21CVL55-GT Lab Manual

JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA
JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BENGALURU
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATARY

21CVL55
MANUAL AND OBSERVATION BOOK
Name:___________________
USN:___________________
JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-21CVL55

MANUAL AND OBSERVATION BOOK
PREPARED BY:
MR. BASAVARAJ AKKI
JSS Mahavidyapeetha
VISION OF THE INSTITUTE
To be among the finest Institutions providing engineering and management education
empowered with research, innovation and entrepreneurship.
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE
1. Strive towards excellence in teaching –learning process and nurture personality

development.
2. Encourage Research, Innovation & Entrepreneurship.
3. Train to uphold highest ethical standards in all activities.
VISION OF DEPARTMENT
To produce responsible, technically qualified professionals with ethical and human values by
providing excellent teaching-learning and research"
MISSION OF DEPARTMENT
M1. Impart fundamental technical knowledge through learner-centric teaching methodology.
M2. Empower student and faculty by involving in co-scholastic and research activities.
M3. Equip students to face socio-technical challenges with ethical and human values.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
PEO 1:
Apply the knowledge of science and technology to achieve sustainability in construction.
PEO2:
Able to plan, analyze, design, execute and manage civil engineering works.
PEO 3:
Involve in research and professional consultancy with ethical and societal responsibilities.
1
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Civil Engineering Graduates will be able to:
PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis, and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics, responsibilities,
and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9 Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
PO11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
PO12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
2
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
PSO 1. Impart practical knowledge in planning, analysis, design and construction

management.
PSO 2. Engage as a professional engineer and contribute towards betterment of the society.
PSO 3. Function as an individual or in a team to find solutions for civil engineering problems
of multi disciplinary nature in the context of environmental and sustainable
development.
3
COURSE OUTCOMES (COs)
Course Bloom’s
Description (Student able to)
Outcome Learning Level
C305.1 Identify and categorize the given soil, based on the tests conducted. L3
Analyze the engineering properties of the soil and their importance with
C305.2 L4
respect to foundation and other sub-structure design.
Analyze the strength properties of the soils with respect to parameters
C305.3 L4
like shear strength, compressive strength etc.
Analyze the critical parameters of soil required from civil engineering
C305.4 L4
point of view.
CO-PO MAPPING
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
C305.1 3 3 - 3 - - - - - - - -
C305.2 3 3 - 3 - - - - - - - -
C305.3 3 3 2 3 - - - - - - - -
C305.4 3 3 - 3 - - - - - - - -
C305 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 - - - - - - - -
CO-PSO MAPPING
PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C305.1 3 3 2
C305.2 3 3 2
C305.3 3 3 2
C305.4 3 3 2
C305 3.00 3.00 2.00
4
DO’S
1 Bring observation notebooks, lab manuals and other necessary things for the class.
2 Wearing of shoes and uniform is compulsory.
3 Use necessary tools for mixing soil and water
Check the instruments for proper working conditions while taking and returning the
4
same.
Thoroughly clean your laboratory workspace and equipments at the end of the laboratory
5
session.
6 Maintain silence and cleanliness in the lab
DON’TS
1 Do not operate the machines without the permission of the staff

2 Do not put hands or head while equipment is in running condition.
3 Do not fix or remove the test specimen while the main is switch on.
4 Do not spill the soil and water on the floor.
5
List of Experiments
Page
Sl. Title of the Experiment
From To
No.
1 Determination of Specific gravity of soil solids by Pycnometer method 01 03
2 Determination of Specific gravity of soil solids by Density bottle 04 05

3 Determination of water content of soil solids oven drying method. 06 08
4 Determination of particle size distribution by sieving (Grain sizeanalysis) 09 12
5 Determination of in-situ density by Core cutter method 13 16
6 Determination of in-situ density by Sand replacement method 17 20
7 Determination of liquid limit of fine soil by Casagrande apparatus 21 24
8 Determination of liquid limit of fine soil by Cone Penetration Method 25 26
9 Determination of Plastic limit of the soil 27 29
10 Determination of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content by 30 33
Standard Proctor compaction method
11 Determination of co-efficient of permeability by Constant head 34 37
12 Determination of co-efficient of permeability by variable head method 38 40
13 Determination of unconfined compressive strength of soil 41 44
14 Determination of shear parameters by Direct shear test of soil 45 49
15 Determination of shear parameters by Triaxial test 50 53
16 Consolidation Test 54 58
Demonstration Experiments ( For CIE )
17 Field identification of soil 59 59
18 Hydrometer analysis 60 61
19 Rapid moisture meter method. 62 63
20 Determination of Shrinkage limit of the soil 64 66
21 Swell pressure test 67 71
22 Standard penetration test and boring equipment 72 73
23 Vane Shear Test 74 75
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LAB (21CVL55) 2023-24
Experiment No. 1 Date:
Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Pycnometer Method
Aim: To determine the specific gravity of soil solids by Pycnometer bottle method.
Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of unit volume of soil at a stated temperature to the mass of
the same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Specification:
This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985. A soil‟s specific gravity largely
depends on the density of the minerals making up the individual soil particles. However, as a
general guide, some typical values for specific soil types are as follows:
• The specific gravity of the solid substance of most inorganic soils varies between 2.60
and 2.80.
• Tropical iron-rich laterite, as well as some lateritic soils, usually have a specific gravity
of between 2.75 and 3.0 but could be higher.
• Sand particles composed of quartz have a specific gravity ranging from 2.65 to 2.67.
• Inorganic clays generally range from 2.70 to 2.80.
• Soils with large amounts of organic matter or porous particles (such as diatomaceous
earth) have specific gravities below 2.60. Some range as low as 2.00.
Equipments Required:
a) Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity

b) Balance accurate to 1 g, glass rod, de-aired distilled water etc.
Theory:
Specific gravity of soil solids is defined as the weight of soil solids to weight of equal
volume of water. In effect, it tells how much heavier (or lighter) the material is than
water. This test method covers the determination of the specific gravity of soil solids that
pass 4.75 mm sieve.
Equation for specific gravity, G:

G= (W2-W1) / ((W2-W1)-(W3-W4))
Where, W1=weight of Pycnometer in grams.
W2=weight of Pycnometer + dry soil in grams.
W3=weight of Pycnometer + soil+ water grams.
W4=weight of Pycnometer + water grams.
JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 1

Procedure:
a) Clean and dry the pycnometer and weigh it along with the conical cap (W1 in gm).
b) Select about 300 gm of dry soil free of clods and put the same into the pycnometer.
Weigh it (W2 in g) with cap and washer.
c) Fill the pycnometer with de-aired water up-to half its height and stir the mix with a glass
rod. Add more water and stir it. Fit the screw cap and fill the pycnometer flush with the
hole in the conical cap and take the weight (W3 in g).
d) Remove all the contents from the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly and fill it with
distilled water. Weigh it (W4 in g).
e) Now use the above equation for determining G.
f) Repeat the same process for additional tests.
Table 1: Weights of Pycnometer
Test No 1 Test No 2 Test No 3

Sl No Particulars
(G1) (G2) (G3)
Weight of Pycnometer bottle (W1),
1
g
Weight of Pycnometer + drysoil
2 (W2),g
Weight of Pycnometer + soil
3 + water, (W3), g
Weight of Pycnomerter +water
4
(W4), g
Calculation of specificgravity,
5
G
6 Average G = (G1+G2+G3)/3
Precautions:
 Soil grains whose specific gravity is to be determined should be completely dry.
 If on drying soil lumps are formed, they should be broken to its original size.
 Inaccuracies in weighing and failure to completely eliminate the entrapped air are the
main sources of error. Both should be avoided.
 While cleaning the glass jar, please be careful as there may be glass grains
projecting out and it may tear the skin.
 Make sure, you handle the glass jar and conical cap without falling on your legs or floor.
Hence, handle the equipment with care.
Pre-Viva Questions:
1. Why we need to compute the specific gravity of soil?

2. What is the unit of specific gravity?
3. What is specific gravity of water?
4. Explain the steps required to determine specific gravity by Pycnometer method?
5. What are the calculations required in computing specific gravity by Pycnometer
method?

Verification/ Validation:
The value of specific gravity for the existing soil falls in the range 2.6 to 2.75. If there is any
variation, check under the „specification‟ provided and re-do the experiment to get accurate results.
Conclusion:
The experiment is conducted as per the procedure laid down. The specific gravity of soil solids
obtained is . This value falls in the range 2.6 to 2.75. Hence the type of soil is .
Viva Questions:
1. What are the standard values of specific gravity?

2. Do we need to conduct this test? Why?
3. What is your inference on the result obtained?
4. Can we use this method for all types of soils?
5. Write phase diagrams for a) Dry soil b) Saturated soil.
Note: This method is recommended for coarse and fine grained soils. If the coarse particles are
grained to pass 4.75-mm IS sieve before using, then Density Bottle method should be used.

Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Density Bottle Method
Aim: To determine the specific gravity of soil solids by Density bottle method.
Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that
temperature, both weights taken in air.
Specification:
IS 2720 (Part III) – 1980 is the standard recommended to determine specific gravity of
fine grained soils. The value ranges are same as the previous experiment. The average of the
values obtained shall be taken as the specific gravity of the soil particles and shall be reported to
the nearest 0.01 precision. If the two results differ by more than 0.03 the tests shall be repeated.
1. 50 ml capacity density bottle with stopper
o
2. A constant temperature water bath (27 C)
o
3. Oven with a range of 105 to 110 C
4. Vacuum desiccators
5. Vacuum pump
6. Other accessories, such as, weighing balance accurate to 0.001 g, trays,wooden
mallet, etc.
Theory:
Specific gravity of soil solids is defined as the weight of soil solids to weight of equal
volume of water.
Equation for specific gravity, G: G= (W2-W1)/ ((W2-W1) - (W3-W4))
Where, W1=weight of density bottle in grams.
W2=weight of density bottle + dry soil in grams.
W3=weight of density bottle + soil+ water grams.
W4=weight of density bottle + water grams.
Procedure:
a) Clean and dry the density bottle and weigh it along with the stopper (W1 ing).
b) Select about 25 gm of dry soil free of clods and put the same into the density bottle. Weigh
it with brass cap and washer (W2 in g).
c) Fill the density bottle with de-aired water upto half its height and stir the mix with a glass
rod. Add more water and stir it. Place the stopper on top and take the weight (W3 in g).
d) Remove all the contents from the density bottle, clean it thoroughly and fill it with
distilled water. Weigh it (W4).
e) Use above equation for determining G.
f) Repeat the same process for additional tests.

Table 2: Weights of density bottle

Sl No Particulars Test No 1(G1) Test No 2(G2) Test No 3(G3)
Weight of density bottle
1
(W1), g
2 Weight of bottle + dry soil(W2), g
Weight of bottle + soil +water
3
(W3), g
Weight of bottle + water
4
(W4), g
5 Specific Gravity, G
Average G,
6
(G1+G2+G3)/3
Pre Viva Questions:

1. Which method is accurate in determining specific gravity of soil solids?
2. What are the steps involved in determining specific gravity using density bottle
method?
3. How much grams of soil need to be taken for the test?
4. What is the specification required for the test?
5. What is the equation to determine the specific gravity?
The value of specific gravity for the existing soil falls in the range 2.6 to 2.75. If there is any
variation, check under the „specification‟ provided and re-do the experiment to get accurate results.
Conclusion:
The experiment is conducted as per the procedure laid down. The specific gravity G = .
Viva Questions:
1. Can we use kerosene instead of water to determine specific gravity of soil?
2. Could we do classification of soil based on the specific gravity of soil?
3. Could there be entrapped air in the soil sample?
4. What are the various sources of error in this experiment, if any?
5. What are the applications in geotechnical engineering where the specific gravity isused?

Determination of Water Content of Soil Solids by Oven Drying Method
Aim: To determine the water content of soil solids by Oven Drying method.
The water content (w) of a soil sample is equal to the mass of water divided by the mass of
solids.
Specifications:
This test is done as per IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973. The soil specimen should be
representative of the soil mass. The quantity of the specimen taken would depend upon the
gradation and the maximum size of the particles. For more than 90% of the particles passing
through 425 micron IS sieve, the minimum quantity is 25g.
a) Non-corrodible airtight containers.
b) Balance weighting to accuracy of 0.04% of the weight of the soil taken fortest.
c) Desiccators with suitable desiccating agent.
d) Thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature 110 C5 C.
e) Other accessories.
Theory:
In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The
knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a
few, natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The
natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field. Water content, w of a
soil mass is defined as the ratio of mass of waterin the voids to the mass of solids:
w % = {(W2-W3)/(W3-W1)}*100%
Where, W1 = Weight of empty container in grams
W2 = Weight of container + wet soil in grams
W3 = Weight of container + dry soil in grams
Precautions:
 Ensure that soil samples are between 350 to 400g. Larger samples take too long to dry,
while smaller samples lead to inaccurate results.
 Ensure that the oven temperature is maintained at 110º C ± 5º C. Do not allow the oven door
to stay open for too long, as it takes a while for the oven to regain the drying temperature.
 Do not put moist samples in the oven on a shelf below dry samples. Moist samples should
be placed on the top shelf and all partially dried samples placed on the lower shelf.
 Do not over-load the oven, as this will create a much longer drying time.
 Do not allow dried samples to pick up moisture after they are removed from the oven.
 Weigh them immediately after drying.
 Soils and aggregates may contain bacteria and/or organisms which can be harmful for one's
health. Wearing dust masks and protective gloves when handling materials is advised. The
use of heat resistant gloves/mitts or pot holders to remove samples from the ovens is

recommended.
 Prior to handling oven, testing or disposing of any waste materials, students are required to
read do‟s and don‟ts of the Geotechnical engineering laboratory.
Procedure:
a) Clean the container with lid and find the mass (W1 in g).
b) Select the required quantity of moist soil sample, place it in the container, place the lid
on it, and weigh it (W2 in g).
c) Keep the container in the oven with lid removed and dry it for at least 24 hr. at a
temperature of 110 º C till the mass remains constant.
d) Remove the container from the oven, replace the lid, and cool it in desiccators. Find
the mass (W3 in g).
e) Determine the water constant w by using the above equation.
f) Repeat the experiment with other test samples
Table 3: Weights of container
Test No.1 Test No.2 Test No.3
Sl No Particulars
(w1) (w2) (w3)
1 Weight of empty container (W1), g
2 Weight of container + wet soil (W2), g
3 Weight of container + dry soil (W3), g
4 Water content, w %
5 Average water content, w = (w1+ w2 +w3)/3
Pre-viva Questions:
1. Water content is also called?
2. Which method is mostly used to determine the water content in field?
3. What is water content for clay soil?
4. On which factor water content is depended?
5. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) method is also used for measuring water content (True or False?
6. Name different types of soil textures?
7. The percentage of water remaining in an air-dry soil is called
Soil mass is generally a three phase system. It consists of solid particles, liquid and gas.
The phase system may be expressed in SI units either in terms of mass- volume or weight
volume relationships. Water content value is 0% for dry soil and its magnitude can exceed
100%.
Conclusion:
The experiment is conducted as per the procedure laid down. The water content of the
soil sample is determined. Water content, w = %. The value is verified and the three phase
system is sketched.

Viva Questions
1. Draw the schematic diagram of the three phase system based on the result.
2. Is there a possibility of the soil getting burnt? In that case, what will be effect on the water
content value?
3. How does air-dry soil differ from oven-dry soil?
4. Is this method the most direct method to compute the water content of soil?
5. To get accurate result, how much gram of soil have you taken to conduct the test?

Determination of Particle Size Distribution by Sieving

(Grain Size Analysis / Sieve Analysis)
Aim: To determine the particle size distribution by sieving (Grain size analysis) and to
determine the fineness modulus, effective size and uniformity coefficient.
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained
within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the
coarser, larger-sized particles. The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering
properties of soil. Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it is required in
classifying the soil.
Specifications:
This test is specified in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 – Method of test for soil (Part 4-Grain
size analysis).
a) Sieves of sizes: 4.75 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 600, 300, 150and 75.That is,
I.S 460-1962 is used. The sieves for soil tests: 4.75 mm to 75 microns.
b) Thermostatically controlled oven.
c) Trays, sieve brushes, mortar with a rubber covered pestle, etc.
d) Mechanical sieve shaker etc.
Theory:
The grain size analysis is widely used in classification of soils. The data obtained from
grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine
suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc. Information obtained from grain size
analysis can be used to predict soil water movement although permeability tests are generally
used. The method is applicable to dry soil passing through 4.75 mm size sieve less than 10 %
passing through 75-micron sieve.
Percentage retained on any sieve = (weight of soil retained / total weight)100
Cumulative percentage retained = sum of percentages retained on any sieve on all coarser sieves
Percentage finer than any sieve = 100 percent minus cumulative Size, N
percentage retained.
Precautions:
 Clean the sieves set so that no soil particles were struck in them
 While weighing put the sieve with soil sample on the balance in a concentric
position.
 Check the electric connection of the sieve shaker before conducting the test.
 No particle of soil sample shall be pushed through the sieves.

Procedure:
a) Take a representative sample of soil received from the field and dry it in the oven.
b) Use a known mass of dried soil with all the grains properly separated out. The maximum
mass of soil taken for analysis may not exceed 500 g.
c) Prepare a stack of sieves. Set the sieves one over the other with an ascending order
(sieves having larger opening sizes i.e., lower numbers are placed above the one with
smaller opening sizes i.e., smaller numbers). The very last sieve is #200 (75 Micron
sieve). A pan is attached to the lowest 75 Micron sieve to collect the portions passing
#200 sieve and fit the nest to a mechanical shaker.
d) Make sure sieves are clean. If many soil particles are stuck in the openings try to poke
them out using brush.
e) The whole nest of sieves is given a horizontal shaking for 10 min in sieve shaker till the
soil retained on each reaches a constant value.
f) Determine mass of soil retained on each sieve including that collected in the pan below.
The test results obtained from a sample of soil are given below.
Mass of soil taken for analysis W = gm
Table 4: Sieve Analysis data sheet

IS Mass Corrected Cumulative
Cumulative %
Sl No. Sieves Retained Mass Mass
% Retained Finer
(mm) (gm) Retained (gm) Retained (gm)
1 4.75
2 2.36
3 1.18
4 0.600
5 0.300
6 0.150
7 0.075
8 Pan

Graph (Grain Size in mm Vs Percentage Finer in %):
Draw graph of log sieve size vs. % finer. The graph is known as grading curve. Corresponding
to 10%, 30% and 60% finer, obtain diameters from graph these are D10, D30, D60, using these
obtain Cc and Cu which further represent how well the soil is graded i.e. whether the soil is
well-graded, gap-graded or poorly graded.
Graph1-Grain Size in mm Vs Percentage Finer in %
100
50
Percentage
Finer, (N)
D10 D30 D60
Grain Size (mm)(Log scale)
Pre Viva Questions:
1) Define the grain size analysis and what is the silt size?
2) What is uniformity coefficient? What is the significance on computing the same?
3) What is the most basic classification of soil?
4) What are the methods of soil gradation or grain size distribution?
5) How to compute D10, D30 and D60 of soil using sieve analysis?
6) How to compute CC and Cu?
7) What is poorly graded, gap graded and well graded soil?
Result:
Uniformity coefficient,
Cu= Coefficient of curvature, Cc=
Percentage gravel =
Percentage sand =
Percentage silt =

Verification/Validations:
For the soil to be well graded the value of coefficient of uniformity Cu has to be greater than 4
and Cc should be in the range of 1 to 3. So higher the value of Cu the larger the range of the
particle sizes in the soil. So if the Cu value is high it indicates that the soil mass consists of
different ranges of particle sizes.
Conclusion:
The uniformity coefficient, Cu = and Cc = .
Based on the value range, type of soil is:
Viva Questions:
1. Does grain distribution affect the voids ratio of the soil?

2. Could the quality of concrete enhanced by the grade of the sand?
3. If soil is uniformly graded, voids ratio is high or low?
4. Well graded aggregates require less cement or more?
5. What is the practical significance of Grain Size Distribution Analysis?

Determination of In-Situ Density by Core cutter method
Aim: To determine the field density or unit weight of soil by Core cutter method.
Field density is used in calculating the stress in the soil due to its over burden
pressure. It is needed in estimating the bearing capacity of soil foundation system, settlement
of footing, earth pressures behind the retaining walls and embankments. Stability of natural
slopes, dams, embankments and cuts is checked with the help of density of soil. It is the
density that controls the field compaction of soils. Permeability of soils depends upon its
density. Relative density of cohesionless soils is determined by knowing the dry density of
soil in natural, loosest and densest states. Void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation need
the help of density of soil.
Specifications:
This test is done to determine the in-situ dry density of soil by core cutter method as
per IS-2720-Part-29 (1975). Core cutter method in particular, is suitable for soft to medium
cohesive soils, in which the cutter can be driven. It is not possible to drive the cutter into hard
and boulder soils.
1) Cylindrical core cutter, 100 mm internal diameter and 130 mm long.
2) Steel dolly, 25mmhigh and 100 mm internal diameter.
3) Steel rammer mass 9kg, overall length with the foot and staff about 900mm.
4) Balance, with an accuracyof1g.
5) Palette knife, Straightedge, steel rule etc.
6) Square metal tray–300mmx300mmx40mm.
7) Trowel.
Theory:
Field density is defined as weight per unit volume of soil mass in the field at in-situ
conditions. In the spot adjacent to that where the field density by sand replacement method
has been determined or planned, drive the core cutter using the dolly over the core cutter.
Stop ramming when the dolly is just above of the surface. Dig out the cutter containing the
soil out of the ground and trim off any solid extruding from it sends, so that the cutter
contains a volume of soil equal to its internal volume which is determined from the
dimensions of the cutter. The weight of the contained soil is found and its moisture content
determined.
Equations are;
d= t/ (1+w) gm/cm³
OR d= t/ (1+w) kN/m³

3
Where, d=dry density in g/cm ,
d= dry unit weight in g/cm3,
t= field moist density in g/cm3,
t= field moist unit weighting/cm3,
w= water content%
w= unit weight of water =9.81kN/m³
Precautions:
1. Core cutter method of determining the field density of soil is only suitable for fine
grained soil (Silts and clay). That is, core cutter should not be used for gravels,
boulders or any hard surface. This is because collection of undisturbed soil sample
from a coarse grained soil is difficult and hence the field properties, including unit
weight, cannot be maintained in a core sample.
2. Core cutter should be driven into the ground till the steel dolly penetrates into the
ground half way only so as to avoid compaction of the soil in the core.
3. Before lifting the core cutter, soil around the cutter should be removed to minimize
the disturbances.
4. While lifting the cutter, no soil should drop down.
Procedure:
a) Measure the height and internal diameter of the core cutter to the nearest 0.25mm.
b) Calculate the internal volume of the core-cutter Vcincm³.
c) Determine the weight of the clean cutter accurate to1g (W1 in g).
d) Select the area in the field where the density is required to be found out. Clean and
level the ground where the density is to be determined.
e) Place the dolly over the top of the core cutter and press the core cutter into the soil
mass using the rammer. Stop the pressing when about 15mm of the dolly protrudes
above the soil surface.
f) Remove the soil surrounding the core cutter by digging using spade, up to the bottom
level of the cutter. Lift up the cutter and remove the dolly and trim both sides of the
cutter with knife and straight edge.
g) Clean the outside surface of the cutter and determine mass of the cutter with the soil
(W2 in g).
h) Remove the soil core from the cutter and take the representative sample in the water
content containers to determine the moisture content.
i) The field test may be repeated at other places if required.
j) The water content of sample collected is determined in the laboratory as per
Experiment no 3 (Determination of water content of soil solids by Oven Drying
Method).
k) Use the above equation, given the theory section, for determining density of soil (d or
d).

Pre Viva Questions:

1. Out of wet density, dry density, and saturated density, which one of them is maximum and
minimum? Explain.
2. What are the main factors which affect in-situ density of soil? Explain.
3. Beside the density, what other properties do you need to calculate the void ratio and
degree of saturation of soils?
4. What are the other methods to calculate the field density of soil?
5. Which is the most accurate method to determine the field density?
Observations:
Length of core cutter l= ------------------ cm

Diameter of core cutter d = --------------- cm
Volume of core cutter = Vc = ----------- cm
Table 5: Weights of core cutter
Test No’s.
Sl. No. Particulars
1 (d1) 2 (d2) 3 (d3)
1. Weight of empty cutter(W1), gms
Weight of cutter + wet soil (W2), gms

2.
Volume of core cutter(Vc)cm³
3.
Weight of empty container(W3), gms
4.
Weight of container + wet soil(W4), gms
5.
Weight of container + dry soil(W5), gms
6.
Water content (w) = (W4-W5)/(W5-W3)
7.
8. Field moist density t (kN/m³)= (W2-W1)/Vc
9. Dry density d (kN/m³) = t/(1+w)
, 
10. Average density Avg d
Verification/Validation:
The dry density of most soils varies within the range of 1.1-1.6 g/cm3. In sandy soils, dry
density can be as high as 1.6 g/cm3; in clayey soils and aggregated loams, it can be as low
as1.1g/cm3.
Conclusion:
The value of dry density of the soil is _ . The type of soil is

Viva Questions:
1. Can we use core cutter method on stony or non-cohesive soils?
2. Which method is more accurate, sand replacement method or core cutter method?
3. What is the practical application of the current test?
4. Do we get undisturbed sample using core cutter?
5. Why is field density required?
6. Out of wet density, dry density, and saturated density, which one of them is maximum
and minimum? Explain

Determination of In-Situ Density by Sand Replacement Method
Aim: To determine in-situ density of natural or compacted soil using Sand replacement
method.
The in-situ density of natural soil is needed for the determination of bearing capacity
of soils, for the purpose of stability analysis of slopes, for the determination of pressures on
underlying strata for the calculation of settlement and the design of underground structures.
Moreover, dry density values are relevant both of embankment design as well as pavement
design.
Specifications:
This test is done to determine the in-situ dry density of soil by core cutter method as
per IS-2720-Part-28 (1975). In order to conduct the test, select uniformly graded clean sand
passing through 600 micron IS sieve and retained on 300 micron IS sieve.
a) Sand pouring cylinder of about 3 liter capacity (Small pouring cylinder as per IS
2720 Part 28)
b) Cylindrical calibrating container 10 cm internal diameter and 15 cm depth
c) Glass plate, trays ,containers for determining water content
d) Tools for making of a hole of 10 cm diameter and 15 cm deep, knife and other
accessories.
e) Metal container to collect excavated soil
f) Metal tray, 300mm square and 40mm deep with a hole of 100 mm in diameter at
the centre.
g) Weighing balance
h) Moisture content cans
i) Glass plate about450mm/600mmsquareand10mmthick
j) Oven
Theory:
By conducting this test, it is possible to determine the field density of the soil. The
moisture content is likely to vary from time and hence the field density also. So it is required
to report the test result in terms of dry density. In sand replacement method, a small
cylindrical pit is excavated and the weight of the soil excavated from the pit is measured.
Sand whose density is known is filled into the pit. By measuring the weight of sand required
to fill the pit and knowing its density, the volume of pit is calculated. Knowing the weight of
soil excavated from the pit and the volume of pit, the density of soil is calculated. Therefore,
in this experiment there are two stages, namely
1. Calibration of sand density

2. Measurement of soil density

Precautions:
 If for any reason it is necessary to excavate the pit to a depth other than 12 cm, the
standard calibrating can should be replaced by one with an internal height same as the
depth of pit to be made in the ground.
 Care should be taken in excavating the pit, so that it is not enlarged by levering, as this
will result in lower density being recorded.
 No loose material should be left in the pit.
 There should be no vibrations during this test.
 It should not be forgotten to remove the tray, before placing the SPC over the pit.
Procedures:
Calibration of Sand Density

1. Measure the internal dimensions diameter (d) and height (h) of the calibrating can and
compute its internal volume V.
2. Fill the sand pouring cylinder (SPC) with sand with 1 cm top clearance to avoid any spillover
during operation and find its weight (W1)
3. Place the SPC on a glass plate, open the slit above the cone by operating the valve and allow
the sand to run down. The sand will freely run down till it fills the conical portion. When there is
no further downward movement of sand in the SPC, close the slit.
4. Find the weight of the SPC along with the sand remaining after filling the cone (W2)
5. Place the SPC concentrically on top of the calibrating can. Open the slit to allow the sand to
rundown until the sand flow stops by itself. This operation will fill the calibrating can and the
conical portion of the SOC. Now close the slit and find the weight of the SPC with the remaining
sand(W3)
Measurement of Soil Density
1. Clean and level the ground surface where the field density is to be determined.
2. Place the tray with a central hole over the portion of the soil to be tested.
3. Excavate a pit into the ground, through the hole in the plate, approximately 12cm deep (Close
the height of the calibrating can) the hole in the tray will guide the diameter of the pit to be
made in the ground.
4. Collect the excavated soil into the tray and weigh the soil (W)
5. Determine the moisture content of the excavated soil.
6. Place the SPC, with sand having the latest weight of W3, over the pit so that the base of the
cylinder covers the pit concentrically.
7. Open the slit of the SPC and allow the sand to run into the pit freely, till there is no downward
movement of sand level in the SPC and then close the slit.
8. Find the weight of the SPC with the remaining sand W4.

Table 6A. Calibration of Apparatus

Sample No. 1 2 3
Weight of Sand Pouring Cylinder + Sand (grams)
Weight of Sand Pouring Cylinder after filling cone
(grams)
Weight of Sand Pouring Cylinder after filling cone
and Calibrating Container (grams)
Ws- Weight of Sand filling Calibrating Container
(grams)
Volume of Calibrating Container (cm3)
γs- Calibrated Bulk Density of Sand (g/cm3)
Table 6B. Measurement of in-situ density of Soil
Sample No. 1 2 3
Weight of excavated soil (grams)
Weight of Sand Pouring Cylinder after filling hole
and cone (grams)
Wb- Weight of Sand in hole (grams)
Bulk Density of in-situ soil (g/cm3)
γb= (Ws/ Wb)γs
Water content of in-situ soil (grams)
Dry Density of in-situ soil (g/cm3) γd
Viva Questions:
1) What is the objective of sand replacement method?
2) What is the relationship that can be established between the dry density with known
moisture content?
3) What are the apparatus that are needed in this test?
4) What is the significance of determining the in-situ density of the soil?
5) Depth of hole is kept to15 cm in the field. Why?
Result:
1) Weight of wet soil from the hole, Wh = gm
2) Water content of the soil, w = %
3) Weight of sand that fills the hole = gm
4) Volume of the hole Vh=Ws/s= cm³
5) Bulk density of the soil t = W/Vh= gm/cm³
6) Dry density d =t/(1+w)= gm/ cm³
7) Dry density of soil = g/cm3

Verification and Validations:
Sand replacement method is an indirect method of finding the density of soil. The
basic principle is to measure the in-situ volume of hole from which the material was
excavated from the weight of sand with known density filling in the hole. The in-situ density
of material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-situ volume.
The dry density of most soils varies within the range of 1.1-1.6g/cm3.In sandy soils, dry
density can be as high as 1.6 g/cm3; in clayey soils and aggregated loams, it can be as low as
1.1g/cm3.
Conclusion:
The dry density of the soil is g/cc. comparing with the in-situ density by
core cutter method; more or less the same value is achieved. The type of soil is .


Determination of Liquid Limit of Fine Soil
Aim: To determine the Liquid limit of fine soil by using Casagrande Apparatus
When water is added to dry soil, it changes its state of consistency from hard to soft.
We can define liquid limit as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid
state, but has a small shearing strength against flow. From test point of view we can define
liquid limit as the minimum water content at which a pat of soil cut by a groove of standard
dimension will flow together for a distance of 12 mm (1/2 inch) under an impact of 25 blows
in the device.
Specifications:
This test is done to determine liquid limit of soil as per IS: 2720(Part 5)-1985. After
receiving the soil sample it is dried in air or in oven (maintained at a temperature of600C). If
clods are there in soil sample then it is broken with the help of wooden mallet. The soil
passing 425 micron sieve is used in this test.
a) A mechanical liquid limit apparatus (Casagrande type) with grooving tools.
b) Evaporating dishes, wash bottle etc.
c) Balance accurate to 0.01g.
d) Airtight container to determine water content.
e) Oven to maintain temperature at 105C to110C.
f) Sieve (425micron).
g) Spatula
h) Other accessories.
Theory:
Consistencyoffine-grainedsoilsmaybedefinedastherelativeeasewithwhicha soil can be
remoulded. Consistency limits may be categorized into three limits called Atterberg limits.
Theyare1) Liquid limit 2) Plastic limit and 3) Shrinkage limit
Liquid limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a plastic
to a viscous fluid state. Other limits will be discussed during corresponding experiments.
Precautions:
 Soil used for liquid limit determination should not be oven dried prior to testing.
 In LL test the groove should be closed by the flow of soil and not by slippage
between the soil and the cup.
 After mixing the water to the soil sample, sufficient time should be given to
permeate the water throughout the soil mass
 Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left
open in the air, the container with soil sample should either be placed in desiccators or
immediately be weighed.
 After performing each test the cup and grooving tool must be cleaned.

 The number of blows should be just enough to close the groove.

 The number of blows should be between 10 and 40.
Procedure:
a) A representative sample of mass of about 120 gm passing through 425 micron IS sieve
is taken for the test. Mix the soil in an evaporating dish with distilled water to form a
uniform paste.
b) Adjust the cup of the device so that the fall of the cup on to the hard rubber base is 10
mm.
c) Transfer the portion of the paste to the cup of liquid limit device. Allow some time for
the soil to have uniform distribution of water.
d) Level the soil topsoil so that the maximum depth of soil is 12 mm. A channel of 11 mm
wide at the top, 2 mm at the bottom and 8 mm deep is cut by the grooving tool. The
grooving tool is held normal to the cup and the groove is cut through the sample along
the symmetrical axis of the top.
e) The handle of the device is turned at a rate of about 2 revolutions per secondand the
number of blows necessary to close the groove along the bottom distance of 12 mm is
counted. A sample of soil which closes the groove is collected
f) The soil in the cup is re-mixed thoroughly (adding some more soil if required) some
quantity of water which changes the consistency of soil, repeat the process. At least 4
tests should be conducted by adjusting the water contents of the soil in the cup in such a
way that the number of blows required to close the groove may fall within the range of 5
to 40 blows. A plot of water content against the log of blows is made as shown in figure.
The water content at 25 blows gives the liquid limit.
Table 7: Number of blows vs. Water Content
1 2 3 4
Trial No
(w1) (w2) (w3) (w4)
No of blows(N)
Weight of Container (W1)
Weight of Container + Wet soil(W2)
Weight of Container + dry soil(W3)
Water content w=(W2-W3)/(W3-W1)

Water content, w
=(w1+w2+w3+w4)/4
Graph:
A semi-log plot of Number of blows Vs water Content is drawn from the table data.

Result:
From the graph drawn, flow index If=(w1-w2)/log (N2/N1)= ---------
And Liquid Limit= ---------%
If the natural moisture content of soil is closer to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft if
the moisture content is lesser than liquids limit, the soil is brittle and stiffer. Hence if the points
on the graph are obtained scattered, we need to draw the linear curve at the mean. Flow index
indicates the rate at which the soil looses shearing resistance with an increase in the water
content.
Soil Type Liquid limit

Sand -
Silt 30-40
Clay 40-150
Conclusion:
As per the procedure the experiment is carried out. For 25 blows, water content is %.

Viva Questions:
1. Define consistency of the soil. How is it measured?

2. What is liquid limit of soil?
3. What is the apparatus used to determine the liquid limit?
4. When a soil sample is given, what is the procedure to determine the liquid limit of the sample?
5. In a liquid limit test, the moisture content at 10 blows was 70% and that at100 blows was 20%.
The liquid limit of the soil, is?
6. What is the purpose of computing liquid limit of the soil?
7. With the organic matter in the soil, will the liquid limit increase or decrease?

Determination of Liquid Limit by Static Cone Penetrometer

Aim:
To determine Liquid Limit by Static Cone Penetrometer (The Liquid Limit is the moisture
content at which the soil passes from the plastic to the liquid state as determined by the Cone
Liquid Limit test)
Specifications:
This test is conducted as per IS: 2720(Part 5)-1985- Methods of test for soils:
Determination of liquid and plastic limit. After receiving the soil sample it is dried in air or in
oven (maintained at a temperature of 600C). If clods are there in soil sample then it is broken
with the help of wooden mallet.
Equipment Required:
Static Cone Penetrometer
Theory:
The cone penetration test “CPT” is one of the most commonly used site investigation
tools in the field of geotechnical engineering for the classification and characterization of soils.
The liquid limit of the soil corresponds to the water content of a paste which would give 20 mm
penetration of the soil.
Precautions:
1. Soil used for liquid limit determination should not be oven dried prior to testing.
2. After mixing the water to the soil sample , sufficient time should be given to
permeate the water throughout out the soil mass
3. Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not beleft
open in the air, the container with soil sample should either be placed in desiccators or
immediately be weighed.
Procedure:
1) Take 200 gm of soil, add 5 percentage water and make a paste.
2) Mix the soil thoroughly and fix the mould in such a way that it should touch the
surface.
3) Release the cone and note down the depth of the penetration.
4) Repeat experiments with different values of water content.
5) Draw a graph of water content vs penetration. The one with 20 mm penetrationwould
give the liquid limit of the soil.

Table 8: Depth of Penetration for various water contents
Trial No 1 2 3 4
Depth of penetration (mm)
Weight of Container + Wet soil (W2)
Weight of Container + dry soil (W3)
Water content w=(W2-W3)/(W3-W1)%
Result:
The liquid limit wl = %
The liquid limit obtained using Cone Penetrometer is generally seen 2.2 % points higher
than Casagrande apparatus. Do comparisons of the Casagrande liquid limit with cone
Penetrometer liquid limit value.
Conclusion:
The liquid limit of the soil is
Viva Questions:
1. Which is the preferable method Casagrande method or cone Penetrometer method in order
to determine liquid limit? Why?
2. What type of soil could be tested using static cone Penetrometer?
3. Is it a linear graph or semi-log one which is used in the case of cone Penetrometer?
4. Is it possible to determine the plastic limit of soil using cone Penetrometer?
5. What are the practical implications of conducting this test?

Determination of Plastic Limit of the Soil
Aim: To determine plastic limit of the soil.
The plastic limit of fine-grained soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be plastic.
It begins to crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm dia.
Specifications:
This test is done to determine the plastic limit of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 5) –1985.
Take out 30g of air-dried soil from a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil passing through
425µm IS Sieve. Mix the soil with distilled water in an evaporating dish and leave the soil
mass for 24hrs.
a) Porcelain evaporating dish.
b) Flat glass plate.
c) Balance accurate to0.01g.
d) Drying oven, maintained at 110±5°C (230±9°F).
e) Weighing dishes, non-absorbent, with lids.
f) Flexible spatula, blade approximately 102 mm (4 in.) long × 19mm (0.75in.) wide.
Theory:
The plastic limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a semi-solid to
a plastic state. It may also be defined as that water content at which soil starts crumbling when
rolled into threads of 3mm diameter. Use the paste from liquid limit test and begin drying. May
add dry soil or spread on plate and air dry.
Precautions:
1. Soil used for plastic limit determination should not be oven dried prior to testing.
2. After mixing the water to the soil sample, sufficient time should be given to
permeate the water throughout the soil mass.
3. Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left open.
The container with soil sample should either be placed in desiccators or immediately be
weighed.
Procedure:
a) Select a representative sample of fine-grained soil of about 20 g or more passing through 420
Micron IS sieve. Mix it with distilled water thoroughly on a glass plate such that the palm of the
soil can be rolled into a thread of 3 mm diameter. Allow some time for the proper distribution
mixed with water.
b) Take about 10 g of this wet sail and roll it into a thread on a glass plate with the palm of the

hand. The rolling must be such that it forms a uniform thread of 3 mm diameter. If the thread
cracks before attaining 3 mm diameter, and add little more water, knead it and roll again. If the
rolling can be done to diameter less than 3 mm, mix some dry soil, knead it to remove same
extra moisture in the soil. This process has to continue till the sample crumbles just at about 3
mm diameter. Collect the crumbled soil (at least 6 g) and measure its water content.
c) Repeat the process to get at least three water content determination (after they have been in the
oven at least 16 hours)..
d) The average of water content so obtained is the plastic limit of the soil.
Table 9: Water Content of 3mm soil
Trial No 1 2 3 4
Weight of Container + Wet soil (W2)
Weight of Container + dry soil (W3)
Water content w=(W2-W3)/(W3-W1)%
Average Water Content in %
Conclusion:
The plastic limit of the soil = and plasticity index =

The type of soil is .
Result:
The Plastic limit of soil (average water content) is .
Plasticity index = wp - wl
Determine the plasticity index Ip, which is the difference between liquid limit
and plastic limit. Following table list the standard values:
Soil Type wl wp Ip
Sand Non-Plastic
Silt 30-40 20-25 10-15
Clay 40-150 25-50 15-100

Viva Questions:
1) Define plastic limit of soil

2) How is plastic limit computed in laboratory?
3) What is the practical significance of determining plastic limit of the soil?
4) What is plasticity index?
5) What is toughness index?
6) What is meant by unified soil classification?
7) What is A-line and U-line?
8) What is liquidity index and consistency index?

Determination of Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture

Content by Standard Proctor Compaction Method
Aim: To determine moisture content – dry density relationship by Standard proctor test.
Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles and
reduce the void ratio. It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in the process of
placing fill such as in the construction of embankments, road bases, runways, earth dams, and
reinforced earth walls. Compaction is also used to prepare a level surface during construction of
buildings. There is usually no change in the water content and in the size of the individual soil
particles.
Specifications:
The experiment is conducted as per IS 2720-7(1980).
Equipment Required:
a) Typical equipment for proctor test is given in figure.

b) Other accessories are: Balance, oven, straight edge, sieves, metal hammer, etc.
Theory:
The objectives of compaction are:

a) To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing capacity.
b) To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
c) To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow through
To assess the degree of compaction, it is necessary to use the dry unit weight, which is an
indicator of compactness of solid soil particles in a given volume. The laboratory testing is
meant to establish the maximum dry density that can be attained for a given soil with a
standard amount of compactive effort.
1. Bulk density t = (M2-M1)/V

2. Dry density d = t/(1 + w)
Where, M1 = mass of mould used for proctor test
M2 = mass of mould + compacted soil.
M = mass of wet soil.
V = volume of mould.

w = density of water.
G = Specific gravity of soils.
W = water content.
S = degree of saturation.
Precautions:
1. Thoroughly breakup the sample by running it through the screen before compacting it in the
mould.
2. Pound within a moisture range from optimum to 4 percent below optimum. The closer to
optimum the moisture content is, the more accurate the test will be.
3. Make sure the clamp on each mold section is tight.
4. Make sure the wing nuts on the base plate are secured with equal tension.
5. Place the mould on a solid block that is supported on firm soil or pavement.
6. Hold the rammer vertically so that it will fall freely.
7. Drop the 25 kg rammer weight freely 9 Use exactly 25 blows on each layer. 10 Place 3 equal
layers in the mold
Procedure:
a) Select a representative soil sample of about 25 kg. The material used for the test must be
finer than 20 mm sieve. Air-dry sample.
b) Add sufficient water to the sample (about 7 % for sandy soils and 10 % for clay soils),
which will be less than the estimated optimum moisture content. Mix the soil thoroughly
and keep this in an airtight container for a period of 20 hours.
c) Fix the mould to the base plate after cleaning its inside surface. Find the mss of the
mould with the base plate (M1).
d) Attach the extension collar to the mould.
e) Take about 2.5 kg of soil in an air tight container and compact it in the mould in three
equal layers each layer is compacted by giving 25 blows by the hammer weighing 2.6
kg and dropping from a height of 310 mm. The compaction must be uniform over the
whole area, and a spatula scratches each layer before adding another layer.
f) The filling must be such that the last layer projects into the collar by about 5 mm.
g) After the completion of compaction, remove the collar and remove the excess soil with
the help of a straight edge.
h) Find the mass of the mould with the base plate and the soil (M2).
i) Remove the soil from the mould by making use of an ejector and take a representative
sample for water content determination.
j) Carry out the tests 3 to 4 times by repeating the steps from (e) onwards. Each time use a
fresh soil sample.

Observations and tabulation:
The following observations were made on the compaction of a soil by standard

proctor test. Six tests were carried out on the selected samples of soil by varying the water
content. Water contents of samples of each test were found out by the procedure explained
earlier.
The test results are tabulated below.
Table 10: Weight of the soil with varying Water Content
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Mass of empty mould M1 gm
Volume of mould, cm3
Mass of mould + sample, M2,gm

Mass of wet soil, M,gm
Wet density, t g/cm3
Water content, w%
Dry density, d, gm/cm3
Note: Plot dry density vs. moisture content and find out the max dry density and optimum
moisture for the soil.
Result:
Maximum dry density d =
Optimum moisture content, w in % =
Verification and Validations:

The peak point of the compaction curve - The peak point of the compaction curve is the
point with the maximum dry density dry density. Corresponding to the maximum dry density
ρd max is a water content known as the optimum water content. The optimum water content
is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified compactive effort.
Compacting at water contents higher than the optimum water content results in a relatively
dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less
pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil
compacted dry of optimum to the same density.

Conclusion:
The maximum density of the soil is with an OMC of . This

indicates, after w%, any additional water addition, there is no gain in strength of soil.
Viva Questions:
1. What is the difference between standard proctor test and modified proctor test?
2. What is relative density of soil?
3. What is voids ratio? What is zero air voids line?
4. What is the practical implication of conducting standard proctor test?
5. How to determine OMC of soil? Explain.
6. How is compaction different from consolidation?
7. Did you watch any civil engineering construction compaction is carried out? Explain.
8. Is there any other method other than standard proctor test to determine maximum density?

Determination of Permeability of a Soil Sample by Constant Head Method
Aim: To determine the permeability of soil by constant-head method.
The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional are of
porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability. Water
flowing through soil exerts considerable seepage force which has direct effect on the safety
of hydraulic structures. The rate of settlement of compressible clay layer under load depends
on its permeability. The quantity of water escaping through and beneath the earthen dam
depends on the permeability of the embankments and its foundations respectively. The rate of
discharge through wells and excavated foundation pits depends on the coefficient of
permeability of the soils. Shear strength of soils also depends indirectly on permeability of
soil, as dissipation of pore pressure is controlled by its permeability.
Specifications:
IS 2720-17 (1986): Methods of test for soils, Part 17. This test is used to determine the
permeability of granular soils like sands and gravels containing little or no silt.
1. Permeameter mould of non-corrodible material having a capacity of 1000 ml

2. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable extension
counter.
3. Compacting equipment: 50 mm diameter circular face, weight 2.76 kg and height of fall
310 mm as specified in I.S 2720 part VII 1965.
4. Drainage bade: A bade with a porous disc, 12 mm thick which has the permeability 10
times the expected permeability of soil.
5. Drainage cap: A porous disc of 12 mm thick, having a fitting for connection to water
inlet or outlet.
6. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the
permeameter under constant head.
7. Graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge.
8. Stop watch to note the time.
9. A meter scale to measure the head differences and length of specimen.
Theory:
The knowledge of this property is much useful in solving problems involving yield of water
bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of
canal bank affected by seepage, settlement etc. Permeability of soil can be determined from

Darcy‟s Law. The equation to determine the permeability of soil using constant head
permeability test is given by:
k = (QL)/(Aht)
Where, k = coefficient of permeability
Q = volume of water collected in time t
h = head causing flow
A = cross sectional area of sample
L = length of sample
 A constant head permeameter shown schematically in the figure.

 For a typical setup the following dimensions are used
i. Internal diameter of the mould = 100 mm.
ii. Effective height of the mould = 127.3 mm.
iii. Detachable collar: 100 mm diameter and 60 mm height.
iv. Drainage base, having a porous disc.
 Weighing balance, and other accessories.
Precautions:
1. All possible leakage of joints must be eliminated.

2. Porous stones must be saturated before being put to use.
3. De-aired and distilled water should be used to prevent choking of flowing water.
4. Soil sample must be carefully saturated before taking the observations.
5. Use of high heads, which result in turbulent flows, should be avoided.
Procedure:
a) A constant-head test assembly is as given in below figure.
b) Select a representative soil mass of about 2.5 kg properly mixed.
c) Fill the soil into the mould and compact it to the required dry density by making
use of a suitable compacting device.
d) Set the assembly as shown in figure after saturating the porous stones.
e) The water supply is properly adjusted to maintain constant head.
f) Open the valve and saturate the sample by allowing water to flow through for a sufficiently
long time to remove all air-bubbles.
g) When the whole setup is ready for the test, open the valve, allow the water to flow through
the sample collect water in a graduated jar starting simultaneously a stopwatch. Note the
time to collect a certain quantity of water Q.
h) Repeat the test three times and determine the average of Q for the same time interval t.
i) Measure the head h, length of sample L, and calculate the cross sectional area A of the
sample.
Calculate k by making use of equation

Observation:
Length of Soil sample L= cm

Diameter of Soil sample D= cm
Area of soil sample A=
Constant head h= cm
Table 11: Constant Head Method
Quantity of water k=(QL)/(Ath)

Sl. No Time t = sec
Q= ml (cm/sec)
Result:
Coefficient of Permeability of soil k = cm/sec
The table below gives rough values of the coefficient of permeability of various soils:
Value of permeability
Type of soil
(cm/sec)
Gravel 103 to 1.0
Sand 1.0 to 10-3
Silt 10-3 to 10-6
Clay less than 10-3
Conclusion:
The type of soil tested is as the permeability falls in the range as shown in the above
table.

Viva Questions:
1. What is Darcy‟s law of flow velocity through soils? What are its Limitations?
2. What are the steady and unsteady flows of water? What type of flow is assumed to occur in
soils?
3. What are the laboratory methods of determination of coefficient of permeability of soil?
State their suitability.
4. What is the effect of entrapped air on the coefficient of permeability of soil?
5. Constant head method is suitable for what type of soils?
6. Soil with largest void ratio has lesser or more permeability?
7. Coefficient of permeability is also called as?
8. Will the permeability of soil cause seepage of water through earth dams?
9. In the above case, what can we do to reduce seepage?

Falling Head Permeability Test for Fine Grained Soils
Aim: To determine the coefficient of permeability of a given soil sample by Variable head
permeability test.
The passage of water through porous material is called seepage. A material with
continuous voids is called a permeable material. Hence permeability is a property of a porous
material which permits passage of fluids through interconnecting conditions. Hence
permeability is defined as the rate of flow of water under laminar conditions through a unit
cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow through a porous medium under
unit hydraulic gradient and under standard temperature conditions.
Specifications:
IS 2720-17 (1986): Methods of test for soils, Part 17. This test is used for fine grained
soils with intermediate and low permeability such as silts and clays. This testing method can
be applied to an undisturbed sample.
All the accessories are the same as the constant head test and the following:
Graduated glass stand pipe and the clamp
Supporting frame for the stand pipe and the clamp
Theory:
The falling head permeability test involves flow of water through a relatively short
soil sample connected to a standpipe which provides the water head and also allows
measuring the volume of water passing through the sample. The diameter of the standpipe
depends on the permeability of the tested soil. The test is carried out in falling head
permeameter cell.
Before starting the flow measurements, the soil sample is saturated and the standpipes
are filled with de-aired water to a given level. The test then starts by allowing water to flow
through the sample until the water in the standpipe reaches a given lower limit. The time
required for the water in the standpipe to drop from the upper to the lower level is recorded.
Often, the standpipe is refilled and the test is repeated for couple of times. The recorded time
should be the same for each tests within an allowable variation of about 10% (Head 1982)
otherwise the test is failed.
The below equation can be used:
k = ((2.3  a  L)/(A(t2-t1)))log10(h1/h2)
Where, L = length of soil sample column
A = Sample cross-section
a = the cross-section of the standpipe
(t2-t1) = the recorded time for the water column to flow though the sample
h1 and h2 = the upper and lower water level in the standpipe measured
using the same water head reference
Precautions:
1. All possible leakage of joints must be eliminated.

2. Porous stones must be saturated before being put to use.
3. De-aired and distilled water should be used to prevent choking of flowing water.
4. Soil sample must be carefully saturated before taking the observations.
5. Use of high heads, which result in turbulent flows, should be avoided.
Procedure:
a) Open the valves in the standpipe and the bottom outlet. Ensure that the soil sample is
fully saturated without any entrapping of air bubble before starting the test.
b) Fill the standpipe with water keeping the valves V1 and V2 open and allow the water
to flow out through the outlet pipe for some time and then close the valves.
c) Select in advance the heights h1 and h2 for the water to fall and determine the height
h1h2 and mark this height on the stand pipe.
d) Open the valves and fill the standpipe with water up to height h1 and start the
stopwatch.
e) Record the time intervals for water to fall from height h1 to h1h2 and from  h1h2 to
h2. These two time intervals will be equal if a steady flow condition has been established.
f) Repeat the step (e) at least after changing the heights h1 and h2.
g) Stop the test and disconnect all the parts.
h) Take a small quantity of the sample for water content determination.
Table 12 (a): Observations

Length of Soil sample L = cm
Diameter of Soil sample D = cm
Area of soil sample A = cm2
Area of stand pipe a = cm2
Table 12(b): Computation of coefficient of permeability

Initial
Final Head Time t
Head
Sl.No (h2) cm in seconds k=((2.3  a  L)/(At))log10(h1/h2)
(h1) cm
1
2
3

Result:
Coefficient of Permeability of soil k= ----------------------- cm/sec
The coefficient of permeability of a soil describes how easily a liquid will move through a soil. It
is also commonly referred to as the hydraulic conductivity of a soil. This factor can be affected by
the viscosity, or thickness (fluidity) of a liquid and its density. The number can also be affected by
the void size, or region of non-soil, void continuity, and soil particle shape and surface roughness.
It is an important factor when determining the rate at which a fluid will actually flow through a
particular type of soil.
Table 12(C): Typical permeability coefficients for different soils

Soil Type Typical Permeability, k(cm/sec)
Gravels and Coarse Sands > 10-1
Fine Sands 10-1 to 10-3
Silty Sands 10-3 to 10-5
Silts 10-5 to 10-7
Clays < 10-7
Conclusion:
As per the value of coefficient of permeability ( ), type of soil from
the above table is .
Viva Questions:
1. A fully saturated soil is said to be in which phase?

2. Valid range of degree of saturation of soil in percentage is?
3. If the voids of a soil mass are full of air only, the soil is termed as?
4. Which method is the most suitable to determine the permeability of the clayey
soil?
5. Is there any connection between permeability of soil and temperature? If
temperature increases, will permeability increase?
6. In the case of natural deposits, permeability is higher parallel to stratification or
perpendicular to stratification?
7. Why is variable head method required to find permeability?
8. What are the important steps in the experiment?
9. What is the time gap taken to take the readings?

Unconfined Compression Test

Aim: To determine the unconfined compression test of soil.
It is not always possible to conduct the bearing capacity test in the field. Sometimes it
is cheaper to take the undisturbed soil sample and test its strength in the laboratory. Also to
choose the best material for the embankment, one has to conduct strength tests on the samples
selected. Under these conditions it is easy to perform the unconfined compression test on
undisturbed and remoulded soil sample.
Specifications:
The test is conducted as per IS 2720-10 (1991): Methods of test for soils, Part 10:
Determination of unconfined compressive strength [CED 43: Soil and Foundation
Engineering]. The test is performed on a cylindrical sample with a height to diameter ratio of
2: 1. The sample is placed between the plates of a mechanical load frame without any
covering or lateral support. Load and deformation readings are noted until the failure of the
sample or a strain of 20%, whichever is smaller.
1. Loading frame of capacity of 2 t, with constant rate of movement. What is the least
count of the dial gauge attached to the proving ring!
2. Proving ring of 0.01 kg sensitivity for soft soils; 0.05 kg for stiff soils.
3. Soil trimmer.
4. Frictionless end plates of 75 mm diameter (Perspex plate with silicon grease
coating).
5. Evaporating dish (Aluminum container).
6. Soil sample of 75 mm length.
7. Dial gauge (0.01 mm accuracy).
8. Balance of capacity 200 g and sensitivity to weigh 0.01 g.
9. Oven thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the
temperature at the desired level. What is the range of the temperature used for drying the
soil
10. Sample extractor and split sampler.
11. Dial gauge (sensitivity 0.01mm).

Theory:
The unconfined compression test is by far the most popular method of soil shear testing
because it is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of measuring shear strength. The method
is used primarily for saturated, cohesive soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The
unconfined compression test is in appropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because the
materials would fall apart without some land of lateral confinement.
In the unconfined compression test, we assume that no pore water is lost from the sample
during set-up or during the shearing process. A saturated sample will thus remain saturated
during the test with no change in the sample volume, water content, or void ratio. More
significantly, the sample is held together by an effective confining stress that results from
negative pore water pressures (generated by menisci forming between particles on the sample
surface). Pore pressures are not measured in an unconfined compression test; consequently,
the effective stress is unknown. Hence, the undrained shear strength measured in an
unconfined test is expressed in terms of the total stress
Precautions:
1. Both the ends of the sample are shaped so that it should sit properly on the bottom plate
of the loading frame.
2. Rate of loading of the sample should be constant.
Procedure:
a) The sample is prepared in the same way as for a triaxial test. Its natural water
content and dry density are determined prior to the testing. The length (Lo) and
diameter (do) are also measured.
b) Set the sample on the pedestal of the equipment and complete all the necessary
adjustments for applying on axial loads.
c) Apply the axial load at a strain of about 0.5 to 2 % per minute and continue the
load till the sample fails OR the deformation reaches 20 % of axial strain.
d) Sketch the failure pattern and measure the angle of failure if possible.
e) Take a small sample of soil from the failure zone for water content determination.
Calculations:
a) The axial strain, % = (L/Lo)100

Where, L = change in length of specimen.
Lo = Initial length of specimen.
b) Corrected area A, A = Ao/(1-)
Where, Ao = initial sectional area of the specimen.
c) Compressive stress, 1, (which is the principal stress) is 1= P/A where P = axial load.
A plot of 1versus  gives the maximum stress, which is the unconfined compressive
strength of the soil specimen.

Observations and tabulation:

Initial data available
a) Do = cm, L = cm, Ao = cm²
b) Initial bulk density, t = gm/cm³
c) Initial water content, w = %
Table 13: Data Sheet for Sample 1

Corrected Stress
Strain dial ΔL Axial Strain Proving ring Axial Load
area, A σ=P/A
reading (mm) % reading (PR) P(kg)
(cm2 ) (kg/cm2 )
Note: Plot a graph of Compressive stress as ordinate and Axial Strain as abscissa.
Result:
Average unconfined compressive stress qu= ------------ kg/cm2
Angle of internal friction Ø = ---------

Undrained cohesive strength --------------- kg/cm2
Minimum three samples should be tested; correlation can be made between unconfined
strength and field SPT value N practically. Up to 6% strain the readings may be taken at
every min (30 sec).
Conclusion:
Unconfined compressive strength, qu = . Shear strength, S = qu/2 = .

Viva Questions:
1. What is the difference between unconfined compression test and triaxial test?
2. What is meant by unconfined compression strength of soil?
3. Plot roughly the Mohr circle for Unconfined Compressive Strength of soil.
4. Explain the procedure to determine the Unconfined compressive strength of soil.
5. How is sensitivity determined?
6. Why we need Mohr‟s circle for this experiment?
7. Is there any stress which cannot be determined in the case of UCC?
8. Could the drainage condition be handled in UCC?

Determination of Shear Parameters by Direct Shear Test
Aim: To determine the shear strength of soil using the direct shear apparatus.
In many engineering problems such as design of foundation, retaining walls, slab

bridges, pipes, sheet piling, the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil
involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict these parameters
quickly. The laboratory report covers the laboratory procedures for determining these values
for cohesion-less soils.
Specifications:
The test is conducted as per IS: 2720- 13 (1986), method of tests for soils. One kg of
air dry sample passing through 4.75mm IS sieve is required for this test.
Shear box apparatus consisting of
(a) Shear box 60 mm square and 50 mm deep,

(b) Grid plates, porous stones, etc.
(c) Loading device
(d) Other accessories.
Theory:
Box shear tests can be used for the following tests.
1. Quick and consolidated quick tests on clay soil samples.
2. Slow test on any type of soil.
Only using box shear test apparatus may carry the drained or slow shear tests on sand. As
undisturbed samples of sand is not practicable to obtain, the box is filled with the sand
obtained from the field and compacted to the required density and water content to stimulate
field conditions as far as possible.
So far clay soil is concerned the undisturbed samples may be obtained from the field. The
sample is cut to the required size and thickness of box shear test apparatus and introduced
into the apparatus. The end surfaces are properly trimmed and leveled. I9f tests on remolded
soils of clay samples are required; they are compacted in the mould to the required density
and moisture content.

Equation:
Coulomb‟s equation is used for computing the shear parameters.
For clay soils
S=c+tan
for sand
S= tan
Where, S = shear strength of soil in
kg/cm2c = unit cohesion (kg/cm2)
= normal load applied on the surface of the specimen (kg/cm2)
= angle of shearing resistance (degrees)
In a Direct Shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the
failure plane is horizontal. The normal stress (s) on this plane is the external vertical load
divided by the area of the soil sample. The shear stress at failure is the external lateral load
divided by the corrected area of soil sample. The main advantage of direct shear apparatus is
its simplicity and smoothness of operation and the rapidity with which testing programmes
can be carried out. But this test has the disadvantage that lateral pressure and stresses on
planes other than the plane of shear are not known during the test.
Precautions:
1. The dimensions of the shear box should be measured accurately.

2. Before allowing the sample to shear, the screw joining the two halves of the box
should be taken out.
3. Rate of strain or shear displacement rate should be constant throughout the test.
4. The spacing screws after creating required spacing between two halves of the shear
box, should be turned back to make them clear of the lower part.
5. For drained test, the porous stones should be saturated by boiling in water.
6. Add the self weight of the loading yoke in the vertical load.
7. Failure of the soil specimen is assumed when the proving ring dial gauge reading
begins to recede after reaching its maximum or at a 20% shear displacement of the
specimen length.
8. One soil specimen should be tested with not more than three normal loading conditions as
beyond this, the particle size of soil sample may change due to application of shear and
normal load.

Procedure:
a) Place the sample of soil into the shear box, determine the water content and dry
density of the soil compacted.
b) Make all the necessary adjustments for applying vertical load, for measuring
vertical and lateral movements and measurement of shearing force, etc.
c) Apply a known load on the specimen and then keep it constant during the course of
the test (for consolidation keep it for a long time without shearing, and quick tests
apply the shearing without consolidation soon after placing the vertical load ).
Adjust the rate of strain as required of the specimen.
d) Shear the specimen till failure of the specimen is noticed or the shearing resistance
decreases. Take the readings of the gauges during the shearing operation.
e) Remove the specimen from the box at the end of the test, and determine the final water
content.
f) Repeat the tests on three or four identical specimens.
The test sample of cohesion less soil with a little cohesion is given in tabular form below.
(1) Soil density d = 1.62 g/cm³
Data sheet for sample 1: (for sample 2, 3, and 4 similar data sheets are to be prepared)
Initial area = Ao = 66 = 36 cm². Initial thickness = 2.4 cm.  = 0.5 kg/cm²
Table 14: Data Sheet for Direct Shear Test
Horizontal Horizontal Proving Vertical Vertical

Corrected Force ζ Ht
dial gauge displaceme ring Dial Displaceme nt
area (cm2) (kg) (kg/cm2) (cm)
reading nt(mm) reading reading (mm)
0 0 36 0 0

* Corrected area in cm2 is given by b (b-horizontal displacement) b= width of shear box=6cm
From three samples the following results are obtained
Shear stress at
Normal stress failure
Test No σ(kg/cm2) ζ(kg/cm2)
1 0.5
2 1.0
3 1.5
From the results a graph of Horizontal displacement VS Shear stress is drawn. Mohr‟s circles are
also plotted.
From Mohr‟s circle the following details are obtained;
Major Principal stress σ1= kg/cm2

Minor principal stress σ2= kg/cm2
Inclination to major principal stress θ1= degrees
Inclination to minor principal stress θ2= degrees
Result:
Angle of internal friction Ǿ=-----
Unit cohesion C= --------- kg/cm2
Verification and Validation:
The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness of

grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28 o
(uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46 o (well graded sand with
angular grains in dense state). The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and
rolling friction and interlocking action.
Conclusion:
The given soil has angle of friction as and Cohesion value of

Viva Questions:
1. Why is shear strength of soil required?

2. Could we use direct shear test for sand and clay?
3. Is it at the predetermined plane the failure is happening in the direct shear test or
naturally?
4. Is there any other apparatus using which we can determine the shear strength of soil?
Name those.
5. Will this test give reliable undrained strength?
6. What are the initial adjustments required for the equipment?
7. What is the proving ring capacity in direct shear test?
8. What are the steps taken to get accurate result?


Triaxial Test
Aim: To determine the shear strength parameters of soil by unconsolidated, undrained

triaxial compression test without the measurement of pore water pressure.
Theory: Shear strength of soil; Components of shear strength; Total stress, Pore water pressure
and Effective stress; Types of shear tests; Total and effective stress shear strength parameters;
Conventional failure envelope; Modified failure envelope; Significance of shear strength of soils.
Apparatus
1. Triaxial cell with transparent chamber, capable of with-standing internal fluid pressure up to 10
kg/cm2 (i.e., 100 kPa), with all accessories.
2. Apparatus for applying and maintaining the desired fluid pressure within the cell, to an accuracy
of 0.1 kg/cm2 (i.e., 10 kPa).
3. Compression machine capable of applying axial compression on the specimen at convenient
speeds.
4. Dial gauge to measure axial compression.
5. Proving ring to measure the additional axial load
6. Seamless rubber membranes.
7. Membrane stretcher
8. Rubber rings.
9. Air tight, non-corrodible containers for moisture content determination.
10. Balance with weights.
11. Apparatus for sample preparation such as split mould, trimming knife, wire saw, metal straight
edge, metal scale etc.
12. Thermostatically controlled hot air oven.
Sample Preparation
The specimens shall be in the form of right cylinders of nominal diameters 38 mm with a height to
diameter ratio two.
a) Undisturbed Specimens
The undisturbed sample in a thin walled tube having the same internal diameter as that of the
specimen required for testing shall be extruded out of the tube with the help of a sample extruder
and pushed into a split mould. The ends of the specimen shall be trimmed flat and normal to its
axis. Then, the specimen shall be taken out of the split mould.
b) Remoulded Specimens
The remoulded specimens may be obtained by compacting the soil at required dry density and
water content in a big size mould and then, may be extracted with the help of sampling tubes.
Procedure
1. Measure the length, diameter and the mass of the specimen accurately.
2. Cover the pedestal of the triaxial cell with a solid end cap or keep the drainage valve closed.
Place the specimen on the solid end cap, on the pedestal of the triaxial cell and place the other end
cap on the top of the specimen. Place a rubber membrane around the specimen using membrane
stretcher and seal the membrane to the end caps by means of rubber rings.
3. Assemble the cell with the loading ram initially clear of the top of the specimen and place it on
the loading machine.

4. Admit the operating fluid into the cell and bring its pressure to the desired value.
5. Adjust the loading machine such that the loading ram comes just in contact with the seat on the
top of the specimen. Note the initial reading on the dial measuring axial compression (or adjust it
to read zero). Also, adjust the proving ring dial reading to zero.
6. Apply an axial compressive force at a constant rate such that the failure occurs within a period
of approximately 5 to 15 minutes. Note down the proving ring readings corresponding to known
compression gauge readings. Continue the loading until the maximum value of the stress has
passed (i.e. until the failure of the specimen is observed) or an axial strain of 20% has been
reached, whichever occurs first.
7. Unload the specimen and drain off the cell fluid. Dismantle the cell and take out the specimen.
Remove the rubber membrane and note down the mode of failure. Weigh the specimen and keep it
for moisture content determination.
8. Repeat the test on three or more identical specimens under different cell pressures.
Observations and Calculations
1. Type of soil:
2. Specimen preparation procedure: Undisturbed / remoulded / compacted
3. Initial length of the specimen (L0) = ............................................... cm
4. Initial diameter of the specimen (D0) = ……………………………….
5. Area of cross section (A0) = .................................................. cm2
6. Volume of specimen (V0) =................................................... cm3
7. Proving ring constant = …………………………………
8. Rate of strain = ……………………………………
9. Water content determination (initial) =……………………………..
10.

11. Cell Pressure:
12. After the tests:
13. Water Content Determination:
14. Plot a graph of deviator stress vs axial strain to get deviator stress at failure.
15. Specimen Calculations

 Axial load (P) = Proving ring constant x proving ring reading =......................... kgf
 Axial strain () = L/Lo = ………………………………………
 Corrected area (A) = Ao/(1 - ) = ............................................................... cm2
 Axial stress () = P/A = ............................................................ kgf/cm2


Consolidation Test
Aim: To determine the consolidation properties of given soil.
Theory: Definition of the terms consolidation, compression index, coefficient of volume

change; pre-consolidated, normally consolidated and under-consolidated sediments;
preconsolidation pressure and its determination; over-consolidation ratio; fixed ring and
floating ring type consolidometers; drainage path; listing of methods to determine the
coefficient of consolidation.
Apparatus
1. Fixed ring type consolidometer cell assembly consisting of specimen ring of height not less
than 20 mm with a height to diameter ratio of about 3, two porous stones, guide ring, outer ring,
pressure pad, steel ball, rubber gasket.
2. Loading frame
3. Dial gauge with an accuracy of 0.002 mm.
4. Balance
5. Thermostatically controlled hot air oven
6. Containers for moisture content determination
7. Mixing basin
8. Soil trimming tools
9. Spatula
10. Ground glass plate/ plate made of Perspex material
11. Whatman No.54 filter papers
12. Stop watch
13. Water reservoir
14. Flexible rubber tube
Procedure
1. Saturate the porous stones either by boiling the porous stones in distilled water for 15
minutes or by submerging them in distilled water for about 5-6 hours. Wipe away the excess
water.
2. Assemble the consolidometer cell with one porous stone at the base and one at the top of the
specimen ring containing the specimen (undisturbed or remoulded). Provide the filter papers
between the porous stones and the specimen.
Note:
i) For testing the over consolidated soil or soils sensitive to moisture content, porous stones
shall be placed dry.
ii) For testing normally consolidated soils, porous Stones shall be wet.
iii) For testing stiffer soils and moisture sensitive soils, no filter papers shall be used.
3. Place the consolidometer cell assembly in position on the loading frame and suitably adjust
its position.
4. Clamp the dial gauge in position to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen such
that it has a sufficient margin to measure the swell, if any. Note down the initial reading of the
dial gauge.
5. Apply a seating stress of 0.05 kgf / cm2 on the specimen.
6. Fill the consolidation cell with distilled water and connect the cell to the water reservoir such
that the level of water in the reservoir and that in the cell are the same.
7. Allow the specimen to reach equilibrium for 24 h.
8. Note down the final dial gauge reading under the seating stress.
9. Apply the next load of intensity such that the stress increment ratio is unity and start the stop
watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge reading at various time intervals.
Note:
i) The recommended loading sequence is 0.05 kgf / cm2, 0.1 kgf / cm2, 0.2 kgf / cm2, 0.4 kgf /
cm2, 0.8 kgf / cm2, 1.6 kgf / cm2, 3.2 kgf / cm2 etc.,. However, a loading sequence of 0.05 kgf /
cm2, 0.1 kgf / cm2, 0.2 kgf / cm2, 0.5 kgf / cm2, 1 kgf / cm2, 2 kgf / cm2, 4 kgf / cm2 etc., may
also be used.
ii) The time sequence for taking the dial gauge readings is such as to facilitate the plotting of
time – compression curve
10. After reaching a near equilibrium state ( which can be judged by the changes in the dial
gauge readings), note down the final dial gauge reading corresponding to the existing stress on
the specimen, increment the stress on the specimen to its next value.
Note: Normal equilibrium loading period is 24h. For some soils, it may be more than 24h.
However, same equilibrium loading period shall be used for all stress increments during the
test.
11. On completion of the final loading stage, start unloading the sample by reducing the stress
by following a stress decrement ratio of 0.25. Allow sufficient time between successive load
decrements and reach the seating stress of 0.05 kgf / cm2.
12. Maintain the stress for 24 h.
13. After recording the final dial gauge reading, siphon out the water from the cell. Quickly
dismantle the specimen from the cell assembly. Remove the excess water on the specimen by
using blotting paper.
14. Record the final mass and height of the specimen.
15. Determine the final water content of the specimen by oven drying method.
16. From the equilibrium dial gauge readings recorded under each effective consolidation
stress on the specimen, calculate the equilibrium void ratios corresponding to each effective
consolidation stress by either the height of solids method or change in void ratio method.
17. Draw void ratio (e) versus log ' curve and calculate the values of pre-consolidation stress
(') (if the tested soil is over consolidated) by either Casagrande‟s method or log-log method,
coefficient of volume change (mv) and compression index (Cc).
18. Calculate the value of coefficient of consolidation (cv) for each stress range by any of the
methods such as square root of time fitting method (Taylor‟s method), logarithm of time fitting
method (Casagrande‟s method), rectangular hyperbola method and one point method.
OR



Demonstration Experiments (For CIE)

Field identification of soil
1. Visual Examination
 only coarse-grained soils can be seen by visual test
 can be done by spreading it on that Surface
 Visual examination is carried out w.r.t size, angularity, touch & grading
2. Dilatancy Test [Reaction to shaking]

 For Fine Soils, some sample of soil is taken in hand.
 Enough water is added to nearly saturate it. Then it is shaken horizontally several times
 The pat is then squeezed between the fingers.
 The appearance & disappearance of water with shaking & squeezing is referred to as positive
reaction.
 The reaction is called quick, if water appears disappears rapidly.
 Slow, if water appears & disappears slowly
 No reaction, water condition does not change.
Note: * "fine sands exhibit quick reaction"

* "Clays exhibit slow reaction or No reaction"
3. Toughness [consistency near plastic limit]

 A soft lump of cohesive soil to be examined is kneaded into threads.
 Increase in stiffness while kneading se termed as toughness.
 The soil is reformed into hump & again kneaded until it crumbles.
Note: * If high pressure is required to roll the thread, soil is said to have high toughness &
* Weak thread that breaks easily are termed as soils having low toughness.
4. Dry Strength [Crushing Resistance]

 A piece of air dried soil is crushed between fingers & its resistance is observed as dry
strength of crushing strength.
 Dry Strength is said to be low, if sample can be broken easily - Silty fine sands
 If it cannot be powdered at all by fingers, is said to have high dry Strength - Clays of high
plasticity
5. Organic content & Colour

 Fresh, wet, organic soils have characteristic pungent odour of organic matter & will be
usually dark in colour.
6. Touch/ Feel
 Sense of touch can be easily used to distinguish silts from clays & from sands.
 Sand - gritty feel
 Silt - rough texture
 Clay - Smooth greasy feel.


Hydrometer Analysis
Theory: Soil gradation (sieve analysis) is the distribution of particle sizes expressed as a
percent of the total dry weight. The percentage of sand, silt and clay in the inorganic fraction
of soil is measured in this procedure. The method is based on Stokes‟s law governing the rate
of sedimentation of particles suspended in water.
Need and Scope: The results of testing will reflect the condition and characteristics of the
aggregate from which the sample is obtained. Therefore, when sampling, it is important to
obtain a disturbed representative sample that is representative of the source being tested
because the distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil.
Apparatus Required:
1. Glass Cylinders of 1000-Ml Capacity
2. Thermometer
3. Hydrometer
4. Electric Mixer with Dispersing Cup
5. Balance Sensitive to ± 0.01g
6. Stop Watch & Beaker
Re-Agents Required: Dispersing Solution-4% (Dissolve 5 G of Sodium Hexa-

Metaphosphate in De-Ionized Water of 125 ML)
Procedure:
Soil passing 4.75mm I.S. Sieve and retained on 75micron I.S. Sieve contains no fines. Those
soils can be directly dry sieved rather than wet sieving.
Wet Sieving: If the soil contains a substantial quantity (say more than 5%) of fine particles, a
wet sieve analysis is required. All lumps are broken into individual particles.
1. Take 200gm of oven dried soil sample and soaked with water.
2. If de-flocculation is required, 2% calgon solution is used instead of water.
3. The sample is stirred and left for soaking period of at least 1 hour.
4. The slurry is then sieved through 4.75 mm sieve and washed with a jet of water.
5. The material retained on the sieve is the gravel fraction, which should be dried in oven and
weighed.
6. The material passing through 4.75 mm sieve is sieved through 75 micron sieve.
7. The material is washed until the water filtered becomes clear.
8. The soil passed through 75 micron sieve is collected and dried in oven.
Hydrometer Analysis:
9. Take 40 gm of the oven dry soil sample after removing soluble salts and organic matter if
any. 10. It is then mixed with 4% solution of dispersing agent in water to get a known
amount of suspension by volume and stirred well.
11. This suspension should be made 24 hrs before testing.
12. After 24 hours, the suspension is again mixed using Electric mixer with dispersing cup
and 13. Following stirring with mixer, the suspension which is made up to 1000 ml in the

measuring cylinder is turned end to end for even distribution of particles before the time„t‟
begins to be measured.
14. The hydrometer readings are recorded at regular intervals as indicated in the data sheet.
From the data obtained the particle size distribution curve is plotted in the semi-logarithmic
graph sheet along with the dry sieve analysis results.
Corrections (Individual):
 Meniscus Correction (Cm):
Since the suspension is opaque, the readings will be taken at the top of the meniscus while the
actual should be from the bottom of the meniscus. It is constant for a hydrometer (Always
positive).
 Temperature Correction (Ct):
If the temperature is less than 270C, the correction is negative and vice-versa. Temperature
should be measured from starting till end of the tests at regular intervals and are averaged.
Then it is compared with the standard temperature (27 0C).
 Dispersion Agent Correction (Cd):
Addition of calgon always increases the specific gravity of the specimen. Hence, this
correction is always negative.
Alternative Corrections (Combined):
 Composite Correction for Dispersion Agent and Temperature, (Ct – Cd):
Insert the hydrometer in the comparison cylinder containing dispersant solution in distilled
water with the same concentration as used for making the soil suspension. The Composite
correction (Ct – Cd) is negative of the hydrometer reading corresponding to the top meniscus.
It has to be taken every 30 minutes throughout the test.
Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfDW3Fw9cL0

Determination of Water Content of Soil Solids by Rapid Moisturemeter
Aim: To determine the water content of soil solids by Rapid Moisturemeter method.
Theory: This method for rapid determination of water content from the gas pressure developed
by the reaction of calcium carbide with the free water of the soil. From the calibrated scale of
the pressure gauge the percentage of water on total (wet) mass of soil is obtained and the same
is converted to water content on dry mass of soil.
Apparatus:
1. Metallic Pressure Vessel-with clamp for scaling cup, and a gauge calibrated in percentage
water content
2. Counter imposed Balance – for weighing sample
3. Scoop for measuring absorbent (calcium carbide).
4. One Bottle of the Absorbent (Calcium Carbide)
5. One Clean Brush
6. Steel Balls – three steel balls of about 12-5 mm diameter and one steel ball of 25 mm
diameter.
Procedure:
1. The apparatus required for the test includes one metallic pressure vessel with clamp for
sealing cup and a gauge calibrated in percentage water. One counterpoint balance, a scoop
for measuring calcium carbide and three steel balls of 12.5 mm diameter and one steel ball of
25 mm diameter.
2. Set up the balance and place the sample in the pan till the mark on the balance arm mass lines
up with the index mark.
3. Unclamp the clamping screw to move the U-clamp off the cup. Lift off the cup. Clean the
cup and the body.
4. Hold the body horizontally and gently deposit one level scoopful of calcium carbide halfway
inside the chamber. Then lay the chamber down without disturbing the calcium carbide
charge and transfer the soil weighed out as above from the pan to the cup.
5. Holding cup and chamber approximately horizontal bring them together, without disturbing
sample or calcium carbide, bring the U clamp round and clamp the cup tightly into place.
6. With the gauge downwards, shake the moisture meter up and down vigorously for 5 seconds,
then quickly turn it so that the gauge is upwards, give a tap to the body of the moisture meter
to ensure that all the contents fall into the cup.
7. Hold the rapid moisture meter downward, again shake for 5 seconds, then turn it with gauge
upwards and tap. Hold for one minute. Repeat this for a third time. Once more invert the
rapid moisture meter and shake up and down to cool the gas. Turn the rapid moisture meter
with the gauge upwards, and dial horizontal held at chest height when the needle comes to

rest, take the reading. The readings on the meter are the percentages of water on the wet mass
basis.
8. Alternatively, the three smaller steel balls can be placed in the cup along with the soil and the
larger one in the body along with the absorbent and seal up the unit as usual. Hold the rapid
moisture meter vertical so that the material in the cup falls into the body. Now holding the
unit horizontally, rotate it for 10 seconds so that the balls are rolled round the inside
circumference of the body. Rest for 20 seconds. Repeat the rotation – rest cycle until the
gauge reading is constant (usually this takes 4 to 8 min). Note the reading as usual.
9. Finally release the pressure slowly (away from the operator) by opening the clamp screw and
taking the cup out, empty the contents and clean the instrument with a brush.
10. Calculate the water content (W) on the dry mass from the water content (M) obtained on the
wet mass basis as the reading on the rapid moisture meter, as follows:
W = [M/(100-M)]*100
Where, W = percent water content of the dry mass
M = percent water content of the wet mass
Note: The absorbent is highly susceptible to absorption of moisture and so shall not be
exposed to atmosphere; as a result the absorbent suffers deterioration and will give results on
the lower side. Replace the lid of the absorbent container firmly as soon as the required
amount of the absorbent for a test is taken from the bottle. The absorbent suffers deterioration
with time.

Determination of shrinkage limit of the soil.

Aim: To determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.
The value of shrinkage limit is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage
properties of cohesive soils. It is used for calculating the shrinkage factors which helps in
the design problems of the structures made up of the soils or/and resting on soil. It gives an
idea about the suitability of the soil as a construction material in foundations, roads,
embankments and dams.
Specifications:
The test is specified in IS: 2720(Part 6)-1972. The 30 g soil passing 425 micron
sieve is used for the test.
a. 2 numbers of porcelain evaporating dish, about 12 cm in diameter within a flat
bottom.
b. 3 numbers of shrinkage dish made of non-corroding metal, having a flat bottom, 45
mm diameter and 15 mm high.
c. A glass cup of about 50 mm diameter and 25 mm high.
d. Two numbers glass plates of size 7575 mm, one plate of plane glass and the other
with three metal prongs.
e. Spatula balance accurate to 0.01 g, oven etc.
f. Mercury.
g. Desiccators and other accessories.
Theory:
As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or by artificial means in
laboratory, it changes from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and then to solid
state. The volume is also reduced by the decrease in water content. But, at a particular limit
the moisture reduction causes no further volume change. A shrinkage limit test gives a
quantitative indication of how much moisture can change before any significant volume
change and to also indication of change in volume. The shrinkage limit is useful in areas
where soils undergo large volume changes when going through wet and dry cycles (e.g.
earth dams).
Shrinkage limits are required to be determined on two types of soils, they are
i. Remoulded soil.
ii. Undisturbed soil.
Other shrinkage factors i.e. shrinkage ratio, volumetric shrinkage may also be
calculated from the test data of shrinkage limit.

Shrinkage ratio is the ratio of a given volume change expressed as a percentage of dry
volume to the corresponding change in water content above the shrinkage limit.
Volumetric Shrinkage is the decrease in volume of a soil mass when the water content is
reduced from given percentage to the shrinkage limit and which is expressed as percentage of
dry volume of the soil mass.
Precautions:
Caution: Do Not Touch The Mercury With Gold Rings

 The water content of the soil taken in shrinkage dish should be above liquid limit but
within 10% from liquid limit.
 To prevent the cake from adhering to the shrinkage dish and consequent cracking of
the dry soil paste, inside of the shrinkage dish should be greased with vaseline.
 During filling the shrinkage dish with soil paste, sufficient tapping should be dne
to remove the entrapped air.
 The dry soil paste should be weighed soon after it has been removed from a
desiccators otherwise it picks up moisture from the air.
 Test should be repeated at least three times for each sample and the average of the
results thus obtained reported.
 No air should be entrapped under the dry soil paste when pressing by the glass
with prongs is being carried out.
Procedure:
a) Select a representative sample of soil of about 100 g passing through 425 micron
sieve.
b) Take 30 g out of it and place the same in an evaporating dish. Mix it thoroughly
with distilled water and make it into a thin paste for readily filling into a dish free
from air bubbles.
Determination of mass and volume of shrinkage dish:

a) Take a shrinkage dish, clean it and find its mass correct to 0.1 gm (M3). = g
b) To determine its volume, place it in an evaporating dish. Fill the shrinkage dish
with mercury till the excess overflows to the evaporating dish.
c) Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicon grease or Vaseline.
Place a part of the soil paste prepared earlier at the centre of the dish so that it may
occupy about one-third of its volume.
d) Find the mass of the wet soil with the dish immediately after filling (M1)= g
e) Keep the dish with soil exposed to air until the colour of the pat turns from black to
light.
f) Select a glass cup with a flat bottom and keep ion an evaporating dish. Fill the cup with
mercury and remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate with three prongs
firmly over the top of the cup.
g) Remove the split over the mercury, take out the glass plate with the prongs, place the dry
soil pat on the surface of the mercury.
h) Force the soil pat into the mercury by pressing with the same glass plate with the prongs.
Collect carefully the split over mercury and find its mass (Mm)= g

The volume of the dry soil pat Vd is
Vd = Mm/ 13.6.
Where, 13.6 is the density of mercury in g/cm3

Calculation of shrinkage limit, Ws
Mass of wet soil = Mo = (M1-M3) =------------ g

Mass of dry soil = Ms = (M2–M3) = ------------ g
Volume of shrinkage dish = Volume of wet soil = Vo = ---------------
Volume of dry soil = Vd = ---------------
Vd = Mm / 13.6 where, 13.6 g/cm3 is the density
  Shrinkage limit, Ws is Ws = ((Mo-Ms) - (Vo - Vd)w)/Ms

Shrinkage ratio, Sr = ((Vo- Vd)/Vo)*100
In this case G is known in advance. The equation to be used for determining Ws is
Ws = [(Vd/Ms)-(1/G)]*100
For the undistributed soil we need to know only the volume of an undistributed dry pot of
soil sample of diameter 45 mm and thickness 15 mm. Round off its edges to prevent the
entrapment of air during mercury displacement. Air dry the sample initially and then dry
over the same. Find its mass (Ms) after cooling it in a desiccator, and then its volume Vd by
mercury displacement method. Ws may now be found out by use of equation
Ws = [(Vd/Ms)-(1/G)]*100.
Result:
The shrinkage limit Ws=------------------

Value of shrinkage limit varies from 13 to 26.

Conclusion:
The shrinkage limit of soil is

Viva Question:
1. How to measure shrinkage limit of soil?

2. Why is mercury used to determine the shrinkage limit of soil?
3. What is the density of mercury?
4. What is the difference between undisturbed and remoulded soil?
5. Is the dry unit and unit weight of soil the same?
6. What is meant by Thixotropy?
7. What is shrinkage limit of soil?
8. If water content is increased above shrinkage limit, what is the effect?

Determination of Swell Pressure of Soil
Aim: To determine the Swell Pressure of the soil.

The value of shrinkage limit is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage
properties of cohesive soils. It is used for calculating the shrinkage factors which helps in
the design problems of the structures made up of the soils or/and resting on soil. It gives an
idea about the suitability of the soil as a construction material in foundations, roads,
embankments and dams.
Theory:
The expansive clays increase in their volume when they come in contact with water owing to
surface properties of these clay types. The pressure which the expansive soil exerts , if it is not
allowed to swell or the volume change of the soil is arrested , is known as Swelling Pressure of
Soil.
The swelling pressure is dependent upon several factors namely (a) the type and amount of
clay in the soil and the nature of the clay mineral, (b) the initial water content and dry density,
(c) the nature of pore fluid, (d) the stress history of the soil including the confining pressure
and (e) drying and wetting cycles to which the soils have been subjected to.
A soil with high swell pressure is considered “unsuitable” for use as embankment fill material
and in case the sub-soil is having high swell pressure then suitable “ground improvement
measures” may be needed before constructing embankment on such soil. One of the methods
for constructing embankments on expansive soils is to lay a CNS (non-swelling clay) layer at
the base of the embankment, to isolate the sub-soil from the moisture (mainly rain water)
coming in vertically downwards direction. For any clay to be classified as “CNS (non-swelling
clay)”, it should not have swell pressure more than the specified value (normally 0.5 kg/m2).
In laboratory, one dimensional swelling pressure test is conducted using either fixed or the
floating rings on both undisturbed and re-moulded soils in the partially saturated condition.
Two methods are employed, namely, “consolidometer method” in which the volume change of
the soil is permitted and the corresponding pressure required to bring back the soil to its
original volume is measured and “constant volume method” in which the volume change is
prevented and the consequent pressure is measured.
Apparatus:
A device to hold the sample in a ring either fixed or floating with porous stones on each
face of the sample. A consolidometer shall also provide means for submerging the sample,
for applying a vertical load and for measuring the change in the thickness of the specimen.
The provision for fixing of the dial gauge shall be rigid and in no case shall the dial gauge
be fixed to a cantilevered arm. The dial gauges shall be fixed in such a way to record the
vertical expansion of the specimen. (a) Specimen Diameter: 60mm. (b) Specimen
Thickness: Shall be at least 20mm in all cases. However, the thickness shall not be less than
10 times the maximum diameter of the grain in the soil specimen. The diameter to thickness
ratio shall be a minimum of 3. (c) Ring: The ring shall be made of non-corrosive material.
(d) Porous Stones: The stones shall be of silicon carbide or aluminum oxide and of medium
grade. It shall have a high permeability compared to that of the soil being tested. The
diameter of the top stone shall be 0.2 to 0.5mm less than the internal diameter of the ring.
Procedure:
1 By Consolidometer Method:
i) Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples: Clean and weigh the
empty container. Cut-off the specimen either from undisturbed tube sample or from
block sample, the latter generally being more representative of the field conditions.
Remove about 30 mm height of soil from one end of the soil sample. Gradually
insert the consolidation ring in the sample by pressing with hands and carefully
removing the material around the ring. The soil specimens cut shall project as far as
10mm on either side of the ring. Then trim the specimen smooth and flush with the
top and bottom of the ring. Wipe the container ring clear of any soil sticking to the
outside and weigh again with the soil. The whole process should be quick to ensure
minimum loss of moisture and if possible shall be carried out in the moisture room.
The representative specimens from the soil trimming shall be taken in moisture
content cans and their moisture content determined in accordance with IS:2720
(Part-XI).
ii) Preparation of Specimen from Disturbed Soil Sample: The soil sample shall be
compacted to the desired (field) density and water content in a standard compaction
proctor mould. Samples suitable sizes are cut from it as given in Para (i) above.
Note-1: Since swelling pressure of the soil is very much influenced by its initial water
content and dry density, it shall be ensured that in the case of undisturbed soil samples,
the specimen shall be collected from the field for test during the driest season of the
year, so that the swelling pressure recorded shall be maximum. In case of remoulded
soil sample the initial water content shall be at the shrinkage limit or field water
content, so that the swelling pressure recorded shall be maximum.
Note-2: The desiccated soil obtained from the field coupled with smaller thickness
consolidation ring make the undisturbed soil specimen always in danger of being
disturbed during trimming; hence great care shall be taken to handle the specimen
delicately with the least pressure applied to the soil.
iii) Saturate the porous stones by boiling in distilled water for at least 15 minutes
and moisten all surfaces of the consolidometer which are to be enclosed.
Assemble the consolidometer with the soil specimen (in the ring) and porous
stones at top and bottom of the specimen, providing wet filter paper between the
soil specimen and the porous stone. Then position the loading block centrally on
the top porous stone.
iv) Mount this assembly on the loading frame such that load applied is transmitted

to the so specimen through the loading cap.

v) In the case of the lever loading system, the apparatus shall be properly counter-
balanced. If jack with load measurements by platform scales is used as the
loading systems the tare weigh with the empty consolidation apparatus,
excluding those parts which will be on top of the so specimen, which rest on the
platform shall be determined before filling the ring with the soil and this tare
weight shall be added to the computed scale loads required to give the desire
pressures at the time of loading the soil specimen.
vi) Screw the holder with the dial gauge to record the progressive vertical heave of
the specimen under no load
vii) Place initial setting load of 50 gf/cm2 (this includes weight of the porous stone
and the loading pad) on the loading hanger and note initial reading of the dial
gauge. Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method The arrangement for
Swell Pressure Test by Constant Volume Method consists of loading unit (5
tonnes), Proving ring (with high sensitivity, 200 kg capacity) along with all
Apparatus as used in Consolidometer method.
viii) Connect the system to a water reservoir with the level of water in the reservoir
being at about the same level as the soil specimen and allow water to flow in the
sample. Then allow the soil to swell.
ix) Record the free swell readings shown by the dial gauge under the seating load at
different time intervals. The dial gauge readings shall be taken till equilibrium is
reached. This is ensured b making a plot of swelling dial reading versus time in
hours, which plot becomes asymptotic wit abscissa (time scale). The equilibrium
swelling is normally reached over a period of 6 to 7 day in general for all
expansive soils.
x) Then subject the swollen sample to consolidation under different pressures.
Record the compression dial readings till the dial readings attain a steady state
for each load applied over the specimen. The consolidation loads shall be
applied till the specimen attains its origin volume.
2 By Constant Volume Method:
i) Preparation of Specimen from Undisturbed Soil Samples as well as Preparation of
Specimen from Disturbed Soil Sample: Same as for “Consolidometer Method”.
ii) Keep the consolidation specimen ring with the specimen between two porous stones
saturate in boiling water providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and the
porous stone. The loading block shall then be positioned centrally on the top of the
porous stone.
iii) Then place this assembly on the platen of the loading unit. The load measuring
proving ring tip attached to the load frame shall be placed in contact with the
consolidation cell without an eccentricity. A direct strain measuring dial gauge shall be
fitted to the cell. Inundate the specimen with distilled water and allow it to swell.
iv) Note down the initial reading of the proving ring. The swelling of the specimen with
increasing volume shall be obtained in the strain measuring load gauge. To keep the
specimen at constant volume, the platen shall be so adjusted that the dial gauge always
show the original reading This adjustment shall be done at every 1 mm of swell or
earlier. The duration of test shall conform to the requirements given in “Consolidometer
method”. Then dismantle the assembly and extract the soil specimen from the
consolidation ring to determine final moisture content accordance with IS: 2720 (Part-
IX).
Observations and Recording
Table 21 A Details of soil specimen
(By Consolidometer Method/ Constant Volume Method)
Table 21 B Data Sheet for Swell - Compression Test (By Consolidometer Method)
Table 21 C Data Sheet for Swell - Compression Test (By Consolidometer Method)

Calculations and Report:
1 By Consolidometer Method:
The observed swelling dial reading recorded in Table 21A shall be plotted with elapsed time
as abscissa and swelling dial reading as ordinates on natural scale. A smooth curve shall be
drawn joining these points. If the curve so drawn becomes asymptotic with the abscissa, the
swelling has reached its maximum and swelling phase shall be stopped, and the consolidation
phase shall be started. The compression readings shall be tabulated as in Table 21C and a plot
of change in thickness of expanded specimen as ordinates and consolidation pressure applied
as abscissa in semi-logarithmic scale shall be made. The swelling pressure exerted by the soil
specimen under zero swelling condition shall be obtained by interpolation and expressed in
kN/m2 (kgf/cm2).
2 By Constant Volume Method
The difference between the final and initial dial readings of the proving ring gives total load
in terms of division which when multiplied by the calibration factor gives the total load. This
when divided by the cross-sectional area of the soil specimen gives the swell pressure
expressed in kN/m2 (kgf/cm2).
Table 21 D Swell Pressure Data (By Constant Volume Method)

Determination of SPT “N” value
Aim: To determine the “N” value of the soil by Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
Theory: The standard penetration test is an in-situ test that is coming under the category of
Penetrometer tests. The standard penetration tests are carried out in borehole. The test will
measure the resistance of the soil strata to the penetration undergone. A penetration empirical
correlation is derived between the soil properties and the penetration resistance. The test is
extremely useful for determining the relative density and the angle of shearing resistance of
cohesionless soils. It can also be used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of
cohesive soils.
Apparatus: The requirements to conduct SPT are:

1. Standard Split Spoon Sampler
2. Drop Hammer weighing 63.5kg
3. Guiding rod
4. Drilling Rig.
5. Driving head (anvil).
Precautions:
1. Split spoon sampler must be in good condition.

2. The cutting shoe must be free from wear and tear
3. The height of fall must be 750mm. Any change from this will affect the „N‟ value.
4. The drill rods used must be in standard condition. Bent drill rods are not used.
5. Before conducting the test, the bottom of the borehole must be cleaned.
Procedure:
1 The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler.
2 Once the drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and the sampler is
placed inside the bore hole.
3 By means of a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate of
30 blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil. This is as per IS -2131:1963.
4 The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150mm is counted.
5 Further it is driven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.
6 Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the number of blows
recorded. The number of blows recorded for the first 150mm not taken into consideration.
7 The number of blows recorded for last two 150mm intervals are added to give the standard
penetration number (N).
In other words, N = No: of blows required for 150mm penetration beyond seating drive
of 150mm.
Note: If the number of blows for 150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is
discontinued. The standard penetration number is corrected for dilatancy correction and
overburden correction.
 Corrections in Standard Penetration Test
Before the SPT values are used in empirical correlations and in design charts, the field „N‟ value
have to be corrected as per IS 2131 – 1981.
The corrections are:

1. Dilatancy Correction
2. Overburden Pressure Correction
1. Dilatancy Correction
Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water table develop pore water pressure which is not
easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration
number (N). Terzaghi and Peck (1967) recommend the following correction in the case of silty
fine sands when the observed value is N exceeds 15. The corrected penetration number,
NC = 15 + 0.5 (NR -15)
Where NR is the recorded value and N C is the corrected value. If NR less than or equal to 15,
then Nc = NR
2. Overburden Pressure Correction

From several investigations, it is proven that the penetration resistance or the value of N is
dependent on the overburden pressure. If there are two granular soils with relative density same,
higher „N‟ value will be shown by the soil with higher confining pressure. With the increase in
the depth of the soil, the confining pressure also increases. So the value of „N‟ at shallow depth
and larger depths are underestimated and overestimated respectively. Hence, to account this the
values of „N‟ obtained from the test are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.
The corrected value of „N‟ is Nc = CN N
Here CN is the correction factor for the overburden pressure.

Determination of Shear Strength of Soil by Vane Shear Test
Aim: To determine the Shear Strength of Soil by Vane Shear Test.
The structural strength of soil is basically a problem of shear strength. Vane shear test is a
useful method of measuring the shear strength of clay. It is a cheaper and quicker method. The
test can also be conducted in the laboratory. The laboratory vane shear test for the measurement
of shear strength of cohesive soils is useful for soils of low shear strength (less than 0.3 kg/cm2)
for which triaxial or unconfined tests cannot be performed. The test gives the undrained strength
of the soil. The undisturbed and remoulded strength obtained are useful for evaluating the
sensitivity of soil.
Specifications:
The test is conducted as per IS 4434 (1978). This test is useful when the soil is soft and its water
content is nearer to liquid limit.
Equipment Required:
1. Vane shear test apparatus with accessories
2. The soil sample
Theory:
The vane shear test apparatus consists of four stainless steel blades fixed at right angle to each
other and firmly attached to a high tensile steel rod. The length of the vane is usually kept equal to
twice its overall width. The diameters and length of the stainless steel rod were limited to 2.5mm
and 60mm respectively. At this time, the soil fails in shear on a cylindrical surface around the
vane. The rotation is usually continued after shearing and the torque is measured to estimate the
remoulded shear strength. Vane shear test can be used as a reliable in-situ test for determining the
shear strength of soft-sensitive clays. The vane may be regarded as a method to be used under the
following conditions.
1. Where the clay is deep, normally consolidated and sensitive.

2. Where only the undrained shear strength is required.
It has been found that the vane gives results similar to that as obtained from unconfined
compression tests on undisturbed samples.
Procedure:
1. A posthole borer is first employed to bore a hole up to a point just above the required
depth
2. The rod is pushed or driven carefully until the vanes are embedded at the required depth.
3. At the other end of the rod just above the surface of the ground torsion head is used to
apply a horizontal torque and this is applied at a uniform speed of about 0.1degree per
second until the soil fails, thus generating a cylinder of soil
4. The area consists of the peripheral surface of the cylinder and the two round ends.
5. The first moment of these areas divided by the applied moment gives the unit shear
value.

Observations:
Force observed P= --------- kg
Eccentricity (lever arm) x= -------- cm
Turning moment Px= ------------ kg-cm
Length of the vane L= -------- cm
Radius of the vane blades r=---------- cm
Calculations:
2
Undrained Shear strength of Clay Cu=(Px)/(2*.П*r (L+2/3*r))
Result:
Undrained Shear strength of Clay Cu= --------------- kg/cm2
Where the strength is greater than that able to be measured by the vane, i.e., the
pointer reaches the maximum value on the dial without the soil shearing, the result shall
be reported in either of the following two ways e.g195+kPa or >195kPa.
Conclusions:
The vane shear strength of soil is .
Viva Questions:
1. Is this method the direct method to determine the shear strength of soil?
2. Is it possible to determine the sensitivity of clay using this method?
3. What is meant by sensitivity of clay?
4. What are the advantages of vane shear test?
5. What are the disadvantages of vane shear test?

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JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA

JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BENGALURU

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATARY

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY-21CVL55

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

To be among the finest Institutions providing engineering and management education

empowered with research, innovation and entrepreneurship.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

1. Strive towards excellence in teaching –learning process and nurture personality

2. Encourage Research, Innovation & Entrepreneurship.

3. Train to uphold highest ethical standards in all activities.

providing excellent teaching-learning and research"

M1. Impart fundamental technical knowledge through learner-centric teaching methodology.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PO1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

PSO 1. Impart practical knowledge in planning, analysis, design and construction

C305 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 - - - - - - - -

PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C305 3.00 3.00 2.00

1 Do not operate the machines without the permission of the staff

2 Determination of Specific gravity of soil solids by Density bottle 04 05

Experiment No. 1 Date:

Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Pycnometer Method

a) Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity

Equation for specific gravity, G:

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 1

Table 1: Weights of Pycnometer

Test No 1 Test No 2 Test No 3

1. Why we need to compute the specific gravity of soil?

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 2

1. What are the standard values of specific gravity?

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 3

Experiment No. 2 Date:

Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Density Bottle Method

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 4

Table 2: Weights of density bottle

Pre Viva Questions:

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 5

Experiment No. 3 Date:

Determination of Water Content of Soil Solids by Oven Drying Method

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 6

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 7

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 8

Experiment No. 4 Date:

Determination of Particle Size Distribution by Sieving

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 9

Table 4: Sieve Analysis data sheet

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 10

Graph (Grain Size in mm Vs Percentage Finer in %):

Graph1-Grain Size in mm Vs Percentage Finer in %

D10 D30 D60

Grain Size (mm)(Log scale)

Pre Viva Questions:

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 11

The uniformity coefficient, Cu = and Cc = .

Based on the value range, type of soil is:

1. Does grain distribution affect the voids ratio of the soil?

JSS Academy of Technical Education Bengaluru Page 12