuals. Additionally, it can be tested by putting some
individuals under observation.
14.4.2 Prediction: There will be zero COVID-19 cases in the world by 2030.
Now, this is a prediction. Even though it is based on definite facts and the trends of
past results, it can't be tested with certainty for success or failure. So the only way this gets
validated is to wait and watch if the covid cases end by 2030.
14.5 How to Write a Hypothesis?
Attentively follow through the below-mentioned steps that you can leverage to create a
compelling hypothesis for your research.
14.5.1. Identify and Clearly Describe your Research Question
A hypothesis should be written in a way that should address the research question or
the problem statement. You first need to understand the constraints of your undertaken
research topic and then formulate a clear, simple, and topic-centered problem statement.
Once you have the problem statement, you can ask the right question to test the validity of the
problem statement or research question. For answering a research question, there should be a
hypothetical statement that you should prove through your research.
For example: How do attending physiotherapy sessions can affect an athlete's on-field
performance?
14.5.2. Carry Out an Initial Preliminary Research
At this stage, you need to go through the previous theories, academic papers, and
previous studies and experiments to start curating your research hypothesis. Next, you must
gather evidence and prepare a research methodology to carry out your experiments. Here
itself, try figuring out the answer to the research question.
You need to design a conceptual and rational framework to identify which variables.(both
dependent and independent) over which your hypothesis will focus. Additionally, you need to
discover the relationship between various variables.
14.5. 3. Make the First Draft of your Hypothesis
After undertaking and finalizing the initial research, you will get an idea about the
expected outcomes and results. Leveraging this, you need to create a simple, concise, and
first version of your hypothesis.
Depending upon the chosen research domain and its topic, you can rephrase the
answer to the problem statement via a hypothesis in specific ways.
For example:
a. Non- directional: Attending physiotherapy sessions will influence the on-field performance
of athletes.
b. Directional: Attending physiotherapy sessions will boost the on-field performance of
athletes.
c. Null: Attending physiotherapy sessions will not affect the on-field performance of athletes.
14.5.4. Skim your Hypothesis
After preparing the first draft of your hypothesis, you need to check whether the
hypothesis addresses the problem statement or not. You need to ensure that the hypothesis
statement is straightforward-focused on the research topic and is testable. To further refine
your first draft of the hypothesis, you must check the presence of some aspects in your
hypothesis:
a. It has clear, relevant, and defined variables.
b. An appropriate relationship exists between the variables.
c. It is accurate and signifies its capacity to go under testing and validation.
d. It must showcase a specific result or outcome through certain experiments.
14.5.5. Create a 3-Dimensional Phrase of your Hypothesis Statement
To appropriately recognize the various variables to be used, you can write the
hypothetical assumption in the "if then" form. Here, you must ensure that the first part of the
hypothesis should contain the independent variable and the second part should contain the
dependent variable.
For example, if athletes start attending physiotherapy sessions, then their on-field
performance will improve.
It's common in the academic domain to present the hypothesis in terms of correlation
and its effects. If you choose to use this form of phrase as a research hypothesis, make sure
that you state the predefined relationship between the variables.
For example, attending physiotherapy sessions lead to the better on-field performance of
athletes.
In another way, you can choose to present your hypothesis as a comparison between
two variables. Also, you must specify the difference that you expect to observe in the results.
For example, Athletes attending physiotherapy sessions will have better on-field
performance than those who never attend any physiotherapy sessions.
14.5.6. Create a Null Hypothesis
If your research procedure involves some statistical hypothesis testing, you need to provide a
null hypothesis statement. As previously discussed, a null hypothesis is used to represent or
show no relation between different variables.
For example, attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect the on-field performance
of athletes.
14.6 Quick Tips on How to Write a Hypothesis
Follow the below-mentioned points to find some pro tips that you must keep in mind for
writing a good hypothesis.
1. Always try to create a hypothesis that interestingly addresses the problem statement.
2. Keep the hypothesis statement short yet entirely focused over the problem statement
phrased in an utmost clear and concise manner.
3. Make sure the initial research has been done thoroughly, and you have gone through
all the relevant scholarly sources related to your chosen research topic.
4. Accurately define the variables that you will be using in the hypothesis, and through
the course of the research,
5. Always keep your audience in your mind while creating any statements or
paraphrasing any related theories. In academia, the audience being the researchers and
scholars, bear the knowledge of the relationship that exists between various
phenomena and experiments.
A hypothesis is just a statement representing your understanding of the answer to the problem
statement of the research. It showcases how you will proceed with the experiments to test the
hypothesis and interpret the expected outcome.
14.7 Summary
the null hypothesis and is denoted by H0. An alternative hypothesis (denoted Ha), which is the
opposite of what is stated in the null hypothesis, is then defined. The hypothesis-testing
procedure involves using sample data to determine whether or not H0 can be rejected. If H0 is
rejected, the statistical conclusion is that the alternative hypothesis Ha is true.
14.8 Key words
Hypothesis- A hypothesis is an assumption or perhaps a tentative explanation for a specific

process or phenomenon that has been observed during research.
Directional Hypothesis A statement that defines the ways through which the expected
results will be gathered. It is generally used in the cases where you need to establish a
relationship between various variables rather than making any comparison between multiple
groups.
Empirical Hypothesis- It is also referred to as the "Working Hypothesis." This type of claim
is made when a theory is being validated through an experiment and observation. This way,
the statement appears justifiable enough and different from a wild guess.
Complex Hypothesis- A complex hypothesis implies the relationship between multiple

dependent or independent variables stated in the research problem

Publication, 2010.
3. Research Methodology by Dr.Nishikant Jha Himalaya Publishing House, 2013.
Publications 2015
LESSON 15
ERRORS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Learning Objectives
 To understand the Hypothesis testing Process

 To Learn the One Tailed and Two tailed Hypothesis test
 To Discuss the Decision Errors
Structure
15.0 Introduction
15.1 Hypothesis testing
15.2 The Core logic of Hypothesis Testing
15.3 The Hypothesis Testing Process
15.3.1 Step 1: Restate the Question Research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis about
population
15.3.2 Step 2: Determine the Characteristics of Comparison Distribution
15.3.3 Step 3: Determine Cutoff Sample score on comparison
15.3.4 Step 4: Determine your sample score on comparison
15.3.5 Step 5: Decide whether to reject the Null Hypothesis
15.4 One tailed Two tailed hypothesis test
15.5 Directional Hypothesis and One-tailed test
15.6 Non Directional Hypothesis and Two Tailed test
15.7 Decision Error
15.8 Type I Error
15.9 Type II Error
15.10 Relationship Between Type I and Type II error
15.11 Power of Test
15.12 Summary
15.13 key words
15.0 Introduction
the null hypothesis and is denoted by H0. An alternative hypothesis (denoted Ha), which is
the opposite of what is stated in the null hypothesis, is then defined. The hypothesis-testing
procedure involves using sample data to determine whether or not H0 can be rejected. If H0
is rejected, the statistical conclusion is that the alternative hypothesis Ha is true.
Ideally, the hypothesis-testing procedure leads to the acceptance of H0 when H0 is
true and the rejection of H0 when H0 is false. Unfortunately, since hypothesis tests are based
on sample information, the possibility of errors must be considered. A type I error
corresponds to rejecting H0 when H0 is actually true, and a type II error corresponds to
accepting H0 when H0 is false. The probability of making a type I error is denoted by α, and
the probability of making a type II error is denoted by β.
In using the hypothesis-testing procedure to determine if the null hypothesis should be
rejected, the person conducting the hypothesis test specifies the maximum allowable
probability of making a type I error, called the level of significance for the test. Common
choices for the level of significance are α = 0.05 and α = 0.01. Although most applications of
hypothesis testing control the probability of making a type I error, they do not always control
the probability of making a type II error. A graph known as an operating-characteristic curve
can be constructed to show how changes in the sample size affect the probability of making a
type II error.
A concept known as the p-value provides a convenient basis for drawing conclusions
in hypothesis-testing applications. The p-value is a measure of how likely the sample results
are, assuming the null hypothesis is true; the smaller the p-value, the less likely the sample
results. If the p-value is less than α, the null hypothesis can be rejected; otherwise, the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected. The p-value is often called the observed level of significance
for the test.
A hypothesis test can be performed on parameters of one or more populations as well
as in a variety of other situations. In each instance, the process begins with the formulation of
null and alternative hypotheses about the population. In addition to the population mean,
hypothesis-testing procedures are available for population parameters such as proportions,
variances, standard deviations, and medians.
Hypothesis tests are also conducted in regression and correlation analysis to
determine if the regression relationship and the correlation coefficient are statistically
significant (see below Regression and correlation analysis). A goodness-of-fit test refers to a
hypothesis test in which the null hypothesis is that the population has a specific probability
distribution, such as a normal probability distribution. Nonparametric statistical methods also
involve a variety of hypothesis-testing procedures.
before moving onwards we should know the related concepts of Type I and Type II Errors.
The concepts that need to be understood include the following:
1) Hypothesis testing
2) The hypothesis – testing process
3) Null Hypothesis
4) Population
5) Sample
6) Rejecting and accepting null hypothesis
7) One-tailed and two-tailed hypothesis
8) Decision errors
15.1 Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing has a vital role in psychological measurements. By hypothesis

wemean the tentative answer to any questions. Hypothesis testing is a systematicprocedure
for deciding whether the results of a research study, which examines asample, support a
particular theory or practical innovation, which applies to apopulation. Hypothesis testing is
the central theme in most psychology research.Hypothesis testing involves grasping ideas that
make little sense. Real life psychologyresearch involves samples of many individuals. At the
same time there are studieswhich involve a single individual.
15.2 The Core Logic of Hypothesis Testing
There is a standard kind of reasoning researchers use for any

hypothesis/testingproblem. For this example, it works as follows. Ordinarily, among the
population ofbabies that are not given the specially purified vitamin, the chance of a baby’s
startingto walk at age 8 months or earlier would be less than 2% Thus, walking at 8 monthsor
earlier is highly unlikely among such babies. But what if the randomly selectedsample of one
baby in our study does start walking by 8 months? If the speciallypurified vitamin had no
effect on this particular baby’s walking age (which means thatthe baby’s walking age should
be similar to that of babies that were not given thevitamin), it is highly unlikely (less than a
2% chance) that the particular baby wedoes in fact start walking by 8 months, that allows us
to reject the idea that the specially purified vitamin has no effect. And if we reject the idea
that the specially purified vitamin has no effect, then we must also accept the idea that the
specially purified vitamin does have an effect. Using the same reasoning, if the baby starts
walking by 8 months, we can reject the idea that this baby comes from a populationof babies
with a mean walking age of 14 months. We therefore conclude that babiesgiven the specially
purified vitamin will start to walk before 14 months. Our explanationfor the baby’s early
walking age in the study is that the specially purified vitaminspeeded up the baby’s
development.
The researchers first spelled out what would have to happen for them to concludethat
the special purification procedure makes a differences. Having laid this out inadvance the
researchers could then go on to carry out their study. In this example,carrying out the study
means giving the specially purified vitamin to a randomlyselected baby and watching to see
how early that baby walks. Suppose the resultof the study is that the baby starts walking
before 8 months. The researchers wouldthen conclude that it is unlikely the specially purified
vitamin makes no difference andthus also conclude that it does make a difference.
This kind of testing the opposite-of-what-you-predict, roundabout reasoning is at the
heart of inferential statistics in psychology. It is something like a double negative. One reason
for this approach is that we have the information to figure the probability of getting a
particular experimental result if the situation of there being no difference is true. In the
purified vitamin example, the researchers know what the probabilities are of babies walking
at different ages if the specially purified vitamin does not have any effect. It is the probability
of babies walking at various ages that is already knownfrom studies of babies in general –
that is, babies who have not received the specially purified vitamin. (Suppose the specially
purified vitamin has no effect. In that situation, the age at which babies start walking is the
same whether or not they receive the specially purified vitamin.)
Without such a tortuous way of going at the problem, in most cases you could just not
do hypothesis testing at all. In almost all psychology research, we base our conclusions on
this question: What is the probability of getting our research results. If the opposite of what
we are predicting were true? That is, we are usually predicting an effect of some kind.
However, we decide on whether there is such an effect by seeing if it is unlikely that there is
not such an effect. If it is highly unlikely that we would get our research results if the
opposite of what we are predicting were true, that allows us to reject that opposite prediction.
If we reject that opposite prediction, we are able to accept our prediction. However, if it is
likely that we would get our research results if the opposite of what we are predicting were
true, we are not able
to reject that opposite prediction. If we are not able to reject that opposite prediction,we are
not able to accept our prediction.
15.3 The Hypothesis – Testing Process
Let’s look at example in this time going over each step in some detail. Along the way,
we cover the special terminology of hypothesis-testing. Most important, we introduce five
steps of hypothesis testing you use for the rest of the course.
15.3.1 Step 1: Restate the question as a research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis about
the populations
Our researchers are interested in the effects on babies in general (not just this particular
baby). That is, the purpose of studying samples is to know about populations thus, it is useful
to restate the research question in terms of populations. In our example, we can think of two
populations of babies.
Population 1: Babies who take the specially purified vitamin.
Population 2: Babies who do not take the specially purified vitamin
Population 1 comprises those babies who receive the experimental treatment. In our example,
we use a sample of one baby to draw a conclusion about the age that babies in Population 1
start to walk. Population 2 is a kind of comparison baseline of what is already known.
The prediction of our research team is that Population 1 babies (those who take the
specially purified vitamin) will on the average walk earlier than population 2 babies(those
who do not take the specially purified vitamin) μ 1<μ 2
The opposite of the research hypothesis is that the populations are not different in the
way predicted. Under this scenario, population 1 babies (those who take the specially purified
vitamin) will on the average not walk earlier than Population 2babies (those who do not take
the specially purified vitamin). That is, this predictions that there is no difference in when
population 1 and Population 2 babies start walking. They start at the same time. A statement
like this, about a lack of difference between populations, is the crucial opposite of the
research hypothesis. It is called null hypothesis. It has this name because it states the situation
in which there is nodifference (the difference is “null”) between the between the populations.
In symbols,the null hypothesis is 1 μ 1 2 < μ .
The research hypothesis and the null hypothesis are complete opposites: if one istrue,
the other cannot be. In fact, the research hypothesis is sometimes called thealternative
hypothesis – that is, it is the alternative to the null hypothesis. This is a bitironic. As
researchers, we care most about the research hypothesis. But when doingthe steps of
hypothesis so that we can decide about its alternative (the researchhypothesis).
15.3.2 Step 2: Determine the Characteristics of the comparison Distribution
Recall that the overall logic of hypothesis testing involves figuring out the
probabilityof getting a particular result if the null hypothesis is true. Thus, you need to
knowwhat the situation would be if the null hypothesis were true. Population 2 we knowμ = =
14, 3, σ and it is normally distributed. If the null hypothesis is true,
Population 1 and Population 2 are the same – in our example, this would mean
Populations 1 and 2 both follow a normal curve, μ = = 14, 3 σ .
In the hypothesis-testing process, you want to find out the probability that you
couldhave gotten a sample score as extreme as what you got (say, a baby walking veryearly)
if your sample were from a population with a distribution of the sort you would have if the
null hypothesis were true. Thus, in this book we call this distribution comparison distribution.
(The comparison distribution is sometimes called a statistical model or a sampling
distribution – an idea.) That is, in the hypothesis-testing process, you compare the actual
sample’s score to this comparisondistribution.In our vitamin example, the null hypothesis is
that there is no difference in walking age between babies that take the specially purified
vitamin (Population 1) and babies that do not take the specially purified vitamin (Population
2). The comparisondistribution is the distribution for Population 2, since this population
represents thewalking age of babies if the null hypothesis is true. In later chapters, you will
learnabout different types of comparison distributions, but the same principle applies in
allcases: The comparison distribution is the distribution that represents the
populationsituation if the null hypothesis is true.
15.3.3 Step 3-Determine the Cutoff Sample Score on the comparison
Distribution at Whichthe null hypothesis should be rejected.Ideally, before conducting

a study, researchers set a target against which they willcompare their result – how extreme a
sample score they would need to decideagainst the null hypothesis: that is, how extreme the
sample score would have to before it to be too unlikely that they could get such an extreme
score if the null hypothesiswere true. This is called the cutoff sample score. (The cutoff
sample score is alsoknown as the critical value.)
15.3.4 Step 4: Determine your sample’s Score on the Comparison Distribution
The next step is to carry out the study and get the actual result for your sample. Once
you have the results for your sample, you figure the Z score for the sample’s raw score based
on the population mean and standard deviation of the comparison distribution.
15.3.5 Step 5: Decide Whether to reject the null hypothesis
To decide whether to reject the null hypothesis, you compare your actual sample’s
score (from Step 4) to the cutoff Z score (from Step 3). In our example, the actual result was
– 2.67. Let’s suppose the researchers had decided in advance that they would reject the null
hypothesis if the sample’s Z score was below – 2. Since – 2.67is below – 2, the researchers
would reject he null hypothesis. Or, suppose the researchers had used the more conservative
1% significance level. The needed Z score to reject the null hypothesis would then have been
– 2.33 orlower. But, again, the actual Z for the randomly selected baby was – 2.67 (a more
extreme score than – 2.33). Thus, even with this more conservative cutoff, theywould still
reject the null hypothesis implications of Rejecting or Failing to Reject the Null Hypothesis
It is important to emphasize two points about the conclusions you can make from the
hypothesis-testing process. First, suppose you reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, your
result supports the research hypothesis (as in our example). You would still not say that the
results prove the research hypothesis or that the results show that the research hypothesis is
true. This would be too strong because the results of research studies are based on
probabilities. Specifically, they are based on the probability being low of getting your result if
the null hypothesis were true. Proven and true are okay in logic and mathematics, but to use
these worlds in conclusions from scientific research is quite unprofessional. (It is okay to use
true when speaking hypothetically)– for example, “if this hypothesis were true, then…” – but
not when speaking of conclusions about an actual result.) what you do say when you reject
the nullhypothesis is that the results are statistically significant.Second, when a result is not
extreme enough to reject the null hypothesis, you donot say that the result supports the null
hypothesis. You simply say the result is not statistically significant.inconclusive. The results
may not be extreme enough to reject the null hypothesis, butthe null hypothesis might still be
false (and the research hypothesis true). Suppose inour example that the specially purified
vitamin had only a slight but still real effect.In that case, we would not expect to find a baby
given the purified vitamin to bewalking a lot earlier than babies in general. Thus, we would
not be able to reject thenull hypothesis, even though it is false. (You will learn more about
such situations inthe Decision Errors section later in this chapter).
Showing the null hypothesis to be true would mean showing that there is absolutely
no difference between the populations it is always possible that there is a difference between
the populations, but that the difference is much smaller than what the particular study was
able to detect. Therefore, when a result is not extreme enough to reject the null hypothesis,
the results are inconclusive. Sometimes, however, if studies have been done using large
samples and accurate measuring procedures, evidence may build up in support of something
close to the null hypothesis – that there is at most very little difference between the
populations.
15.4 One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests
In our examples so far, the researchers were interested in only one direction of result.
In our first example, researchers tested whether babies given the specially purified vitamin
would walk earlier than babies in general. In the happiness example, the personality
psychologists predicted the person who received $10 million would be happier than other
people. The researchers in these studies were not interested in the possibility that giving the
specially purified vitamin would cause babies to start walking later or that people getting $10
million might become less happy.
15.5 Directional hypotheses and One-Tailed tests
The purified vitamin and happiness studies are examples of testing directional
hypotheses. Both studies focused on a specific direction of effect. When a researcher makes a
directional hypothesis, the null hypothesis is also, in a sense, directional. Suppose the
research hypothesis is that getting $10 million will make a person happier. The null
hypothesis, then, is that the money will either have no effect or make the person less happy
(in symbols, if the research hypothesis is μ > μ 2, then the null hypothesis is μ μ 1 2 ≤ ≤ is the
symbol for less than or equal to.) thus to reject the null hypothesis, the sample had to have a
score in one particular tail of thecomparison distribution – the upper extreme or tail (in this
example, the top 5%) of the comparison distribution. (When it comes to rejecting the null
hypothesis with adirectional hypothesis, a score at the other tail would be the same as a score
in themiddle – that is, it would not allow you to reject the null hypothesis). For this reason,the
test of a directional hypothesis is called a one-tailed test. A one-tailed test canbe one-tailed in
either direction. In the happiness study example, the tail for the predicted effect was at the
high end. In the baby study example, the tail for thepredicted effect was at the low end (that
is, the prediction tested was that babies given the specially purified vitamin would start
walking unusually early).
15.6 Non-directional hypotheses and two-tailed tests
Sometimes, a research hypothesis states that an experimental procedure will have an

effect, without saying whether it will produce a very high score or a very low score. Suppose
an organizational psychologist is interested in how a new social skills programwill affect
productivity. The program could improve productivity by making the working environment
more pleasant. Or, the program could hurt productivity by encouraging people to socialise
instead of work. The research hypothesis is that the social skills program changes the level of
productivity; the null hypothesis is that the program does not change productivity one way or
the other. In symbols, the research hypothesizes ì 1 ≠ ì2 the null hypothesis is ì 1= ì2
When a research hypothesis predicts an effect but does not predict a particular
direction for the effect, it is called a non-directional hypothesis. To test the significanceof a
non-directional hypothesis, you have to take into account the possibility chanceof non-
directional hypothesis, you have to take into account the possibility that thesample could be
extreme at either tail of the comparison distribution. Thus this iscalled a two-tailed test.
15.7 Decision Errors
Another crucial topic for making sense of statistical significance is the kind of
errorsthat are possible in the hypothesis-testing process. The kind of errors we consider here
are about how, in spite of doing all your figuring correctly, your consider hereare about how,
in spite of doing all your figuring correctly, your conclusions fromhypothesis-testing can still
be incorrect. It is not about making mistakes in calculations or even about using the wrong
procedures. That is, mistakes in calculations or even about using the wrong procedures. That
is, decision errors are situations in which the right procedures lead to the wrong decisions.
Decision errors are possible in hypothesis testing because you are making decisions
about populations based on information in samples. The whole hypothesis testing process is
based on probabilities. The hypothesis-testing process is set up to make the probability of
decision errors as small as possible. For example, we only decideto reject the null hypothesis
if a sample’s mean is so extreme that there is a very small probability (say, less than 5%) that
we could have gotten such an extreme sample if the null hypothesis is true. But a very small
probability is not the same as a zero probability! Thus, in spite of your best intentions,
decision errors are always IIerrors.
15.8 Type I Error
Type I error if you reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is true.
Or, to put it in terms of the research hypothesis, you make a TypeI error when you conclude
that the study supports the research hypothesis when inreality the research hypothesis is false.
Suppose you carried out a study in which you had set the significance level cut offat a very
lenient probability level, such as 20%. This would mean that it would nottake a very extreme
result to reject the null hypothesis. If you did many studies likethis, you would often (about
20% of the time) be deciding to consider the researchhypothesis supported when you should
not. That is, you would have a 20% chanceof making a Type I error.
Even when you set the probability at the conventional .05 or .01 levels, you will still
make a Type I error sometimes (5% or 1% of the time). Consider again the exampleof giving
the new therapy to a depressed patient. Suppose the new therapy is notmore effective than the
usual therapy. However, in randomly picking a sample of onedepressed patient to study, the
clinical psychologists might just happen to pick apatient whose depression would respond
equally well to the new therapy and theusual therapy. Randomly selecting a sample patient
like this is unlikely, but suchextremesamples are possible, and should this happen, the clinical
psychologists would reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the new therapy is different
thanthe usual therapy.
Type I error.
Of course, the researchers could not know they had made a decisionerror of this kind.
What reassures researchers is that they know from the logic ofhypothesis testing that the
probability of making such a decision error is kept low(less than 5% if you use the .05
significance level).Still, the fact that Type I errors can happen at all is of serious concern to
psychologists,who might construct entire theories and research programs, not to mention
practicalapplications, based on a conclusion from hypothesis testing that is in fact mistaken.
It is because these errors are of such serious concern that they are called Type I.As we
have noted, researchers cannot tell when they have made a Type I error. However, they can
try to carry out studies so that the chance of making a Type Ierror is as small as possible.
What is the chance of making a Type I error? It is the same as the significance
levelyou set. If you set the significance level at p < .05, you are saying you will reject the
null hypothesis if there is less than a 5% (.05) chance that you could have gotten your result if
the null hypothesis were true. When rejecting the null hypothesis in thisway, you are allowing
up to a 5% chance that you got your results even though the null hypothesis was actually true.
That is, you are allowing a 5% chance of a TypeI error.
The significance level, which is the chance of making a Type I error, is called
alpha(the Greek letter Ü). The lower the alpha, the smaller the chance of a Type I error.
Researchers who do not want to take a lot of risk set alpha lower than .05 such ap<.001 in
this way the result of a study has to be very extreme in order for thehypothesis testing process
to reject the null hypothesis.
Using a .001 significance level is like buying insurance against making a Type I error.
However, when buying insurance, the better the protection, the higher the cost. There is a
cost in setting the significance level at too extreme a level. We turn to that costnext.
15.9 Type II Error
With a very stringent significance level, you may carry out a study in which in reality
the research hypothesis is true, but the result does not come out extreme enough to reject the
null hypothesis. Thus, the decision error you would make is in not rejecting the null
hypothesis when in reality the null hypothesis is false to put this in terms of the research
hypothesis, you make this kind of decision error when the hypothesis-testing procedure leads
you to decide that the results of the study are inconclusive when in reality the research
hypothesis is true. This is called a Type IIerror. The probability of making a Type II error is
called beta (the Greek letter β).
15.10 Relationship Between Type I And Type II Errors
When it comes to setting significance levels, protecting against one kind of

decisionerror increases the chance of making the other. The insurance policy against Type
Ierror (setting a significance level of, say, .001) has the cost of increasing the chanceof
making a Type II error. (This is because with a stringent significance level like .001, even if
the research hypothesis is true, the results have to be quite strong tobe extreme enough to
reject the null hypothesis.) The insurance policy against TypeII error (setting a significance
level of say .20) has the cost of increasing the chanceof making a Type I error. (This is
because with a level of significance like .20, evenif the null hypothesis is true, it is fairly easy
to get a significant result just by accidentallygetting a sample that is higher or lower than the
general population before doing thestudy.)
15.11. Power of the Test
A Type II error (β) is the probability of failing to reject a false null hypothesis. It
follows that 1-β is the probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis. This probability is
identified as the power of the test, and is often used to gauge the test’s effectiveness in
recognizing that a null hypothesis is false.
The probability that at a fixed level α significance test will reject H0, when a
particular alternative value of the parameter is true is called the power of the test.
Power is also directly linked to sample size. For example, suppose the null hypothesis
is that the mean fish weight is 8.7 lb. Given sample data, a level of significance of 5%, and an
alternative weight of 9.2 lb., we can compute the power of the test to reject μ = 8.7 lb. If we
have a small sample size, the power will be low. However, increasing the sample size will
increase the power of the test. Increasing the level of significance will also increase power. A
5% test of significance will have a greater chance of rejecting the null hypothesis than a 1%
test because the strength of evidence required for the rejection is less. Decreasing the
standard deviation has the same effect as increasing the sample size: there is more
information about μ.
15.12Summary
Hypothesis testing considers the probability that the result of a study could have come
about even if the experimental procedure had no effect. If this probability is low, the scenario
of no effect is rejected and the theory behind the experimental procedure is supported. The
expectation of an effect is the research hypothesis, and the hypothetical situation of no effect
is the null hypothesis. When a result (that is, a sample score) is so extreme that the result
would be very unlikely if the null hypothesis were true, the null hypothesis is reject and the
research hypothesis supported. If the result is not that extreme, the null hypothesis is not
rejected and the study is inconclusive. Psychologists usually consider a result too extreme if it
is less likely than 5% (thatis, a significance level of .05) to have come about, if the null
hypothesis were true. Psychologists sometimes use a more stringent 1% (.01 significance
level), or even.01% (.001) significance level), cutoff. The cutoff percentage is the probability
of the result being extreme in a predicted direction in a directional or one-tailed test. The
cutoff percentages are the probability of the result being extreme in either direction in a non-
directional or two-tailed test. There are two kinds of decision errors one can make in
hypothesis testing. A TypeI error is when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis, but the null
hypothesis is actually true. A Type II error is when a researcher does not reject the null
hypothesis, but the null hypothesis is actually false. There has been much controversy about
significance tests, including critiques of the basic logic and, especially, that they are often
misused. One major way significance tests are misused is when researchers interpret not
rejecting the null hypothesis as demonstrating that the null hypothesis is true. Research
articles typically report the results of hypothesis testing by saying a result was or was not
significant and giving the probability level cutoff (usually 5% or 1%) the decision was based
on. Research articles rarely mention decision errors.
15.13Key words
Hypothesis Testing- Hypothesis testing has a vital role in psychological measurements. By

hypothesis wemean the tentative answer to any questions
Type I Error- Type I error if you reject the null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis
is true. Or, to put it in terms of the research hypothesis, you make a TypeI error when you
conclude that the study supports the research hypothesis when inreality the research
hypothesis is false.
Type II Error-The decision error you would make is in not rejecting the null hypothesis
when in reality the null hypothesis is false to put this in terms of the research hypothesis, you
make this kind of decision error when the hypothesis-testing procedure leads you to decide
that the results of the study are inconclusive when in reality the research hypothesis is true.
This is called a Type IIerror. The probability of making a Type II error is called beta (the
Greek letter β).
Decision Error- The kind of errors we consider here are about how, in spite of doing all your
figuring correctly, your consider hereare about how, in spite of doing all your figuring
correctly, your conclusions fromhypothesis-testing can still be incorrect
1. Define Hypothesis Testing?Discuss the Hypothesis Testing process ?

2. Describe the Relationship Between the Type I and Type II Error

Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015
LESSON 16
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

AND HYPOTHESES
Learning Objectives
 To understand the Qualitative Research

 To learn the Types of Qualitative Research
 To Discuss Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Structure
16.0 Introduction
16.1 Qualitative Research then and Now
16.2 Difference between the Qualitative and Quantitative
16.3 Types of Qualitative Research with Examples
16.4 Types of Qualitative Research
16.4.1 One to One Interview
16.4.2 Focus group
16.4.3 Enthnographic Research
16.4.4 Case study Research
16.4.5 Record Keeping
16.4.6 Process of Observation
16.5 Qualitative Data Collection
16.5.1 Qualitiative Data Analysis
16.5.2 Characteristics of Qualitative Research Method
16.5.3 Qualitative Method Case study
16.5.4 When to use Qualitative Research
16.6 Advantages of Qualitative Research
16.7 Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
16.0 Introduction
Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning people have

constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in
the world. Qualitative research is research using methods such as participant observation or
case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice.
Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive
sociology.
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It
consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These
practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including
field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this
level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This
means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
―Qualitative research involves any research that uses data that do not indicate ordinal values.
Qualitative research aims to study things in their natural setting to make sense of a
phenomenon in terms of meanings people bring to them. It doesn't involve any form of
intervention or a method to manipulate the studied environment. Unlike Randomized Clinical
Trials (RCT) where the study is meant to measure an intervention. For example, qualitative
research can study experiences or people's perspectives in which case the study is conducted
without any influence on the environment to get naturally occurring data within the natural
setting. So as best we can, we won't influence the environment aiming to make sense of
phenomena, an event, a case, an object, or experience.
For some qualitative research can be seen as a simple data collection method but for others
can be a complex, deep and meaningful insight into the world.
Qualitative Research is
Inductive: it means starting with collecting data and then looking for patterns or drawing
some kinds of theories from it. Whereas if we look at quantitative research, sometimes it uses
a deductive approach where the theories are already established and being tested. In
qualitative research, theories and patterns are formed from the collected data.
Iterative: an iterative process is a sequence of steps that could be repeated usually to improve
something. This process is generally convergent meaning that a topic is approached from a
broad point of view then gets limited and refined to get a closer look. Iteration can also mean
incorporating a factor or an element in the research, not necessarily from the beginning, that
could continue to the end of the study if found to be insightful which means that this method
of research is flexible and adaptable.
16.1 Qualitative Research: Now and Then
The word qualitative stems back to around the 15th century from the Latin word
''qualitas'' which means quality, an attribute, or a property. So it would make sense that
qualitative research looks at the properties, the qualities or attributes of something as opposed
to quantities of something.
The first Now qualitative researcher remains unknown, however, looking back to the
19th and 20th centuries the cultural anthropologists influenced the research field by their
observational studies of non-literate societies. Sigmund Freud's and Piaget, well known key
figures in the field of psychology, relied on case studies on interviewing in their work and
observation techniques.
Qualitative research prospered at the end of the 20th century, A nice study by Rene et
al. in 2002 looked at the incidence of how many times qualitative research terms were used in
research papers in the field of psychology within the 20th century. They found the term
qualitative research almost didn't exist until the 1980s, This has changed dramatically in the
1990s when there was a huge sharp rise in its popularity and use.
The increased popularity could be credited to a number of reasons:
The Grounded theory, an influential approach in qualitative research, was introduced
in the 1960s followed by newly published academic journals with a focus on qualitative
research over the following two decades, This has created a platform for publishing and
access to readers who can spread the word and contribute to the discussion and the debate
about the findings.
As with quantitative research and statistical analysis software, there are some
computer software programs that started to be developed for qualitative researchers to help
manage their data. And more recently, programs developed to help with data interpretation
and analysis.
It was debatable at one point that qualitative research might not be as compatible as
the quantitative methods. the findings and contributions of qualitative research have now
gained huge momentum which shifted the way of thinking and convinced researchers that
both methods can complement one another, adding strength and value to the studied field.
16.2 Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative
Although the two methods are often seen as antagonists, there is a growing
recognition that the distinctions between the methods are unnecessary. They cannot be
compared side by side but for the purposes of trying to understand some key characteristics
of each of the types of research, we will look at qualitative and quantitative methods and how
they might complement one another.
In terms of objectives, qualitative research is inductive and aims to explore new
things, insights, generate theories, patterns, themes, and hypotheses. On the other hand,
quantitative research is deductive so it investigates the validity of facts, estimates
relationships, and predicts outcomes, It controls, describes, or confirms hypotheses. There's a
lot more breadth to quantitative methods, whereas there's a lot more depth to qualitative[7].
Qualitative research is subjective, flexible, and naturalistic. Quantitative on the other hand is
experimental and uses statistics.
In terms of design, qualitative research in its design can be flexible, adaptable, can
evolve over time. and can also be emergent. Whereas quantitative research is a lot more
structured, fixed and predetermined.
The sample size is another area where the two research methods differ. The sample
tends to be smaller in qualitative research and the data saturation can be reached quicker. But
in quantitative research, larger samples are needed to generalize the results and ensure the
reliability of the intervention,
The researcher can be considered an actual instrument in qualitative research and their
own biases and opinion can influence the data collection because they determine the
questions, often open-ended or semi-structured, to guide interviews and set the tools to be
utilized then observe the whole process and recognize the patterns. Whereas in quantitative
research, outcome measures should be standardized for the statistical analysis so we use
structured objective tools like questionnaires and lab tests.
The analysis utilized in qualitative research is iterative, A report or transcript can be

read many times, a video can be watched several times to draw conclusions and highlight key
terms. In quantitative research, the analysis depends on modeling and statistical testing.
Finally, data reporting in qualitative research is done by the language of the
researchers and their interpretation which means that if the same study was repeated we
might get different results. It can often be helpful to get an independent researcher to look
into the findings and conclusions of the study to see if they would agree or provide different
insights and this can eliminate subjectivity and ensures flexibility of the study. Quantitative
research is more objective and can be generalized because the data is reported through
statistical analysis, so it's numerical data and can be organized in tables or graphs or charts
Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining
data through open-ended and conversational communication.
This method is not only about ―what‖ people think but also ―why‖ they think so. For
example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic
observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good method
to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of
potential customers in the category.
For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby
stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the store
doesn‘t have enough items for women and so there were fewer women visiting the store,
which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they
didn‘t visit the store, because there were more male products than female ones.
Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology,
sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth
and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the
interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding
how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.
16.3Types of qualitative research methods with examples
Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that help reveal the behavior
and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are different
types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic
research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be
drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.
Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences. Today
our world is more complicated and it is difficult to understand what people think and
perceive. Online qualitative research methods make it easier to understand that as it is more
communicative and descriptive.
The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also, read
about qualitative research examples:
16.4Types of Qualitative Research
16.4.1. One-to-one interview:
Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research

methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is
purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the
respondent.
One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise
data about what people believe and what their motivations are. If the researcher is well
experienced asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they
should need more information the researchers should ask such follow up questions that will
help them collect more information.
These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last
between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is conducted
face to face it gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the respondents and
match the responses.
16.4.2. Focus groups:
A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research methods, used in
data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from
within your target market.
The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the ―why‖ ―what‖ and ―how‖
questions. One advantage of focus groups is, you don‘t necessarily need to interact with the
group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an online survey on various devices and
responses can be collected at the click of a button.
Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other online qualitative
research methods. Typically they are used to explain complex processes. This method is very
useful when it comes to market research on new products and testing new concepts.
16.4.3. Ethnographic research:
Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies people
in their naturally occurring environment.
This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences‘ environments
which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here
geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.
This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and
settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the
natural settings first hand.
This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves
in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It‘s a challenging and a time-
consuming method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be able to
analyze, observe and infer the data.
16.4.4. Case study research:
The case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a
valuable qual research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining an organization
or an entity.
This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social
sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the
simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding
of the data collection methods and inferring the data.
16.4.5. Record keeping:
This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources
of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar to
going to a library. There one can go over books and other reference material to collect
relevant data that can likely be used in the research.
16.4.6. Process of observation:
Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to

gather systematic information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the
research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative
observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.
Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning –
sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn‘t involve measurements or numbers but
instead characteristics.
16.5A. Qualitative data collection
Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to
explore how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such
conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and findings to
emerge through careful analysis.
Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one aspect is
very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of
methods available, there are also different methods of collecting and recording the data.
For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one
discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording they
should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can begin.
As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the
recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many
researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain the recording collected from the
different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.
In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are
helpful in maintaining comments, environmental contexts, nonverbal cues etc. These filed
notes are helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data. Such notes are
usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video recordings or the
audio tapes.
16.5.1 . Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text
documents. One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.
Text analysis is a data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other
qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the participants in
the research study and decode the words, actions, etc.
There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze
the context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade,
text analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has gained supreme
popularity.
16.5.2 Characteristics of qualitative research methods
Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants
are experiencing issues or problems. These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants
out of the geographic locations to collect information.
Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews,
observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source.
This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking
down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all.
Since it‘s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the
researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.
16.5.3 Qualitative research method case study
Let‘s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their
sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were the loyal patrons
of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were
answered by them.
At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were
suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.
By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the
shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the
bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales
and customer outreach.
Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further
quantitative research, which provides remedies.
16.5.4 When to use qualitative research
Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture
accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture ―factual data‖. Here are some examples
of when to use qualitative research.
1. Developing a new product or generating an idea.
2. Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
3. To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
4. Understanding purchase behavior.
5. To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other
communications.
6. Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer groups.
7. Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.
16.6Advantages of qualitative research
Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants
and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:
Flexibility
The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns
emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.
Natural settings
Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
Meaningful insights
Detailed descriptions of people‘s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in

designing, testing or improving systems or products.
Generation of new ideas
Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or

opportunities that they wouldn‘t have thought of otherwise.
16.7Disadvantages of qualitative research
Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and

interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:
Unreliability
The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of

uncontrolled factors that affect the data.
Subjectivity
Due to the researcher‘s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative
research cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant
in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
Limited generalizability
Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite
rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data
may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population.
Labor-intensive
Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data
analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.
Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example,
you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings
from natural settings.
16.8 Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up
fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you
can apply to categorize your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean
going through each participant‘s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As
you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
16.8.1 Identify recurring themes
Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to
test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you
start your experiment or data collection.
16.8.2 Hypothesis
A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a
tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research
projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your
research question.
A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and
knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through
scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of
data).
16.8.3 Variables in hypotheses
Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables. An independent

variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something
the researcher observes and measures.
Example: Hypothesis
16.8.4 Daily exposure to the sun leads to increased levels of happiness.
In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause. The
dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect.
16.8.5 Developing a hypothesis (with example)
16.9 Steps in Hypothesis
Step 1. Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question
should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.
Example: Research question

Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?
Step 2. Do some preliminary research
Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about
the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions
about what your research will find.
At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables
you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you‘ll
have to operationalise more complex constructs.
Step 3. Formulate your hypothesis
Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer
to the question in a clear, concise sentence.
Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.
Step 4. Refine your hypothesis
You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various
ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the
hypothesis should contain:
The relevant variables
The specific group being studied
The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis
Step 5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways
To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of
the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.
If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations
or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.
The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their
exam scores.
If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect
to find between them.
First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those
who attended few lectures.
Step 6. Write a null hypothesis
If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing, you will also have to write a
null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association
between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0, while the alternative hypothesis
is H1 or Ha.
H0: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam
scores.
H1: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final
exam scores.
16.10 Summary
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It
consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These
practices transform the world. They turn the world into a series of representations, including
field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this
level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This
means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
16.11 Key words
Qualitative research- Qualitative research aims to study things in their natural setting to
make sense of a phenomenon in terms of meanings people bring to them.
Qualitative Research (Inductive): it means starting with collecting data and then looking
for patterns or drawing some kinds of theories from it
Qualitative Research (Iterative): an iterative process is a sequence of steps that could be

repeated usually to improve something.
Focus group- A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research methods,
used in data collection.
Ethnographic Research -Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method

that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.
1. Discuss the Difference between the Qualitative and Qunatitative Research

2. Describe the types of Qualitative Research
3. Explain the Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015

Sage Publications, 2019
Centre for Distance Education 17.1 AcharyaNagarjuna University
LESSON-17
DATA INTERPRETATION
Learning Objectives
 To understand the Processing operations
 To discuss the Tabulation
 To Learn the Element and types of Analysis
Structure
17.0 Introduction
17.1 Processing Operation
17.1.1 Editing
17.1.2 Coding
17.1.3 Classification
17.1.3(a) Classification according to Attributes
17.1.3(b) Classification according to Class intervals
17.1.4 Tabulation
17.2 Some problems in processing
17.3 Elements and Types of Analysis
17.4 Statistics in Research
17.5 Measures in Central Tendency
17.6 Measures of Dispersion
17.7 Summary
17.8 Key words
17.0 Introduction
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the
outline laid downfor the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for
a scientific study andfor ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis.Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification
and tabulation of collecteddata so that they are amenable to analysis. The term analysis refers to
the computation of certainmeasures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist
among data-groups. Thus, “inthe process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or newhypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance
to determine with what validity datacan be said to indicate any conclusions”. But there are
persons (Selltiz, Jahoda and others) who donot like to make difference between processing and
analysis. They opine that analysis of data in ageneral way involves a number of closely related
operations which are performed with the purposeof summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in such a manner that they answer theresearch question(s). We, however, shall
prefer to observe the difference between the two terms asstated here in order to understand their
implications more clearly.
17.1 Processing Operations
With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can now
proceedwith the explanation of all the processing operations.
17.1.1 Editing
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys)
todetect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing
involvesa careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to
assure that thedata are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
completed as possibleand have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field editing
andcentral editing.
Field editing
It consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator forcompleting (translating or
rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of
recording the respondents’ responses. This type of editing is necessary in view of thefact that
individual writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editingshould
be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the very day or on the next day.
While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct
errors of omissionby simply guessing what the informant would have said if the question had
been asked.
Central editing
It should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and returnedto the
office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by a single
editorin a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large inquiry. Editor(s) may correct
the obviouserrors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in months when it should
have beenrecorded in weeks, and the like. In case of inappropriate on missing replies, the editor
can sometimesdetermine the proper answer by reviewing the other information in the schedule.
At times, therespondent can be contacted for clarification. The editor must strike out the answer
if the same isinappropriate and he has no basis for determining the correct answer or the
response. In such a casean editing entry of ‘no answer’ is called for. All the wrong replies, which
are quite obvious, must bedropped from the final results, especially in the context of mail
surveys
.
Editors must keep in view several points while performing their work:
(a) They should be familiar with instructions given to the interviewers and coders as well as
with the editing instructions suppliedto them for the purpose.
(b) While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, theyshould just draw a single
line on it so that the same may remain legible.
(c) They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive color and that too in a
standardized form. (d) They shouldinitial all answers which they change or supply. (e) Editor’s
initials and the date of editing should beplaced on each completed form or schedule.
17.1.2. Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
thatresponses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriateto the research problem under consideration. They must also possess the
characteristic ofexhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data item) and also that of
mutual exclusivelywhich means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a
given category set.Another rule to be observed is that of uni dimensionality by which is meant
that every class is definedin terms of only one concept.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be
reduced to small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis.
Coding decisionsshould usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes
it possible to precodethe questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful for computer
tabulation as one can straightforward key punch from the original questionnaires. But in case of
hand coding some standardmethod may be used. One such standard method is to code in the
margin with a colored pencil. Theother method can be to transcribe the data from the
questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatevermethod is adopted, one should see that coding errors
are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
17.1.3. Classification
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reducedinto
homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates
classificationof data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on
the basis ofcommon characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class
and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes. Classification can
be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of the phenomenon involved:
17.1.3(a) Classification according to attributes:
As stated above, data are classified on the basis of common characteristics which can
either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height,
income, etc.). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be
measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed.
Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and
their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.
Such classification can be simple classification or manifold classification. In

simpleclassification we consider only one attribute and divide the universe into two classes—
oneclass consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class consisting ofitems
which do not possess the given attribute. But in manifold classification we considertwo or more
attributes simultaneously, and divide that data into a number of classes (totalnumber of classes of
final order is given by 2n, where n = number of attributes considered).Whenever data are
classified according to attributes, the researcher must see that theattributes are defined in such a
manner that there is least possibility of any doubt/ambiguity concerning the said attributes.
17.1.3(b) Classification according to class-intervals

Unlike descriptive characteristics, thenumerical characteristics refer to quantitative
phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical units. Data relating to income,
production, age, weight, etc. come under thiscategory. Such data are known as statistics of
variables and are classified on the basis ofclass intervals. For instance, persons whose incomes,
say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 canform one group, those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to
Rs 600 can form another groupand so on. In this way the entire data may be divided into a
number of groups or classes orwhat are usually called, ‘class-intervals.’ Each group of class-
interval, thus, has an upperlimit as well as a lower limit which are known as class limits. The
difference between thetwo class limits is known as class magnitude. We may have classes with
equal classmagnitudes or with unequal class magnitudes. The number of items which fall in a
givenclass is known as the frequency of the given class. All the classes or groups, with
theirrespective frequencies taken together and put in the form of a table, are described as
groupfrequency distribution or simply frequency distribution. Classification according to
classintervals usually involves the following three main problems:
(i) How may classes should be there? What should be their magnitudes?There can be no specific
answer with regard to the number of classes. The decisionabout these calls for skill and
experience of the researcher. However, the objectiveshould be to display the data in such a way
as to make it meaningful for the analyst.
Typically, we may have 5 to 15 classes. With regard to the second part of the question,we
can say that, to the extent possible, class-intervals should be of equal magnitudes,but in some
cases unequal magnitudes may result in better classification. Hence the researcher’s objective
judgement plays an important part in this connection. Multiplesof 2, 5 and 10 are generally
preferred while determining class magnitudes. Somestatisticians adopt the following formula,
suggested by H.A. Sturges, determining thesize of class interval:
It should also be kept in mind that in case one or two or very few items have very high or
verylow values, one may use what are known as open-ended intervals in the overall frequency
distribution.
Such intervals may be expressed like under Rs 500 or Rs 10001 and over. Such intervals
are generallynot desirable, but often cannot be avoided. The researcher must always remain
conscious of this factwhile deciding the issue of the total number of class intervals in which the
data are to be classified.
(ii) How to choose class limits?

While choosing class limits, the researcher must take into consideration the criterionthat
the mid-point (generally worked out first by taking the sum of the upper limit andlower limit of a
class and then divide this sum by 2) of a class-interval and the actualaverage of items of that
class interval should remain as close to each other as possible.
Consistent with this, the class limits should be located at multiples of 2, 5, 10, 20, 100and
such other figures. Class limits may generally be stated in any of the followingforms:
Exclusive type class intervals: They are usually stated as follows:
10–20
20–30
30–40
40–50
The above intervals should be read as under:
10 and under 20
20 and under 30
30 and under 40
40 and under 50
Thus, under the exclusive type class intervals, the items whose values are equal to
theupper limit of a class are grouped in the next higher class. For example, an item whosevalue is
exactly 30 would be put in 30–40 class interval and not in 20–30 class interval.In simple words,
we can say that under exclusive type class intervals, the upper limit ofa class interval is excluded
and items with values less than the upper limit (but not lessthan the lower limit) are put in the
given class interval.
Inclusive type class intervals: They are usually stated as follows:
11–20
21–30
31–40
41–50
In inclusive type class intervals, the upper limit of a class interval is also included in
theconcerning class interval. Thus, an item whose value is 20 will be put in 11–20 classinterval.
The stated upper limit of the class interval 11–20 is 20 but the real limit is20.99999 and as such
11–20 class interval really means 11 and under 21.
When the phenomenon under consideration happens to be a discrete one (i.e., can be
measuredand stated only in integers), then we should adopt inclusive type classification. But
when thephenomenon happens to be a continuous one capable of being measured in fractions as
well, we canuse exclusive type class intervals.
(iii) How to determine the frequency of each class?

This can be done either by tally sheets or by mechanical aids. Under the technique oftally
sheet, the class-groups are written on a sheet of paper (commonly known as thetally sheet) and
for each item a stroke (usually a small vertical line) is marked againstthe class group in which it
falls. The general practice is that after every four smallvertical lines in a class group, the fifth
line for the item falling in the same group, isindicated as horizontal line through the said four
lines and the resulting flower (IIII)represents five items. All this facilitates the counting of items
in each one of the classgroups. An illustrative tally sheet can be shown as under:
Alternatively, class frequencies can be determined, specially in case of large inquires and
surveys,by mechanical aids i.e., with the help of machines viz., sorting machines that are
available for thepurpose. Some machines are hand operated, whereas other work with electricity.
There are machineswhich can sort out cards at a speed of something like 25000 cards per hour.
This method is fast butexpensive.
17.1.4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcherto arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is
referred to astabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying
the same in compactform (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader
sense, tabulation is anorderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice

depends onthe size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availability of
tabulatingmachines or computers. In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or
computer tabulationif other factors are favorable and necessary facilities are available. Hand
tabulation is usuallypreferred in case of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is
small and they are ofrelatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally,
the list and tally or the cardsort and count methods. When there are simple codes, it is feasible to
tally directly from thequestionnaire. Under this method, the codes are written on a sheet of paper,
called tally sheet, and foreach response a stroke is marked against the code in which it falls.
Usually after every four strokesagainst a particular code, the fifth response is indicated by
drawing a diagonal or horizontal linethrough the strokes. These groups of five are easy to count
and the data are sorted against each code conveniently. In the listing method, the code responses
may be transcribed onto a large work-sheet,allowing a line for each questionnaire. This way a
large number of questionnaires can be listed onone work sheet. Tallies are then made for each
question. The card sorting method is the most flexiblehand tabulation. In this method the data are
recorded on special cards of convenient size and shapewith a series of holes. Each hole stands for
a code and when cards are stacked, a needle passethrough particular hole representing a
particular code. These cards are then separated and counted.
In this way frequencies of various codes can be found out by the repetition of this
technique. We canas well use the mechanical devices or the computer facility for tabulation
purpose in case we wantquick results, our budget permits their use and we have a large volume
of straight forward tabulationinvolving a number of cross-breaks.
Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. The former type of
tabulationgives information about one or more groups of independent questions, whereas the
latter type oftabulation shows the division of data in two or more categories and as such is
designed to giveinformation concerning one or more sets of inter-related questions. Simple
tabulation generally resultsin one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one
characteristic of data only. Asagainst this, complex tabulation usually results in two-way tables
(which give information about twointer-related characteristics of data), three-way tables (giving
information about three interrelatedcharacteristics of data) or still higher order tables, also known
as manifold tables, which supplyinformation about several interrelated characteristics of data.
Two-way tables, three-way tables ormanifold tables are all examples of what is sometimes
described as cross tabulation.
Generally accepted principles of tabulation:Such principles of tabulation, particularly

ofconstructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:
1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table
intelligiblewithout reference to the text and this title should always be placed just above the body
ofthe table.
2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be clearand
brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated.
5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath thetable,
along with the reference symbols used in the table.
6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicatedjust
below the table.
7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table
morereadable and attractive. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table andbelow
the captions.
8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data underanother
class and the lines separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be comparativelythin lines.
9. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
10. Those columns whose data are to be compared should be kept side by side.
Similarly,percentages and/or averages must also be kept close to the data.
11. It is generally considered better to approximate figures before tabulation as the same would
reduce unnecessary details in the table itself.
12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of type,
spacing and indentations may be used.
13. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal points and (+) or (–)signs
should be in perfect alignment.
14. Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be used
in the table.
15. Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any, should be usually placed in the last row of
thetable.
16. Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible. If the data happen
to be very large, they should not be crowded in a single table for that would make the
tableunwieldy and inconvenient.
17. Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right column and that of columns
should be placed at the bottom.
18. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical, alphabetical
or according to magnitude to facilitate comparison. Above all, the table must suit the needs
and requirements of an investigation.
17.2 Some Problems in Processing

We can take up the following two problems of processing the data for analytical
purposes:
(a) The problem concerning “Don’t know” (or DK) responses: While processing the data,
theresearcher often comes across some responses that are difficult to handle. One category of
suchresponses may be ‘Don’t Know Response’ or simply DK response. When the DK response
group is small, it is of little significance. But when it is relatively big, it becomes a matter of
major concernin which case the question arises: Is the question which elicited DK response
useless? The answer depends on two points viz., the respondent actually may not know the
answer or the researcher mayfail in obtaining the appropriate information. In the first case the
concerned question is said to bealright and DK response is taken as legitimate DK response. But
in the second case, DK responses more likely to be a failure of the questioning process.
How DK responses are to be dealt with by researchers? The best way is to design better
type ofquestions. Good rapport of interviewers with respondents will result in minimizing DK
responses.But what about the DK responses that have already taken place? One way to tackle
this issue is toestimate the allocation of DK answers from other data in the questionnaire. The
other way is to keepDK responses as a separate category in tabulation where we can consider it
as a separate replycategory if DK responses happen to be legitimate, otherwise we should let the
reader make his owndecision. Yet another way is to assume that DK responses occur more or
less randomly and as suchwe may distribute them among the other answers in the ratio in which
the latter have occurred.Similar results will be achieved if all DK replies are excluded from
tabulation and that too withoutinflating the actual number of other responses.
(b) Use or percentages: Percentages are often used in data presentation for they simplify
numbers,reducing all of them to a 0 to 100 range. Through the use of percentages, the data are
reduced in thestandard form with base equal to 100 which fact facilitates relative comparisons.
While usingpercentages, the following rules should be kept in view by researchers:
1. Two or more percentages must not be averaged unless each is weighted by the group sizefrom
which it has been derived.
2. Use of too large percentages should be avoided, since a large percentage is difficult
tounderstand and tends to confuse, defeating the very purpose for which percentages areused.
3. Percentages hide the base from which they have been computed. If this is not kept in view,the
real differences may not be correctly read.
4. Percentage decreases can never exceed 100 per cent and as such for calculatingpercentage of
decrease, the higher figure should invariably be taken as the base.
5. Percentages should generally be worked out in the direction of the causal-factor in case oftwo-
dimension tables and for this purpose we must select the more significant factor out of
the two given factors as the causal factor.
17.3 Elements/Types Of Analysis

As stated earlier, by analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures
along withsearching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis,
particularly in caseof survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown
parameters of the populationand testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis may,
therefore, be categorized as descriptiveanalysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is
often known as statistical analysis).
“Descriptiveanalysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study

provides us with profiles ofcompanies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a
multiple of characteristics such assize. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.”
2. this sort of analysis may be in respect of onevariable (described as unidimensional analysis),

or in respect of two variables (described as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two
variables (described as multivariate analysis). In this contextwe work out various measures that
show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the studyof measuring relationships
between two or more variables.
We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis. Correlation analysis
studiesthe joint variation of two or more variables for determining the amount of correlation
between two ormore variables. Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more
variables affectchanges in another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing
between two ormore variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis. Causal
analysis is consideredrelatively more important in experimental researches, whereas in most
social and business researchesour interest lies in understanding and controlling relationships
between variables then with determiningcauses per se and as such we consider correlation
analysis as relatively more important.
In modern times, with the availability of computer facilities, there has been a rapid
developmentof multivariate analysis which may be defined as “all statistical methods which
simultaneouslyanalyze more than two variables on a sample of observations”3. Usually the
following analyses* areinvolved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:
(a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one
dependentvariable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent
variables. The objective ofthis analysis is to make a prediction about the dependent
variable based on its covariance with all theconcerned independent variables.
(b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a single
dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on the
basis of some attribute. The object of this analysis happens to be to predict an entity’s possibility
ofbelonging to a particular group based on several predictor variables.
( C)Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of two-
wayANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is worked out
ona set of variables.
(d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-
measurablevariables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables
from their jointcovariance with a set of independent variables.
Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in
order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or
conclusions. Itis also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the
basis of inferentialanalysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and
conclusions) isperformed.
17.4 Statistics in Research
The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analyzing

its data anddrawing conclusions therefrom. Most research studies result in a large volume of raw
data whichmust be suitably reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be used for
further analysis.Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any research worker, even
though he may nothave occasion to use statistical methods in all their details and ramifications.
Classification andtabulation, as stated earlier, achieve this objective to some extent, but we have
to go a step furtherand develop certain indices or measures to summarize the collected/classified
data. Only after thiswe can adopt the process of generalization from small groups (i.e., samples)
to population. If fact,there are two major areas of statistics viz., descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics. Descriptivestatistics concern the development of certain indices from the
raw data, whereas inferential statisticsconcern with the process of generalization. Inferential
statistics are also known as sampling statisticsand are mainly concerned with two major type of
problems:
(i) the estimation of population parameters,

and (ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses.
The important statistical measures that are used to summarize the survey/research data are:
(1) measures of central tendency or statistical averages;
(2) measures of dispersion;
(3) measures
of asymmetry (skewness);
(4) measures of relationship; and
(5) other measures.
Amongst the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are the
arithmeticaverage or mean, median and mode. Geometric mean and harmonic mean are also
sometimes used.From among the measures of dispersion, variance, and its square root—the
standard deviationare the most often used measures. Other measures such as mean deviation,
range, etc. are alsoused. For comparison purpose, we use mostly the coefficient of standard
deviation or the coefficient of variation.
In respect of the measures of skewness and kurtosis, we mostly use the first measure of
skewnessbased on mean and mode or on mean and median. Other measures of skewness, based
on quartilesor on the methods of moments, are also used sometimes. Kurtosis is also used to
measure thepeakedness of the curve of the frequency distribution.
Amongst the measures of relationship, Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the

frequentlyused measure in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of
association is used incase of statistics of attributes. Multiple correlation coefficient, partial
correlation coefficient, regressionanalysis, etc., are other important measures often used by a
researcher.
Index numbers, analysis of time series, coefficient of contingency, etc., are other
measures thatmay as well be used by a researcher, depending upon the nature of the problem
under study.We give below a brief outline of some important measures (our of the above listed
measures)often used in the context of research studies.
17.5 Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency (or statistical averages) tell us the point about which items
have atendency to cluster. Such a measure is considered as the most representative figure for the
entiremass of data. Measure of central tendency is also known as statistical average. Mean,
median andmode are the most popular averages. Mean, also known as arithmetic average, is the
most common
measure of central tendency and may be defined as the value which we get by dividing the total
ofthe values of various given items in a series by the total number of items. we can work it out as
under:
Mean is the simplest measurement of central tendency and is a widely used measure. Its
chiefuse consists in summarizing the essential features of a series and in enabling data to be
compared. Itis amenable to algebraic treatment and is used in further statistical calculations. It is
a relativelystable measure of central tendency. But it suffers from some limitations viz., it is
unduly affected byextreme items; it may not coincide with the actual value of an item in a series,
and it may lead towrong impressions, particularly when the item values are not given with the
average. However,mean is better than other averages, especially in economic and social studies
where direct quantitative measurements are possible.
Median is the value of the middle item of series when it is arranged in ascending or
descendingorder of magnitude. It divides the series into two halves; in one half all items are less
than median,whereas in the other half all items have values higher than median. If the values of
the items arrangedin the ascending order are: 60, 74, 80, 90, 95, 100, then the value of the 4th
item viz., 88 is the valueof median. We can also write thus:
Median is a positional average and is used only in the context of qualitative phenomena,
forexample, in estimating intelligence, etc., which are often encountered in sociological fields.
Median isnot useful where items need to be assigned relative importance and weights. It is not
frequently used in sampling statistics.
Mode is the most commonly or frequently occurring value in a series. The mode in a
distributionis that item around which there is maximum concentration. In general, mode is the
size of the itemwhich has the maximum frequency, but at items such an item may not be mode
on account of theeffect of the frequencies of the neighboring items. Like median, mode is a
positional average and isnot affected by the values of extreme items. it is, therefore, useful in all
situations where we want toeliminate the effect of extreme variations. Mode is particularly useful
in the study of popular sizes.
For example, a manufacturer of shoes is usually interested in finding out the size most in
demand sothat he may manufacture a larger quantity of that size. In other words, he wants a
modal size to bedetermined for median or mean size would not serve his purpose. but there are
certain limitations ofmode as well. For example, it is not amenable to algebraic treatment and
sometimes remainsindeterminate when we have two or more model values in a series. It is
considered unsuitable incases where we want to give relative importance to items under
consideration.
Geometric mean is also useful under certain conditions. It is defined as the nth root of theproduct
of the values of n times in a given series. Symbolically, we can put it thus:
The most frequently used application of this average is in the determination of average per cent
of change i.e., it is often used in the preparation of index numbers or when we deal in ratios.
Harmonic mean is defined as the reciprocal of the average of reciprocals of the values of items
of a series. Symbolically, we can express it as under:
Harmonic mean is of limited application, particularly in cases where time and rate are involved.
The harmonic mean gives largest weight to the smallest item and smallest weight to the
largest item.As such it is used in cases like time and motion study where time is variable and
distance constant.From what has been stated above, we can say that there are several types of
statistical averages.Researcher has to make a choice for some average. There are no hard and fast
rules for theselection of a particular average in statistical analysis for the selection of an average
mostly dependson the nature, type of objectives of the research study. One particular type of
average cannot betaken as appropriate for all types of studies. The chief characteristics and the
limitations of thevarious averages must be kept in view; discriminate use of average is very
essential for sound statistical analysis.
17.6 Measures of Dispersion

An average can represent a series only as best as a single figure can, but it certainly
cannot revealthe entire story of any phenomenon under study. Especially it fails to give any idea
about the scatter ofthe values of items of a variable in the series around the true value of average.
In order to measurethis scatter, statistical devices called measures of dispersion are calculated.
Important measures ofdispersion are (a) range, (b) mean deviation, and (c) standard deviation.
(a) Range is the simplest possible measure of dispersion and is defined as the difference between
the values of the extreme items of a series. Thus,
The utility of range is that it gives an idea of the variability very quickly, but the drawback is that
range is affected very greatly by fluctuations of sampling. Its value is never stable, being based
ononly two values of the variable. As such, range is mostly used as a rough measure of
variability andis not considered as an appropriate measure in serious research studies.
(b) Mean deviation is the average of difference of the values of items from some average
of theseries. Such a difference is technically described as deviation. In calculating mean
deviation weignore the minus sign of deviations while taking their total for obtaining the mean
deviation. Meandeviation is, thus, obtained as under:’
When mean deviation is divided by the average used in finding out the mean deviation
itself, theresulting quantity is described as the coefficient of mean deviation. Coefficient of mean
deviationis a relative measure of dispersion and is comparable to similar measure of other series.
Meandeviation and its coefficient are used in statistical studies for judging the variability, and
therebyrender the study of central tendency of a series more precise by throwing light on the
typicalness ofan average. It is a better measure of variability than range as it takes into
consideration the values ofall items of a series. Even then it is not a frequently used measure as it
is not amenable to algebraic process.
(c) Standard deviation is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series and is commonly
denoted by the symbol s ’ (pronounced as sigma). Standard deviation is defined as the square-
rootof the average of squares of deviations, when such deviations for the values of individual
items in aseries are obtained from the arithmetic average. It is worked out as under:
where fi means the frequency of the ith item.
When we divide the standard deviation by the arithmetic average of the series, the
resulting quantity is known as coefficient of standard deviation which happens to be a relative
measure and is oftenused for comparing with similar measure of other series. When this
coefficient of standard deviationis multiplied by 100, the resulting figure is known as coefficient
of variation. Sometimes, we workout the square of standard deviation, known as variance, which
is frequently used in the context of analysis of variation.
The standard deviation (along with several related measures like variance, coefficient of
variation, etc.) is used mostly in research studies and is regarded as a very satisfactory measure
of dispersionin a series. It is amenable to mathematical manipulation because the algebraic signs
are not ignoredin its calculation (as we ignore in case of mean deviation). It is less affected by
fluctuations ofsampling. These advantages make standard deviation and its coefficient a very
popular measure ofthe scatteredness of a series. It is popularly used in the context of estimation
and testing of hypotheses.
17.7 Summary
Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modelling data with
the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-
making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques
under a variety of names, and is used in different business, science, and social science
domains. In today's business world, data analysis plays a role in making decisions more scientific
and helping businesses operate more effectively. Data mining is a particular data analysis
technique that focuses on statistical modelling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather
than purely descriptive purposes, while business intelligence covers data analysis that relies
heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information.In statistical applications, data
analysis can be divided into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA),
and confirmatory data analysis (CDA).EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data
while CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses
on the application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification, while text
analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify
information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All of the above are varieties of
data analysis
17.8 key words
Tabulation- When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcherto
arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to
astabulation
Editing-Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys)
todetect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible
Coding- Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
thatresponses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes
Field editing- Itconsists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator forcompleting
(translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the
time of recording the respondents’ responses.
Central editing- It should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returnedto the office.
Canonical analysis-This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-
measurablevariables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables
from their jointcovariance with a set of independent variables.
17.9SelfAssessment Questions
1. Define Processing of data? Discuss the Classification according to the class Interviews
2. Describe the Measures of Central Tendency
3. Explain the Measures of Dispersion

Publication, 2010.

Publications 2015
5. Introduction to statistics Management Design of Experiment and Statistical quality Control by

Dharmaraja selvamuthu, andDipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
6. Handbook of Research Methodology (A Compendium for Scholars and Researchers) by Dr.

Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Edu creation Publishing 2019.
7. Research Design, Qualitative and Quantitative Mixed Method, Approaches, 4 th Edition, Sage
Publications, 2019
Dr.V.Naga Nirmala
Centre for Distance Education 18.1 Acharya Nagarjuna University
LESSON-18
REPORT WRITING
Learning Objectives
 To understand the features of Research report

 To know the preparation of report
 To discuss the different steps in writing report
Structure
18.0 Introduction
18.1 Features of Research Report
18.2 Different steps in writing report
18.2.1 Preparation of final outline
18.2.2 Preparation of rough draft
18.2.3 Rewriting Polishing the rough draft
18.2.4 Preparation of final bibliography
18.2.5 Books and Pamphlets
18.2.6 writing the final draft
18.3 Layout of Research Report
18.3.1 Preliminary Pages
18.3.2 Main text
18.3.2(i) Introduction
18.3.2(ii) Statement of findings and Recommendations
18.3.2(iii) Results
18.3.3 (iv) Implications of Results
18.3.3(v) Summary
18.4 Common weakness in report
18.5 Summary
18.6 Keywords
18.0 Introduction
A report is a more highly structured form of writing than an essay, and is designed so that
it can be read quickly and accurately; though reports are not necessarily read from beginning to
end. Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information was
gathered as much as the information itself. Reports should be organized for the convenience of
the intended reader. Reports are written on a wide range of subjects for a wide variety of reasons.
Before writing any report, you should identify the objective and the preferred conventions of
structure and presentation. This is as true for reports you write at university as it is for reports
written in employment. All reports attempt to communicate findings for one reason or another,
whether to inform decision makers, change public opinion or maintain a record of development.
Whenever you write a report you must bear in mind why you are writing and who you are
writing for. All reports have an intended reader
A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research project or

alternatively scientific observations on or about a subject. Normally the research assignments
like projects, investigations, explorations, theses, dissertations fall in this category. A research
report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic
investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research
process, and it is typically considered as an objective and accurate source of information.
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research
task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even
the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most
striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated
to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to
others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains
the significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of
report as an integral part of the research process. But the general opinion is in favor of treating
the presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research
project. Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat
different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher without most care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of
experts for the purpose.
18.1 Features of A Research Report
A good research report is marked by certain features:
1. A good research report should be written lucidly, precisely in simple language and should
provide a detailed presentation of the whole of research processes. It should present the data in
tables and figures with suitable objective explanations. The end part should include the
concluding remarks, the prime findings and recommendations, if any.
2. The language and style should be academic, formal, less flaunting and simple. .
3. The report is normally based on the first-hand information collected by the researcher.
However, the reports written on the basis of secondary data are also presented in a systematic
and lucid manners.
4. A research report should normally be written in the third person and avoid use of pronouns
like, ‘I’, ‘Me’, ‘My’ etc.
5. The report should facilitate the reader with systematic presentation like proper headings, title,
sub-tiles, tables, graphs, parts and even bullet points where required.
6. The reports normally forward recommendations too as the solutions to the problems and policy
making by the concerned authorities, corporate organizations, institutions and governments.
18.2 Different Steps in Writing Report
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps
involved in writing report are:

(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) preparation of the final outline;
(c) preparation of the rough draft;
(d) rewriting and polishing;
(c) preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f) writing the final draft.
Though all these steps are self-explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be
appropriate for better understanding.
Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject
(a) logically and
(b) chronologically.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in
developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological
development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for
doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.
18.2.1 Preparation of the final outline
It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the framework upon which
long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material
and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”
18.2.2 Preparation of the rough draft
This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline.
Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done
in the context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in
collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he
wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
18.2.3 Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft:
This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually, this step
requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference
between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should
check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should
also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion ;does the report
stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an
old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition the researcher should give attention
to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check them mechanics
of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
18.2.4 Preparation of the final bibliography
Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The
bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some way
pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the
researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be
divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the
second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern
of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader,
though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography. The entries in bibliography should be
made adopting the following order
18.2.5 For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers, the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.

2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker, London,
September, 1971, p. 995.
The above examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used, but one
should also remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only thing important is
that,
whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.
18.2.6 Writing the final draft
This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective
style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and
the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and
technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated
in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to
others. A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest and
must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve
some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the
knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
18.3 Layout of The Research Report
Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about
the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its
methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose,
there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the
research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise
(A) preliminary pages;
(B)the main text; and
(C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately.
18.3.1 Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody
interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report.
18.3.2 Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title
of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the
other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main
section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the
following sections:
(i) Introduction;
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations;
(iii) The results;
(iv) The implications drawn from the results; and
(v) The summary.
18.3.2 (i) Introduction
The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should
contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be
given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A
brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be
seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major
concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained.
The scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried
out? What was its basic design?
If the study was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations?
If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what
questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)?
If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers?
Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told:
Who were the subjects?
How many were there?
How were they selected?
All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the
findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the
scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various
limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.
18.3.2(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations:
After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned.
If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the summarized form.
18.3.2(iii) Results
A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of
the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters.
The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data
rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splited into
readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But how one is to
decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from
the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But
ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report.
“Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he was
concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he
arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.”
18.3.2 (iv) Implications of the results

Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again putdown the results of his
research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the results of the
study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human
behavior. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations
of the inferences drawn from the study.
(c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is
considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarizes and
recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly
related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast
of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be
done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
18.3.3 (v) Summary
It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary,
resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major
conclusions drawn from the research results.
(C) End Matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of
sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics
along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or
discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact
that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report
18.4 Common Weaknesses in Report
It is important to know the general mistakes committed in report writing and also the points to
consider while finalizing the text.
i) Endless Description without interpretation is a pitfall. Tables need conclusions, not detailed
presentation of all numbers or percentages in the cells which readers can see for themselves. The
chapter discussion, in particular, needs comparison of data, highlighting of unexpected results,
your Report Writing own or others’ opinions on problems discovered, weighing of pro’s and
con’s of possible solutions. Yet, too often the discussion is merely a dry summary of findings.
ii) Neglect of Qualitative Data is also quite common. Quotes of informants as illustration of
your findings and conclusions make your report lively. They also have scientific value in
allowing the reader to draw his/her own conclusions from the data you present. (Assuming you
are not biased in your presentation!). Presentation of important photographs also makes report
attractive and explains facts better.
iii) Sometimes qualitative data (e.g., open opinion questions) are just coded and counted like
quantitative data, without interpretation, whereas they may provide interesting illustrations of
reasons for the behavior of informants or of their attitudes. This is serious maltreatment of data
that needs correction.
Style of writing Keep it simple. Avoid sentences that are too long and eliminate
unnecessary jargon. Your tutor will be able to advise whether the report should be written in the
‘active’ or ‘passive’ voice. The active voice reads as follows: ‘I recommend ...’ The passive
voice reads: ‘It is recommended that ...’ The active voice allows you to write short, punchy
sentences. The passive appears more formal and considered and is more suitable for academic
writing. Avoid mixing the two voices. In which voice will you be expected to write? Layout
Most reports have a progressive numbering system. The main sections are given single numbers
- 1, 2, 3 and so on. Subsections are given a decimal number- 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 etc. Subsections can be
further divided- 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.2.1, 1.2.2 etc. Redrafting and checking Once you have
written the first draft of your report you will need to check it through. It is probably sensible to
leave it on your desk for a day or so if you have the time. This will make a clear break from the
intensive writing period, allowing you to view your work more objectively. Assess your work by
re-reading particularly focusing on:
• structure,
• content,
• Style.
18.5 Summary
The last part of any research is writing the research report. The report writing is an art as
well as science. You have to identify who will be reading your report and the report should be
prepared accordingly. A summary of report in the beginning is important. The report layout plan
should be comprehensive and all aspects of report including realistic recommendations and
future directions of research should be described.
18.6 Key words
Research Report- A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research
project or alternatively scientific observations on or about a subject.
Preliminary pages - In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’
18.7 Self -Assessment Questions
1. Discuss the features of Research report?

2. Describe the Different steps in writing report?
3. Examine the Layout of Research Report?
1. Research Methods & statistics A Critical thinking approach by Sherri L.Jackson Cengage
Publication, 2010.

Publications 2015

Dharmaraja selvamuthu, and Dipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Educreation Publishing 2019.
Publications, 2019
Dr.V.NAGA NIRMALA
LESSON-19
LAY OUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Learning Objectives
 To understand the Data Collection and Analysis

To study Main text and chapter wise Discussion
 To Learn the style and layout of the report
Structure
19.0 Introduction
19.1 Data Collection and Analysis
19.1.1 Title and cover page
19.1.2 Foreword
19.1.3 Preface Report wiring
19.1.4 Acknowledgment
19.1.5 Table of Contents
19.1.6 list of Tables
19.1.7 List of Figures
19.1.8 List of Appendices
19.1.9 List of Abbreviation
19.1.10 Executive summary
19.2 Main text
19.2.1 Chapter-I Introduction
19.2.2 Chapter- II Review of Literature
19.2.3Methodology
19.2.4 Research Findings
19.2.5 Discussion
19.2.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
19.2.7 References
19.3 Style and Layout of the report
19.3.1 Style of writing
19.3.2 Report writing
19.3.3 Layout of the report
19.3.4 Revising and finding
19.4 Summary
19.5 Key words
19.0 Introduction
Once the data collection and analysis work is over, the researcher will start writing the
research report. Social and development research reports need to have a logical, clear structure
be to the point use simple language, and have a pleasant layout Just as an architect has to draw a
layout plan for a house that is being designed, you first have to make an outline for your report.
This outline will contain a head, a body, and a tail. The head consists of a description of your
problem within its context (the country and research area), the objectives of the study and the
methodology followed. This part should not comprise more than one quarter of the report,
otherwise it becomes top-heavy. The body will form the bigger part of your report: it will contain
the research findings. The tail, finally, consists of the discussion of your data, conclusions, and
recommendations.
Before you start writing, it is essential to group and review the data you have analyzed by
objective. Check whether all data has indeed been processed and analyzed as you planned in the
research protocol/proposal which is duly approved. Draw major conclusions and relate these to
the research literature. Again, you may be inspired to go back to your raw data and refine your
analysis, or to search for additional literature to answer questions that the analysis of your data
may evoke. Compile the major conclusions and tables or quotes from qualitative data related to
each specific objective. You are now ready to draft the report.
The research report will have, broadly, three parts.
Part I : The Preliminary Pages
Part II : The Main Text of the Research Report
Part III : The End Matter
The Preliminary Pages Of Research Report
The preliminary pages of the research report should have the following main constituents.
19.1 Data Collection and Analysis
• Title and cover page
• A foreword
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of figures
• List of appendices
• List of abbreviations
• Executive Summary
19.1.1 Title and Cover page

The cover page should contain the title, the names of the authors with their designations,
the institution that is publishing the report with its logo, (e.g., Health Systems Research Unit,
Ministry of Health), the month, and the year of publication. The title could consist of a
challenging statement or question, followed by an informative subtitle covering the content of
the study and indicating the area where the study was implemented. However, this is suggestive
in nature and should not be considered standard. It would be appropriate if the cover page is
designed by an expert in computer graphics who may be suggested to include some important
photograph related to identity of organization or problem under study or from the field within the
background. Design software may be used. An example of a title of a research report is given in
the box below.
19.1.2 Foreword
A foreword is usually a short piece of writing found at the beginning of a book or other
piece of literature, before the introduction. This may or may not be written by the primary author
of the work. Often, a foreword will tell of some interaction between the writer of the foreword
and the story, or, the writer of the story. A foreword to later editions of a work often explains
how the new edition differs from previous ones. Unlike a preface, a foreword is always signed.
An example of a foreword is given in the box below.
19.1.3 Preface Report Writing

A preface, by contrast, is written by the author of the book. A preface generally covers
the story of how the book came into being, or how the idea for the book was developed; this is
often followed by thanks and acknowledgments to people who were helpful to the author during
the time of writing. A preface is an introduction to a book or other literary work written by the
work’s author. An example of preface is given in the box below.
19.1.4 Acknowledgements
It is good practice to thank those who supported you technically or financially in the
design and implementation of your study. You should not forget to thank your research guide
and your employer, too, who has allowed you to invest time in the study; and, the respondents
may be acknowledged. You should not forget to acknowledge the contribution of computer
professionals, library staff, local officials, and the community at large that provided the
Information. Acknowledgements are usually placed right after the title page or at the end of the
report, before the references. An example of acknowledgement is given in the box below.
19.1.5 Table of Contents
A table of contents is essential. It provides the reader a quick overview of the chapters
with major sections and sub sections of your report, and page references, so that the reader can
go through the report in a different order, or skip certain sections. The sections and sub sections
within each chapter may be given numbers that are specific to the chapter. For example, a section
in chapter III may be given no as 3.1; and, a sub section as 3.1.1. An example of a table of
contents is given below.
19.1.6 List of Tables
If you have many tables or figures, it is essential to list these also in a table of contents
with formatted with page numbers. The initial letters of the key words in the title are capitalized
and no terminal punctuation is used. An example is given below.
19.1.7 List of Figures
The list of figures appears in the same format as the list of tables, titled List of Figures.
19.1.8 List of Appendices
The appendices will contain any additional information that the researcher have collected
while carrying out the study. It may be a questionnaire, a letter of appreciation, a government
notification, etc. The list of appendices appears in the same format as the list of tables.
19.1.9 List of Abbreviations (optional) Report Writing
If abbreviations or acronyms are used in the report, these should be stated in full in the
text the first time that they are mentioned. If there are many, they should be listed in alphabetical
order as well. The list can be placed before the first chapter of the report.
The table of contents and lists of tables, figures, abbreviations should be prepared last, as only
then can you include the page numbers of all chapters and sections, sub-sections in the table of
contents. Then, you can also finalize the numbering of figures and tables and include all
abbreviations. An Example of a List of Abbreviations follows.
19.1.10 Executive Summary
The summary should be written only after the first or even the second draft of the report has been
completed. It should contain
• a very brief description of the problem (Why this study was needed)— the main
• objectives (What has been studied)
• the place of study (Where)
• the type of study and methods used (How)
• the major findings and conclusions
• the major (or all) recommendations.
The summary will be the first (and for busy programme manager/decision makers most
likely the only) part of your study that will be read. Therefore, it demands thorough reflection
and is time consuming. Several drafts may have to be made, each discussed by the research team
as a whole.
As you may have collaborated with various groups during the drafting and
implementation of your research proposal, you may consider writing different summaries for
each of these groups. For example, you may prepare different summaries for policymakers and
programme managers, for implementing staff of lower levels, for community members, or for the
public at large (newspaper, TV). In a later stage, you may write articles in scientific journals. In
this section, we discussed about the types of report and the contents to be included in the
preliminary pages of research report. Now answer the following questions.
Main Components Or Chaptering Of Research Report
19.2 The Main Text includes the following chapters

a) Introduction
b) Review of Literature
c) Methodology
d) Research Findings
e) Discussion
f) Conclusion and Recommendations
g) Summary
19.2.1 Chapter 1: Introduction

The introduction is a relatively easy part of the report that can best be written after a first
draft of the findings has been made. It should certainly contain some relevant (environmental/
administrative/ economic/ social) background data and information about the topic on which you
are carrying out research for example if you are doing research on primary education, then a
brief about the status of primary education, such as their number, state-wise break up,
expenditure on primary education, etc., need to be described. You may make additions to the
corresponding section in your research proposal, including additional literature, and use it for
your report Then, the statement of the problem should follow, again, revised from your Report
Writing research proposal with additional comments and relevant literature collected during the
implementation of the study. It should contain a paragraph on what you hope/ hoped to achieve
from the results of the study. Enough background should be given to make clear to the reader
why the problem was considered worth investigating.
The general and specific objectives should also be included in this chapter. If necessary,
you can adjust them slightly for style and sequence. However, you should not change their basic
nature. If you have not been able to meet some of the objectives of the project, this should be
stated in the methodology section ,and in the discussion of the findings. The objectives form the
heart of your study.
They determined the methodology you chose and will determine how you structure the
reporting of your findings.
19.2.2 Chapter 2: Review of Literature

Global literature can be reviewed in the introduction to the statement of the problem if
you have selected a problem of global interest. Otherwise, relevant literature from individual
countries may follow as a separate literature review after the statement of the problem. A
literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge and
or methodological approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources,
and, as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. Its ultimate goal is to bring
the reader up to date with current literature on a topic, and forms the basis for another goal, such
as future research that may be needed in the area.
A well-structured literature review is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and
relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and
an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic. One research study
should be presented in one paragraph and it should mention the name of the researcher, year of
study, topic and area of study, sample size, main objectives, and findings of the study. An
example of a review is given in the box below.
=
19.2.3 Chapter 3: Methodology
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific
reader would like to know about the basic design of the study, the methods of data collection,
information regarding the sample used in the study, the statistical analysis adopted and the
factors limiting the study The methodology section should include a description of
a. the study type
b. major study themes or variables (a detailed list of variables on which data was collected
may be annexed)
c. the study/ target population(s), sampling method(s) and the size of the sample(s)
d. data collection techniques used for the different study populations
e. duration of data collection
f. how the data was collected and by whom
g. procedures used for data analysis, including statistical tests (if applicable)
h. any constraints and its management
i. limitations of the study.
If you have deviated from the original study design presented in your researchproposal, you
should explain to what extent you did so, and why. Theconsequences of this deviation for
meeting certain objectives of your study shouldbe indicated. If the quality of some of the data is
weak, resulting in possible biases, this should be described as well under the heading ‘limitations
of the study’. An example of methodology is given in the box below.
19.2.4 Chapter 4: Research Findings
A detailed presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts, together with a validation of the results is the next step in writing the main text
of the report. The result section of the study should contain the statistical summaries and
reductions of data, rather than raw data. All the results should be presented in a logical sequence
and split into readily identifiable sections.
The systematic presentation of your findings in relation to the research objectives is the crucial
part of your report.
The list of data by objectives will help you to decide how to organize the presentation of
data. The decision concerning where to put what can best be made after all data have been fully
processed and analyzed, and before the writing Report Writing starts.
When all data have been analyzed, a detailed outline has to be made for the presentation
of the findings. This will help the decision-making on how to organize the data, and is an
absolute precondition for optimal division of tasks among group members in the writing process.
At this stage you might as well prepare an outline for the whole report, taking the main
components of a research report as a point of departure.
An outline should contain
a. the headings of the main sections of the report
b. the headings of subsections
c. the points to be made in each section
d. the list of tables, figures and/or quotes to illustrate each section.
The outline for the chapter on findings will predictably be the most elaborate. The first
section under findings is usually a description of the study/ target population. When different
study populations have been studied, you should provide a short description of each group before
you present the data pertaining to these informants.
Then, depending on the study design, you may provide more information on the problem you
studied (size, distribution, characteristics). Thereafter, in an analytics tudy, the degree to which
different independent variables influence the problem will be discussed.
For better understanding, an example of how the research findings are tabulated and
presented in the form of findings is given in the following table. An analysis of table 5.1 is given
in the box below.
Tables and Figures in the text should be numbered and have clear titles. It is advisable to
first use the number of the section to which the table belongs. In the final draft you may decide to
number tables and figures in sequence. It is appreciated in case some pictures from the field are
also appropriately presented to give visual presentation of the field information. Include only
those tables and figures that present main findings and need more elaborate discussion in the
text. Others may be put in annexes, or, if they don’t reveal interesting points, be omitted.
It is advisable to involve statistician/data analyst from the very beginning and in each process of
the research so that he may provide meaningful tables and himself judge irrelevant findings.
19.2.5 Chapter 5: Discussion

The findings can now be discussed by objective or by cluster of related variables or
themes, which should lead to conclusions and possible recommendations. The discussion may
also include findings from other related studies that support or contradict your own. For easy
understanding, the discussion of the table given in findings is given in the box below.
19.2.6 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations Report Writing

The conclusions and recommendations should follow logically from the discussion of the
findings. Conclusions can be short, as they have already been elaborately discussed in Chapter 5.
As the discussion will follow the sequence in which the findings have been presented (which in
turn depends on your objectives)the conclusions should logically follow the same order.
Sometimes, it is advisable to present conclusion and recommendations in specific sections
related to issues of importance/under investigation/objectives of the study for better clarity to
different stake holders. The conclusions should be given in bullets so that it can easily catch the
attention of the reader. Remember that action-oriented groups are most interested in this section.
The conclusions should be followed by suggestions or recommendations. While making
recommendations, use not only the findings of your study, but also supportive information from
other sources. The recommendations should be generated from the findings and conclusions. It
should not be generalized; rather it should be specific to particular stake holders in pure,
actionable term which is feasible in relation to social context, policy and constitution of country,
political acceptability, budget, time, etc. One should not give general recommendations such
as, “Government should provide free treatment to everyone for all health problems”.
If your recommendations are short (roughly one page), you might include the mall in your
summary and omit them as a separate section in Chapter 6 in order to avoid repetition.
19.2.7 Chapter 7:References
This is the list of books/articles in some way pertinent to the research which was
followed while conducting research. It should contain all those works which the researcher has
consulted. The references in your text can be numbered in the sequence in which they appear in
the report and then listed in this order in the list of references (Vancouver system). Another
possibility is the Harvard system of listing in brackets the author’s name(s) in the text, followed
by the date of the publication and page number, for example: (Sharma et. Al., 2000: 84). In the
listof references, the publications are then arranged in alphabetical order by the principal author’s
last name. You can choose either system as long as you use it consistently throughout the report
unless some guidelines specifically ask for it(in case of research publications).
The references should be given in the following order.
1) Name of the author, last name first.

2) Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3) Place, publisher and date of publication.
4) Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing HousePvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as follows.
1) Name of the author, last name first.
2) Title of the article, in quotation marks.
3) Name of the periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4) The volume and number.
5) The date of the issue.
6) The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker, London,
September, 1971, p.995.
Annexure
The annexes should contain any additional information needed to enable professionals to
follow your research procedures and data analysis. Information that would be useful to special
categories of readers but is not of interest to the average reader can be included in annexes as
well. Examples of information that can be presented in annexes are
• tables, figures (graphs) and pictures referred to in the text but not included in order to keep the
report short
• lists of hospitals, districts, villages, etc., that participated in the study
• questionnaires or check lists used for data collection
.
19.3 Style and Layout of The Report
19.3.1 Style of Writing
Remember that your reader

• is short of time
• has many other urgent matters demanding his or her interest and attention
• is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research jargon’.
Therefore, the rules are
• simplify- Keep to the essentials
• justify- Make no statement that is not based on facts and data do not quote the name of anyone
who has provided the information
19.3.2 Report Writing

a) in case of sensitive findings, one should think not to clearly mention name of village/
location, etc.
b) quantify when you have the data to do so; avoid ‘large’, ‘small’- instead, say ‘50%’, ‘one
in three’
c) the percentage 45.8 in table may be presented in the text as about 46% and45.3% may be
presented as approximately 45%
d) be precise and specific in your phrasing of findings
e) inform, not impress - avoid exaggeration
f) use short sentences
g) use adverbs and adjectives infrequently
h) be consistent in the use of past and present tenses
i) avoid the passive voice, if possible, as it creates vagueness (e.g., ‘patients were
interviewed’ leaves uncertainty as to who interviewed them) and
j) repeated use makes dull reading
k) aim to be logical and systematic in your presentation
19.3.3 Layout of the Report
A good physical layout is important, as it will help your report

a. make a good initial impression
b. encourage the readers

c. give them an idea of how the material has been organized so the reader can make a quick
determination of what he will read first.
d. Particular attention should be paid to make sure there is
e. an attractive layout for the title page and a clear table of contents
f. consistency in margins and spacing
g. consistency in headings and subheadings, e.g.: Font size 16 or 18 bold, for headings of
chapters; size 14 bold for headings of major sections; size 12bold, for headings of sub-
sections, etc.
a) good quality printing and photocopying
b) correct drafts carefully with spell check as well as critical reading for clarity by other
team-members, your facilitator and, if possible, outsiders
c) numbering of figures and tables, provision of clear titles for tables, and clear
d) headings for columns and rows, etc.
e) accuracy and consistency in quotations and references.
19.3.4 Revising and Finalizing the Text
Prepare a double-spaced first draft of your report with wide margins so that you can
easily make comments and corrections in the text. Have several copies made of the first draft, so
you will have one or more copies to work on, and one copy on which to insert the final changes
for revision. When a first draft of the findings, discussion, and conclusions has been completed,
all working group members and facilitators should read it critically and make comments
The following questions should be kept in mind when reading the draft.
a. Have all important findings been included?
b. Do the conclusions follow logically from the findings? If some of the findings
contradict each other, has this been discussed and explained, if possible?
Have weaknesses in the methodology, if any, been revealed?
a. Are there any overlaps in the draft that have to be removed?
b. Is it possible to condense the content? In general, a text improves by shortening.
Some parts less relevant for action may be included in annexes.
Check if descriptive paragraphs may be shortened and introduced or finished by a concluding
sentence.
a. Do data in the text agree with data in the tables? Are all tables consistent(with the same
number of informants per variable), are they numbered in sequence, and do they have
clear titles and headings?
b. Is the sequence of paragraphs and subsections logical and coherent? Is there a smooth
connection between successive paragraphs and sections? Is the phrasing of findings and
conclusions precise and clear? The original authors of each section may prepare a second
draft, taking into consideration all comments that have been made. However, you might
consider the appointment of two editors amongst yourselves, to draft the complete
version.
The help from proof readers may also be taken to remove minor mistakes from the draft. It is
advisable to have one of the other groups and facilitators read the second draft and judge it on the
points mentioned in the previous section. Then a final version of the report should be prepared.
This time you should give extra care to the presentation and layout: structure, style and
consistency of spelling
Use verb tenses consistently.
Descriptions of the field situation may be stated in the past tense (e.g., ‘Five households
owned less than one acre of land.’).Conclusions drawn from the data are usually in the present
tense (e.g., ‘Food taboos hardly have any impact on the nutritional status of young children.)
19.4 Summary
A research report is considered a major component of any research study as the research
remains incomplete till the report has been presented or written. No matter how good a research
study, and how meticulously the research study has been conducted, the findings of the research
are of little value unless they are effectively documented and communicated to others. The
research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. Writing a report is the last
step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in
actually conducting research. It is any informational work made with an intention to relay
information or recounting certain events in a presentable manner. Reports are often conveyed in
writing, speech, television, or film. Report is an administrative necessity. Most official form of
information or work are completed via report. Report is always written in a sequential manner in
order of occurrence.
19.5 Key words
Preface - A preface generally covers the story of how the book came into being, or how the idea
for the book was developed
Foreword-A foreword is usually a short piece of writing found at the beginning of a book or
other piece of literature, before the introduction. This may or may not be written by the primary
author of the work
Annexure - The annexes should contain any additional information needed to enable
professionals to follow your research procedures and data analysis
Methodology-The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know about the basic design of the study, the methods of data
collection, information regarding the sample used in the study, the statistical analysis adopted
and the factors limiting the study
1. Discuss the data Collection and Analysis in report writing

2. Describe the Chapter wise framing of the report writing
3. How did you analyze the style and Layout of the report writing


Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015
Dharmaraja selvamuthu, andDipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
6. Handbook of Research Methodology A Compendium for Scholars and Researchers) by Dr.
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Educreation Publishing 2019.
Publications, 2019
Dr.V.Naga Nirmala
LESSON-20
TYPES OF REPORTS
Learning Objectives
 To Understand the Technical and Popular Report

 To Discuss the size and Physical design of the report
 To Learn the precautions of writing Research report
Structure
20.0 Introduction
20.1 Technical report
20.2 Popular report
20.3 Oral presentation
20.4 Mechanics of writing Research report
20.4.1 Size and Physical design
20.4.2 Procedure
20.4.3 Treatment of quotation
20.4.4 Footnotes
20.4.5 Documentation style
20.4.6 Use of Statistics, Graph, chart
20.4.7 Final Draft
20.4.8 Preparation of Index
20.5 precaution for writing Research Report
20.6 Summary
20.7 Key words
20.0 Introduction
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length
and theform are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer
reports in theletter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organizations and
financial institutionsare generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their
annual reports to theircustomers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of
their investigations in theform of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results in symbols
and formulae. Students ofliterature usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of
some writer or period or the likewith a liberal use of quotations from the works of the author
under discussion. In the field of education and psychology, the favorite form is the report on the
results of experimentation accompanied bythe detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical
psychologists and social pathologists frequently find itnecessary to make use of the case-history
form.
News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand
on-these accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons who were
on thescene. In such reports the first paragraph usually contains the important information in
detail and thesucceeding paragraphs contain material which is progressively less and less
important.Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s
intentions, hissuccess or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or
his point of view.
Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by
governmental bureaus,special commissions, and similar other organizations are generally very
comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important
research products. Similarly,Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing,
usually completed by students inacademic institutions.
The above narration throws light on the fact that the results of a research investigation
can bepresented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, a popular report, an article, a
monograph or attimes even in the form of oral presentation. Which method(s) of presentation to
be used in a particularstudy depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the
nature of the results. Atechnical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is
required whether for recordkeepingor for public dissemination. A popular report is used if the
research results have policyimplications. We give below a few details about the said two types of
reports:
20.1 Technical Report

In the technical report the main emphasis is on
(i) the methods employed,
(ii) assumptions made in the course of the study,
(iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting
data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem
inoperational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance,
insampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection,
etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If
secondarydata are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a
survey, themanner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of
thefindings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
This, infact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from
theresults be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire,mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the
like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.The order
presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the orderof
presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other
words,means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections
outlined abovewill not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular
report.It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and
readyavailability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of
charts anddiagrams is considered desirable.
20.2 Popular Report

The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplificationshould be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, detailsand liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large
print, many subheadings,even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic
feature of the popular report.Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications.
We give below a general outline of a popular report.

1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of
mostpractical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of
thestudy is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with
thespecific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques
used,including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the
report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study
arepresented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as
charts,diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented
inthe form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is
entirelyimportant thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications fromthe operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the
extent possible.
20.3 Oral Presentation

At times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective, particularly
in caseswhere policy recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of this
approach lies in thefact that it provides an opportunity for give-and-take decisions which
generally lead to a betterunderstanding of the findings and their implications. But the main
demerit of this sort of presentation is the lack of any permanent record concerning the research
details and it may be just possible that the findings may fade away from people’s memory even
before an action is taken. In order toovercome this difficulty, a written report may be circulated
before the oral presentation and referredto frequently during the discussion. Oral presentation is
effective when supplemented by variousvisual devices. Use of slides, wall charts and
blackboards is quite helpful in contributing to clarity andin reducing the boredom, if any.
Distributing a board outline, with a few important tables and chartsconcerning the research
results, makes the listeners attentive who have a ready outline on which tofocus their thinking.
This very often happens in academic institutions where the researcher discusseshis research
findings and policy implications with others either in a seminar or in a group discussion.Thus,
research results can be reported in more than one way, but the usual practice adopted,
inacademic institutions particularly, is that of writing the Technical Report and then preparing
severalresearch papers to be discussed at various forums in one form or the other. But in
practical field andwith problems having policy implications, the technique followed is that of
writing a popular report.Researches done on governmental account or on behalf of some major
public or private organizationsare usually presented in the form of technical reports.
20.4 Mechanics of Writing A Research Report

There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation
of theresearch report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be
scrupulously adheredto, and no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be decided as
soon as the materials forthe research paper have been assembled. The following points deserve
mention so far as the mechanicsof writing a report are concerned:
20.4.1. Size and physical design

The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8 1 2² × 11² insize. If it is to be
written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at leastone and one-
half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right handof the
paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should be neat and
eligibleIf the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double-spaced on one side of
thepage only except for the insertion of the long quotations.
20.4.2. Procedure
Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps havealready
been explained earlier in this chapter).Types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier
which should be taken as a guide forreport-writing in case of a particular problem).
20.4.3. Treatment of quotations:

Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spacedforming an immediate
part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than fouror five type written
lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right 0f the normal
text margin.
20.4.4 . The footnotes

Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in quotations inthe
report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the researchtext but
still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for cross references,citation of
authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of apoint of view. It
should always be kept in view that footnote is not an end nor a means ofthe display of
scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotesfor scholarship does
not need to be displayed.
(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation whichthey
identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textualmaterial by a
space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each

chapterseparately. The number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a
quotation.At the foot of the page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed a
littleabove the line. Thus, consecutive numbers must be used to correlate the reference in thetext
with its corresponding note at the bottom of the page, except in case of statisticaltables and other
numerical material, where symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the like onemay be used to prevent
confusion.
(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another
bydouble space.
20.4.5. Documentation style

Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given workshould be
complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used.
Suchdocumentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be described as
under:
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name as in a
bibliography)followed by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;

3. Place and date of publication;
4. Pagination references (The page number).
Example John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p. 315.
(ii) Regarding multivolumed reference

1. Author’s name in the normal order;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically
For works arranged alphabetically such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination
reference is usually needed. In such cases the order is illustrated as under:
Example 1
“Salamanca,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
Example 2
“Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” Dictionary of national biography.
But if there should be a detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and
pagination reference may be found necessary.
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
Quotations from anthologies or collections of literary works must be acknowledged not
only by author, but also by the name of the collector.
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference
In such cases the documentation should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title;
2. “quoted or cited in,”;
3. Second author and work.
Example
J.F. Jones, Life in Polynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific Ocean area, by R.B. Abel,
p. 191.
(vii) Case of multiple authorship
If there are more than two authors or editors, then in the documentation the name of only
the first is given and the multiple authorship is indicated by “et al.” or “and others”.Subsequent
references to the same work need not be so detailed as stated above. If the work iscited again
without any other work intervening, it may be indicated as ibid, followed by a comma andthe
page number. A single page should be referred to as p., but more than one page be referred. If
there are several pages referred to at a stretch, the practice is to use often the page number,for
example, pp. 190ff, which means page number 190 and the following pages; but only for page
190and the following page ‘190f’. Roman numerical is generally used to indicate the number of
thevolume of a book. Op. cit. (opera citato, in the work cited) or Loc. cit. (loco citato, in the
place cited)are two of the very convenient abbreviations used in the footnotes. Op. cit. or Loc.
cit. after thewriter’s name would suggest that the reference is to work by the writer which has
been cited indetail in an earlier footnote but intervened by some other references.
7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes:
\ The first item after the number in the footnote is the author’s name, given in the normal
signature order. This is followed by a comma. After the comma, the title of the book is given: the
article (such as “A”, “An”, “The” etc.) is omitted and onlythe first word and proper nouns and
adjectives are capitalized. The title is followed by a comma.Information concerning the edition is
given next. This entry is followed by a comma. The place ofpublication is then stated; it may be
mentioned in an abbreviated form, if the place happens to be afamous one such as for London,
N.Y. for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on. Thisentry is followed by a comma. Then the
name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closedby a comma. It is followed by the date
of publication if the date is given on the title page. If the dateappears in the copyright notice on
the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the volume, thecomma should be omitted and
the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. The entry isfollowed by a comma. Then
follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma if both are given. A period
closes the complete documentary reference. But one should rememberthat the documentation
regarding acknowledgements from magazine articles and periodical literaturefollow a different
form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the bibliography.Certain English and Latin
abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes to
eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of the most common abbreviations
frequently used in report-writing (the researcher should learn to recognize them as well as he
should learn touse them)
20.4.6 Use of statistics, charts and graphs:

A judicious use of statistics in research reports is oftenconsidered a virtue for it contributes a

great deal towards the clarification and simplification of thematerial and research results. One
may well remember that a good picture is often worth more tenthousand words. Statistics are
usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphsand pictograms. Such
presentation should be self explanatory and complete in itself. It should besuitable and
appropriate looking to the problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be neatand
attractive.
20.4.7. The final draft

Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with greatcare before
writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questionslike:
Are the sentences written in the report clear? Are they grammatically, correct?
Do they saywhat is meant’?
Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together logically?

“Having at least one colleague read the report just before the final revision is extremely helpful.
Sentences thatseem crystal-clear to the writer may prove quite confusing to other people; a
connection that hadseemed self-evident may strike others as a non-sequitur. A friendly critic, by
pointing out passagesthat seem unclear or illogical, and perhaps suggesting ways of remedying
the difficulties, can be aninvaluable aid in achieving the goal of adequate communication.”
10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as
discussed earlier.
20.4.8 Preparation of the index:
At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, thevalue of which lies in the
fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader. Index may be prepared bothas subject index and as
author index. The former gives the names of the subject-topics or conceptsalong with the number
of pages on which they have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas thelatter gives the
similar information regarding the names of authors. The index should always bearranged
alphabetically. Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names of
authors,subject-topics, concepts and the like ones.
20.5 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the
report. Agood research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it
must be
prepared keeping the following precautions in view:
1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in length),one
should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but shortenough to
maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learning moreand more about
less and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such as to sustain
reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research report. Thereport
should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible. This, in other words,means that report
should be written in an objective style in simple language, avoidingexpressions such as “it
seems,” “there may be” and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and assuch
the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts, graphs and
the statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main report in addition to the
summary of important findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in
accordancewith the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in
accordance with the techniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of quotations,
footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and thelike.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must reflect a
structurewherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an attempt to solvesome
intellectual problem. It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add tothe store of
knowledge.
9. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications relating to the
problemunder consideration. It is usually considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of
theprobable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs tobe
done in that particular field.
10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must necessarily begiven.
12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be prepared
and appended at the end.
13. Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
14. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting the research study may also be stated in the report.
15. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed and the
analysistechniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in the form
ofintroduction
20.6 Summary
A research report is considered a major component of any research study as the research
remains incomplete till the report has been presented or written. No matter how good a research
study, and how meticulously the research study has been conducted, the findings of the research
are of little value unless they are effectively documented and communicated to others. The
research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. Writing a report is the last
step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in
actually conducting aresearch.
20.7 key words

Bibliography- Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
Technical appendices- Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to

questionnaire,mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the
like ones.
Index- Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.The order
presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the orderof
presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports.
Foot notes- The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations inthe report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the
researchtext but still of supplemental value
Documentation style- Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given
workshould be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition
used. Suchdocumentary footnotes follow a general sequence
1. Discuss the Types of Reports

2. Examine the Mechanics of Writing Research Reports

Publication, 2010.
Publications 2015
Dharmaraja Selvamuthu, andDipayan Das, Springer Publications, 2018.
Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Dr. Shashi Alok, Edu creation Publishing 2019.
Publications, 2019
. Dr.V.NAGA NIRMALA
204HM21
MHRM DEGREE EXAMINATION
First Year-Semester - II
Paper-IV
Time: Three hours Maximum : 70 marks

SECTION A — (5 x 4 = 20 marks)
Answer any FIVE of the following
1 (a). Research
(b). Literature Review
(c). Research Design
(d).Experimental Design
(e). Data Collecting
(f).Sampling
(g). Hypothesis
(h). Qualitative Research
(i). Report Writing
(j). Research Process
SECTION B — (2  10 = 20 marks)
Answer any TWO of the following
2). Explain the Meaning and objectives of Research?

3). Outline the Research process and Criteria for Good Research?
4). Define Research Design? Explain the Features of Good Research Design
5). Elucidate the Methods of Data Collection ?
SECTION C — (2  15 = 30 marks)
Answer any TWO of the following
6). Discuss the Sampling Methods and Scaling Techniques?

7). Define Hypothesis? Briefly explain the Characteristics and types of Hypothesis?
8). Explain the Significance of Report writing and steps in Report writing?
9). Discuss the Techniques of Interpretation for Report Writing?

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

M.A (H.R.M), Semester – II, Paper-IV

Dr. M. Rama Satyanarayana Dr. K. Madhu Babu

Dr. V. Naga Nirmala

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

First Edition : 2021

©Acharya Nagarjuna University

To facilitate easier understanding by students studying through the distance mode,

Prof. P. Raja Sekhar

LESSON Page No.

Observes collection of data

Arbitrary method of seeking answer to questions is based on imagination, blind belief or

Scientific method is a systematic rational approach to seeking fact. It is objective, precise

1.1 Definition of Research

1.2 Characteristic of Research

1.3 objectives of research

b) Research reveals the mysteries of nature.

1.4 Types of Research

3. Futuristic research: Futures research is the systematic study of possible future

4. Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. It

5. Explanatory research: Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to

8. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity

9. Qualitative research: It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena

10.Conceptual research: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or

1.5 The Research Process

Eight Steps in Research Process

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of

 Writing the report.

Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

 Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;

Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

Step -4: Choosing the study design

Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design

Step – 6: Collecting data

Step-7: Processing and Analyzing Data

Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,

1.6 Role of Information in Problem Formulation

decision-making as they are forecasted estimates or projections into the future.

1.7Approaches to the Problem

1.9 Key words

Applied research-also known as decisional research, use existing knowledge as an aid to

Futuristic research-Futures research is the systematic study of possible future conditions.

Explanatory research-Explanatory research goes beyond description and attempts to

Quantitative research-Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

Qualitative research-It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon (i.e.) phenomena

1.10 Self-Assessment Questions

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

 To discuss Essentials of scientific method & Basis of scientific method

Meaning and essentials of scientific method

2.1 Essentials of scientific method

(a) Reliance on empirical evidence:

(b) Use of concepts:

(c) Commitment to objectivity:

(d) Ethical neutrality

(g) Logical reasoning process.

2.3 Difficulties in the use of scientific methods in social science research

2.4Research and Theory

2.4.1 Meaning of theory