UNIT-4

INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING

CONCEPTS

Synopsis:

1. Introduction
2. Book-keeping and Accounting
3. Function of an Accountant
4. Users of Accounting
5. Advantages of Accounting
6. Limitations of Accounting
7. Basic Accounting concepts

1. INTRODUCITON

As you are aware, every trader generally starts business for purpose of earning profit. While
establishing business, he brings own capital, borrows money from relatives, friends, outsiders or
financial institutions. Then he purchases machinery, plant , furniture, raw materials and other
assets. He starts buying and selling of goods, paying for salaries, rent and other expenses,
depositing and withdrawing cash from bank. Like this he undertakes innumerable transactions in
business. Observe the following transactions of small trader for one week during the month of
July, 1998.

1998 Rs.
July 24 Purchase of goods from Sree Ram 12,000
July 25 Goods sold for cash 5,000
July 25 Sold gods to Syam on credit 8,000
July 26 Advertising expenses 5,200
July 27 Stationary expenses 600
July 27 Withdrawal for personal use 2,500
July 28 Rent paid through cheque 1,000
July 31 Salaries paid 9,000
July 31 Received cash from Syam 5,000
 The number of transactions in an organization depends upon the size of the organization.
In small organizations, the transactions generally will be in thousand and in big organizations
they may be in lakhs. As such it is humanly impossible to remember all these transactions.
Further, it may not by possible to find out the final result of the business without recording and
analyzing these transactions.

Accounting came into practice as an aid to human memory by maintaining a systematic

record of business transactions.

1.1 History of Accounting:

Accounting is as old as civilization itself. From the ancient relics of Babylon, it can be
will proved that accounting did exist as long as 2600 B.C. However, in modern form accounting
based on the principles of Double Entry System came into existence in 17th Century. Fra Luka
Paciolo, a Fransiscan monk and mathematician published a book De computic et scripturies in
1494 at Venice in Italyl. This book was translated into English in 1543. In this book he covered a
brief section on ‘book-keeping’.

1.2 Origin of Accounting in India:

Accounting was practiced in India thousand years ago and there is a clear evidence for
this. In his famous book Arthashastra Kautilya dealt with not only politics and economics but
also the art of proper keeping of accounts. However, the accounting on modern lines was
introduced in India after 1850 with the formation joint stock companies in India.
Accounting in India is now a fast developing discipline. The two premier Accounting
Institutes in India viz., chartered Accountants of India and the Institute of Cost and Works
Accountants of India are making continuous and substantial contributions. The international
Accounts Standards Committee (IASC) was established as on 29th June. In India the ‘Accounting
Standards Board (ASB) is formulating ‘Accounting Standards’ on the lines of standards framed
by International Accounting Standards Committee.

2. BOOK-KEEPING AND ACCOUNTING

According to G.A. Lee the accounting system has two stages.
1. The making of routine records in the prescribed from and according to set rules of all
events with affect the financial state of the organization; and
2. The summarization from time to time of the information contained in the records, its
presentation in a significant form to interested parties and its interpretation as an aid to
decision making by these parties.
First stage is called Book-Keeping and the second one is Accounting.

Book – Keeping: Book – Keeping involves the chronological recording of financial transactions
in a set of books in a systematic manner.
Accounting: Accounting is concerned with the maintenance of accounts giving stress to the
design of the system of records, the preparation of reports based on the recorded date and the
interpretation of the reports.

Distinction between Book – Keeping and Accountancy

Thus, the terms, book-keeping and accounting are very closely related, through there is a
subtle difference as mentioned below.
1. Object : The object of book-keeping is to prepare original books of Accounts. It is
restricted to journal, subsidiary book and ledge accounts only. On the other hand, the main object
of accounting is to record analyse and interpret the business transactions.
2. Level of Work: Book-keeping is restricted to level of work. Clerical work is mainly
involved in it. Accountancy on the other hand, is concerned with all level of management.
3. Principles of Accountancy: In Book-keeping Accounting concepts and conventions will be
followed by all without any difference. On the other hand, various firms follow various methods
of reporting and interpretation in accounting.
3. Final Result: In Book-Keeping it is not possible to know the final result of business every
year,

2.1 Meaning of Accounting

 Thus, book-keeping is an art of recording the business transactions in the books of
original entry and the ledges. Accountancy begins where Book-keeping ends. Accountancy
means the compiliation of accounts in such a way that one is in a position to know the state of
affairs of the business. The work of an accountant is to analyse, interpret and review the accounts
and draw conclusion with a view to guide the management in chalking out the future policy of
the business.

2.2 Definition of Accounting:

Smith and Ashburne: “Accounting is a means of measuring and reporting the results of
economic activities.”
R.N. Anthony: “Accounting system is a means of collecting summarizing, analyzing and
reporting in monetary terms, the information about the business.
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA): “The art of recording,
classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money transactions and
events, which are in part at least, of a financial character and interpreting the results thereof.”
Thus, accounting is an art of identifying, recording, summarizing and interpreting
business transactions of financial nature. Hence accounting is the Language of Business.

2.3 Branches of Accounting:

The important branches of accounting are:
1. Financial Accounting: The purpose of Accounting is to ascertain the financial results
i.e. profit or loass in the operations during a specific period. It is also aimed at knowing
the financial position, i.e. assets, liabilities and equity position at the end of the period.
It also provides other relevant information to the management as a basic for decision-
making for planning and controlling the operations of the business.
2. Cost Accounting: The purpose of this branch of accounting is to ascertain the cost of
a product / operation / project and the costs incurred for carrying out various activities.
It also assist the management in controlling the costs. The necessary data and
information are gatherr4ed form financial and other sources.
3. Management Accounting : Its aim to assist the management in taking correct policy
decision and to evaluate the impact of its decisions and actions. The data required for
this purpose are drawn accounting and cost-accounting.
4. Inflation Accounting : It is concerned with the adjustment in the values of assest and
of profit in light of changes in the price level. In a way it is concerned with the
overcoming of limitations that arise in financial statements on account of the cost
assumption (i.e recording of the assets at their historical or original cost) and the
assumption of stable monetary unit.
5. Human Resource Accounting : It is a branch of accounting which seeks to report and
emphasize the importance of human resources in a company’s earning process and total
assets. It is concerned with the process of identifying and measuring data about human
resources and communicating this information to interested parties. In simple words, it
is accounting for people as organizational resources.

3. FUNCTIONS OF AN ACCOUNTANT
The job of an accountant involves the following types of accounting works :
1. Designing Work : It includes the designing of the accounting system, basis for
identification and classification of financial transactions and events, forms, methods,
procedures, etc.
2. Recording Work : The financial transactions are identified, classified and recorded in
appropriate books of accounts according to principles. This is “Book Keeping”. The
recording of transactions tends to be mechanical and repetitive.
3. Summarizing Work : The recorded transactions are summarized into significant form
according to generally accepted accounting principles. The work includes the preparation
of profit and loss account, balance sheet. This phase is called ‘preparation of final
accounts’
4. Analysis and Interpretation Work: The financial statements are analysed by using
ratio analysis, break-even analysis, funds flow and cash flow analysis.
5. Reporting Work: The summarized statements along with analysis and interpretation
are communicated to the interested parties or whoever has the right to receive them. For
 Ex. Share holders. In addition, the accou8nting departments has to prepare and send
regular reports so as to assist the management in decision making. This is ‘Reporting’.
6. Preparation of Budget : The management must be able to reasonably estimate the
future requirements and opportunities. As an aid to this process, the accountant has to
prepare budgets, like cash budget, capital budget, purchase budget, sales budget etc. this
is ‘Budgeting’.
7. Taxation Work : The accountant has to prepare various statements and returns
pertaining to income-tax, sales-tax, excise or customs duties etc., and file the returns with
the authorities concerned.
8. Auditing : It involves a critical review and verification of the books of accounts
statements and reports with a view to verifying their accuracy. This is ‘Auditing’

This is what the accountant or the accounting department does. A person may be
placed in any part of Accounting Department or MIS (Management Information System)
Department or in small organization, the same person may have to attend to all this work.

4. USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

Different categories of users need different kinds of information for making decisions.
The users of accounting can be divided in two board groups (1). Internal users and (2). External
users.

4.1 Internal Users:

Managers : These are the persons who manage the business, i.e. management at he top,
middle and lower levels. Their requirements of information are different because they make
different types of decisions.
Accounting reports are important to managers for evaluating the results of their decisions.
In additions to external financial statements, managers need detailed internal reports either
branch division or department or product-wise. Accounting reports for managers are prepared
much more frequently than external reports.
Accounting information also helps the managers in appraising the performance of
subordinates. As such Accounting is termed as “ the eyes and ears of management.”

4.2 External Users :

1. Investors : Those who are interested in buying the shares of company are naturally
interested in the financial statements to know how safe the investment already made is and how
safe the proposed investments will be.
2. Creditors : Lenders are interested to know whether their load, principal and interest,
will be paid when due. Suppliers and other creditors are also interested to know the ability of the
firm to pay their dues in time.

3. Workers : In our country, workers are entitled to payment of bonus which depends on the
size of profit earned. Hence, they would like to be satisfied that he bonus being paid to them is
correct. This knowledge also helps them in conducting negotiations for wages.

4. Customers : They are also concerned with the stability and profitability of the
enterprise. They may be interested in knowing the financial strength of the company to rent it for
further decisions relating to purchase of goods.

5. Government: Governments all over the world are using financial statements for
compiling statistics concerning business which, in turn, helps in compiling national accounts.
The financial statements are useful for tax authorities for calculating taxes.

6. Public : The public at large interested in the functioning of the enterprises because it may
make a substantial contribution to the local economy in many ways including the number of
people employed and their patronage to local suppliers.

7. Researchers: The financial statements, being a mirror of business conditions, is of great

interest to scholars undertaking research in accounting theory as well as business affairs and
practices.

5. ADVANTAGES FROM ACCOUNTING

The role of accounting has changed from that of a mere record keeping during the 1st
decade of 20th century of the present stage, which it is accepted as information system and
decision making activity. The following are the advantages of accounting.

1. Provides for systematic records: Since all the financial transactions are recorded in the
books, one need not rely on memory. Any information required is readily available from
these records.
2. Facilitates the preparation of financial statements: Profit and loss accountant and
balance sheet can be easily prepared with the help of the information in the records. This
enables the trader to know the net result of business operations (i.e. profit / loss) during the
 accounting period and the financial position of the business at the end of the accounting
period.
3. Provides control over assets: Book-keeping provides information regarding cash in had,
cash at bank, stock of goods, accounts receivables from various parties and the amounts
invested in various other assets. As the trader knows the values of the assets he will have
control over them.
4. Provides the required information: Interested parties such as owners, lenders, creditors
etc., get necessary information at frequent intervals.
5. Comparative study: One can compare the present performance of the organization with
that of its past. This enables the managers to draw useful conclusion and make proper
decisions.
6. Less Scope for fraud or theft: It is difficult to conceal fraud or theft etc., because of the
balancing of the books of accounts periodically. As the work is divided among many
persons, there will be check and counter check.
7. Tax matters: Properly maintained book-keeping records will help in the settlement of all
tax matters with the tax authorities.
8. Ascertaining Value of Business: The accounting records will help in ascertaining the
correct value of the business. This helps in the event of sale or purchase of a business.
9. Documentary evidence: Accounting records can also be used as an evidence in the court
to substantiate the claim of the business. These records are based on documentary proof.
Every entry is supported by authentic vouchers. As such, Courts accept these records as
evidence.
10. Helpful to management: Accounting is useful to the management in various ways. It
enables the management to asses the achievement of its performance. The weakness of the
business can be identified and corrective measures can be applied to remove them with the
helps accounting.

6. LIMITATIONS OF ACCOUNTING

The following are the limitations of accounting.

 1. Does not record all events: Only the transactions of a financial character will be
recorded under book-keeping. So it does not reveal a complete picture about the quality
of human resources, locational advantage, business contacts etc.
2. Does not reflect current values: The data available under book-keeping is historical in
nature. So they do not reflect current values. For instance, we record the value of stock at
cost price or market price, which ever is less. In case of, building, machinery etc., we
adopt historical cost as the basis. Infact, the current values of buildings, plant and
machinery may be much more than what is recorded in the balance sheet.
3. Estimates based on Personal Judgment: The estimate used for determining the values
of various items may not be correct. For example, debtor are estimated in terms of
collectibility, inventories are based on marketability, and fixed assets are based on useful
working life. These estimates are based on personal judgment and hence sometimes may
not be correct.
4. Inadequate information on costs and Profits: Book-keeping only provides
information about the overall profitability of the business. No information is given about
the cost and profitability of different activities of products or divisions.
7. BASIC ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS

Accounting has been evolved over a period of several centuries. During this period,
certain rules and conventions have been adopted. They serve as guidelines in identifying the
events and transactions to be accounted for measuring, recording, summarizing and reporting
them to the interested parties. These rules and conventions are termed as Generally Accepted
Accounting Principles. These principles are also referred as standards, assumptions, concepts,
conventions doctrines, etc. Thus, the accounting concepts are the fundamental ideas or basic
assumptions underlying the theory and practice of financial accounting. They are the broad
working rules for all accounting activities developed and accepted by the accounting profession.
Basic accounting concepts may be classified into two broad categories.
1. Concept to be observed at the time of recording transactions.(Recording Stage).
2. Concept to be observed at the time of preparing the financial accounts (Reporting
Stage)

FINAL ACCOUNTS
INTRODUCTION: The main object of any Business is to make profit. Every trader generally
starts business for the purpose of earning profit. While establishing Business, he brings his own
capital, borrows money from relatives, friends, outsiders or financial institutions, then purchases
machinery, plant, furniture, raw materials and other assets. He starts buying and selling of goods,
paying for salaries, rent and other expenses, depositing and withdrawing cash from Bank. Like
this he undertakes innumerable transactions in Business.
The number of Business transactions in an organization depends up on the
size of the organization. In small organizations the transactions generally will be in thousands
and in big organizations they may be in lacks. As such it is humanly impossible to remember all
these transactions. Further it may not be possible to find out the final result of the Business with
out recording and analyzing these transactions.
Accounting came in practice as an aid to human memory by maintaining a
systematic record of Business transactions.

BOOK KEEPING AND ACCOUNTING:

According to G.A.Lee the Accounting system has two stages. First stage is
Book keeping and the second stage is accounting.

[A]. BOOK KEEPING:

Book keeping involves the chronological recording of financial transactions in a
set of books in a systematic manner

“Book keeping is the system of recording Business transactions for the purpose of
providing reliable information to the owners and managers about the state and
prospect of the Business concepts”.

Thus Book keeping is an art of recording business transactions in the books of

original entry and the ledges.

[B]. ACCOUNTING: Accounting begins where the Bookkeeping ends

1. SMITH AND ASHBUNNE: Accounting means “measuring and reporting the results of
economic activities”.
2. R.N ANTHONY: Accounting is a system of “collecting, summarizing, Analyzing and
reporting in monster terms, the information about the Business”.
3. ICPA: Recording, classifying and summarizing is a significant manner and in terms of money
transactions and events, which are in part at least, of a financial character and interpreting the
results there.

Thus accounting is an art of recording, classifying, summarizing and interpreting business

transactions of financial nature. Hence accounting is the “Language of Business”.
ADVANTAGE OF ACCOUNTING

The following are the advantages of Accounting…………

1. PROVIDES FOR SYSTEMATIC RECORDS: Since all the financial transactions are
recorded in the books, one need not rely on memory. Any information required is readily
available from these records.

2. FACILITATES THE PRPARATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: Profit and Loss

account and balance sheet can be easily prepared with the help of the information in the
records. This enables the trader to know the net result of Business operations (i.e.
profit/loss) during the accounting period and the financial position of the business at the
end of the accounting period.

3. PROVIDES CONTROL OVER ASSETS: Book keeping provides information regarding

cash in hand, cash at hand, stack of goods, accounts receivable from various parties and
the amounts invested in various other assets. As the trader knows the values of the assets
he will have control over them.

4. PROVIES THE REQUIRED INFORMATION: Interested parties such as owners, lenders,

creditors etc, get necessary information at frequent intervals.

5. COMPARITIVE STUDY: One can compare present performance of the organization with
that of its past. This enables the managers to draw useful conclusions and make proper
decisions.

6. LESS SCOPE FOR FRAUD OR THEFT: It is difficult to conceal fraud or theft etc.
because of the balancing of the books of accounts periodically. As the work is divided
among many persons, there will be check and counter check.

7. TAX MALTERS: Properly maintained Book keeping records will help in the settlement
of all tax matters with the tax authorities.

8. ASCERTAINING VALUE OF BUSINESS: The accounting records will help in

ascertaining the correct value of the Business. This helps in the event of sale or purchase
of a business.

9. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE: Accounting records can also be used as evidence in the

court of substantial the claim of the Business. Thus records are based on documentary
 proof. Authentic vouchers support every entry. As such, courts accept these records as
evidence.

10.HELPFUL TO MANAGEMENT: Accounting is useful to the management in various

ways. It enables the management to assess the achievement of its performance. The
weaknesses of the business can be identified and corrective measures can be applied to
remove them with the help of accounting.

LIMITATIONS OF ACCOUNTING

The following are the limitations of accounting…………..

1.DOES NOT RECORD ALL EVENTS: Only the transactions of a financial character will be
recorded under book keeping. So it does not reveal a complete picture about the quality of
human resources, locational advantages, business contacts etc.

2.DOES NOT REFLECT CURRENT VLAUES: The data available under book keeping is
historical in nature. So they do not reflect current values. For instance we record the values of
stock at cost price or market price, which ever is less. In case of building, machinery etc., we
adapt historical case as the basis. Infact, the current values of Buildings, plant and machinery
may be much more than what is recorded in the balance sheet.

3. ESTIMATES BASED ON PERSONAL JUDGEMENT: The estimates used for determining

the values of various items may not be correct. For example, debtors are estimated in terms
of collectibles, inventories are based on marketability and fixed assets are based on useful
working life. These estimates are based on personal judgment and hence sometimes may not
be correct.

4. INADEQUATE INFORMATION ON COSTS AND PROFITS: Book keeping only

provides information about over all profitability of the business. No information is given
about the cost and profitability of different activities of products or divisions.

BASIC ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS

Accounting is a system evolved to achieve a set of objectives. In order to achieve the goals, we
need a set of rules or guidelines. These guidelines are termed here as “BASIC ACCOUNTING
ONCEPTS”. The term concept means an idea or thought. Basic accounting concepts are the
fundamental ideas or basic assumptions underlying the theory and profit of FINANCIAL
ACCOUNTING. These concepts help in bringing about uniformity in the practice of accounting.
In accountancy following concepts are quite popular.
1. BUSINESS ENTITY CONEPT: In this concept “Business is treated as separate from the
proprietor”. All the
Transactions recorded in the book of Business and not in the books of proprietor. The proprietor
is also treated as a creditor for the Business.

2. GOING CONCERN CONCEPT: This concept relates with the long life of Business. The
assumption is that business will continue to exist for unlimited period unless it is dissolved due
to some reasons or the other.

3. MONEY MEASUREMENT CONCEPT: In this concept “Only those transactions are recorded
in accounting which can be expressed in terms of money, those transactions which can not be
expressed in terms of money are not recorded in the books of accounting”.

4. COST CONCEPT: Accounting to this concept, can asset is recorded at its cost in the books of
account. i.e., the price, which is paid at the time of acquiring it. In balance sheet, these assets
appear not at cost price every year, but depreciation is deducted and they appear at the amount,
which is cost, less classification.

5. ACCOUNTING PERIOD CONCEPT: every Businessman wants to know the result of his
investment and efforts after a certain period. Usually one-year period is regarded as an ideal for
this purpose. This period is called Accounting Period. It depends on the nature of the business
and object of the proprietor of business.

6. DUAL ASCEPT CONCEPT: According to this concept “Every business transactions has two
aspects”, one is the receiving benefit aspect another one is giving benefit aspect. The receiving
benefit aspect is termed as
“DEBIT”, where as the giving benefit aspect is termed as “CREDIT”. Therefore, for every debit,
there will be corresponding credit.

7. MATCHING COST CONCEPT: According to this concept “The expenses incurred during an
accounting period, e.g., if revenue is recognized on all goods sold during a period, cost of those
good sole should also
Be charged to that period.

8. REALISATION CONCEPT: According to this concept revenue is recognized when a sale is

made. Sale is
Considered to be made at the point when the property in goods posses to the buyer and he
becomes legally liable to pay.
 ACCOUNTING CONVENTIONS

Accounting is based on some customs or usages. Naturally accountants here to adopt that usage
or custom.
They are termed as convert conventions in accounting. The following are some of the important
accounting conventions.

1.FULL DISCLOSURE: According to this convention accounting reports should disclose fully
and fairly the information. They purport to represent. They should be prepared honestly and
sufficiently disclose information which is if material interest to proprietors, present and potential
creditors and investors. The companies ACT, 1956 makes it compulsory to provide all the
information in the prescribed form.

2.MATERIALITY: Under this convention the trader records important factor about the
commercial activities. In the form of financial statements if any unimportant information is to be
given for the sake of clarity it will be given as footnotes.

3.CONSISTENCY: It means that accounting method adopted should not be changed from year to
year. It means that there should be consistent in the methods or principles followed. Or else the
results of a year
Cannot be conveniently compared with that of another.

4. CONSERVATISM: This convention warns the trader not to take unrealized income in to
account. That is why the practice of valuing stock at cost or market price, which ever is lower is
in vague. This is the policy of “playing safe”; it takes in to consideration all prospective losses
but leaves all prospective profits.

KEY WORDS IN BOOK-KEEPING

1. TRANSACTIONS: Any sale or purchase of goods of services is called the transaction.

Transactions are two types.
[a]. cash transaction: cash transaction is one where cash receipt or
payment is involved in the exchange.
[b]. Credit transaction: Credit transaction will not have cash, either
received or paid, for something given or received respectively.

2.GOODS: Fill those things which a firm purchases for resale are called goods.
 3.PURCHASES: Purchases means purchase of goods, unless it is stated otherwise it also
represents the
Goods purchased.

4.SALES: Sales means sale of goods, unless it is stated otherwise it also represents these
goods sold.

5.EXPENSES: Payments for the purchase of goods as services are known as expenses.

6.REVENUE: Revenue is the amount realized or receivable from the sale of goods or
services.

7.ASSETS: The valuable things owned by the business are known as assets. These are the
properties
Owned by the business.

8.LIABILITIES: Liabilities are the obligations or debts payable by the enterprise in future
in the term
Of money or goods.

9. DEBTORS: Debtors means a person who owes money to the trader.

10.CREDITORS: A creditor is a person to whom something is owned by the business.

11.DRAWINGS: cash or goods withdrawn by the proprietor from the Business for his
personal or Household is termed to as “drawing”.
12.RESERVE: An amount set aside out of profits or other surplus and designed to meet
contingencies.

13.ACCOUNT: A summarized statements of transactions relating to a particular person,

thing,
Expense or income.

14.DISCOUNT: There are two types of discounts..

a. cash discount: An allowable made to encourage frame payment or
before the expiration of the period allowed for credit.
b. Trade discount: A deduction from the gross or catalogue price allowed
to traders who buys them for resale.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS

All business transactions are classified into three categories:

1.Those relating to persons
2.Those relating to property(Assets)
3.Those relating to income & expenses
Thus, three classes of accounts are maintained for recording all business transactions.
They are:
1.Personal accounts
2.Real accounts
3.Nominal accounts

1.Personal Accounts :Accounts which are transactions with persons are called “Personal
Accounts” .
A separate account is kept on the name of each person for recording the benefits received from
,or given to the person in the course of dealings with him.
E.g.: Krishna’s A/C, Gopal’s A/C, SBI A/C, Nagarjuna Finanace Ltd.A/C, ObulReddy & Sons
A/C , HMT Ltd. A/C, Capital A/C, Drawings A/C etc.

2.Real Accounts: The accounts relating to properties or assets are known as “Real Accounts”
.Every business needs assets such as machinery , furniture etc, for running its activities .A
separate account is maintained for each asset owned by the business .
E.g.: cash A/C, furniture A/C, building A/C, machinery A/C etc.

3.NominalAccounts:Accounts relating to expenses, losses, incomes and gains are known as

“Nominal Accounts”. A separate account is maintained for each item of expenses, losses,
income or gain.
E.g.: Salaries A/C, stationery A/C, wages A/C, postage A/C, commission A/C, interest A/C,
purchases A/C, rent A/C, discount A/C, commission received A/C, interest received A/C, rent
received A/C, discount received A/C.

Before recording a transaction, it is necessary to find out which of the accounts is to be debited
and which is to be credited. The following three different rules have been laid down for the three
classes of accounts….

1.Personal Accounts: The account of the person receiving benefit (receiver) is to be debited and
the account of the person giving the benefit (given) is to be credited.

Rule: “Debit----The Receiver

Credit---The Giver”
 2.Real Accounts: When an asset is coming into the business, account of that asset is to be debited
.When an asset is going out of the business, the account of that asset is to be credited.

Rule: “Debit----What comes in

Credit---What goes out”

3. Nominal Accounts: When an expense is incurred or loss encountered, the account representing
the expense or loss is to be debited . When any income is earned or gain made, the account
representing the income of gain is to be credited.

Rule: “Debit----All expenses and losses

Credit---All incomes and gains”

JOURNAL

The first step in accounting therefore is the record of all the transactions in the books of original
entry viz., Journal and then posting into ledges.

JOURNAL: The word Journal is derived from the Latin word ‘journ’ which means a day.
Therefore, journal means a ‘day Book’ in day-to-day business transactions are recorded in
chronological order.

Journal is treated as the book of original entry or first entry or prime entry. All the business
transactions are recorded in this book before they are posted in the ledges. The journal is a
complete and chronological(in order of dates) record of business transactions. It is recorded in a
systematic manner. The process of recording a transaction in the journal is called
“JOURNALISING”. The entries made in the book are called “Journal Entries”.

The proforma of Journal is given below.

Date Date Particulars L.F. no Debit Credit

RS. RS.
 1998 Jan 1 Purchases account to cash 10,000/- 10,000/-
account(being goods purchased
for cash)

LEDGER

All the transactions in a journal are recorded in a chronological order. After a certain period, if
we want to know whether a particular account is showing a debit or credit balance it becomes
very difficult. So, the ledger is designed to accommodate the various accounts maintained the
trader. It contains the final or permanent record of all the transactions in duly classified form. “A
ledger is a book which contains various accounts.” The process of transferring entries from
journal to ledger is called “POSTING”.

Posting is the process of entering in the ledger the entries given in the journal. Posting into ledger
is done periodically, may be weekly or fortnightly as per the convenience of the business. The
following are the guidelines for posting transactions in the ledger.

1. After the completion of Journal entries only posting is to be made in the ledger.
2. For each item in the Journal a separate account is to be opened. Further, for each new
item a new account is to be opened.
3. Depending upon the number of transactions space for each account is to be determined
in the ledger.
4. For each account there must be a name. This should be written in the top of the table. At
the end of the name, the word “Account” is to be added.
5. The debit side of the Journal entry is to be posted on the debit side of the account, by
starting with “TO”.
6. The credit side of the Journal entry is to be posted on the debit side of the account, by
starting with “BY”.

Proforma for ledger: LEDGER BOOK

Particulars account

Date Particulars Lfno Amount Date Particulars Lfno amount

 sales account

Date Particulars Lfno Amount Date Particulars Lfno amount

cash account

Date Particulars Lfno Amount Date Particulars Lfno amount

TRAIL BALANCE

The first step in the preparation of final accounts is the preparation of trail balance. In the double
entry system of book keeping, there will be credit for every debit and there will not be any debit
without credit. When this principle is followed in writing journal entries, the total amount of all
debits is equal to the total amount all credits.

A trail balance is a statement of debit and credit balances. It is prepared on a particular date with
the object of checking the accuracy of the books of accounts. It indicates that all the transactions
for a particular period have been duly entered in the book, properly posted and balanced. The
trail balance doesn’t include stock in hand at the end of the period. All adjustments required to be
done at the end of the period including closing stock are generally given under the trail balance.

DEFINITIONS: SPICER AND POGLAR :A trail balance is a list of all the balances
standing on the ledger accounts and cash book of a concern at any given date.
J.R.BATLIBOI:
A trail balance is a statement of debit and credit balances extracted from the ledger with a view
to test the arithmetical accuracy of the books.

Thus a trail balance is a list of balances of the ledger accounts’ and cash book of a business
concern at any given date.

PROFORMA FOR TRAIL BALANCE:

Trail balance for MR…………………………………… as on …………
NO NAME OF ACCOUNT DEBIT CREDIT
(PARTICULARS) AMOUNT(RS.) AMOUNT(RS.)

Trail Balance

Specimen of trial balance

1 Capital Credit Loan

2 Opening stock Debit Asset
3 Purchases Debit Expense
4 Sales Credit Gain
5 Returns inwards Debit Loss
6 Returns outwards Debit Gain
7 Wages Debit Expense
8 Freight Debit Expense
9 Transport expenses Debit Expense
10 Royalities on production Debit Expense
11 Gas, fuel Debit Expense
12 Discount received Credit Revenue
13 Discount allowed Debit Loss
14 Bas debts Debit Loss
15 Dab debts reserve Credit Gain
16 Commission received Credit Revenue
17 Repairs Debit Expense
18 Rent Debit Expense
19 Salaries Debit Expense
20 Loan Taken Credit Loan
21 Interest received Credit Revenue
22 Interest paid Debit Expense
23 Insurance Debit Expense
24 Carriage outwards Debit Expense
25 Advertisements Debit Expense
26 Petty expenses Debit Expense
27 Trade expenses Debit Expense
28 Petty receipts Credit Revenue
29 Income tax Debit Drawings
30 Office expenses Debit Expense
31 Customs duty Debit Expense
32 Sales tax Debit Expense
33 Provision for discount on debtors Debit Liability
34 Provision for discount on creditors Debit Asset
35 Debtors Debit Asset
36 Creditors Credit Liability
37 Goodwill Debit Asset
38 Plant, machinery Debit Asset
39 Land, buildings Debit Asset
40 Furniture, fittings Debit Asset
41 Investments Debit Asset
42 Cash in hand Debit Asset
43 Cash at bank Debit Asset
44 Reserve fund Credit Liability
45 Loan advances Debit Asset
46 Horse, carts Debit Asset
47 Excise duty Debit Expense
48 General reserve Credit Liability
49 Provision for depreciation Credit Liability
50 Bills receivable Debit Asset
51 Bills payable Credit Liability
52 Depreciation Debit Loss
53 Bank overdraft Credit Liability
54 Outstanding salaries Credit Liability
55 Prepaid insurance Debit Asset
56 Bad debt reserve Credit Revenue
57 Patents & Trademarks Debit Asset
58 Motor vehicle Debit Asset
59 Outstanding rent Credit Revenue
FINAL ACCOUNTS

In every business, the business man is interested in knowing whether the business has
resulted in profit or loss and what the financial position of the business is at a given time. In
brief, he wants to know (i)The profitability of the business and (ii) The soundness of the
business.
The trader can ascertain this by preparing the final accounts. The final accounts are
prepared from the trial balance. Hence the trial balance is said to be the link between the ledger
accounts and the final accounts. The final accounts of a firm can be divided into two stages. The
first stage is preparing the trading and profit and loss account and the second stage is preparing
the balance sheet.

TRADING ACCOUNT
The first step in the preparation of final account is the preparation of trading account. The
main purpose of preparing the trading account is to ascertain gross profit or gross loss as a result
of buying and selling the goods.
Trading account of MR……………………. for the year ended ……………………

Particulars Amount Particulars Amount

To opening stock Xxxx By sales xxxx

To purchases xxxx Less: returns xxx Xxxx
Less: returns xx Xxxx By closing stock Xxxx

To carriage inwards Xxxx

To wages Xxxx
To freight Xxxx
To customs duty, octroi Xxxx

To gas, fuel, coal,

Water Xxxx

To factory expenses
To other man. Expenses Xxxx
To productive expenses Xxxx
To gross profit c/d
Xxxx Xxxx

Xxxx
 Xxxx

Finally, a ledger may be defined as a summary statement of all the transactions relating to a
person , asset, expense or income which have taken place during a given period of time. The up-
to-date state of any account can be easily known by referring to the ledger.

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

The business man is always interested in knowing his net income or net profit.Net profit
represents the excess of gross profit plus the other revenue incomes over administrative, sales,
Financial and other expenses. The debit side of profit and loss account shows the expenses and
the credit side the incomes. If the total of the credit side is more, it will be the net profit. And if
the debit side is more, it will be net loss.

PROFIT AND LOSS A/C OF MR…………………….FOR THE YEAR ENDED…………

PARTICULARS AMOUNT PARTICULARS AMOUNT
TO office salaries Xxxxxx By gross profit b/d Xxxxx
TO rent,rates,taxes Xxxxx Interest received Xxxxx
TO Printing and stationery Xxxxx Discount received Xxxx
TO Legal charges Commission received Xxxxx
Audit fee Xxxx Income from
TO Insurance Xxxx investments
TO General expenses Xxxx Dividend on shares Xxxx
TO Advertisements Xxxxx Miscellaneous Xxxx
TO Bad debts Xxxx investments
TO Carriage outwards Xxxx Rent received xxxx
TO Repairs Xxxx
TO Depreciation Xxxxx
TO interest paid Xxxxx
TO Interest on capital Xxxxx
TO Interest on loans Xxxx
TO Discount allowed Xxxxx
TO Commission Xxxxx
TO Net profit------- Xxxxx
(transferred to capital a/c)
xxxxxx Xxxxxx
BALANCE SHEET

The second point of final accounts is the preparation of balance sheet. It is prepared often in the
trading and profit, loss accounts have been compiled and closed. A balance sheet may be
considered as a statement of the financial position of the concern at a given date.

DEFINITION: A balance sheet is an item wise list of assets, liabilities and proprietorship of a
business at a certain state.

J.R.botliboi: A balance sheet is a statement with a view to measure exact financial position of a
business at a particular date.

Thus, Balance sheet is defined as a statement which sets out the assets and liabilities of a
business firm and which serves to as certain the financial position of the same on any particular
date. On the left-hand side of this statement, the liabilities and the capital are shown. On the
right-hand side all the assets are shown. Therefore, the two sides of the balance sheet should be
equal. Otherwise, there is an error somewhere.

BALANCE SHEET OF ………………………… AS ON

…………………………………….
Liabilities and capital Amount Assets Amount

Creditors Xxxx Cash in hand Xxxx

Bills payable Xxxx Cash at bank Xxxx
Bank overdraft Xxxx Bills receivable Xxxx
Loans Xxxx Debtors Xxxx
Mortgage Xxxx Closing stock Xxxx
Reserve fund Xxxx Investments Xxxx
Capital xxxxxx Furniture and fittings Xxxx
Add: Plats&machinery
Net Profit xxxx Land & buildings Xxxx
------- Patents, tm ,copyrights Xxxx
xxxxxxx Goodwill Xxxx
-------- Prepaid expenses
Outstanding incomes Xxxx
Less: Xxxx
Drawings xxxx Xxxx Xxxx
--------- XXXX XXXX
Advantages: The following are the advantages of final balance .
1. It helps in checking the arithmetical accuracy of books of accounts.
2. It helps in the preparation of financial statements.
3. It helps in detecting errors.
4. It serves as an instrument for carrying out the job of rectification of entries.
5. It is possible to find out the balances of various accounts at one place.
FINAL ACCOUNTS -- ADJUSTMENTS

We know that business is a going concern. It has to be carried on indefinitely. At the end of
every accounting year. The trader prepares the trading and profit and loss account and balance
sheet. While preparing these financial statements, sometimes the trader may come across certain
problems .The expenses of the current year may be still payable or the expenses of the next year
have been prepaid during the current year. In the same way, the income of the current year still
receivable and the income of the next year have been received during the current year. Without
these adjustments, the profit figures arrived at or the financial position of the concern may not be
correct. As such these adjustments are to be made while preparing the final accounts.

The adjustments to be made to final accounts will be given under the Trial Balance. While
making the adjustment in the final accounts, the student should remember that “every adjustment
is to be made in the final accounts twice i.e. once in trading, profit and loss account and later in
balance sheet generally”. The following are some of the important adjustments to be made at the
time of preparing of final accounts:-

1. CLOSING STOCK :-

(i)If closing stock is given in Trail Balance: It should be shown only in the balance sheet “Assets
Side”.

(ii)If closing stock is given as adjustment :

1. First, it should be posted at the credit side of “Trading Account”.

2. Next, shown at the asset side of the “Balance Sheet”.

2.OUTSTANDING EXPENSES :-

(i)If outstanding expenses given in Trail Balance: It should be only on the liability side of
Balance Sheet.

(ii)If outstanding expenses given as adjustment :

1. First, it should be added to the concerned expense at the
debit side of profit and loss account or Trading Account.
2. Next, it should be added at the liabilities side of the
Balance Sheet.

3.PREAPID EXPENSES :-
(i)If prepaid expenses given in Trial Balance: It should be shown only in assets side of the
Balance Sheet.
(ii)If prepaid expense given as adjustment :

1. First, it should be deducted from the concerned expenses at the debit side of profit and
loss account or Trading Account.
2. Next, it should be shown at the assets side of the Balance Sheet.

4.INCOME EARNED BUT NOT RECEIVED [OR] OUTSTANDING INCOME [OR] ACCURED
INCOME :-

(i)If incomes given in Trial Balance: It should be shown only on the assets side of the Balance
Sheet.

(ii)If incomes outstanding given as adjustment:

1. First, it should be added to the concerned income at the credit side of profit and loss
account.
2. Next, it should be shown at the assets side of the Balance sheet.

5. INCOME RECEIVED IN ADVANCE: UNEARNED INCOME:-

(i)If unearned incomes given in Trail Balance : It should be shown only on the liabilities side of
the Balance Sheet.

(ii)If unearned income given as adjustment :

1. First, it should be deducted from the concerned income in the credit side of the profit and
loss account.
2. Secondly, it should be shown in the liabilities side of the
Balance Sheet.

6.DEPRECIATION:-

(i)If Depreciation given in Trail Balance: It should be shown only on the debit side of the profit
and loss account.

(ii)If Depreciation given as adjustment

1. First, it should be shown on the debit side of the profit and loss account.
2. Secondly, it should be deduced from the concerned asset in the Balance sheet assets side.

7.INTEREST ON LOAN [OR] CAPITAL :-

(i)If interest on loan (or) capital given in Trail balance :It should be shown only on debit side
of the profit and loss account.

(ii)If interest on loan (or)capital given as adjustment :

1. First, it should be shown on debit side of the profit and loss account.
2. Secondly, it should added to the loan or capital in
the liabilities side of the Balance Sheet.

8.BAD DEBTS:-

(i)If bad debts given in Trail balance :It should be shown on the debit side of the profit and loss
account.

(ii)If bad debts given as adjustment:

1. First, it should be shown on the debit side of the profit and loss account.
2. Secondly, it should be deducted from debtors in the assets side of the Balance Sheet.

9.INTEREST ON DRAWINGS :-

(i)If interest on drawings given in Trail balance: It should be shown on the credit side of the
profit and loss account.

(ii)If interest on drawings given as adjustments :

1. First, it should be shown on the credit side of the profit and loss account.
2. Secondly, it should be deducted from capital on liabilities
side of the Balance Sheet.

10.INTEREST ON INVESTMENTS :-

(i)If interest on the investments given in Trail balance :It should be shown on the credit side of
the profit and loss account.

(ii)If interest on investments given as adjustments :

1. First, it should be shown on the credit side of the profit and loss account.
2. Secondly, it should be added to the investments on assets side of the Balance Sheet.

Note: Problems to be solved on final accounts

SUBSIDIARY BOOKS

In a small business concern, the numbers of transactions are limited. These transactions are first
recorded in the journal as and when they take place. Subsequently, these transactions are posted
in the appropriate accounts of the ledger. Therefore, the journal is known as “Book Of Original
Entry” or “Book of Prime Entry” while the ledger is known as main book of accounts.

On the other hand, the transactions in big concern are numerous and sometimes even run into
thousands and lakhs. It is inconvenient and time wasting process if all the transactions are going
to be managed with a journal.

Therefore, a convenient device is made. Smaller account books known as subsidiary books or
subsidiary journals are disturbed to various sections of the business house. As and when
transactions take place, they are recorded in these subsidiary books simultaneously without
delay. The original journal (which is known as Journal Proper) is used only occasionally to
record those transactions which cannot be recorded in any of the subsidiary books.

TYPES OF SUBSIDIARY BOOKS:-- Subsidiary books are divided into eight types. They are,
1.Purchases Book
2.Sales Book
3.Purchase Returns Book
4.Sales Returns Book
5.Cash Book
6.Bills Receivable Book
7.Bills Payable Book
8.Journal Proper

1. PURCHASES BOOK :- This book records all credit purchases only. Purchase of goods for
cash and purchase of assets for cash. Credit will not be recorded in this book. Purchases book is
otherwise called Purchases Day Book, Purchases Journal or Purchases Register.

2. SALES BOOK :-This book is used to record credit sales only. Goods are sold for cash and
sale of assets for cash or credit will not be recorded in this book. This book is otherwise called
Sales Day Book, Sales Journal or Sales Register.

3.PURCHASE RETURNS BOOK :- This book is used to record the particulars of goods returned
to the suppliers .This book is otherwise called Returns Outward Book.
4.SALES RETURNS BOOK :- This book is used to record the particulars of goods returned by
the customers. This book is otherwise called Returns Inward Book.

5.CASH BOOK :- All cash transactions , receipts and payments are recorded in this book. Cash
includes cheques, money orders etc.

6.BILLS REECEIVABLE BOOK :- This book is used to record all the bills and promissory notes
are received from the customers.

7.BILLS PAYABLE BOOK :- This book is used to record all the bills or promissory notes
accepted to the suppliers.

8.JOURNAL PROPER :- This is used to record all the transactions that cannot be recorded in
any of the above mentioned subsidiary books.

FORMAT FOR PURCHASE BOOK

Date Name of supplier Invoice Lf no Details Amount(Rs.)

No

FORMAT FOR SALES BOOK

Date Name of customer Invoice Lf no Details Amount(Rs.)

No

FORMAT FOR PURCHASE RETURNS BOOK

Date Name of supplier Debit Lf no Details Amount(Rs.)

note
No
FORMAT FOR SALES RETURNS BOOK
Date Name of supplier Credit Lf no Details Amount(Rs.)
note
No

CASH BOOK

Cash book plays an important role in accounting. Whether transactions made are in the form of
cash or credit, final statement will be in the form of receipt or payment of cash. So, every
transaction finds place in the cash book finally.

Cash book is a principal book as well as the subsidiary book. It is a book of original entry since
the transactions are recorded for the first time from the source of documents. It is a ledger in a
sense it is designed in the form of cash account and records cash receipts on the debit side and
the cash payments on the credit side. Thus, a cash book fulfils the functions of both a ledger
account and a journal.

Cash book is divided into two sides. Receipt side (debit side) and payment side (credit side). The
method of recording cash sample is very simple. All cash receipts will be posted on the debit side
and all the payments will be recorded on the credit side.

Types of cash book: cash book may be of the following types according to the needs of the
business.

 Simple cash book

 Double column or two column cash book
 Three column cash book
 Petty cash book

SINGLE COLUMN CASH BOOK: The simple cash book is a record of only cash
transactions. The model of the cash book is given below.

CASH BOOK
Date Particu Lf no Amount Date Particulars Lf no Amo
lars unt
TWO COLUMN CASH BOOK: This book has two columns on each side one for discount and the
other for cash. Discount column on debit side represents loss being discount allowed to
customers. Similarly, discount column on credit side represents gain being discount received.

Discount may be two types.

(i)Trade discount
(ii)cash discount

TRADE DISCOUNT: when a retailer purchases goods from the wholesaler, he allows some
discount on the catalogue price. This discount is called as Trade discount. Trade discount is
adjusted in the invoice and the net amount is recorded in the purchase book. As such it will not
appear in the book of accounts.

CASH DISCOUNT: When the goods are purchased on credit, payment will be made in the future
as agreed by the parties. If the amount is paid early as promptly a discount by a way of incentive
will be allowed by the seller to the buyer. This discount is called as cash discount. So cash
discount is the discount allowed by the seller to encourage prompt payment from the buyer. Cash
discount is entered in the discount column of the cash book. The discount recorded in the debit
side of the cash book is discount allowed. The discount recorded in the credit side of the cash
book is discount received.

CASH DISCOUNT COLUMN CASH BOOK

Date particulars Lf no Disc. cash Date Particulars Lf Disc cash

Allo No Recei
wed Ved.
PETTY CASH BOOK: We have seen that all the cash receipts and payments will be recorded in
the cash book. But in the case of big concerns if all transactions like postage, cleaning charges,
etc., are recorded in the cash book, the cash book becomes bulky and un wieldy. So, all petty
disbursement of cash is recorded in a separate cash book called petty cash book.