Emotions and Motivation in Learning

and Performance 6
ChanMin Kim and Reinhard Pekrun

Abstract
This chapter reviews theories and research on academic emotions and motivation that can
be integrated into the processes of instructional design and development. First, we discuss
the impact of emotions in learning and performance contexts. Second, we review theories
describing how emotions occur. Third, we discuss how to optimize emotional experiences
in learning and performance contexts and review several models and approaches that can be
used in instructional design. Fourth, we review instruments and technologies measuring
emotions and emotion regulation. We conclude the chapter by suggesting future research
directions including reframing motivation research that considers emotions in the realm of
educational communications and technology.

Keywords
Academic emotions • Motivation to learn • Cognitive appraisal • Causal expectancies
• Causal attribution • Emotion regulation

(Schiefele & Csikszentmihalyi, 1995). Additionally, little

Introduction research examines interventions designed to improve learn-
ers’ emotional experiences in learning and performance
Motivation and emotions play a critical role in learning and (Astleitner, 2001; Gläser-Zikuda, Fuß, Laukenmann, Metz,
performance (Astleitner, 2000; Carver & Scheier, 1990; & Randler, 2005; Kim & Hodges, 2012). While some studies
Goetz, Pekrun, Hall, & Haag, 2006; Op’t Eynde, Corte, & have examined interventions to reduce learners’ motivational
Verschaffel, 2006; Pekrun, 1992; Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & problems (e.g., Hodges & Kim, 2010; Kim & Keller, 2008,
Perry, 2002). When students do not exhibit high motivation, 2010, 2011), there is little research in which both emotions
they either do not initiate or discontinue learning tasks. and motivation are considered in efforts to improve learning
Furthermore, when students have high anxiety, their perfor- and performance. In this chapter, we explore the intersection
mance is not ideal. However, instructional designers and of motivation and emotions in the learning process, and how
researchers often pay little heed to motivation and emotions to support students in this critical area.
due to their indirect effects on learning and performance

The Inseparable: Emotions and Motivation

C. Kim (*)
The University of Georgia, 850 College Station Road, Emotions result from “the dynamic interplay of cognitive,
Athens, GA 30602, USA
physiological, and motivational processes in a specific con-
e-mail: chanmin@uga.edu
text” (Op’t Eynde et al., 2006, p. 193). In order to understand
R. Pekrun
educational experiences, emotions and motivation need to be
Department of Psychology, University of Munich,
Leopoldstr. 13, 80802 München, Germany considered alongside cognition (Ainley, 2006; Hannula, 2006;
e-mail: pekrun@lmu.de Meyer & Turner, 2006; Op’t Eynde et al., 2006; Op’t Eynde

J.M. Spector et al. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology, 65
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_6, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
66 C. Kim and R. Pekrun

& Turner, 2006; Pekrun, 2006; Turner & Patrick, 2008).

The interplay among emotions, motivation, and cognition How Emotions Influence Learning
can be understood from the perspective of goals (Ainley, 2006; and Performance
Dweck, 1992; Linnenbrink, 2006; Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
2002; Op’t Eynde & Turner, 2006; Pekrun, 2006; Schutz, Emotions impact the quality of learning and performance
Hong, Cross, & Osbon, 2006). For example, a mastery goal (Gläser-Zikuda et al., 2005; Goetz et al., 2006; Pekrun, Elliot,
orientation can promote positive emotions and sustain motiva- & Maier, 2009; Pekrun, Goetz, Daniels, Stupnisky, & Perry,
tion whereas a performance-avoidance goal orientation can 2010). The impact of emotions on learning and performance
promote negative emotions and poor motivation (Dweck, should be studied in the context where the emotions are
1992; Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2006). Emotions and motiva- occurring. This in turn would improve explanations of how
tion are enacted while striving to pursue or avoid goals (Carver emotions impact learning and performance. The following
& Scheier, 1990; Op’t Eynde & Turner, 2006). list overviews what mediates the impact of emotions on
In addition to their organization around goals, there are learning and performance:
bidirectional (reciprocal) influences between emotions and • Emotions influence cognitive processes and strategies
motivation (Kim & Hodges, 2012; Kim, Park, & Cozart, • Emotions influence decision making
2013; Pekrun, 2006). Emotions and motivation interact with • Emotions influence motivation
each other and make each other activated (or deactivated), • The aforementioned influences are reciprocal
which directs behaviors (Hannula, 2006; McLeod, 1988;
Op’t Eynde et al., 2006; Op’t Eynde & Turner, 2006; Pekrun,
2006). Some researchers regard motivation as part of emo- Impact of Emotions on Cognitive
tion processes (e.g., Op’t Eynde et al., 2006), whereas others Processes and Strategies
regard emotions as part of motivation processes (e.g., Ford,
1992; Hannula, 2006). Buck (1985) explained the relation Emotions influence cognitive processes (Forgas, 2000;
between emotions and motivation using the analogy of Gläser-Zikuda et al., 2005; Linnenbrink, 2006; Pekrun, 2006;
energy and matter in physics: “Just as energy is a potential Pekrun et al., 2002; Schwarz, 1990, 2000). Information pro-
that manifests itself in matter, motivation is a potential that cessing can be initiated, accelerated, altered, or interrupted
manifests itself in emotion. Thus motivation and emotion are by emotions (Astleitner, 2000; Pekrun, 1992; Pekrun et al.,
seen to be two sides of the same coin, two aspects of the 2002). Emotions can alter how information is stored and
same process” (p. 396). Although emotions and motivation retrieved (Levine & Pizarro, 2004; Linnenbrink, 2006;
are not inseparable conceptually and empirically, it is difficult Schwarz, 2000). Memory can be organized differently
to separate them in the contexts of learning and performance depending on emotions experienced when the information
(Ainley, 2006; Op’t Eynde et al., 2006). An integrative view was stored and/or the information is being retrieved.
of emotions and motivation is needed to understand and Mood-congruent retrieval implies that a person’s current
facilitate learning and performance (Kim & Hodges, 2012; emotional state influences the way his/her memories are
Pekrun, 2006). recalled (Blaney, 1986; Bower, 1981; Levine & Pizarro, 2004;
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss theories and Parrott & Spackman, 2000). For example, in one study, people
research on emotions and motivation that can be integrated recalled their experiences about blood donation differently
into instructional design and development. A detailed review depending on their current feelings about blood donation
of motivation research is not included in this chapter because (Breckler, 1994). In another study, people retrieved memo-
previous editions of the Handbook of Research for ries about their early marriage life differently depending on
Educational Communications and Technology addressed how happy or unhappy they feel about their marriage at pres-
motivation research in multiple chapters (e.g., Park & Lee, ent (Holmberg & Holmes, 1994). This is consistent with the
1996; Seel, 2007). Much of this chapter focuses on aca- notion that “emotions enhance the availability of emotion-
demic emotions while acknowledging that emotions and congruent information” (Levine & Pizarro, 2004, p. 537). In
motivation are difficult to separate. First, we discuss the other words, people tend to retrieve information that is con-
impact of emotions in learning and performance contexts. gruent with their current emotions (Schwarz, 2000). For
Second, we review several theories describing how emo- example, a student may recall enjoyable memories about
tions occur. Third, we discuss how to optimize emotions in mathematics while having fun playing Sudoku rather than
learning and performance contexts and present design strat- while taking a mathematics exam in a classroom.
egies that employ emotion regulation. Fourth, we review The type of emotion (e.g., positive vs. negative; activating
instruments and technologies that measure emotions and vs. deactivating) can influence the use of cognitive strategies
emotion regulation. We conclude the chapter by suggesting (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2002). People experiencing
directions for future research. positive emotions tend to use more general knowledge in
6 Emotions and Motivation in Learning and Performance 67

heuristic ways whereas people experiencing negative emotions process, expectancy assessment was involved, which is
tend to use systematic analyses with more focus on details heavily dependent on memories of prior experiences (Carver
(Hertel, Neuhof, Theuer, & Kerr, 2000; Levine & Pizarro, & Scheier, 1990). One would then wonder if Jake would
2004; Schwarz, 2000). Research has shown that activating never make a decision to study for an exam due to his past
positive emotions (e.g., happiness) facilitates flexibility and experience of negative emotions. “Emotional memories are
creativity (Isen, 2000; Levine & Pizarro, 2004). Activating not indelible” (Levine & Pizarro, 2004, p. 535). Instructional
negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) can lead to the use of nar- designers can promote positive changes in learners’ expec-
rowly focused, rigid strategies and deactivating negative tancy assessment processes. For example, goals in tasks should
emotions (e.g., boredom) can lead to superficial information be specified. Without knowing what is expected, it is not likely
processing due to unfocused attention (Pekrun, 2006). For that learners’ expectancy assessment will be constructive.
example, students with high test anxiety could dwell on one Nonetheless, “goal specificity in itself does not necessarily lead
exam question with which they are struggling because their to high performance because specific goals vary in difficulty”
use of narrowly focused strategies keeps them from allocating (Locke & Latham, 2000, p. 706). Task difficulty needs to be
time for all exam questions. The impact of emotions on cog- modified per learners’ ability; the provision of incremental
nitive processes and strategies influences learning strategies, success experiences can increase learners’ assessment of the
problem-solving behavior, and performance (Kim et al., 2013; probability of success in completing tasks.
(Op’t Eynde et al., 2006; Pekrun, 2006).

Impact of Emotions on Motivation

Impact of Emotions on Decision Making
Different emotions correspond to different actions. For
Emotions influence decision making (Schwarz, 2000). When example, fear can induce withdrawal or avoidance and anger
making decisions, people intend to minimize the likelihood can induce a physical attack (Frijda, Kuipers, & Schure,
of negative emotions and maximize the likelihood of positive 1989; Plutchik, 1980). Action tendencies result from discrete
emotions; therefore, anticipated emotions can influence emotions that create specific action impulses. For example,
decision-making processes (Schwarz, 2000). As a negative the physical attack (an action) induced by anger (an emotion)
consequence of such influence, Schwarz (2000) provided the is meant to hurt someone (a motivational intention) (Roseman,
following example: Wiest, & Swartz, 1994). How emotions influence one’s moti-
Parents may hesitate to vaccinate their child when the vaccine vation to act in a certain way can be explained in terms of
has potentially fatal side effects, even under conditions where memory and goals. Some researchers view emotion as a kind
the likelihood of a fatal side effect is only a fraction of the death of information in working memory that could contribute to
rate from the disease, presumably because anticipated regret motivation regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1990; Levine &
looms larger for the act of vaccination. (p. 436)
Pizarro, 2004). In the previous example, Jake’s memory of
When parents choose not to vaccinate their children, they past, negative emotions deactivated his motivation to study,
make such a decision because they are motivated to avoid the as did anticipatory, negative emotions. As “emotions can
possibility of the anticipated emotion (regret) and also cause interruption and reprioritization of one’s goals” (Carver
because regret for action (vaccination) is usually more & Scheier, 1990, p. 31), the influence of emotions on motiva-
intense than that for inaction (Schwarz, 2000). tion may also be mediated by goals. As illustrated earlier, stu-
Anticipated emotions may also impact decision-making dents’ expectancy assessment can be involved in this process
processes in learning and performance contexts (Stephens & of emotions influencing motivation. Emotions also influence
Pekrun, 2011). For instance, if Jake decided not to study for goal pursuit (Seifert, 1995). Emotions along with expectancy
the final exam because he thinks he would fail anyway, he assessment are used in monitoring, which leads to either
may have made such a decision to minimize the likelihood of goal-pursuit or goal-disengagement (Carver & Scheier, 1990).
the negative emotions such as hopelessness and shame that The monitoring process can be either conscious or noncon-
would come from ineffective action. scious (Carver & Scheier, 1990). Through the monitoring
Past experiences of emotions (i.e., emotional memories) process involving emotions, emotions facilitate or impede
influence decision making as well (Levine & Pizarro, 2004; self-regulatory behaviors toward goals.
Schwarz, 2000). In the aforementioned example, Jake may Optimizing academic emotions can in turn optimize moti-
have felt hopeless in the past when he did not perform well vation and ultimately learning and performance. For example,
on an exam for which he studied. This past, negative emotion compared with students in the control group, students who
(a) made Jake underestimate the probability that studying for received an emotion regulation intervention showed more
the exam would result in success in the exam, and (b) positive motivation and positive emotions than those in the
influenced his decision not to study. In Jake’s decision-making control group (Kim & Hodges, 2012). To promote optimal
68 C. Kim and R. Pekrun

learning and performance, instructional designers need to expectancy and value appraisals. In this section, what forms
consider not only the content to be learned but also student the expectancy and values is discussed to explain how
needs related to academic emotions and motivation during emotions occur.
the design of instruction (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Also, The meaning structure of a given situation initiates expec-
instructional designers need to consider ways of highlighting tancy and value assessment; that is, the subjective controlla-
intrinsic task value. Autonomy-supportive learning environ- bility and value of the situation (i.e., achievement activities
ments can promote learners’ curiosity and desire to take on a and/or outcomes) are analyzed (Carver & Scheier, 1990;
challenge (Ryan & Deci, 2000). An emphasis on mastery Pekrun, 2006; Schutz & Davis, 2000). For example, Bill just
goal orientations helps learners perceive task value beyond entered a 2-year college and is required to take a remedial
instrumental usefulness (Ames, 1992; Covington, 2000). math course. Without taking the remedial math course, he is
not allowed to take any other course. If he drops the remedial
math course, he must drop other courses that are being taken
Reciprocal Effects together as well. Bill values the remedial math course in that
it can determine whether he can continue to pursue his goal—
Up to now, how emotions influence learning and perfor- completing the 2-year college, eventually transferring to a
mance has been explained through the discussions of the 4-year college, getting a college degree in social work, and
impact of emotions on cognitive processes and strategies, becoming a social worker. On one hand, the value of an
decision making, goal-pursuit, and motivation. Cognition, anticipated outcome—the completion of the remedial math
emotions, and motivation are reciprocal (Pekrun, 2006). course that leads Bill one semester closer to his dream job—
For example, emotions influence memory but memory also strengthens his motivation to study hard. On the other hand,
influences emotional reactions (Carver & Scheier, 1990). anxiety could grow due to the extremely important and rele-
Emotions can influence goal orientations, but also different vant meaning of the remedial math course to Bill’s goal.
emotions are possible when a student displays a particular As discussed in Pekrun’s (2006) control-value theory of
goal orientation (Dweck, 1992; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, achievement emotions, this meaning structure analysis involves
2002; Schwarz, 2000). In short, emotions influence ongo- the appraisal of extrinsic value and intrinsic value. In terms of
ing behaviors (Carver & Scheier, 1990) and vice versa extrinsic value, Bill values the instrumental usefulness of the
because emotional processes interact with motivational and remedial course for his goal attainment. In terms of intrinsic
cognitive processes (Astleitner, 2000). Second, situational value, Bill may value the course itself (if Bill just likes to learn
aspects influence this interactive process (Pekrun, 2006). math). However, the meaning structure of the situation alone
For example, the quality of communications and under- does not bring about emotional responses; rather, it should be
standing between students and teachers is influenced by accompanied with the analysis of what controls the situation,
emotions (e.g., empathy) and impacts the interactive process one’s actions, and their outcomes.
(Goetz et al., 2006; Meyer & Turner, 2002). In the next sec- The causal structure of a given situation forms the expec-
tion, the manifestation of academic emotions is discussed tancy in part; that is, learners’ perceived control (i.e., subjective
in light of instructional design. control over achievement outcomes; perceptions of what the
outcome of their action depends on) is critical in their expec-
tancy assessment (Pekrun, 2006; Weiner, 1985). The causal
How Emotions Occur structure of the situation is analyzed and leads to one’s
perception of the locus of control (internal vs. external) and
Emotions arise when a person appraises a given situation. The the stability of control (stable vs. unstable) (Weiner,
meaning and causal structures of the situation and controlla- 1985). In Bill’s case, if he perceives that his ability will help
bility are cognitively evaluated and expectancy is formed him succeed in the remedial math course, his perceived con-
accordingly (Gross, 2008; Pekrun, 2006; Scherer, 1999; trol is internal and stable. If he perceives that he needs luck
Schutz & Davis 2000; Weiner, 1985). This appraisal process, to be successful in the course, his perceived control is exter-
which can be either conscious or nonconscious and either nal and unstable. As described in expectancy-value theories,
deliberate or automatic, brings about an emotional response this perceived control influences a person’s motivation (e.g.,
(Gross, 2008; Johnson-Laird & Mancini, 2006; Op’t Eynde Eccles, 1983). Bill would not be motivated to study for the
et al., 2006; Pekrun, 2006; Schutz & Davis, 2000, 2010). course when he perceives that his effort would not matter but
A person’s expectancy and perceived values of a certain luck does. At the same time, Bill’s emotional experience can
action (or inaction) and its outcomes determine the person’s also be different according to his perception of the causal
responses to the situation where the person takes (or does not structure. For example, Bill would be proud of himself if he
take) the action (Carver & Scheier, 1990; Pekrun, 2006). thinks that he passed the midterm exam because his effort
Motivational and emotional responses occur based on these paid off rather than he was lucky. In contrast, if Bill failed the
6 Emotions and Motivation in Learning and Performance 69

exam and he thinks that his failure was not from lack of effort perceptions of meaning and causal structures of the situation,
but from lack of support by others, he would experience as shown in research on goal contagion (e.g., Aarts,
the emotion of anger. As discussed by Pekrun (2006), the Dijksterhuis, & Dik, 2008).
process of this causal structure analysis involves causal
expectancies and causal attributions: the former is prospec-
tive appraisal of the relation of causes to anticipated effects How Emotional Experience Can Be Optimized
(examples about Bill’s course success above), and the latter
is retrospective appraisal of the relation of observed effects Understanding learners’ emotions implies understanding not
to causes (examples about Bill’s exam results above). only their values and beliefs but also their learning and problem-
People can perceive the causal structure of the same situ- solving behaviors (Astleitner, 2000; Op’t Eynde et al., 2006).
ation differently for various reasons. Past emotions, memory However, simply understanding learners’ emotions is not
of prior experiences, task difficulty, goal specificity, and sufficient; rather, positive activating emotions should be
vicarious experience are examples of sources of individuals’ cultivated since they can lead to positive outcomes such
different analyses of the causal structure and corresponding as open-mindedness, effective cognitive strategy use, moti-
different emotional responses (Carver & Scheier, 1990; vation, self-regulatory behaviors toward goals, academic
Locke & Latham, 2000; Pekrun, 2006; Weiner, 1985). Bill achievement, psychological growth, and positive career aspi-
may feel hopeless because unpleasant memories of 8th-grade rations (Astleitner, 2000; Fredrickson, 1998; Goetz et al.,
algebra returned (past emotions). He may still be ashamed of 2006; Pekrun, 2006). Theory-driven interventions can be
his low scores on the college placement test that resulted in a designed to cultivate learners’ positive activating emotions
required remedial math course (past emotions). He may be (Astleitner, 2000; Goetz et al., 2006; Kim & Hodges, 2012;
frustrated because taking an online course is new to him (task Pekrun, 2006). In fact, several theoretically guided models
difficulty; lack of goal specificity). He may be nervous and approaches can be used in instructional design to improve
because a friend who had taken the course told him that the learners’ emotional experiences as discussed below.
exam questions were unpredictable (vicarious experience).
Even when people perceive that they are equipped with
internal and stable dispositions that are important to attain suc- Models and Approaches for Optimizing
cess, their expectancies are not necessarily positive. For exam- Emotional Experience
ple, Bill may perceive that his ability is the enabler for success
in the remedial math course, but if he thinks that he is not able The FEASP (fear, envy, anger, sympathy, and pleasure)
to exert the required effort due to habitual procrastination, his approach was proposed to help design “emotionally sound
expectancy of course completion could be low and he might instruction” (Astleitner, 2000, p. 173):
experience negative emotions. Bill’s controllability over his • Fear arising from subjectively judging a situation as
own effort would also be critical in the appraisal process. Thus, threatening or dangerous
how people evaluate the controllability of actions—i.e., sub- • Envy resulting from the desire to get something that is
jective control over achievement activities in Pekrun (2006)— possessed by others
also forms expectancies and drives emotional responses • Anger coming from being hindered to reach a goal and
(Weiner, 1985). The concept of controllability is worth men- being forced to an additional action
tioning especially because some causes can be viewed as either • Sympathy referring to an experience of feelings and orien-
stable or unstable (Weiner, 1985), and as either controllable or tations of other people who are in the need of help
uncontrollable. Ability is perceived as stable and uncontrolla- • Pleasure based on mastering a situation with a deep devo-
ble if math ability is regarded as a fixed entity, but it can be tion (Astleitner, 2000, p. 175)
perceived as unstable and controllable if Bill thinks that math A set of instructional strategies can systematically decrease
ability can be acquired over time because math is learnable. fear, envy, and anger and increase sympathy and pleasure
In summary, the appraisal process that forms perceived (Astleitner, 2000). For example, strategies for reducing learn-
control, expectancies, and subjective values plays a central ers’ fear include helping learners accept their mistakes as
role in an emotion process (Levine & Pizarro, 2004; Op’t opportunities to learn. Astleitner (2000) argued that the strate-
Eynde et al., 2006; Pekrun, 2006; Weiner, 1985). The per- gies should be implemented by instructional designers and
ceived meaning and causal structure of the situation can be teachers to promote the desired emotional experience of learn-
considered by instructional designers to optimize emotional ers. He also emphasizes that strategies should be designed and
experiences and motivation in learning and performance implemented based on learners’ problems and the outcomes
contexts. It is also important to address learners’ needs not should be evaluated. As part of an empirical validation of the
only individually but also in groups. As mentioned earlier, FEASP approach, Astleitner (2001) asked both teachers and
vicarious experience from peers can lead to learners’ different students how important they thought emotions were in learning
70 C. Kim and R. Pekrun

and instruction and if and how often the strategies in the Emotional scaffolding has been studied in face-to-face class-
FEASP approach were used in classroom. Based on the survey rooms (e.g., Meyer & Turner, 2007; Rosiek & Beghetto, 2009)
results, Astleitner (2001) concluded that the FEASP approach as well as in online environments (e.g., Aist, Kort, Reilly, Picard,
was “relevant, usable, consistent, and affecting emotions in & Mostow, 2002). Emotional scaffolding refers to activities that
daily instruction” (p. 209). However, his approach has not are tailored to specific aspects of the content of teaching as well
been tested in the process of design, development, implemen- as to emotional experience of students in the classroom (Rosiek,
tation, and evaluation of interventions aiming to improve 2003). Emotional scaffolding requires teachers’ knowledge of
learners’ emotional experience. Also, his validation process interactions among “curricular content, cultural discourses,
seems to be limited. A finding that students state that emotions community histories, students’ personal histories, and general
are important in school may be limited by students’ (often) attitudes about schooling that precipitated students’ emotional
inaccurate understanding of academic emotions. In addition, response to their lessons” (Rosiek, 2003, p. 406). Also, emotion
the functions of emotions for motivation and learning were not regulation has been used to promote positive emotions and
elaborated; for example, he defined envy as a maladaptive desired motivational states. Gross (2008) proposed four ante-
emotion, which does not address benign envy, as opposed to cedent-focused strategies (used before the activation of certain
malicious envy, that can serve as a motivation to study more emotions) and one response-focused strategy (used during the
(for further discussion of benign vs. malicious envy, see Van activation of certain emotions):
de Ven, Zeelenberg, & Pieters, 2009, 2011). • Situation selection—choosing to be in environments that
Keller’s attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction are likely to diminish negative emotions
(ARCS) motivational design model (1987, 2010) considers • Situation modification—changing a certain environment
learners’ emotional experiences, although Keller did not explic- to reduce negative emotions
itly mention design for emotions. The model provides instruc- • Attentional deployment—shifting attention to something
tional strategies to increase the four components in learners. else
For example, one motivational strategy for attention is creating • Cognitive change—reappraisal; cognitively reevaluating
curiosity in learners by asking them questions that are not con- the situation
gruent with their current knowledge (e.g., paradoxical ques- • Response modulation—suppressing certain emotions
tions) (see Keller, 2010). Keller (2010) discussed learners’ activated (pp. 500–505)
emotional states such as anxiety, boredom, pleasantness, and so Kim and Hodges (2012) designed and implemented an
on, and he provided specific strategies to deal with these emo- emotion regulation intervention that focused on the renewal of
tional states in instructional design. There has not been much cognitive appraisal processes using three of these strategies
research implementing the ARCS model to promote learners’ (attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response mod-
emotional experience, although there have been numerous ulation). They intended to help with learners’ conscious and
studies that applied the model to the design of interventions to deliberate awareness and reappraisal of the situation.
promote motivation (e.g., Martindale, Pearson, Curda, & Schutz and Davis (2010) proposed four emotion regulation
Pilcher, 2005). Keller’s more recent model, called an integra- processes in test-taking contexts as follows:
tive theory of motivation, volition, and performance (MVP), • Cognitive-appraising processes related to the goal-directed
includes design to facilitate learners’ volition (Keller, 2008). person–environment transaction involving goal impor-
The MVP model has been used in a few empirical studies (Kim tance, goal congruence, agency, and problem efficacy
& Keller, 2008, 2010, 2011). The model recommends using • Task-focusing processes
emotion control as a volitional strategy but lacks specific strate- • Emotion-focusing processes involving wishful thinking
gies to promote emotion control. and self-blame
Park and Kim (2012) introduced an approach to enhance • Regaining task-focusing processes involving tension
students’ enjoyment and reduce boredom in online learning reduction and reappraisal (Schutz & Davis, 2010, p. 2)
contexts by promoting interest in course readings. Schutz and Davis (2010) did not produce an instructional
Specifically, the virtual tutee system (VTS) was proposed as intervention; they examined naturally occurring processes.
a computer-based peer-tutoring environment where learners However, their proposed dimensions for emotion regulation
teach virtual tutees. The VTS was designed based on the processes, especially the regaining task-focusing processes, can
concept of learning by teaching to increase interest and be applied to the design of interventions promoting emotion
enjoyment and decrease boredom. Role theory and self- regulation. The effects of emotion regulation may persist beyond
determination theory were used as theoretical foundations. the intervention because acquired regulatory reappraisal skills
However, empirical validations of the VTS design frame- can be transferable to other contexts. This approach of emotion
work have not yet been published; one study illustrating the regulation may be worth pursuing since one of the important
positive outcome of applying the VTS framework to a col- goals as to educational contexts should be to raise self-regulatory
lege course is under review. learners who can help themselves outside of class.
6 Emotions and Motivation in Learning and Performance 71

A Comprehensive Framework: The Control-Value

Theory of Achievement Emotions How Emotions Can Be Measured

Pekrun’s (2006) control-value theory of achievement emo- Instructional design starts with needs assessment and instruc-
tions provides a comprehensive framework illustrating tion is evaluated through formative and summative assess-
four paths that can be used to promote emotion regulation: ments (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2008). This means, in order to
(a) emotions, (b) appraisals, (c) competences for learning create interventions cultivating positive emotions and/or emo-
and achievement, and (d) design of tasks and learning tion regulation, first, there should be an investigation of learn-
environments. ers’ current emotional states. Also, there should be assessment
First, the emotion path is emotion-oriented regulation instruments to evaluate the effect of interventions. In this sec-
that directly deals with emotions. For example, when stu- tion, we introduce several instruments and technologies that
dents feel anxious before an exam, they can try to focus on can be used to measure the types and levels of emotions as
“tasks to do” before the exam without thinking of “the well as emotion regulation skills and processes. We also
exam.” Response modulation and attentional deployment discuss issues with measuring emotions in relation to situat-
can be categorized as emotion-oriented regulation (Gross, edness of emotions in learning and performance contexts.
2008). Second, the appraisal path is appraisal-oriented
regulation that deals with the subjective control and subjec-
tive value of a given context. For subjective control, causal Measurement Instruments
expectancies and/or causal attributions need to improve; for
subjective value, the perceived intrinsic and/or extrinsic The Achievement Emotion Questionnaire (AEQ; Pekrun,
value need to improve. That is, the meaning and causal Goetz, Frenzel, Barchfeld, & Perry, 2011) has been widely
structure of the situation and controllability, as described in used in educational emotion research. The AEQ is a self-report
the How Emotions Occur section, need to be reappraised. instrument designed to assess students’ emotions experi-
Schutz and Davis’ (2010) regaining task-focusing processes enced in academic contexts. The AEQ measures nine discrete
can be explained by this appraisal-oriented regulation. emotions relating to attending class, studying and doing
Gross’ (2008) emotion regulation strategy, cognitive change, homework, and taking tests and exams: enjoyment, hope,
can be categorized as appraisal-oriented regulation. Third, pride, relief, anger, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and bore-
the learning and achievement path is competence-oriented dom. The AEQ scales for assessing emotions in the specific
regulation that deals with the improvement of learning and context of test-taking have been called the Test Emotions
achievement. For example, abilities can be enhanced and Questionnaire (TEQ; Pekrun et al., 2004). Other self-report
study skills can be acquired. Keller’s (1987, 2010) ARCS instruments used in educational emotion research but mea-
model can be used for competence-oriented regulation. Park suring emotion regulation are the Emotion Regulation
and Kim’s (2012) intervention to increase reading interest During Test Taking scale (ERT; Schutz, DiStefano, Benson,
through the learning by teaching technique can be regarded & Davis, 2004), the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire
as an example of competence-oriented regulation. Last, the (ERQ; Gross & John, 2003), the Cognitive Emotion
environment path is design of tasks and learning environ- Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ; Garnefski & Kraaij, 2007;
ments that deals with improvement of learning and perfor- Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2001), and the COPE scale
mance contexts. Examples include a clarification of course (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989).
requirements (i.e., a change relevant to the specificity of
goal structure and expectations; e.g., Locke & Latham,
2000), adding choices for an assignment completion (i.e., Measurement Technologies
change relevant to autonomy support; e.g., Ryan & Deci,
2000), and so on. Astleitner’s (2000) FEASP approach as The affective computing group at the MIT Media Laboratory,
well as Keller’s ARCS model can be used for the design of the Emotive Computing Lab at the University of Memphis,
learning and social environments. and the Affective Learning Companion research group at
Pekrun (2006) discussed how education should cultivate Arizona State University have developed and tested sensing
learners’ positive emotions and emotion regulation through systems and tools that detect people’s psychophysiological
these four paths. For example, he argued that positively responses in order to infer their emotional experience in a
perceived value of learning should be induced through learn- variety of contexts (e.g., D’Mello & Graesser, 2010; El
ers’ communications with and observations of people around Kaliouby, Picard, & Baron-Cohen, 2006; Gonzalez-Sanchez
them, which can be possible in learning environments cor- et al., 2011; Picard, 2003; Scheirer, Fernandez, Klein, &
responding to students’ needs (Frenzel, Goetz, Lüdtke, Picard, 2002). Such technologies include Expression Glasses
Pekrun, & Sutton, 2009; Pekrun, 2006). to collect data of interest, surprise, confusion, satisfaction
72 C. Kim and R. Pekrun

from facial expressions, Galvactivator to collect data of These issues are related to the situatedness of emotions,
arousal and excitement from skin responses, Pressure- meaning that emotions are reciprocally and dynamically
sensitive mouse to collect data of frustration and anxiety linked to cognitive and motivational processes in a specific,
from mouse-click behaviors, and AutoTutor including an social-cultural context (Op’t Eynde et al., 2006; Pekrun,
automatic affect coding system based on Ekman’s Facial 2006). Emotions should be studied within learning and per-
Action Coding System (Ekman & Rosenberg, 1997) to detect formance contexts (Pekrun, 2006; Schutz et al., 2006).
affective states (for details, see D’Mello & Graesser, 2010; Therefore, the multilevel approach including several dimen-
El Kaliouby et al., 2006; Gonzalez-Sanchez et al., 2011). sions of analysis for personal, interpersonal, community-
Another interesting development of a technology detecting level, interactive, socially situated appraisal processes should
learners’ emotions is the Subtle Stone. It is a wireless, handheld be employed to fully understand and support learners’
squeezable ball and permits private communications between emotional experience in learning and performance contexts
students and their teacher about emotional experience in real (Op’t Eynde & Turner, 2006; Pekrun, 2006).
time (Alsmeyer, Luckin, Judith, & Harris, 2009; Balaam,
Fitzpatrick, Good, & Luckin, 2010; Kim & Balaam, 2011).
The Subtle Stone displays different colors and individual stu- Conclusion
dents can choose colors to express different emotions; the
unique association between colors and emotions is not This chapter discussed the impact and process of emotions,
revealed to peers. The Subtle Stone has potential to be used design possibilities for optimizing emotional experience in
for formative assessments during learning processes that learning and performance, and measurement instruments,
allow not only the redesign of lessons but also teachers’ emo- technologies, and issues. Foundations for creating theory-
tional scaffolding for students (Kim & Balaam, 2011). based interventions and evaluation programs have been pre-
sented for instructional design and research on emotion and
emotion regulation. Further research should continue to
Problems in Measuring Emotions develop a design framework for cultivating learners’ positive
emotions and thereby motivation to learn and perform better.
Academic emotion research has often been criticized because Also, a multi-method approach (Meyer & Turner, 2002;
of its reliance on self-report data and the lack of real-time Pekrun, 2006) using not only self-report instruments and emo-
data collection (Ainley, 2006; Kim & Hodges, 2012; Pekrun, tion-detecting technologies but also other data collection meth-
2006; Picard, 2010; Schutz & Davis, 2010). The develop- ods, such as discourse analysis, interviews, observations,
ment of advanced technologies such as psychophysiological interaction analysis, etc., should be considered to minimize
sensing systems reviewed above is expected to resolve some limitations in emotion measurement. In addition, in order to
of the issues. However, emotions are only partially observ- test the effects of interventions developed for promoting or
able; individuals’ facial expressions or skin reactions, for reducing certain discrete emotions, interventions should be
example, can have different meanings even in the same situ- implemented in the contexts where targeted emotions are pres-
ation (Buck, 1999; Hannula, 2006). Also, even if such tech- ent. There have been numerous studies where emotion-evok-
nologies are capable of detecting accurate data related to ing stimuli were used, such as movie clips, images, and so on
learners’ emotions, still there is the possibility of their inter- (e.g., Coan & Allen, 2007; DeSteno, Petty, Rucker, Wegener,
ference with emotion processes. For instance, suppose wear- & Braverman, 2004; Lepper, 1970). However, emotional
able sensors are used to detect emotional states during responses can be different person to person and it is likely
test-taking. Even if those are lightweight and interruptions unethical to induce intense frustration, anxiety, hopelessness,
are minimal, they could detract on-task behaviors, which anger, etc. (e.g., Lepper, 1970; Scheirer et al., 2002). Last,
brings up ethical concerns as well (Schutz & Davis, 2010). In reframing motivation research that considers emotions in the
addition, emotions tend to constantly occur and change rap- realm of educational communications and technology is neces-
idly (Buck, 1985; Folkman & Lazarus, 1985; Op’t Eynde sary (Meyer & Turner, 2002, 2006; Turner & Patrick, 2008).
et al., 2006; Pekrun, 2006; Schutz & Davis, 2010). The points
in which changes are occurring or occurred can be difficult
to investigate. Moreover, even if technologies, such as References
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