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Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They include Arabic, Amharic,
Semitic
Hebrew, and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by more than 330 million
people across much of West Asia,[note 1] the Horn of Africa,[note 2] and latterly North Africa,[note 3] Geographic West Asia, North Africa,
Malta,[note 4] West Africa, Chad, and in large immigrant and expatriate communities in North America, distribution Horn of Africa, West Africa,
Europe, and Australasia. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of Malta
history, who derived the name from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis. Linguistic Afro-Asiatic
classification
Semitic languages occur in written form from a very early historical date in West Asia, with East Semitic Semitic
Akkadian and Eblaite texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian cuneiform) appearing from the 30th Proto-language Proto-Semitic
century BCE and the 25th century BCE in Mesopotamia and the north eastern Levant respectively. The only
earlier attested languages are Sumerian and Elamite (2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both language isolates, and Subdivisions East Semitic †
Egyptian (3000 BCE), a sister branch of the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not part West Semitic
of them. Amorite appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant circa 2000 BC, followed by the
ISO 639-2 / 5 sem
mutually intelligible Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite and Ammonite,
and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean), the still spoken Aramaic, and Ugaritic during the 2nd Glottolog semi1276 (https://glott
millennium BC. olog.org/resource/langu
oid/id/semi1276)
Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are abjads – a type of alphabetic script that omits some or all of
the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers of meaning
in the Semitic languages. These include the Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, and
ancient South Arabian alphabets. The Geʽez script, used for writing the Semitic languages of Ethiopia and
Eritrea, is technically an abugida – a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using diacritic marks
added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which indicate vowels based
on need or for introductory purposes. Maltese is the only Semitic language written in the Latin script and
the only Semitic language to be an official language of the European Union.

The Semitic languages are notable for their nonconcatenative morphology. That is, word roots are not
themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-called
triliteral root). Words are composed out of roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but rather by
filling in the vowels between the root consonants, although prefixes and suffixes are often added as well. For
example, in Arabic, the root meaning "write" has the form k-t-b. From this root, words are formed by filling
in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. ‫ ِكتاب‬kitāb "book", ‫ ُكُتب‬kutub "books", ‫ كاِتب‬kātib
"writer", ‫ ُكّتاب‬kuttāb "writers", ‫ َكَتب‬kataba "he wrote", ‫ يكُتب‬yaktubu "he writes", etc.

Name and identification

The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since
medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact with Approximate historical distribution of Semitic
neighbouring Near Eastern countries and through Biblical studies, and a comparative analysis of Hebrew, languages
Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by Guillaume Postel.[4] Almost two centuries later, Hiob
Ludolf described the similarities between these three languages and the Ethiopian Semitic languages.[5]
However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic".[5]

The term "Semitic" was created by members of the Göttingen School of History, initially by August Ludwig
von Schlözer (1781), to designate the languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew.[6][7] The
choice of name was derived from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the
biblical Book of Genesis,[8] or more precisely from the Koine Greek rendering of the name, Σήμ (Sēm).
Johann Gottfried Eichhorn is credited with popularising the term,[9][10][8] particularly via a 1795 article
"Semitische Sprachen" (Semitic languages) in which he justified the terminology against criticism that
Hebrew and Canaanite were the same language despite Canaan being "Hamitic" in the Table of Nations:[11]

In the Mosaic Table of Nations, those names which are listed as Semites are purely names of
tribes who speak the so-called Oriental languages and live in Southwest Asia. As far as we can
trace the history of these very languages back in time, they have always been written with
syllabograms or with alphabetic script (never with hieroglyphs or pictograms); and the legends
about the invention of the syllabograms and alphabetic script go back to the Semites. In contrast, Chronology mapping of Semitic languages
all so called Hamitic peoples originally used hieroglyphs, until they here and there, either
through contact with the Semites, or through their settlement among them, became familiar with
their syllabograms or alphabetic script, and partly adopted them. Viewed from this aspect too,
with respect to the alphabet used, the name "Semitic languages" is completely appropriate.[12]

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Previously these languages had been commonly known as the "Oriental languages" in European literature.[13] In the
19th century, "Semitic" became the conventional name; however, an alternative name, "Syro-Arabian languages", was
later introduced by James Cowles Prichard and used by some writers.[10]

History

Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples

Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of the Middle East and Asia Minor during the Bronze Age and
Iron Age, the earliest attested being the East Semitic Akkadian of Mesopotamia (Akkad, Assyria, Isin, Larsa and
Babylonia) from the third millennium BC.[14]

The origin of Semitic-speaking peoples is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites of a
prehistoric origin of Semitic-speaking peoples: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Ethiopia[15] the Eastern Mediterranean
region, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. Some claim that the Semitic languages originated in the Levant
around 3800 BC, and were introduced to the Horn of Africa at about 800 BC from the southern Arabian peninsula, and
to North Africa via Phoenician colonists at approximately the same time.[16][17] Others assign the arrival of Semitic
speakers in the Horn of Africa to a much earlier date[18] according to theory believed by many scholars now Semitic 1538 comparison of Hebrew and
originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa and desertization made its inhabitants to migrate Arabic, by Guillaume Postel –
in the fourth millennium BC into what is now Ethiopia, others northwest out of Africa into West Asia.[19] possibly the first such
representation in Western European
The various extremely closely related and mutually intelligible Canaanite languages, a branch of the Northwest Semitic literature.
languages included Amorite, first attested in the 21st century BC, Edomite, Hebrew, Ammonite, Moabite, Phoenician
(Punic/Carthaginian), Samaritan Hebrew, Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean. They were spoken in what is today Israel,
Syria, Lebanon, the Palestinian territories, Jordan, the northern Sinai peninsula, some northern and eastern parts of the Arabian peninsula, southwest
fringes of Turkey, and in the case of Phoenician, coastal regions of Tunisia (Carthage), Libya, Algeria and parts of Morocco, Spain and possibly in Malta
and other Mediterranean islands. Ugaritic, a Northwest Semitic language closely related to but distinct from the Canaanite group was spoken in the
kingdom of Ugarit in north western Syria.

A hybrid Canaano-Akkadian language also emerged in Canaan (Israel, Jordan, Lebanon) during the 14th century BC,
incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West
Semitic Canaanite languages.[21]

Aramaic, a still living ancient Northwest Semitic language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern Levant,
gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of the Near East, particularly after being
adopted as the lingua franca of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) by Tiglath-Pileser III during the 8th
century BC, and being retained by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Empires.[22]
Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem
The Chaldean language (not to be confused with Aramaic or its Biblical variant, sometimes referred to as Chaldean) from ancient Mesopotamia,
was a Northwest Semitic language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of the language remain, as regarded as the earliest surviving
after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the Chaldeans appear to have
notable literature, written in
rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians.
Akkadian.[20]

Old South Arabian languages (classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic) were
spoken in the kingdoms of Dilmun, Sheba, Ubar, Socotra and Magan, which in modern terms encompassed part of the
eastern coast of Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and Yemen. South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the Horn of Africa circa 8th
century BC where the Ge'ez language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain).

Common Era

The Akkadian-influenced Syriac, a 5th-century BC Mesopotamian (Assyrian)[23] descendant of Aramaic used in

Mesopotamia, northeastern Syria, and south east Anatolia,[24] rose to importance as a literary language of early
Christianity in the third to fifth centuries and continued into the early Islamic era.

The Arabic language, although originating in the Arabian Peninsula, first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th
centuries CE in the southern regions of The Levant. With the advent of the early Arab conquests of the seventh and eighth
centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the
Near East. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later
by non-Semitic Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples. The previously dominant Aramaic dialects maintained by the
Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of Eastern Aramaic
(including the Akkadian influenced Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Mandaic) survive to this
day among the Assyrians and Mandaeans of northern and southern Iraq, northwestern Iran, northeastern Syria and
southeastern Turkey, with up to a million fluent speakers. Eastern Aramaic is a recognized language in Iraq, furthermore,
Mesopotamian Arabic is the most Aramaic-Syriac influenced dialect of Arabic, due to Aramaic-Syriac having originated in
Example of Arabic calligraphy
Mesopotamia.[25] Meanwhile Western Aramaic is now only spoken by a few thousand Aramean Syriac Christians in
western Syria. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco
and northern Sudan and Mauritania), where it gradually replaced Egyptian Coptic and many Berber languages (although Berber is still largely extant in
many areas), and for a time to the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain, Portugal and Gibraltar) and Malta.

With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its liturgical status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread
among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the Arabian Peninsula only gradually
abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As Bedouin tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the main language of not only central Arabia, but
also Yemen,[26] the Fertile Crescent, and Egypt. Most of the Maghreb followed, specifically in the wake of the Banu Hilal's incursion in the 11th century,

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and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of al-Andalus. After the collapse of the Nubian kingdom of
Dongola in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern Sudan; soon after, the Beni Ḥassān
brought Arabization to Mauritania. A number of Modern South Arabian languages distinct from Arabic still survive, such
as Soqotri, Mehri and Shehri which are mainly spoken in Socotra, Yemen and Oman.

Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in
Ethiopia and Eritrea, where, under heavy Cushitic influence, they split into a number of languages, including Amharic and
Tigrinya. With the expansion of Ethiopia under the Solomonic dynasty, Amharic, previously a minor local language,
spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as Gafat) and non-Semitic (such as Weyto)
languages, and replacing Ge'ez as the principal literary language (though Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for
Christians in the region); this spread continues to this day, with Qimant set to disappear in another generation.

Present distribution Page from a 12th-century Quran

in Arabic
Arabic is currently the native language of majorities from Mauritania to Oman, and from Iraq to the Sudan. Classical
Arabic is the language of the Quran. It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking Muslim world. The Maltese
language is a descendant of the extinct Siculo-Arabic, a variety of Maghrebi Arabic formerly spoken in Sicily. The
modern Maltese alphabet is based on the Latin script with the addition of some letters with diacritic marks and
digraphs. Maltese is the only Semitic official language within the European Union.

Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic
languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam (Arabic),
Judaism (Hebrew and Aramaic), churches of Syriac Christianity (Syriac) and Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox
Christianity (Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many
Muslims learn to read and recite the Qur'an and Jews speak and study Biblical Hebrew, the language of the Torah,
Midrash, and other Jewish scriptures. Ethnic Assyrian followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic
Church, Ancient Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church, Assyrian Evangelical Church and Assyrian members
of the Syriac Orthodox Church both speak Mesopotamian eastern Aramaic and use it also as a liturgical tongue. The
language is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking followers of the Maronite, Syriac Catholic Church Approximate distribution of the
and some Melkite Christians. Greek and Arabic are the main liturgical languages of Oriental Orthodox Christians in the Semitic languages around the 1st
Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Mandaic is both spoken and used century A.D.
as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans.

Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in use
only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity, was revived in spoken form at the end of the 19th century. Modern Hebrew is the main language
of Israel, with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the language of liturgy and religious scholarship of Jews worldwide.

Ethnic groups, in particular the Assyrians, Kurdish Jews, and Gnostic Mandeans, continue to speak and write Mesopotamian Aramaic languages,
particularly Neo-Aramaic languages descended from Syriac, in those areas roughly corresponding to Kurdistan (northern Iraq, northeast Syria, south
eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran). Syriac language itself, a descendant of Eastern Aramaic languages (Mesopotamian Old Aramaic), is used also
liturgically by the Syriac Christians throughout the area. Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern
varieties, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in 3 villages in Syria.

In Arab-dominated Yemen and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak Modern South Arabian languages such
as Mahri and Soqotri. These languages differ greatly from both the surrounding Arabic dialects and from the (unrelated but previously thought to be
related) languages of the Old South Arabian inscriptions.

Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language, Razihi, remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a
substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are Amharic in Ethiopia, Tigre in Eritrea, and Tigrinya in both. Amharic is the official
language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean lowlands
and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of Gurage languages are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia, while Harari is
restricted to the city of Harar. Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of Christians in Ethiopia and in Eritrea.

Phonology
The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a comparative point of view. See Proto-Semitic language#Phonology for details
on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article. The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on Arabic,
whose phonology and morphology (particularly in Classical Arabic) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29
consonantal phonemes.[27] with *s [s] and *š [ʃ] merging into Arabic /s/ ⟨‫ ⟩س‬and *ś [ɬ] becoming Arabic /ʃ/ ⟨‫⟩ش‬.

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Proto-Semitic consonant phonemes[28]

Type Manner Voicing Labial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Lateral Velar/Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
voiceless *p [p] *t [t] *k [k]

Stop emphatic (pʼ)[a] *ṭ [tʼ] *q/ḳ [kʼ] *ʼ,ˀ [ʔ]

voiced *b [b] *d [d] *g [ɡ]

Obstruent
voiceless *ṯ [θ] *s [s] *š [ʃ] *ś [ɬ] *ḫ [x~χ] *ḥ [ħ] *h [h]

Fricative [b] *ṣ [sʼ] *ṣ́ /ḏ̣ [ɬʼ] [c]

emphatic *ṱ /θ̣/ẓ [θʼ] (xʼ~χʼ)
voiced *ḏ [ð] *z [z] *ġ/ǵ [ɣ~ʁ] *ʻ,ˤ [ʕ]
Trill *r [r]

Resonant Approximant *w [w] *y [j] *l [l]

Nasal *m [m] *n [n]

a. Woodard (2008, p. 219) suggests the presence of an emphatic p in some disparate Semitic languages may indicate that such an emphatic was present in Proto-Semitic.
b. The emphatic interdental fricative is usually spelled *ṯ̣ but is replaced here by *ṱ for better readability.
c. Huehnergard (2003, p.49) presents a minority opinion that an ejective velar fricative existed in Proto-Semitic.

Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡ s/, /d͡ z/, /t͡ sʼ/, /t͡ ɬ/, /t͡ ɬʼ/, /t͡ θʼ/), as discussed in Proto-Semitic language
§ Fricatives.

This comparative approach is natural for the consonants, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very
straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular.

Consonants

Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin
letter values (italicized) for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded.

Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a
fifteenth from *p > f).

In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later
phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination.

In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a uvular stop [q].

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Regular correspondences of the Proto-Semitic consonants[29]

Arabic Maltese Ugaritic Phoenician Hebrew
Proto Akka­-
IPA Alt.
Semitic Written Classical[30] Modern Written Pronounce
dian Written Pronounce Written Translit. Written Biblical Tiberian
Transl.

ḇ, ḇ,
*b [b] ‫ب‬ b /b/ b /b/ b 𐎁 b 𐤁 b b ‫ב‬ b5 /b/ /v/, /b/
b5 b5
ḡ,
*g [ɡ] ‫ج‬ ǧ /ɟ ~ d͡ ʒ/9 /d͡ ʒ/11 ġ /d͡ ʒ/ g 𐎂 g 𐤂 g g ‫ג‬ g5 /ɡ/ /ɣ/, /ɡ/ g5
g5
p̄ , f,
*p [p] ‫ف‬ p̄ /f/ f /f/ p 𐎔 p 𐤐 p p ‫פ‬ p5 /p/ /f/, /p/
p5 p5
ḵ, ḵ,
*k [k] ‫ك‬ k /k/ k /k/ k 𐎋 k 𐤊 k k ‫כ‬ k5 /k/ /x/, /k/
k5 k5

*ḳ [kʼ] ‫ق‬ q /ɡ ~ q/9 /q/12 q /ʔ ~ q/ q 𐎖 ḳ 𐤒 q q q ‫ק‬ q /q/ /q/ q

ḏ, dh,
*d [d] ‫د‬ d /d/ d 𐎄 d 𐤃 d d ‫ד‬ d5 /d/ /ð/, /d/
d /d/ d5 d5

*ḏ [ð] ‫ذ‬ ḏ /ð/ 𐎏 ḏ>d

z 𐤆 z z z ‫ז‬ z /z/ /z/ z
*z [z] ‫ز‬ z /z/ ż /z/ 𐎇 z

*s [s] s 𐎒 s 𐤎 ṡ s ṡ1 ‫ס‬ s /s/ /s/ s

‫س‬ s /s/ s /s/
*š [ʃ] š ‫ׁש‬ š /ʃ/ /ʃ/ sh
𐎌 š
*ś [ɬ] ‫ش‬ š /ʃ/ x /ʃ/ š 𐤔 s š s 1 ‫ׂש‬1 ś 1 /ɬ/ /s/ ś1

*ṯ [θ] ‫ث‬ ṯ /θ/ 𐎘 ṯ š ‫ׁש‬ š /ʃ/ /ʃ/ sh

ṯ, th,
*t [t] ‫ت‬ t /t/ t /t/ t 𐎚 t 𐤕 t t ‫ת‬ t5 /t/ /θ/, /t/
t5 t5

*ṭ [tʼ] ‫ط‬ ḫ /tˤ/ ṭ 𐎉 ṭ 𐤈 ṭ ṭ ṭ ‫ט‬ ṭ /tˤ/ /tˤ/ ṭ

*ṱ [θʼ] ‫ظ‬ ṱ /ðˤ/ d /d/ 𐎑 ẓ13 > ġ

ṣ 𐤑 ṩ ṣ ṩ ‫צ‬ ṣ /sˤ/ /sˤ/ ts

*ṣ [sʼ] ‫ص‬ ṣ /sˤ/ s /s/
𐎕 ṣ
*ṣ́ [ɬʼ] ‫ض‬ s̭ /ɮˤ/ /dˤ/ d /d/

[ɣ]~
*ġ
[ʁ]
‫غ‬ ʻ̱ /ɣ ~ ʁ/ ḫ 𐎙 ġ,ʻ /ʁ/
għ /ˤː/ 𐤏 o̯ ʿ o̯ ‫ע‬2 ʻ2 /ʕ/ ʻ2
*ʻ [ʕ] ‫ع‬ ʻ /ʕ/ –4 𐎓 ʻ /ʕ/

𐎀, 𐎛,
*ʼ [ʔ] ‫ء‬ ʼ /ʔ/ – – –, ʾ
𐎜 ʼa, ʼi, ʼu10 𐤀 q̇ ʾ q̇ ‫א‬ ʼ /ʔ/ /ʔ/ ʼ

[x]~
*ḫ
[χ]
‫خ‬ h̭ /x ~ χ/ ḫ 𐎃 ḫ /χ/
ḫ,
ħ /ħ/ 𐤇 h ḥ h2 ‫ח‬2 ḥ2 /ħ/
ḥ2
*ḥ [ħ] ‫ح‬ ḥ /ħ/ –4 𐎈 ḥ /ħ/

*h [h] ‫ه‬ h /h/ h /ː/ – 𐎅 h 𐤄 ḣ h ḣ2 ‫ה‬ h /h/ /h/ h

*m [m] ‫م‬ m /m/ m /m/ m 𐎎 m 𐤌 m m m ‫מ‬ m /m/ /m/ m

*n [n] ‫ن‬ n /n/ n /n/ n 𐎐 n 𐤍 n n n ‫נ‬ n /n/ /n/ n

/ʀ/, /r/,
*r [ɾ] ‫ر‬ r /r/ r /r/ r 𐎗 r 𐤓 r r r ‫ר‬ r /r/
/ʀː/
r

*l [l] ‫ل‬ l /l/ l /l/ l 𐎍 l 𐤋 l l l ‫ל‬ l /l/ /l/ l

*y [j] ‫ي‬ y /j/ j /j/ y 𐎊 y 𐤉 j y j ‫י‬ y /j/ /j/ y

v,
*w [w] ‫و‬ w /w/ w /w/ w 𐎆 w 𐤅 w w w ‫ו‬ w /w/ /w/
w

Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡ s/, /d͡ z/, /t͡ sʼ/, /t͡ ɬ/, /t͡ ɬʼ/, /t͡ θʼ/).

Notes:

1. Proto-Semitic *ś was still pronounced as [ɬ] in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the Early Linear Script, so the letter ‫ ש‬did double duty,
representing both /ʃ/ and /ɬ/. Later on, however, /ɬ/ merged with /s/, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of ‫ ש‬were
distinguished graphically in Tiberian Hebrew as ‫ ׁש‬/ʃ/ vs. ‫ ׂש‬/s/ < /ɬ/.
2. Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes ġ /ʁ/ and ḫ /χ/ from ʻ /ʕ/ and ḥ /ħ/, respectively, based on
transcriptions in the Septuagint. As in the case of /ɬ/, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: ‫ ח‬/χ/ /ħ/
and ‫ ע‬/ʁ/ /ʕ/. In both of these cases, however, the two sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early
transcriptions) of the former distinctions.
3. Although early Aramaic (pre-7th century BCE) had only 22 consonants in its alphabet, it apparently distinguished all of the original 29 Proto-Semitic
phonemes, including *ḏ, *ṯ, *ṱ, *ś, *ṣ́ , *ġ and *ḫ – although by Middle Aramaic times, these had all merged with other sounds. This conclusion is mainly
based on the shifting representation of words etymologically containing these sounds; in early Aramaic writing, the first five are merged with z, š, ṣ, š,
q, respectively, but later with d, t, ṭ, s, ʿ.[31][32] (Also note that due to begadkefat spirantization, which occurred after this merger, OAm. t > ṯ and d > ḏ in
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some positions, so that PS *t,ṯ and *d, ḏ may be realized as either of t, ṯ and d, ḏ respectively.) The sounds *ġ and *ḫ were always represented using
the pharyngeal letters ʿ ḥ, but they are distinguished from the pharyngeals in the Demotic-script papyrus Amherst 63, written about 200 BCE.[33] This
suggests that these sounds, too, were distinguished in Old Aramaic language, but written using the same letters as they later merged with.
4. The earlier pharyngeals can be distinguished in Akkadian from the zero reflexes of *ḥ, *ʕ by e-coloring adjacent *a, e.g. pS *ˈbaʕal-um 'owner, lord' >
Akk. bēlu(m).[34]
5. Hebrew and Aramaic underwent begadkefat spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds /b ɡ d k p t/ were softened to the corresponding
fricatives [v ɣ ð x f θ] (written ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ) when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old
Aramaic phonemes /θ, ð/ disappeared in the 7th century BCE,[35] and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew /χ, ʁ/ c. 200 BCE.[note 5] It is known
to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.[37] After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position
(though bearing low functional load), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.[38] In Modern Hebrew, the distinction has a higher functional
load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives /v χ f/ are still preserved (the fricative /x/ is pronounced /χ/ in modern Hebrew).
6. In the Northwest Semitic languages, */w/ became */j/ at the beginning of a word, e.g. Hebrew yeled "boy" < *wald (cf. Arabic walad).
7. There is evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and Aramaic.[39]
8. In Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, [ħ] is nonexistent. In general cases, the language would lack pharyngeal fricative [ʕ] (as heard in Ayin). However, /ʕ/ is
retained in educational speech, especially among Assyrian priests.[40]
9. The palatalization of Proto-Semitic gīm /g/ to Arabic /d͡ ʒ/ jīm, is most probably connected to the pronunciation of qāf /q/ as a /g/ gāf (this sound change
also occurred in Yemenite Hebrew), hence in most of the Arabian peninsula (which is the homeland of the Arabic language) ‫ ج‬is jīm /d͡ ʒ/ and ‫ ق‬is gāf
/g/, except in western and southern Yemen and parts of Oman where ‫ ج‬is gīm /g/ and ‫ ق‬is qāf /q/.
10. Ugaritic orthography indicated the vowel after the glottal stop.
11. The Arabic letter jīm (‫ )ج‬has three main pronunciations in Modern Standard Arabic. [d͡ ʒ] in north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula and
as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, [ʒ] occurs in most of the Levant and most North Africa; and [ɡ] is used in
northern Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. In addition to other minor allophones.
12. The Arabic letter qāf (‫ )ق‬has three main pronunciations in spoken varieties. [ɡ] in most of the Arabian Peninsula, Northern and Eastern Yemen and
parts of Oman, Southern Iraq, Upper Egypt, Sudan, Libya, some parts of the Levant and to lesser extent in some parts (mostly rural) of Maghreb. [q] in
most of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, Southern and Western Yemen and parts of Oman, Northern Iraq, parts of the Levant especially Druze dialects.
[ʔ] in most of the Levant and Lower Egypt, as well as some North African towns such as Tlemcen and Fez. In addition to other minor allophones.
13. ṱ can be written ẓ, and always is in the Ugaritic and Arabic contexts. In Ugaritic, sometimes assimilates to ġ, as in ġmʔ 'thirsty' (Arabic ẓmʔ, Hebrew
ṣmʔ, but Ugaritic mẓmủ 'thirsty', root ẓmʔ, is also attested).
14. Early Amharic might have had a different phonology.
15. The pronunciations /ʕ/ and /ħ/ for ʿAyin and Ḥet, respectively, still occur among some older Mizrahi speakers, but for most modern Israelis, ʿAyin and
Ḥet are realized as /ʔ, -/ and /χ ~ x/, respectively.

The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words:

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Examples
Proto-Semitic Arabic Maltese Aramaic Hebrew
Arabic Maltese Aramaic Hebrew meaning

deheb
‫ذهب‬ ‫דהב‬ ‫זהב‬ 'gold'
*/ð/ *ḏ */ð/ ‫ذ‬ */d/ d */d/ ‫ד‬
‫َذ َك ر‬ – ‫דכרא‬ ‫ָזָכר‬ 'male'

*/z/ ‫ז‬
miżien
1 ‫موازين‬ ‫מאזנין‬ ‫מאזנים‬ 'scale'
*/z/ *z */z/ ‫ز‬ */z/ ż */z/ ‫ז‬
‫زمن‬ żmien ‫זמן‬ ‫זמן‬ 'time'

sikkina
*/s/ ‫س‬ */s/ s ‫سكين‬ ‫סכין‬ ‫סכין‬ 'knife'
*/s/ *s */s/ ‫ס‬ */s/ ‫ס‬
*/ʃ/ ‫ش‬ */ʃ/ x ‫شهر‬ xahar ‫סהר‬ ‫סהר‬ 'moon/month'

*/ɬ/ *ś */ʃ/ ‫ش‬ */ʃ/ x */s/ ‫ׂש‬ */s/ ‫ׂש‬ ‫عشر‬ għaxra ‫עׂשר‬ ‫עׂשר‬ 'ten'

sena
‫سنة‬ ‫ׁשנה‬ ‫ׁשנה‬ 'year'
*/ʃ/ *š */s/ ‫س‬ */s/ s */ʃ/ ‫ׁש‬
‫سالم‬ sliem ‫שלם‬ ‫שלום‬ 'peace'

*/ʃ/ ‫ׁש‬
tlieta
‫ثالثة‬ ‫תלת‬ ‫שלוש‬ 'three'
*/θ/ *ṯ */θ/ ‫ث‬ */t/ t */t/ ‫ת‬
‫اثنان‬ tnejn ‫תרין‬ ‫שתים‬ 'two'

dell
‫ظل‬ ‫טלה‬ ‫צל‬ 'shadow'
*/θʼ/1 *ṱ */ðˤ/ ‫ظ‬ */d/ d */tʼ/ ‫ט‬
‫ظهر‬ – ‫טהרא‬ ‫צהרים‬ 'noon'

*/t/ t art
*/sˤ~ts/1 ‫צ‬
1 ‫أرض‬ ‫ארע‬ ‫ארץ‬ 'land'
*/ɬʼ/ *ṣ́ */dˤ/ ‫ض‬ */ʕ/ ‫ע‬
*/d/ d ‫ضحك‬ daħaq ‫עחק‬ ‫צחק‬ 'laughed'

‫صرخ‬ ‫צרח‬ ‫צרח‬ 'shout'

*/sʼ/1 *ṣ */sˤ/ ‫ص‬ */sʼ/ ‫צ‬
‫صبر‬ ‫צבר‬ ‫צבר‬ 'water melon like plant'

ħamsa
‫خمسة‬ ‫ַח ְמ ָׁש ה‬ ‫ֲח ִמ ָּׁש ה‬ 'five'
*/χ/ *ḫ */x~χ/ ‫خ‬ */ħ/ ħ
‫صرخ‬ – ‫צרח‬ ‫צרח‬ 'shout'

*/ħ/ ‫ח‬ */ħ~χ/ ‫ח‬

melħ
‫ملح‬ ‫מלח‬ ‫מלח‬ 'salt'
*/ħ/ *ḥ */ħ/ ‫ح‬ */ħ/ ħ
‫حلم‬ ħolm ‫חלם‬ ‫חלום‬ 'dream'

għorab
‫غراب‬ ‫ערב‬ ‫עורב‬ 'raven'
*/ʁ/ *ġ */ɣ~ʁ/ ‫غ‬ */ˤː/ għ
‫غرب‬ għarb ‫מערב‬ ‫מערב‬ 'west'

*/ʕ/ ‫ע‬ */ʕ~ʔ/ ‫ע‬

għabid
‫عبد‬ ‫עבד‬ ‫עבד‬ 'slave'
*/ʕ/ *ʻ */ʕ/ ‫ع‬ */ˤː/ għ
‫سبعة‬ sebgħa ‫שבע‬ ‫שבע‬ 'seven'

1. possibly affricated (/dz/ /tɬʼ/ /ʦʼ/ /tθʼ/ /tɬ/)

Vowels

Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the nonconcatenative morphology of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the
languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given:

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Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables)[41]

Arabic Aramaic Hebrew
pS Ge'ez Akkadian
Classical Modern usually4 /_C.ˈV /ˈ_.1 /ˈ_Cː2 /ˈ_C.C3

*a a a a ə ā a ɛ a, later ä a, e, ē5
e, i,
*i i i ə ē e ɛ, e ə i
WSyr. ɛ

*u u u u, o ə ō o o ə, ʷə6 u

*ā ā ā ā ō[note 6] ā later a ā, ē

*ī ī ī ī ī i ī

*ū ū ū ū ū ū u ū

BA, JA ay(i), ē,
*ay ay ē, ay ayi, ay e ī
WSyr. ay/ī & ay/ē
ō, ō,
*aw aw ō, aw o ū
WSyr. aw/ū pausal ˈāwɛ

1. in a stressed open syllable

2. in a stressed closed syllable before a geminate
3. in a stressed closed syllable before a consonant cluster
4. when the proto-Semitic stressed vowel remained stressed
5. pS *a,*ā > Akk. e,ē in the neighborhood of pS *ʕ,*ħ and before r.
6. i.e. pS *g,*k,*ḳ,*χ > Ge'ez gʷ, kʷ,ḳʷ,χʷ / _u

Grammar
The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages
themselves — has naturally occurred over time.

Word order

The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is verb–subject–object (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still
the case in Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, e.g. Classical Arabic ‫ رأى محمد فريدا‬ra'ā muħammadun farīdan. (literally "saw Muhammad Farid",
Muhammad saw Farid). In the modern Arabic vernaculars, however, as well as sometimes in Modern Standard Arabic (the modern literary language
based on Classical Arabic) and Modern Hebrew, the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different
word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Ge'ez, was VSO, possessed–
possessor, and noun–adjective.[42] Akkadian was also predominantly SOV.

Cases in nouns and adjectives

The proto-Semitic three-case system (nominative, accusative and genitive) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see
ʾIʿrab), Akkadian and Ugaritic, has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such
case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending -n is preserved in Ethiopian
Semitic.[note 7] In the northwest, the scarcely attested Samalian reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative -ū and oblique -ī (compare the
same distinction in Classical Arabic).[44] Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being expressed by
nunation.[45]

Number in nouns

Semitic languages originally had three grammatical numbers: singular, dual, and plural. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be used in
all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic still have a
dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain (baħr "sea" + -ayn "two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a few nouns
(šana means "one year", šnatayim means "two years", and šanim means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of broken plurals
– e.g. in Arabic, sadd "one dam" vs. sudūd "dams" – found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of proto-Semitic origin,
and partly elaborated from simpler origins.

Verb aspect and tense

All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs. Suffix conjugations take suffixes indicating the person,
number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw him") and
possession on nouns ("his dog"). So-called prefix conjugations actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person (and
sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and gender
whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of ʔ- t- y- n- prefixes where (1) a t- prefix is used in the
singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a y- prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical words are used for
second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in nearly all the families of
Afroasiatic languages (i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix conjugations in Classical Arabic, which
has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic.

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In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used both for
the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian niprus "we decided" Paradigm of a regular Classical Arabic verb:
Form I kataba (yaktubu) "to write"
(preterite), niptaras "we have decided" (perfect), niparras "we decide" (non-past or imperfect),
vs. suffix-conjugated parsānu "we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Some of these features, Past
Present
e.g. gemination indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto- Indicative
Semitic had an additional form, the jussive, which was distinguished from the preterite only by Singular
the position of stress: the jussive had final stress while the preterite had non-final (retracted)
1st katab-tu ‫َك َتْبُت‬ ʼa-ktub-u ‫َأْك ُتُب‬
stress.[46]
masculine katab-ta ‫َكَتْبَت‬ ta-ktub-u ‫َتْك ُتُب‬
The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial changes 2nd
occurred in the Central Semitic languages (the ancestors of modern Hebrew, Arabic and feminine katab-ti ‫َكَتْبِت‬ ta-ktub-īna ‫َتْك ُتِبيَن‬
Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a new non-past (or masculine katab-a ‫َك َتَب‬ ya-ktub-u ‫َيْك ُتُب‬
imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old prefix-conjugated non- 3rd
past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes were used to mark different feminine katab-at ‫َكَتَبْت‬ ta-ktub-u ‫َتْك ُتُب‬
moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic -u (indicative), -a (subjunctive), vs no suffix Dual
(jussive). (It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the various Semitic languages are
masculine
better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect.) A 2nd katab-tumā ‫َك َتْبُتَما‬ ta-ktub-āni ‫َتْك ُتَباِن‬
& feminine
special feature in classical Hebrew is the waw-consecutive, prefixing a verb form with the letter
waw in order to change its tense or aspect. The South Semitic languages show a system masculine katab-ā ‫َك َتَبا‬ ya-ktub-āni ‫َيْك ُتَباِن‬
3rd
somewhere between the East and Central Semitic languages. feminine katab-atā ‫َك َتَبَتا‬ ta-ktub-āni ‫َتْك ُتَباِن‬

Later languages show further developments. In the modern varieties of Arabic, for example, the Plural
old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. bi- for indicative vs. no 1st katab-nā ‫َك َتْبَنا‬ na-ktub-u ‫َنْك ُتُب‬
prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo-Aramaic, the verb
conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence. masculine katab-tum ‫َك َتْبُتْم‬ ta-ktub-ūna ‫َتْك ُتُبوَن‬
2nd
feminine katab-tunna ‫َك َتْبُتَّن‬ ta-ktub-na ‫َتْك‬

Morphology: triliteral roots masculine katab-ū ‫َك َتُبوا‬ ya-ktub-ūna ‫َيْك ُتُبوَن‬
3rd
feminine katab-na ‫َك َتْبَن‬ ya-ktub-na ‫َيْك ُتْبَن‬
All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called Semitic roots consisting typically
of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots (two- and four-consonant roots also exist),
from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding
prefixes, suffixes, or infixes).

For instance, the root k-t-b (dealing with "writing" generally) yields in Arabic:

katabtu ‫ َكَت ْب ُت‬or ‫" كتبت‬I wrote" (f and m)

yuktab(u) ‫ ُيْك َت ُب‬or ‫" يكتب‬being written" (masculine)
tuktab(u) ‫ ُتكَت ُب‬or ‫" تكتب‬being written" (feminine)
yatakātabūn(a) ‫ َي َتَك اَت ُبوَن‬or ‫" يتكاتبون‬they write to each other" (masculine)
istiktāb ‫ ِاْس ِتْك تاَب‬or ‫" استكتاب‬causing to write"
kitāb ‫ ِكتاٌب‬or ‫" كتاب‬book" (the hyphen shows end of stem before various case endings)
kutayyib ‫ ُكَت ِّيٌب‬or ‫" كتيب‬booklet" (diminutive)
kitābah ‫ ِكتابٌة‬or ‫" كتابة‬writing"
kuttāb ‫ ُكّت اٌب‬or ‫" كتاب‬writers" (broken plural)
katabah ‫ َكَت بٌة‬or ‫" كتبة‬clerks" (broken plural)
maktab ‫ َم ْك َت ٌب‬or ‫" مكتب‬desk" or "office"
maktabah ‫ َم ْك َت بٌة‬or ‫" مكتبة‬library" or "bookshop"
maktūb ‫ َم ْك ُتوٌب‬or ‫" مكتوب‬written" (participle) or "postal letter" (noun)
katībah ‫ َك ِتيبٌة‬or ‫" كتيبة‬squadron" or "document"
iktitāb ‫ ِاْك ِتتاٌب‬or ‫" اكتتاب‬registration" or "contribution of funds"
muktatib ‫ ُم كَت ِتٌب‬or ‫" مكتتب‬subscription"

and the same root in Hebrew:

kāṯaḇti ‫ ָּכַת ְבִּת י‬or ‫" כתבתי‬I wrote"

kattāḇ ‫ ַּכָּת ב‬or ‫" כתב‬reporter" (m)
katteḇeṯ ‫ ַּכָּת ֶבת‬or ‫" כתבת‬reporter" (f)
kattāḇā ‫ ַּכָּת ָבה‬or ‫" כתבה‬article"
miḵtāḇ ‫ ִמ ְכָּת ב‬or ‫" מכתב‬postal letter"
miḵtāḇā ‫ ִמ ְכָת ָבה‬or ‫" מכתבה‬writing desk"
kəṯōḇeṯ ‫ ְּכֹתֶבת‬or ‫" כתובת‬address"
kəṯāḇ ‫ ְּכָת ב‬or ‫" כתב‬handwriting"
kāṯūḇ ‫ ָּכתּוב‬or ‫" כתוב‬written"
hiḵtīḇ ‫ ִה ְכִּת יב‬or ‫" הכתיב‬he dictated"
hiṯkattēḇ ‫ ִה ְת ַּכֵּת ב‬or ‫" התכתב‬he corresponded"
niḵtaḇ ‫ ִנְכָּת ב‬or ‫" נכתב‬it was written" (m)
kəṯīḇ ‫ ְּכִת יב‬or ‫" כתיב‬spelling" (m)
taḵtīḇ ‫ ַּת ְכִּת יב‬or ‫" תכתיב‬prescript" (m)
məḵuttāḇ ‫ ְמ ֻכָּת ב‬or ‫" מכותב‬addressee"
kəṯubbā ‫ ְּכֻת ָּבה‬or ‫" כתובה‬ketubah (a Jewish marriage contract)" (f)

(Underlined consonants ⟨ḵ⟩, ⟨ṯ⟩, ⟨ḇ⟩ represent the fricatives /x/, /θ/, /v/ respectively.)

In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root was used widely but is now seen as an archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that have
to do with writing (and in some cases counting). The primitive root ṣ-f and the trilateral root stems m-ṣ-f, ṣ-h-f, and ṣ-f-r are used. This root also exists in
other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew: sep̄ er "book", sōp̄ er "scribe", mispār "number" and sippūr "story". This root also exists in Arabic and is used to
form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as ṣaḥāfa "journalism", and ṣaḥīfa "newspaper" or "parchment". Verbs in other non-Semitic

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Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. Kabyle afeg means "fly!", while affug means "flight",
and yufeg means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where hap̄ lēḡ means "set sail!", hap̄ lāḡā means "a sailing trip", and hip̄ līḡ means "he sailed", while the
unrelated ʕūp̄ , təʕūp̄ ā and ʕāp̄ pertain to flight).

Independent personal pronouns

Arabic
English Proto-Semitic Akkadian Ge'ez Hebrew Aramaic Assyrian Maltese
standard common vernaculars

I *ʔanāku,[note 8] anāku ‫ أنا‬ʔanā ʔanā, anā, ana, āni, āna, ānig አነ ʔana
‫ אני‬,‫ אנכי‬ʔānōḵī,
‫ אנא‬ʔanā ānā
jiena,
*ʔaniya ʔănī jien

You (sg., āt, āty,

*ʔanka > *ʔanta atta ‫ أنت‬ʔanta ʔant, ant, inta, inte, inti, int, (i)nta አንተ ʔánta ‫ אתה‬ʔattā ‫ אנת‬ʔantā int, inti
masc.) āten

You (sg., āt, āty,

*ʔanti atti ‫ أنت‬ʔanti ʔanti, anti, inti, init (i)nti, intch አንቲ ʔánti ‫ את‬ʔatt ‫ אנת‬ʔanti int, inti
fem.) āten

hu,
He *suʔa šū ‫ هو‬huwa, hū huwwa, huwwe, hū ውእቱ wəʔətu ‫ הוא‬hū ‫ הוא‬hu owā
huwa
She *siʔa šī ‫ هي‬hiya, hī hiyya, hiyye, hī ይእቲ yəʔəti ‫ היא‬hī ‫ היא‬hi ayā hi, hija

‫ אנחנו‬,‫ אנו‬ʔānū, ‫נחנא‬

We *niyaħnū, *niyaħnā nīnu ‫ نحن‬naħnu niħna, iħna, ħinna ንሕነ ʔnəħnā axnan aħna
ʔănaħnū náħnā

You (dual) *ʔantunā ‫ أنتما‬ʔantumā Plural form is used

They (dual) [note 9] *sunī(ti) ‫ هما‬humā Plural form is used

*sunā
You (pl., ‫ أنتم‬ʔantum, ʔantum, antum, antu, intu, intum, አንትሙ ‫אנתן‬
*ʔantunū attunu ‫ אתם‬ʔattem axtōxūn intom
masc.) ʔantumu (i)ntūma ʔantəmu ʔantun

You (pl., ʔantin, antin, ʔantum, antu, intu, ‫אנתן‬

*ʔantinā attina ‫ أنتّن‬ʔantunna አንትን ʔantən ‫ אתן‬ʔatten axtōxūn intom
fem.) intum, (i)ntūma ʔanten

hum, humma, hūma, hom, እሙንቱ ‫ המה‬,‫ הם‬hēm,

They (masc.) *sunū šunu ‫ هم‬hum, humu ‫ הנן‬hinnun eni huma
hinne(n) ʔəmuntu hēmmā
እማንቱ ‫ הנה‬,‫ הן‬hēn,
They (fem.) *sinā šina ‫ هّن‬hunna hin, hinne(n), hum, humma, hūma ‫ הנן‬hinnin eni huma
ʔəmāntu hēnnā

Cardinal numerals

Assyrian Neo-
English Proto-Semitic[48] IPA Arabic Hebrew Sabaean
Aramaic
Maltese Ge'ez

አሐዱ
One *ʼaḥad-, *ʻišt- ʔaħad, ʔiʃt ‫ أحد‬،‫ واحد‬waːħid-, ʔaħad- ‫ אחד‬ʼeḥáḏ, ʔeˈχad ʔḥd xā wieħed
ʾäḥädu
*ṯin-ān (nom.), *ṯin-ayn θinaːn, ‫ اثنان‬iθn-āni (nom.), ‫ اثنين‬iθn-ajni (obj.), ‫ שנים‬ešnáyim ˈʃn-ajim, fem. ክልኤቱ
Two *ṯny treh tnejn
(obl.), *kilʼ- θinajn, kilʔ ‫ اثنتان‬fem. iθnat-āni, ‫ اثنتين‬iθnat-ajni ‫ שתים‬eštáyim ˈʃt-ajim kəlʾetu

ɬalaːθ > ሠለስቱ

Three *śalāṯ- > *ṯalāṯ-[note 10] θalaːθ
‫ ثالث‬θalaːθ- fem. ‫ שלוש‬šālṓš ʃaˈloʃ *ślṯ ṭlā tlieta
śälästu

አርባዕቱ
Four *ʼarbaʻ- ʔarbaʕ ‫ أربع‬ʔarbaʕ- fem. ‫ ארבע‬ʼárbaʻ ˈʔaʁba *ʼrbʻ arpā erbgħa
ʾärbaʿtu
ኀምስቱ
Five *ḫamš- χamʃ ‫ خمس‬χams- fem. ‫ חמש‬ḥā́ mēš ˈχameʃ *ḫmš xamšā ħamsa
ḫämsətu

ስድስቱ
Six *šidṯ-[note 11] ʃidθ ‫ سّت‬sitt- (ordinal ‫ سادس‬saːdis-) fem. ‫ שש‬šēš ʃeʃ *šdṯ/šṯ ëštā sitta
sədsətu

ሰብዐቱ
Seven *šabʻ- ʃabʕ ‫ سبع‬sabʕ- fem. ‫ שבע‬šéḇaʻ ˈʃeva *šbʻ šowā sebgħa
säbʿätu
*ṯmny/ ሰማንቱ
Eight *ṯamāniy- θamaːnij- ‫ ثماني‬θamaːn-ij- fem. ‫ שמונה‬šəmṓneh ʃˈmone *tmanyā tmienja
ṯmn sämantu

ተስዐቱ
Nine *tišʻ- tiʃʕ ‫ تسع‬tisʕ- fem. ‫ תשע‬tḗšaʻ ˈtejʃa *tšʻ *učā disgħa
täsʿätu
ዐሠርቱ
Ten *ʻaśr- ʕaɬr ‫ عشر‬ʕaʃ(a)r- fem. ‫ עשר‬ʻéśer ˈʔeseʁ *ʻśr *uṣrā għaxra
ʿäśärtu

These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. In most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit polarity of
gender (also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa.

Typology

Some early Semitic languages are speculated to have had weak ergative features.[51]

Common vocabulary
Due to the Semitic languages' common origin, they share some words and roots. Others differ. For example:

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English Proto-Semitic Akkadian Arabic Aramaic Assyrian Hebrew Ge'ez Mehri Maltese

father *ʼab- ab- ʼab- ʼaḇ-āʼ bābā ʼāḇ ʼab ḥa-yb bu, (missier)

heart *lib(a)b- libb- lubb-, (qalb-) lebb-āʼ lëbā lëḇ, lëḇāḇ ləbb ḥa-wbēb ilbieba, (qalb)
house *bayt- bītu, bētu bayt-, (dār-) bayt-āʼ bētā báyiṯ bet beyt, bêt bejt, (dar)

peace *šalām- šalām- salām- šlām-āʼ šlāmā šālôm salām səlōm sliem

tongue *lišān-/*lašān- lišān- lisān- leššān-āʼ lišānā lāšôn ləssān əwšēn ilsien
water *may-/*māy- mû (root *mā-/*māy-) māʼ-/māy mayy-āʼ mēyā máyim māy ḥə-mō ilma

Terms given in brackets are not derived from the respective Proto-Semitic roots, though they may also derive from Proto-Semitic (as does e.g. Arabic dār,
cf. Biblical Hebrew dōr "dwelling").

Sometimes, certain roots differ in meaning from one Semitic language to another. For example, the root b-y-ḍ in Arabic has the meaning of "white" as well
as "egg", whereas in Hebrew it only means "egg". The root l-b-n means "milk" in Arabic, but the color "white" in Hebrew. The root l-ḥ-m means "meat" in
Arabic, but "bread" in Hebrew and "cow" in Ethiopian Semitic; the original meaning was most probably "food". The word medina (root: d-y-n/d-w-n) has
the meaning of "metropolis" in Amharic, "city" in Arabic and Ancient Hebrew, and "State" in Modern Hebrew.

Of course, there is sometimes no relation between the roots. For example, "knowledge" is represented in Hebrew by the root y-d-ʿ, but in Arabic by the
roots ʿ-r-f and ʿ-l-m and in Ethiosemitic by the roots ʿ-w-q and f-l-ṭ.

For more comparative vocabulary lists, see Wiktionary appendices:

List of Proto-Semitic stems (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:List_of_Proto-Semitic_stems)

Swadesh lists for Afro-Asiatic languages (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Afro-Asiatic_languages)

Classification
There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages: East Semitic, Northwest Semitic, North Arabian, Old South Arabian (also known
as Sayhadic), Modern South Arabian, and Ethiopian Semitic. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which belong together.
The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by Robert Hetzron in 1976 and with later emendations by John Huehnergard and
Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for the traditional (partially
nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. Alexander Militarev or the German-Egyptian professor Arafa Hussein Mustafa,) see
the South Arabian languages, as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South Semitic. However, a new
classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.[52]

Roger Blench notes, that the Gurage languages are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of
Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia. At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects" – an issue
particularly relevant in Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage – and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic subclassification of them
particularly difficult.

A computational phylogenetic analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009), considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the Levant about 5,750 years ago
during the Early Bronze Age, with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia approximately 2,800 years ago.[16] Evidence for gene movements
consistent with this were found in Almarri et al. (2021).[53]

The Himyaritic and Sutean languages appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data.

List
East Semitic (All extinct)
Akkadian
Old Akkadian
Babylonian
Assyrian
Canaano-Akkadian
Eblaite
Kishite
West Semitic
Central Semitic
Northwest Semitic
Aramaic
Old Aramaic
Samalian (extinct)
Imperial Aramaic (extinct)
Biblical Aramaic (extinct)
Middle Aramaic
Eastern Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Syriac

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Hatran Aramaic (extinct)
Central Neo-Aramaic
Turoyo
Mlaḥsô
Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Suret
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
Christian Urmi Neo-Aramaic
Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
Senaya
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic
Hertevin Neo-Aramaic
Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
Lishanid Noshan
Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic
Hulaulá
Lishana Deni
Lishán Didán
Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic
Southeastern Aramaic
Mandaic
Neo-Mandaic
Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (extinct)
Western Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Nabataean Aramaic (extinct)
Palmyrene Aramaic (extinct)
Western Neo-Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Palestinian Aramaic (All extinct)
Samaritan Aramaic
Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
Galilean dialect
Christian Palestinian Aramaic
Armazic (extinct)
Canaanite
North Canaanite
Phoenician (extinct)
Punic (extinct)
South Canaanite
Ammonite (extinct)
Moabite (extinct)
Edomite (extinct)
Hebrew
Biblical Hebrew
Mishnaic Hebrew
Medieval Hebrew
Modern Hebrew (revived)
Samaritan Hebrew (extinct)
Ugaritic (extinct)
Amorite (extinct)
Taymanitic?
Arabic
Old Arabic
Ancient North Arabian (dialect continuum, All extinct)
Dadanitic
Dumaitic
Hasaitic
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Thamudic
Nabataean Arabic
Safaitic
Hismaic
Pre-classical Arabic
ˀAzd dialect
Huḏayl dialect
Ṭayyiˀ dialect
Old Hijazi Arabic
Classical Arabic
Mashriqi Arabic (Eastern Arabic) (dialect continuum)
Peninsular Arabic (dialect continuum)
Gulf Arabic
Emirati Arabic
Bahraini Gulf Arabic
Kuwaiti Arabic
Bahrani Arabic
Omani Arabic
Modern Hejazi Arabic
Shihhi Arabic
Dhofari Arabic
Yemeni Arabic (dialect continuum)
Hadhrami Arabic
Sanʽani Arabic
Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic
Taʽizzi Arabic
Adeni Arabic
Judeo-Yemeni Arabic
Tihamiyya Arabic
Zabidi dialect
Yafi'i Arabic
Bedawi Arabic
Najdi Arabic
Bareqi Arabic
Egypto-Sudanic Arabic (dialect continuum)
Egyptian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Judeo-Egyptian Arabic
Upper Egyptian Arabic
Sudanese-Chadian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Sudanese Arabic
Chadian Arabic
Levantine Arabic (dialect continuum)
North Levantine Arabic
Cilician Arabic
Syrian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Aleppine Arabic
Damascene Arabic
Lebanese Arabic
South Levantine Arabic
Palestinian Arabic
Jordanian Arabic
Mesopotamian Arabic (dialect continuum)
North Mesopotamian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Anatolian Arabic
Judeo-Iraqi Arabic
Jewish Baghdadi Arabic
Cypriot Arabic
Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic (dialect continuum)

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Baghdadi Arabic
Shawi Arabic
Khuzestani Arabic
South Mesopotamian Arabic
Central Asian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Bakhtiari Arabic
Bukharian Arabic
Kashkadarian Arabic
Khorasani Arabic
Shirvani Arabic (extinct)
Maghrebi Arabic (Western Arabic) (dialect continuum)
Algerian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Western Algerian Arabic
Eastern Algerian Arabic
Moroccan Arabic
West Moroccan Arabic
East Moroccan Arabic
Fessi dialect
Judeo-Moroccan Arabic
Libyan Arabic
Western Libyan Arabic
Eastern Libyan Arabic
Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic
Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic
Tunisian Arabic
Judeo-Tunisian Arabic
Jebli Arabic
Jijel Arabic
Hassaniya Arabic
Algerian Saharan Arabic
Andalusi Arabic (extinct)
Siculo-Arabic
Maltese
Cottonera Dialect
Gozitan dialects
Qormi dialect
Żejtun dialect
Maltralian
Corfiot Maltese (extinct)
Modern Standard Arabic
South Semitic
Western South Semitic
Ethio-Semitic
North Ethiopic
Geʽez (Classical Ethiopic)
Dahalik
Tigre
Tigrinya
South Ethiopic
Transversal South Ethiopic
Amharic–Argobba
Amharic
Argobba
Harari–East Gurage
Harari
East Gurage
Silt'e
Zway

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Outer South Ethiopic
n-group
Gafat (extinct)
Soddo
tt-group
Mesmes (extinct)
Muher
West Gurage
Mesqan
Sebat Bet
Sebat Bet Gurage
Inor

Old South Arabian (Ṣayhadic)

Sabaic (extinct)
Minaean (extinct)
Qatabanian (extinct)
Awsānian (extinct)
Hadramautic (extinct)
Razihi?
Faifi?
Modern South Arabian (Eastern South Semitic)
Baṭḥari
Ḥarsusi
Hobyót
Mehri
Shehri
Soqotri

Semitic-speaking peoples
The following is a list of some modern and ancient Semitic-speaking peoples and nations:

Central Semitic
Amorites – 20th century BC
Arabs
Alawites
Ancient North Arabian-speaking bedouins
Itureans
Nabataeans
Arameans – 16th to 8th centuries BC[54]
Akhlames (Ahlamu) 14th century BC.[55] Distribution of the Semitic-speaking peoples
Mhallami
Canaanite-speaking nations of the early Iron Age:
Ammonite speakers of Ammon
Edomite
Hebrews/Israelites – founded the nation of Israel which later split into the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
Jews
Samaritans
Moabites
Phoenicia – founded Mediterranean colonies including Tyre, Sidon and ancient Carthage/Punics. The remnants of these people became the
modern inhabitants of Lebanon.
Chaldea – appeared in southern Mesopotamia c. 1000 BC and eventually disappeared into the general Babylonian population.
Druze
Maltese
Nasrani/Nazarenes
Antiochian Greek Christians
Mandaeans
Maronites
Thamud – 2nd to 5th centuries AD

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Ugarit, 14th to 12th centuries BC

East Semitic
Akkadian Empire – ancient Semitic speakers moved into Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BC and settled among the local peoples of
Sumer.[56][57]
Assyrian Empire. The remnant of them became the Assyrian people.
Babylonian Empire
Ebla – 23rd century BC

South Semitic
Abyssinian-speaking peoples
Axum – 4th century BC to 7th century AD
Amhara people
Argobba people
Dahalik people
Gurage people
Harari people
Judaised Abyssinians like Beta Israel, Beta Abraham and Falash Muras.
Jeberti people
Silt'e people
Tigrigna People
Tigray people
Tigre people
Wolane people
Zay people
Old and Modern South Arabian-speaking peoples
Bathari people
Faifi people
Ancient Hadramitic-speakers. Eventually evolved into the modern day Hadhrami people.
Himyarites from 110 BCE until 578 CE
Yemenite Jews
Harsusi people
Hobyot people
Mehri people
Minaeans 10th century BCE to 2nd centuries BC
Qatabanians
Shehri people
Razihi people
Sabaeans of Yemen – 9th to 1st centuries BC
Soqotri people

Unknown
Suteans – 14th century BC

See also
Proto-Semitic language
Middle Bronze Age alphabets

Notes
1. Arabic is one of the world's largest, spoken natively by about 300 million
speakers, and as a second language by perhaps another 60 million.[1]
2. Amharic has perhaps fifteen million speakers, in Africa probably fewer
than only Arabic, Swahili, Hausa, and Oromo, and is the second most
populous Semitic language, after just Arabic. It is the lingua franca and
constitutionally recognized national language of Ethiopia, and the
national language of instruction of Ethiopian public education in the
primary grades. [2]

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3. Tigrinya, not to be confused with the related but distinct language Tigre, 7. "In the historically attested Semitic languages, the endings of the
is, like Amharic, a northern Ethiopian Semitic language, is spoken as a singular noun-flexions survive, as is well known, only partially: in
native language by the overwhelming majority of the population in the Akkadian and Arabic and Ugaritic and, limited to the accusative, in
Tigre province of Ethiopia and in the highland part of Eritrea (the Ethiopic."[43]
provinces of Akkele Guzay, Serae and Hamasien, where the capital of 8. While some believe that *ʔanāku was an innovation in some branches
the state, Asmara, is situated). Outside of this area Tigrinya is also of Semitic utilizing an "intensifying" *-ku, comparison to other Afro-
spoken in the Tambien and Wolqayt historical districts (Ethiopia) and in Asiatic 1ps pronouns (e.g. 3nk, Coptic anak, anok, proto-Berber
the administrative districts of Massara and Keren (Eritrea), these being
*ənakkʷ) suggests that this goes further back.[47]
respectively the southern and northern limits of its expansion. The
number of speaker of Tigrinya has been estimated at 4 million in 1995; 9. The Akkadian form is from Sargonic Akkadian. Among the Semitic
1.3 million of them live in Eritrea (around 50 percent of the population of languages, there are languages with /i/ as the final vowel (this is the
form in Mehri). For a recent discussion concerning the reconstruction of
the country), in 2008 by an estimated 5 million.[3] Hebrew speaking
the forms of the dual pronouns, see Bar-Asher, Elitzur. 2009. "Dual
about ~5 million native/L1 speakers, Gurage has around 1.5 million
Pronouns in Semitics and an Evaluation of the Evidence for their
speakers, Tigre has c. ~1.05 million speakers, Aramaic is spoken by
Existence in Biblical Hebrew," Ancient Near Eastern Studies 46: 32–49
around 575,000 to 1 million largely Assyrian speakers).
4. Maltese has around 483,000 speakers, 10. This root underwent regressive assimilation.[49] This parallels the non-
adjacent assimilation of *ś... > *š...š in proto-Canaanite or proto-North-
5. According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat
West-Semitic in the roots *śam?š > *šamš 'sun' and *śur?š > *šurš
spirantization occurred before the merger of /χ, ʁ/ and /ħ, ʕ/, or else [x,
'root'.[50] The form *ṯalāṯ- appears in most languages (e.g. Aramaic,
χ] and [ɣ, ʁ] would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically
Arabic, Ugaritic), but the original form ślṯ appears in the Old South
rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited /k/ and /χ/
could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be Arabian languages, and a form with s < *ś (rather than š < *ṯ) appears in
recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Akkadian.
Nestorian Syriac).[36] 11. This root was also assimilated in various ways. For example, Hebrew
reflects *šišš-, with total assimilation; Arabic reflects *šitt- in cardinal
6. see Canaanite shift
numerals, but less assimilated *šādiš- in ordinal numerals. Epigraphic
South Arabian reflects original *šdṯ; Ugaritic has a form ṯṯ, in which the ṯ
has been assimilated throughout the root.[49]

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and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300 (https://www.cambridge.org/c
long wanted an appropriate common name. The term Oriental
ore/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C
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8D1A3128B9B52A). Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 9781846158735.
down to the end of the last century, and which is even now not entirely Retrieved 6 May 2021. "The former belief that this arrival of South-
abandoned, must always have been an unscientific one, inasmuch as
Semitic-speakers took place in about the second quarter of the first
the countries in which these languages prevailed are only the east in
millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view of linguistic
respect to Europe; and when Sanskrit, Chinese, and other idioms of the
indications that these languages were spoken in the northern Horn at a
remoter East were brought within the reach of our research, it became much earlier date."
palpably incorrect. Under a sense of this impropriety, Eichhorn was the
first, as he says himself (Allg. Bibl. Biblioth. vi. 772), to introduce the Ruhlen, Merritt (1991). A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification
name Semitic languages, which was soon generally adopted, and which (https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC). Stanford,
is the most usual one at the present day. [...] In modern times, however, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1894-6. "The other
the very appropriate designation Syro-Arabian languages has been linguistic group to be recognized in the eighteenth century was the
proposed by Dr. Prichard, in his Physical History of Man. This term, [...] Semitic family. The German scholar Ludwig von Schlozer is often
has the advantage of forming an exact counterpart to the name by credited with having recognized, and named, the Semitic family in 1781.
which the only other great family of languages with which we are likely But the affinity of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic had been recognized for
to bring the Syro-Arabian into relations of contrast or accordance, is centuries by Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars, and this knowledge
now universally known—the Indo-Germanic. Like it, by taking up only was published in Western Europe as early as 1538 (see Postel 1538).
the two extreme members of a whole sisterhood according to their Around 1700 Hiob Ludolf, who had written grammars of Geez and
geographical position when in their native seats, it embraces all the Amharic (both Ethiopic Semitic languages) in the seventeenth century,
intermediate branches under a common band; and, like it, it constitutes recognized the extension of the Semitic family into East Africa. Thus
a name which is not only at once intelligible, but one which in itself when von Schlozer named the family in 1781 he was merely
conveys a notion of that affinity between the sister dialects, which it is recognizing genetic relationships that had been known for centuries.
one of the objects of comparative philology to demonstrate and to Three Semitic languages (Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew) were long
apply." familiar to Europeans both because of their geographic proximity and
because the Bible was written in Hebrew and Aramaic."
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Mustafa, Arafa Hussein. 1974. Analytical study of phrases and
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sentences in epic texts of Ugarit. (German title: Untersuchungen zu
on.pdf) (PDF). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-824137-2.
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Moscati, Sabatino (1958). "On Semitic Case-Endings". Journal of Near esource/content/0/dzveli_armosavluri_enebi_-ugarituli_punikuri_arameu
Eastern Studies. 17 (2): 142–144. doi:10.1086/371454 (https://doi.org/1 li_ebrauli_arabuli.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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1).

External links
Semitic genealogical tree (https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html) (as well as the
Afroasiatic one), presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" (at the
conference on the 70th anniversary of Vladislav Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html) (in Russian)
Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural (https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00831338)

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10/26/23, 9:02 PM Semitic languages - Wikipedia
Ancient snake spell in Egyptian pyramid may be oldest Semitic inscription (https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2007-01-23-snake-spel
l_x.htm)
Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019), Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup, Lang Resources & Evaluation, Vol
53, 1–65 pages (https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02113751)
Swadesh vocabulary lists of Semitic languages (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Afro-Asiatic_Swadesh_lists) (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list
appendix (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists))

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