CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The widely used material in the construction industry is concrete. The usage of concrete

has been widely used in the construction industry for construction of bridges, canals,

dams, roads, embankments and other major structures. Due to increase in the construction

of the infrastructure the development of the cities taking place with high rate due to

which the use of concrete also increasing in the construction industry.

Concrete is the most commonly used artificial material created by man for construction

purposes. By definition, concrete is a mixture of cement, water, aggregates, and at times

admixtures, in the right proportions. As the mixtures (cement, water, aggregates, and

admixtures) are set, they turned into a shape named concrete. Concrete hardens through a

chemical reaction between water, and cement and it becomes stronger with time. Its

durability, strength, or other qualities depends on the number of mixtures used,

ingredients, the way it is been compacted, and other factors that might influence it during

placing, compacting, and curing. Concrete can be grouped as either design mix concrete

or nominal mix concrete. On some occasions, they are classified as ordinary concrete and

control concrete which depends on the method used for proportioning the concrete mixes

and the measure of control applied in the works. Concrete is used to build architectural

structures, dams, pavements, parking structures, foundations, overpasses, etc.

Cement is one of the most important materials used for mixing concrete. It is

manufactured using raw materials such as Silica, lime, iron oxide, and alumina. The

chemical constituents of this material are as follows. Lime (CAO), 60 to65, silica (SIO 2)

17 to 25, alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8, iron oxide d(Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6. The above constituents

forming the raw materials, undergo chemical reaction during burning and fusion and

combined to form compound called bogue compound. Although there are some factors
influencing the choice of cement selection which includes design parameters, the

functional requirement of a structure, durability characteristics, speed of construction, etc.

but the most commonly used cement is the Ordinary Portland Cement.

Aggregate also plays an important role in concrete mixing, and it forms more than 60% of

a concrete mix. The strength of concrete depends on the aggregate source, size, and type.

Also, aggregates grading, size, and shape can influence concrete workability (Emmanuel,

2016).

Coarse aggregate, these aggregates are largely size fill material in construction and these

aggregates are the particle that remain on 4.75mm sieve. The major source of these

aggregate is dolomite aggregate, crushed stone or gravel and natural disintegration of

rock. To achieve certain workability and maximum aggregate size control water demand

and reduces the surface area of coarse aggregate increase. The strength of coarse

aggregate is by crushing strength of rock, aggregate crushing value, aggregate impact

value an abrasion value the material strength of aggregate is indicated.

Fine aggregate is basically natural sand particle from land through the mining process, the

fine aggregate consists of natural sand or any crushed stone particle that are 1/4 or

smaller. Aggregate less than 4.75mm in size are called fined aggregate; sand fall under

fine aggregate. the strength aggregate cannot ensure the strength of concrete the specific

gravity of aggregate which is the ratio of the density of water to its density is used in

concrete mix design.

Water is an essential component of concrete. Combining water with cementitious material

forms a cement paste by process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate

together, fill voids within it, an allow it to flow more freely. Less water in concrete paste

will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will give a freer flowing concrete

with higher slump. Water is a key constituent in concrete mix because it affects the
 properties of a concrete. In a concrete mix design, water binds all constituents together.

Adding the required amount of water to a concrete mix improves the compressive

strength and durability of the concrete.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in any type of civil engineering
professional works including low and high-rise building, bridges, dams, defence installations,
environmental protection among others. Concrete is a manufactured product essentially
consisting of cement, sand, coarse aggregates, water and sometimes admixture(s) for special
purpose. Coarse aggregates are strong, porous natural raw material component of concrete
gotten from crushed stone or gravel and available at economic prices. Presence of coarse
aggregates plays one the most significant aspect of concrete production which profoundly
influence concrete properties performance and reduces the drying shrinkage, other
mechanical changes occurring during movement of moisture.

The design philosophy of structures is the achievement of an acceptable probability that

structure been design will perform satisfactory during it intended life that is, it will not reach
limit state with an appropriate degree of safety, they should sustain all the loads and
deformation of normal construction use. Building or structure should have adequate
durability and resistance to deterioration unduly under the actions of the environment or the
effect of mis-use that is, it should not become unfit for their purpose by collapse,
deformation, overturning, buckling, cracking, vibration, fire over the design life. _ (BS8110-
1997, pg4). The choice of cement selection depends on certain factor such as the requirement,
durability of characteristics, design parameters and the speed of construction of the structure
in particular. _ (Shetty M.S. & Jain A.K, 2019).

Recycled aggregates (RA) are those aggregates resulting from the processing of
inorganic material previously used in concrete building, they are obtained from crushing of
demolished concrete from the crushing plant. Most of the waste product from building and
demolition wastes can be used to produce recycled coarse aggregates. Nowadays building
and demolition wastes can easily be obtained due to country infrastructure rebuild and the
need to develop their cities for the purpose of development in a new mankind era (Marta &
Pilar, 2009). Recycled aggregates often contain a large number of attached cements paste and
mortar. The old mortar may contain up to 20-30% from the volume. This is mainly depending
on the properties of the original concrete and the concrete crush production process. The
main difference between recycled aggregates and natural coarse aggregates is mainly
accounts on the attached mortar and cement paste on the recycled coarse aggregates (Li,
2004).
The utilization of recycled aggregates in concrete production increases due to environmental
and economic consideration. Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) is the concrete made with
the recycled aggregates as partially or fully replacement of natural coarse aggregates. Since
recycled aggregates are produced from different source with an occupation of around 75% of
the concrete volume, it is necessary to experiment the suitability of recycled aggregates for
low strength concrete also called controlled low strength materials (CLSM) or flowable
slurry. Success have been achieved in construction project through the use of recycled
aggregates in some European and American countries_ (Desmyster J, Vyncke J, 2000).

CLSM is a self-compacting Cementitious material that flows like a thick, viscous liquid on
placement with a compressive strength of 8.3 MPa or less at age 28 days (ACI, Far-mington
Hills, MI, USA, 1999). In the construction of non-structure and light- structural civil
engineering structures such as embankments, blinding, erosion control, backfills, insulating
and insulation fills, and pavements bases which required low compressive strength of
concrete, the designer would want to select constituents of each construction materials of the
highest quality. From practical point of view, it is generally assumed that CLSM should have
permeability, flow-ability and strength.
Construction of earth embankment for engineering proposes is as old at civilization itself.
Until the knowledge of soil mechanics, the construction of embankment was more of an art
than science. Experience, intuition and engineering judgement no doubt played a key role in
the development of embankments.
Embankment stabilization is the improvement the engineering properties of weak soil so as to
enhance its suitability for construction works. The acceptable form of engineering the soil
parameters is through mechanical and chemical means. New roads are increasingly being
located on poor foundation soils. Thus, comprehensive geotechnical embankment foundation
design studies are required to identify and solve potential stability, settlement, and
construction problems. The need for stabilization can be reduced by diverting the run-off at
the top of the slope, or by creating a series of terraces to reduce the velocity of the run-off.
The natural means of stabilization include soil binders, plant materials that inhabit or prevent
erosion by providing a ground cover and forming a dense network of roots that bind the soil.
Embankment is a man-made structure constructed to control and confine the flow of water,
typically in the form raise bank or ridged to protect the surrounding area from advance effects
of water flow.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As we know that, concrete is the main construction material mostly used in all types of
civil engineering works and the increasing demand of cost effective and sustainable
infrastructures, with aggregates representing about 70-80% of concrete components. So, it
will be beneficial to recycled concrete for construction works and so to solve the
environmental problems, Construction and demolition wastes (C & D Waste) constitute one
of the major components of wastes generated in Nigeria and worldwide at large, to minimize
the problem of excess of waste material, it is a good step to utilize the recycled concrete that
the final product will be used for embankment stabilization which may cost 20-30% less than
natural aggregates in some regions.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This investigation is aim to develop the best solution for the use of recycled aggregates
for low strength concrete and to reduce the environmental impact since very large quantities
of aggregates are used both in concrete production and construction.

When the useful life of the structure is over, it will be demolished and instead of all the
demolished wastes find their way to landfills, hardness properties of this concrete aggregates
including slump, density, compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and
drying shrinkage is been investigated. This is to determine the workability, durability and
permeability quality and cleanliness to replace natural aggregates for high performance
concrete (50-100N/mm2).

Continuous extraction and quarrying of natural aggregates for construction is causing

depletion of natural resources. The recycling of construction and demolition waste (C & D
Waste) into aggregates to be used in new engineering application provides a promising
solution to both the problems. In this work the usability of demolished waste as coarse
aggregates in new concrete is attempted. The results of this experimental study are aimed at
examining the properties and strength of recycled aggregate concrete made from different
replacement ratios of recycled aggregates from natural aggregates and to evaluate the strength
of recycled aggregate concrete to check its suitability for stabilizing embankment. The
properties and results of recycled aggregate concrete is found and compared to that of natural
aggregate concrete and reported in this report.

Hence, the specific objectives of using recycled aggregate for low strength concrete are as
follows:

 Embankment stabilization: Concrete embankment stabilization is a crucial aspect

of transportation infrastructure that requires a durable and reliable support system.
Low strength concrete has been identified as having potential in this regard. The
technique of incorporating recycled aggregates in low strength concrete for
embankment stabilization offers a sustainable and cost-effective solution that can
revitalize infrastructure.
 Environmental considerations: In this time of increasing attention to the
environmental impact of construction and sustainable development, Portland cement
concrete has much to offer:
 it is resource efficient minimizing depletion of our natural resources.
 it is inert, making it an ideal medium in which to recycle waste or industrial by-
products.
 it is energy efficient that is, superior to wood and steel.
 it is durable, continuing to gain strength with time; and finally.
 it is recyclable, fresh concrete is used on an as-needed basis (whatever is left over can
be reused or reclaimed as aggregate), and old hardened concrete can be recycled and
used as aggregate in new concrete for embankment stabilization, compacted backfill,
pipe backfill, and pavement base material.
 Economic factors: Recycling concrete is an attractive option for governmental
agencies and contractors alike. Most municipalities impose tight environmental
controls over opening of new aggregate sources. In many areas, increase of the cost
of starting new quarries is increased. For demolition contractors, landfill space is
limited and can be far away, especially in urban areas. Hence, the disposal of old
concrete and masonry is costly. Also, dumping fees will most likely rise as
construction debris increases and the number of accessible landfills decreases.
 Furthermore, the cost and transport distances of conventional aggregates could
continue to increase as sources grow scarce.
 Other uses: Unprocessed recycled aggregates are useful to be applied as many types
of general bulk fill, bank protection, sub-basement, road construction, noise barriers
and embankments. Processed recycled aggregates can be applied to new concrete for
pavements, shoulders, median barriers, sidewalks, curbs and gutters, and bridge
foundations. It also can be applied to structural grade concrete, soil-cement pavement
bases, lean concrete and bituminous concrete (PCA 2008). Also, it has been used to
produce high performance concrete (Nelson et al 2004).

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significant of this exploration are as follow:
 Recycled aggregates can reduce the amount of using natural aggregate.
 The researches will help towards the application of the use of recycled aggregates as
coarse aggregate in concrete production.
 Re-use the recycled concrete and give more economical sources for raw materials
for environment friendly concept such as embankment stabilization.
 Recycled aggregates generated from demolished structures, can be used to produce
low performance concrete.
 To reduce the cost of producing concrete using recycled aggregates.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The scope of this on-going study is to determine the use of recycled aggregate for low
strength concrete (controlled low strength materials) in embankment stabilization, which will
give a better understanding on the properties of concrete with recycled aggregate, which can
be an alternative material to natural coarse aggregate in concrete production.

The scope of this research project can be listed as follows:

 To review existing research and established scientific knowledge in using of

recycled aggregate for controlled low strength material.
 To specify the most economical and practical combination of recycling materials.
  To produce concrete using RCA as a 100% replacement for natural aggregates and
assess wide ranges of properties in fresh and hardened states and establish concrete
performance on embankment stabilization.
 To have an adequate knowledge about controlled low strength materials (CLSM) and
their mechanism of work using RA, properties CLSM of and its mix design
procedures and proportions.

1.6 METHODLOGY
 Procurement of materials

I intend to get construction and demolition waste (C & D waste), natural coarse
aggregate, natural fine aggregate, cement and fly ash from local construction site. The first
stage is to hammer the C & D Waste to separate aggregates from mortar and then hammer
again into the required size of 10-12mm aggregates on which the test will be perform, study
the effect of using recycled aggregates compared to using natural aggregates to obtain high-
performance concrete.

 Testing of materials

To obtained this, the following tests will be conducted;

Aggregates test

I intend to perform the following test on the properties of both the natural and recycled
aggregates to determine the;

 Sieve analysis – (BS 812_103.1, 1985)

 Specific gravity and water absorption test – (BS 812: part II: 1975)
 Bulk density test – (BS 812: part II: 1975)
 Impact value aggregates, IVA – (ASTM C131)
 Aggregates impact value, AIV – (IS:2386 part IV, BS 882:1983.)

Concrete test

I intend to perform the following test on concrete specimens to determine the

 Compressive strength of test cubes on 7, 14 and 28 days – (BS 1881 part 116: 1983)
 Workability, density, bleeding (ASTM 940) and water absorption test – (BS 1881 part
122: 1983)
  Tensile splitting strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) – (BS 1881 part
117:203 1983)
 Casting and curing of cubes.

I will be casting 39 cubes sample using cement, fine aggregates, and recycled aggregates.
The mix design grade of concrete will be carried out based on the guidelines given in
AMERICA METHOD (ACI) which volume batching method will also be used for the
project. The water cement ratio to be adopted is 0.5. The natural coarse aggregates will be
replaced by 100% recycled aggregates in all samples. Workability of the concrete can be
obtained without adding any super-plasticizer. The Compressive strength will be calculated
for 7, 14, 28days respectively and the split tensile strength will also be calculated for 14 days
and 28 days.
COMPOSITION: cement + (100% RA) + sand and water
Curing of sample cubes will be done for 28 days after which the compressive strength will be
determine.

 Data collection and analysis.

 Discussion of results.
 Conclusion and recommendations.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

With the booming estate development and construction industry and the ever-increasing
demand for cost-effective and sustainable structure in Nigeria and all over the world, have led
to severe scarcity and exploitation of natural resources. In any infrastructure project from
small to complex structures, concrete is the widely used as the main construction materials
and on the other hand, there’s accumulation of enormous amount of construction waste such
as gravel, sand, bricks, stones etc. are termed as construction and demolition waste (C & D
Waste). With advancement in technology in the past few years, the environmental
sustainability has been recognized as a key initiative across the globe. The increase in
population around the globe has also created a huge demand for improved and sustainable
infrastructure development. Due to non-availability and increasing cost of construction
materials, researchers have focused in promoting locally available materials and renewable
sources for various construction activities. This has led to an extensive utilization of recycled
materials for different construction purposes which resulted from scarcity of natural
resources. Research & Development activities have been carried on all over the world to
prove its environment sustainability, economic viability, cost effectiveness and feasibility on
this construction industry (Oikonomou, 2005). With the growing concern about the future of
our planet, the need for sustainable development is increasable important toward
environmental degradation. Sustainable building is design to achieve high performance and
synergistic benefits that minimise a building’s environmental impacts throughout its life
cycle. There is need to find alternative material to replace and study it durability properties
for effective usage. To achieve this, major emphasis must be laid on recycling of this waste
and by-products in cement and concrete as new construction materials. A strong need to
diversify the industrial application of construction and demolition waste (C & D Waste) can
be utilized effectively to overcome the harmful effect it causes to environment such as
depletion of natural resources. Therefore, recycling this waste is fundamental to reduce the
volume of dumped waste, cost associated with land fill disposal it also has another
environment advantage thereby, increasing the project efficiency and decreasing the
consumption of natural resources.

2.1 Constituent of Concrete

2.1.1 Cement

Cement is a powdery substance which reacts exothermically with water to form a

hard, strong mass with extremely low solubility. It can be described as a material with

adhesive and cohesive properties which is capable of binding mineral fragments into a

compact whole. It consists of calcareous material (calcium oxide such as limestone, chalk or

oyster shells) and argillaceous material (silica and alumina). It is produced by passing the

materials in the desired proportions through a grinding mill using either wet or dry process.

Embankment

While numerous investigations have been made on compressibility of natural soils (Roberts and de Souza
1958; Lee and Farhoomand and many others), there is limited information in the literature
on compressibility of recycled materials for use as structural fills. Understanding
compressibility characteristics of recycled materials helps better predict response of structural
fills constructed with such materials. Compressibility of structural fill materials and thus
settlement of a highway embankment, affects the degree of serviceability of the pavement
system. Even if an embankment has an adequate overall stability factor of safety or drainage
capacity, the performance of a pavement system can be adversely affected by excessive
differential settlement at the road surface, which can reduce the service life by producing
ruts and cracks on the pavement.

Common embankment failure includes

 Slipping of an inclined surface used as the embankment foundation.
 Slipping of the side slope of the entire embankment.
 Settlement.
 Erosion.
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