SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – MASS TRANSFER – II – SCHA1501

 UNIT 1

VAPOR PRESSURE AND BOILING

The vapor pressure of a liquid at a particular temperature is the equilibrium pressure exerted by
molecules leaving and entering the liquid surface.

Here are some important points regarding vapor pressure:

 Energy input raises vapor pressure

 Vapor pressure is related to boiling

 A liquid is said to ‘boil’ when its vapor pressure equals the surrounding pressure

 The ease with which a liquid boils depends on its volatility

 Liquids with high vapor pressures (volatile liquids) will boil at lower temperatures

 The vapor pressure and hence the boiling point of a liquid mixture depends on the
relative amounts of the components in the mixture

 Distillation occurs because of the differences in the volatility of the components in the
liquid mixture.

THE BOILING POINT DIAGRAM

 The Boiling Point Diagram The boiling point diagram shows how the equilibrium compositions
of the components in a liquid mixture vary with temperature at a fixed pressure.

 Consider an example of a liquid mixture containing 2 components (A and B) - a binary mixture..

The boiling point of A is that at which the mole fraction of A is 1. The boiling point of B is that at
which the mole fraction of A is 0. In this example, A is the more volatile component and therefore
has a lower boiling point than B.

The upper curve in the diagram is called the dew-point curve while the lower one is called the
bubble-point curve.

 Dew-point: is the temperature at which the saturated vapor starts to condense.

 Bubble-point: is the temperature at which the liquid starts to boil.

 The region above the dew-point curve shows the equilibrium composition of the
superheated vapor while the region below the bubble-point curve shows the equilibrium
composition of the sub-cooled liquid.
  For example, when a subcooled liquid with mole fraction of A=0.4 (point A) is heated, its
concentration remains constant until it reaches the bubble-point (point B), when it starts
to boil. The vapors evolved during the boiling has the equilibrium composition given by
point C, approximately 0.8 mole fraction A. This is approximately 50% richer in A than
the original liquid.

 This difference between liquid and vapor compositions is the basis for distillation
operations.

Relative Volatility

 Relative volatility: is a measure of the differences in volatility between 2 components,

and hence their boiling points. It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation
will be.

 The relative volatility of component ‘i’ with respect to component ‘j’ is defined as

αij =

yi = mole fraction of component ‘i’ in the vapour

xi = mole fraction of component ‘i’ in the liquid

Thus if the relative volatility between 2 components is very close to one, it is an

indication that they have very similar vapor pressure characteristics. This means that they
have very similar boiling points and therefore, it will be difficult to separate the two
components via distillation.

VAPOUR LIQUID EQUILIBRIA

Distillation columns are designed based on the boiling point properties of the components in the
mixtures being separated. Thus the sizes, particularly the height, of distillation columns are
determined by the vapor liquid equilibrium (VLE) data for the mixtures.

Vapor-Liquid-Equilibrium (VLE) Curves

Constant pressure VLE data is obtained from boiling point diagrams. VLE data of binary
mixtures is often presented as a plot, as shown in the figure. The VLE plot expresses the bubble-
point and the dew-point of a binary mixture at constant pressure. The curved line is called the
equilibrium line and describes the compositions of the liquid and vapour in equilibrium at some
fixed pressure

The previous particular VLE plot shows a binary mixture that has a uniform vapor-liquid
equilibrium that is relatively easy to separate. The next two VLE plots below on the other hand,
shows non-ideal systems which will present more difficult separations.
The most intriguing VLE curves are generated by azeotropic systems. An azeotrope is a liquid
mixture which when vaporised, produces the same composition as the liquid. The two VLE plots
below, show two different azeotropic systems, one with a minimum boiling point and one with a
maximum boiling point. In both plots, the equilibrium curves cross the diagonal lines, and this

UNIT 1 MASS TRANSFER- 2

are azeotropic points where the azeotropes occur. In other words azeotropic systems give rise to
VLE plots where the equilibrium curves crosses the diagonals

Raoult's law

It states that the partial vapor pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal
to the vapor pressure of the pure component multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture.

Mathematically, Raoult's law for a single component in an ideal solution is stated as

where is the partial vapor pressure of the component in the gaseous mixture (above the

solution), is the vapor pressure of the pure component , and is the mole fraction of the
component in the mixture (in the solution).

Once the components in the solution have reached equilibrium, the total vapor pressure of
the solution can be determined by combining Raoult's law with Dalton's law of partial
pressures to give

If a non-volatile solute (zero vapor pressure, does not evaporate) is dissolved into a
solvent to form an ideal solution, the vapor pressure of the final solution will be lower
than that of the pure solvent.

UNIT 1 MASS TRANSFER- 2

Ideal solution: An ideal solution will obey Raoult's Law,

Real solutions: Solutions which deviate from Raoults law are called as real solutions. Many pairs
of liquids are present in which there is no uniformity of attractive forces, i.e.,
the adhesive and cohesive forces of attraction are not uniform between the two liquids, so that
they deviate from the Raoult's law.

Negative deviation:

If the vapor pressure of a mixture is lower than expected from Raoult's law, there is said to be
a negative deviation. This is evidence that the adhesive forces between different components are
stronger than the average cohesive forces between like components. In consequence each
component is retained in the liquid phase by attractive forces that are stronger than in the pure
liquid so that its partial vapor pressure is lower.

For example, the system of chloroform (CHCl3) and acetone(CH3COCH3) has a negative
deviation from Raoult's law
Positive deviation

When the cohesive forces between like molecules are greater than the adhesive forces between
dissimilar molecules, the dissimilarities of polarity leads both components to escape solution
more easily. Therefore, the vapor pressure is greater than expected from the Raoult's law,
showing positive deviation. If the deviation is large, then the vapor pressure curve shows a
maximum at a particular composition and form a positive azeotrope. Some mixtures in which
this happens are (1)benzene and methanol, (2) carbon disulfide and acetone, and
(3) chloroform and ethanol

TYPES OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS

There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific types of
separations, and each design differs in terms of complexity.

Batch and Continuous Columns

One way of classifying distillation column type is to look at how they are operated. Thus we
have: batch and continuous columns.

Batch Columns In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the
column is charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out. When the desired
task is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.

Continuous columns

They process a continuous feed stream. No interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the
column or surrounding process units. They are capable of handling high throughputs and they are
most common of the two types.

Types of Continuous Columns

Continuous columns can be further classified according to:

 The nature of the feed that they are processing,

 binary column - feed contains only two components

 multi-component column - feed contains more than two components

 The number of product streams they have

 Multi-product column - column has more than two product streams

  Extractive distillation - where the extra feed appears in the bottom product
stream

 Where the extra feed exits when it is used to help with the separation,

 azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top product
stream

 The type of column internals

 tray column - where trays of various designs are used to hold up the liquid
to provide better contact between vapor and liquid, hence better
separation

 packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used to enhance

contact between vapor and liquid

Equilibrium or Flash Distillation

This is type of distillation that occurs in a single-stage in which a liquid mixture is partially
vaporized. The vapor is allowed to come to equilibrium with the residual liquid and the resulting
vapor and liquid phases are separated and removed from the apparatus. Consider a binary
mixture of A and B flowing at a rate of F mol/h into a heater partial vaporization.

Defining f as the molar fraction of the feed that is vaporized (i.e. f = V/F), the material balance
for the flash drum gives:

UNIT 1 MASS TRANSFER- 2

y = -[(1-f)/f]x + xF/f

Equilibrium relation: y= f(x) Solved simultaneously for x and y

Simple batch or Differential Distillation

liquid is first charged to a heated kettle - The liquid charge is boiled slowly and the vapors are
withdrawn as rapidly as possible to a condenser, where the condensed vapor (distillate) is
collected - The first portion of vapor condensed is richest in the more volatile component A. - As
vaporization proceeds, the vaporized product becomes leaner in A. Following is the design
equation for the batch distillation (material balance):

ln =

Where L1 is the original moles charged

L2: the moles left in the still

x1: the original composition of liquid

x2: the final composition of liquid

y = f(x) is needed From equilibrium relation

DISTILLATION COLUMN DESIGN

Distillation columns are designed using VLE data for the mixtures to be separated. The vapor-
liquid equilibrium characteristics (indicated by the shape of the equilibrium curve) of the mixture
will determine the number of stages, and hence the number of trays, required for the separation.
This is illustrated clearly by applying the McCabe-Thiele method to design a binary column.
McCABE-THIELE DESIGN METHOD

The McCabe-Thiele approach is a graphical one, and uses the VLE plot to determine the
theoretical number of stages required to effect the separation of a binary mixture. It assumes
constant molar overflow and this implies that:

 Molal heats of vaporization of the components are roughly the same

 Heat effects (heats of solution, heat losses to and from column, etc.) are negligible

 for every mole of vapour condensed, 1 mole of liquid is vaporised

The design procedure is simple. Given the VLE diagram of the binary mixture, operating lines
are drawn first.

 Operating lines define the mass balance relationships between the liquid and vapor
phases in the column.

 There is one operating line for the bottom (stripping) section of the column, and on for
the top (rectification or enriching) section of the column.

 Use of the constant molar overflow assumption also ensures the operating lines are
straight lines.

Operating Line for the Rectification Section

The operating line for the rectification section is constructed as follows: ™First the desired top
product composition is located on the VLE diagram, and a vertical line produced until it
intersects the diagonal line that splits the VLE plot in half. A line with slope R/(R+1) is then
drawn from this instersection point as shown in the diagram below. R is the ratio of reflux flow
(L) to distillate flow (D) and is called the reflux ratio and is a measure of how much of the
material going up the top of the column is returned back to the column as reflux.
Operating Line for the Stripping Section ™

The operating line for the stripping section is constructed in a similar manner. However, the
starting point is the desired bottom product composition. A vertical line is drawn from this point
to the diagonal line, and a line of slope Ls/Vs is drawn as illustrated in the diagram below. Ls is
the liquid rate down the stripping section of the column, while Vs is the vapor rate up the
stripping section of the column. Thus the slope of the operating line for the stripping section is a
ratio between the liquid and vapor flows in that part of the column.
Equilibrium and Operating Lines ™The McCabe-Thiele method assumes that the liquid on a
tray and the vapor above it are in equilibrium. How this is related to the VLE plot and the
operating lines is depicted graphically in the diagram on the right.
 ™

A magnified section of the operating line for the stripping section is shown in relation to the
corresponding n'th stage in the column. L's are the liquid flows while V's are the vapor flows. x
and y denote liquid and vapor compositions and the subscripts denote the origin of the flows or
compositions. That is 'n-1' will mean from the stage below stage 'n' while 'n+1' will mean from
the stage above stage 'n'. The liquid in stage 'n' and the vapor above it are in equilibrium,
therefore, xn and yn lie on the equilibrium line. Since the vapor is carried to the tray above
without changing composition, this is depicted as a horizontal line on the VLE plot. Its
intersection with the operating line will give the composition of the liquid on tray 'n+1' as the
operating line defines the material balance on the trays. The composition of the vapor above the
'n+1' tray is obtained from the intersection of the vertical line from this point to the equilibrium
line

.
Doing the graphical construction repeatedly will give rise to a number of 'corner' sections, and
each section will be equivalent to a stage of the distillation. This is the basis of sizing distillation
columns using the McCabeThiele graphical design methodology as shown in the following
example. sections, the graphical construction described above was applied. This particular
example shows that 7 theoretical stages are required to achieve the desired separationThe
required number of trays (as opposed to stages) is one less than the number of stages since the
graphical construction includes the contribution of the reboiler in carrying out the separation.

The actual number of trays required is given by the formula: (number of theoretical trays)/(tray
efficiency)

Typical values for tray efficiency ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 and depends on a number of factors,
such as the type of trays being used, and internal liquid and vapor flow conditions. Sometimes,
additional trays are added (up to 10%) to accomodate the possibility that the column may be
under-designed.

The Feed Line (q-line)

The diagram above also shows that the binary feed should be introduced at the 4'th stage.
However, if the feed composition is such that it does not coincide with the intersection of the
operating lines, this means that the feed is not a saturated liquid. The condition of the feed can be
deduced by the slope of the feed line or q-line. The q-line is that drawn between the intersection
of the operating lines, and where the feed composition lies on the diagonal line. Depending on
the state of the feed, the feed lines will have different slopes.

For example:

 q = 0 (saturated vapor)

 q = 1 (saturated liquid)

 0 < q < 1 (mix of liquid and vapor)

 q > 1 (subcooled liquid)

 q < 0 (superheated vapour)

The q-lines for the various feed conditions are shown in the diagram above.
Using Operating Lines and the Feed Line in McCabe-Thiele Design If we have information
about the condition of the feed mixture, then we can construct the q-line and use it in the
McCabe-Thiele design. However, excluding the equilibrium line, only two other pairs of lines
can be used in the McCabe-Thiele procedure. These are:

 feed-line and rectification section operating line

 feed-line and stripping section operating line

 stripping and rectification operating lines

This is because these pairs of lines determine the third.

Reflux Conditions

As the reflux ratio is increased, the gradient of operating line for the rectification section moves
towards a maximum value of 1. Physically, what this means is that more and more liquid that is
rich in the more volatile components are being recycled back into the column. Separation then
becomes better and thus less trays are needed to achieve the same degree of separation.
Minimum trays are required under total reflux conditions, i.e. there is no withdrawal of distillate.
9 On the other hand, as reflux is decreased, the operating line for the rectification section moves
towards the equilibrium line. The ‘pinch’ between operating and equilibrium lines becomes more
pronounced and more and more trays are required.This is easy to verify using the McCabeThiele
method.

The limiting condition occurs at minimum reflux ration, when an infinite number of trays will be
required to effect separation. Most columns are designed to operate between 1.2 to 1.5 times the
minimum reflux ratio because this is approximately the region of minimum operating costs
(more reflux means higher reboiler duty).

Vapor Flow Conditions

Adverse vapor flow conditions can cause:

• Foaming

• Entrainment

• Weeping/dumping

• Flooding

Foaming

Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapour or gas. Although it provides
high interfacial liquid-vapour contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid buildup on trays.
In some cases, foaming may be so bad that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray above.
Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on physical properties of the liquid mixtures, but
is sometimes due to tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is
always reduced.

Entrainment

Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapor up to the tray above and is again caused by high
vapor flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency is reduced: lower volatile material is
carried to a plate holding liquid of higher volatility. It could also contaminate high purity
distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead to flooding. Weeping/Dumping This phenomenon is
caused by low vapor flow. The pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid
on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to
dumping. That is the liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the base of the column (via
a domino effect) and the column will have to be re-started. Weeping is indicated by a sharp
pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.

Weeping/Dumping

This phenomenon is caused by low vapor flow. The pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient
to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through perforations. Excessive
weeping will lead to dumping. That is the liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the
base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column will have to be re-started. Weeping is
indicated by a sharp pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.

Flooding:

Flooding is brought about by excessive vapor flow, causing liquid to be entrained in the vapor up
the column. The increased pressure from excessive vapor also backs up the liquid in the
downcomer, causing an increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. Depending on the degree of
flooding, the maximum capacity of the column may be severely reduced. Flooding is detected by
sharp increases in column differential pressure and significant decrease in separation efficiency.

Steam distillation:

At atmospheric pressure, high-boiling liquids cannot be purified by distillation, since

components of the liquid may decompose at the high temperatures required. - Often the high-
boiling substances are essentially insoluble in water, so a separation at lower temperatures can be
obtained by simple steam distillation. Steam distillation is often used to separate a high-boiling
component from small amounts of non volatile.

If a layer of liquid water (A) and an immiscible high-boiling component (B) such as hydrocarbon
are boiled at 101.3 kPa, then the phase rule, for the three phases (2 L and 1 V) and two
components,

F = C – P + 2 = 2 – 3 + 2 = 1 degree of freedom Hence, if the total pressure is fixed, the system

is fixed • Since there are two liquid phases, each will exert its own vapor pressure at the
prevailing temperature, and cannot be influenced by the presence of the other.

When the sum of the separate vapor pressures equals the total pressure, the mixture boils and

pA + pB = P where pA is vapor pressure of pure water

pB is vapor pressure of pure B

Vapor composition: yA = pA /P yB = pB/P

As long as the two liquid phases are present, the mixture will boil at the same temperature,
giving a vapor of constant composition. ™Note: as long as liquid water is present, the high-
boiling component B vaporizes at a temperature well below its normal boiling point without
vacuum. ™The vapors of water (A) and high-boiling component (B) are usually condensed in a
condenser and the resulting two immiscible liquid phases are separated. ™

Disadvantage: large amounts of heat must be used to simultaneously evaporate the water with the
high-boiling compound ™Used in the food industry for the removal of volatile taints and flavors
from edible fats and oils.

Azeotropic, Extractive and Molecular distillation

An azeotrope is a liquid mixture which when vaporised, produces the same composition as the
liquid. An azeotrope that contains one liquid phase in contact with vapour is called a
homogenous azeotrope. A homogenous azeotrope cannot be separated by conventional
distillation. However, vacumn distillation may be used as the lower pressures can shift the
azeotropic point. Alternatively, an additional substance may added to shift the azeotropic point to a
more ‘favourable’ position.

Azeotropic distillation: When this additional component appears in appreciable amounts at the top of
the column, the operation is called azeotropic distillation.

Extractive distillation: When the additional component appears mostly at the bottom of the column,
the operation is called extractive distillation.

Molecular distillation: Distillation that is carried out under a high vacuum in an apparatus so
designed as to permit molecules escaping from the warm liquid to reach the cooled surface of the
condenser before colliding with other molecules and consequently returning to the liquid and that is used
in the purification of substances of low volatility (as in the separation of vitamin A and vitamin
E from fish-liver oils)
UNIT – II – MASS TRANSFER – II – SCHA1501
ABSORPTION

 Absorption refers to an operation in which the transfer of material is from a gas phase to
a liquid phase. A gas is absorbed by means of liquid in which the solute gas is more or
less soluble from its mixture with an inert gas as well as more or less insoluble gas. The
liquid is essentially immiscible in the gas phase.

 Removal of solute from the gas mixture by using suitable liquid solvent.

 The separation of ammonia from an air-ammonia mixture by means of water is a typical

example of absorption.
Selectionofsolventforabsorptionandstripping

(A) Gas Solubility: High solubility of a gas in the solvent is preferred, utilizing low quantity of
solvent. Absorbent should not dissolve carrier gas. Similar chemical nature of solute and
absorbent (solvent) gives a good solubility. If chemical reaction takes place between solute and
solvent, rate of absorption is extremely high. But the reaction should be reversible to recover
solvent during desorption.

(B) Volatility: Low volatility or low vapor pressure of the solvent enhances the adsorption
operation as solvent loss with carrier gas is very small. Sometimes, a second less volatile solvent
is used to recover the first solvent.

(C) Viscosity: For better absorption, a solvent of low viscosity is required. In mechanically
agitated absorber, greater amount of power is required for high viscous solvent and flooding is
also caused at lower liquid and gas flow rates.

(D) Corrosiveness: Non-corrosive or less corrosive solvent reduces equipment construction cost
as well as maintenance cost.

(E) Cost: The solvent should be cheap so that losses will be insignificant and should be easily
available.

(F) Toxicity and Hazard: The solvent should be non-toxic, non-flammable, non-hazardous and
should be chemically stable.

TypesofAbsorbers

1. Tray column

2. Packed column

PackingMaterials

Packing materials are utilized to provide large interfacial area of contact between two phases.
These are made from either of ceramics, metals or plastics. A number of packing materials with
various size, shape and performance are available. These are classified into three types, namely,
dumped or random, structured and grid.

The packing materials have following characteristics:

(a) Cost: The cost of the packing materials should be very low.

(b) Surface area: A large interfacial area of contact is always recommended. In that case,
pressure drop will be more.

(c) Void volume: A high void volume is needed to maintain low pressure drop.

(d) Fouling resistance: Packing materials should not trap suspended solids present in liquid.
Bigger packing materials generally give low fouling resistance.

(e) Mechanical strength: Good mechanical strength is desired for choosing packing materials as
this will not break or deform during filling or operation.

(f) Uniform flow of streams: Stack of packing materials should have uniform void spaces
through which both the streams (gas and liquid) can flow uniformly. Nonuniform flow of streams
leads to stagnant liquid pool which in turn gives low mass transfer.
StructuredPackings

These materials are used widely as packing materials in packed tower due to low gas pressure
drop and improved efficiency. Corrugated metal sheet structured packing and Wire mesh
structured packing materials are widely used in the industries.
Design of packed tower based on overall mass transfer Coefficient
DefineNTU

Height of Packing (z) = NTU x HTU

Where,
NTU = number of transfer units - dimensionless
HTU = height of transfer units - dimension of length

The number of transfer units (NTU) required is a measure of the difficulty of the separation. A
single transfer unit gives the change of composition of one of the phases equal to the average
driving force producing the change. The NTU is similar to the number of theoretical trays
required for tray column. Hence, a larger number of transfer units will be required for a very high
purity product.
HeightofTransferUnits(HTU)

HeightEquivalenttoTheoreticalPlate(HETP)

For a specified separation job, in packed tower, the height of packing is to be determined and in
tray tower, numbers of ideal trays are determined. The ratio between packing height to number of
trays required for the same separation is called height equivalent to theoretical plate (HETP).

Height of packing (Z) = HETP x Number of trays

HETP varies with size and type of packing, flow rate of gas and liquid, concentration of solute,
physical and transport properties as well as equilibrium relationship and uniformity of liquid and
gas distribution. HETP is used to characterize the packing. A good packing has small HETP.

AbsorptionFactor

Where A is absorption factor and is defined as A = L/(mG).

Absorptionwithchemicalreaction

In ammonia removal from ammonia air mixture by using water has solvent the chemical reaction
will not play an appreciable role.

In the following examples

 removal of NOx and SOx from the dust laden gas by using water,
  Removal of CO2 from industrial flue gas by using sodium hydroxide as solvent, chemical
reaction play a vital role.

Henry’sLaw

A law stating that the mass of a dissolved gas in a given volume of solvent at equilibrium is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas

Where, H is the Henry’s constant, is the partial pressure of A in gas phase, is the concentration
of component A in the liquid phase.

StrippingorDesorption

 Mass transfer occurs from liquid to gas phase.

 The solute is removed from the liquid solution by contacting with gas.

SinglestagecountercurrentUnit

G1, G2 : molar flow rates of entering and leaving gas

GS: molar flow rate of inert gas

L1, L2 are the molar flow rates of leaving and entering liquid

LS is the molar flow rate of pure solvent

Where X = Y=

X,Y are the mole ratios of solute to inert component in liquid and gas phase respectively

x,y are the mole ratio of solute in liquid and gas phases

Making Material Balance

 ( 1− 2) = ( 1− 2)

STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE

(1) For a particular gas-liquid system, draw equilibrium curve on X-Y plane.

(2) Draw operating line in X-Y plane (PQ) using material balance Equation. Lower terminal Q (X2, Y2) and
upper terminal P (X1, Y1) are placed in x-y plane.

Making Material Balance

( 1− 2) = ( 1− 2)

If liquid mass flow rate, Ls is not known, minimum liquid mass flow rate (Ls)min is to be determined. Ls is
generally 1.2 to 2 times the (Ls)min.
 Graphical determination of (Ls)min for absorption.

In the above figure, lower terminal of absorption tower is represented by Q (X2, Y2); i.e., bottom
of the tower. Operating line is PQ. If liquid rate is decreased, slope of operating line (Ls/Gs) also
decreases and operating line shifts from PQ to PʹQ when touches equilibrium line. This perating
line is tangent to equilibrium line.
 The following parameters should be known for the determination of “number of stages” (1) Gas feed rate,
(2) Concentration of gas at inlet and outlet of the tower, (3) Minimum liquid rate; actual liquid rate is 1.2 to
2 times the minimum liquid rate, (4) Equilibrium data for construction of equilibrium curve now,

Packed Bed Absorber




 HTU =







 Z = No of trays x HETP

Example

A gas stream containing 90 mol% N2 and 10% CO2 is passed through an absorber, in which pure
and cool water at 5oC is used as a solvent The operation is assumed to be isothermal at 5 o C and
isobaric at 10 atm The liquid flow rate is 1.5 times the minimum liquid flow rate Determine the
number of equilibrium stages required to absorb 92 mol% of CO 2 Given Henry’s constant of CO2
in water at 5oC of 876 atm/mole fraction.

the equilibrium or the y-x data can be computed

x 0 0.0001 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012

y 0 0.00876 0.0350 0.0526 0.0701 0.0876 0.1051

X 0 0.0001 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012

Y 0 0.00884 0.0363 0.0555 0.0754 0.0960 0.1175

The slope of the min L/G minimum is found to be 97.2

Hence, the slope of the actual operating line is 1.5 times of minimum = 1.5 x 97.2 = 145. 8

X1 = 0.0007

Yields the number of equilibrium stages of ~3.8 = 4

Exercise problems-
1. NH3 – air mixture containing 5% NH3 is scrubbed with water to remove NH3, 5000 kg/hr of gas
mixture is to be processed with 2,00,000 kg/hr of water to reduce NH 3 in the exit gas to
0.15%.Calculate the height of packing required assuming dilute solutions are involved.
Equilibrium relation is given by Y = 20 X where X,Y = mole fraction of NH 3 in liquid and vapor.
HTU = 2m.
2. SO2–air mixture containing 8% SO2 at 20◦C and 1 atm is to be scrubbed with water in a
sieve plate column. The air and water flow rate is 32.6kg/m 2s. If 95% of SO2 is to be
recovered. Calculate the number of theoretical trays required.
Equilibrium Data at 20◦C and 1 atm:

pA, partial pressure in 12 18.2 31.7 50 69.6 106

mmHg of SO2 gas

CA, gm of 2 3.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 20

SO2/100gmof water
3. Ammonia is absorbed from gas by using water in a scrubber under atm. Pressure the
initial ammonia content is 0.04 kmol / kmol of inert gas. The recovery of ammonia by
absorption is 90%. The water enters the tower free from solute. Estimate the
concentration of ammonia in the exit stream and number of theoretical stages required?
X 0.005 0.01 0.0125 0.015 0.02 0.027
Y 0.0045 0.0102 0.0138 0.018 0.027 0.039
4. It is desired to absorb 95% ammonia from a feed mixture contain 10% ammonia and rest
air. The gas enters at rate of 500kmol/hr. if water is used as solvent at the rate of 1.5 times
of the minimum calculate (a) NTU (b) Ls actual (c) height of the tower if HTU = 1m the
equilibrium relationship is given by Y=20X

5. A packed tower is designed to recover 98% CO 2 from gas mixture contain 10% CO2 and 90% air
using water. The equilibrium relation is Y=14X where Y is kg CO 2 / kg dry air. And X is kg CO2 /
kg water. The water to gas ratio is kept at 30% more than the minimum value. Calculate height of
tower if HTU is 1.25m.

6. A packed tower is used to remove 96 % SO 2 from a stream of air containing 0.0291 mole fraction
SO2. The SO2 is removed by absorbing it in water which enters the tower with a mass velocity of
0.51 k mol/m2s and the gas stream enters the tower counter currently at the mass velocity of 9.75
X 10-3kmol/m2s. Determine the packed tower height. The following data are available.
Kx a = 0.94 kmol/m3s, Kya = 0.0496 kmol/m3s. Slope of the equilibrium line = 28.7

7. A mixture of acetone vapour and air containing 5% by volume of acetone is to be freed of its
acetone content by scrubbing it with water in a packed bed absorber. The flow rate of the gas
mixture is 700 m3/hr of acetone-free air measured at NTP and that of water is 1500 kg/hr. The
absorber operates at an average temperature of 20C and a pressure of 101 kPa. The scrubber
absorbs 98% acetone. The equilibriumrelation for the acetone vapour-water system is given by:
Y* = 1.68X
 Where, Y* = kmol acetone/kmol dry air

X = kmol acetone/kmol water

Calculate: (a) mean driving force for absorption

(b) mass transfer if the overall mass transfer coefficient is kG = 0.4 kmol of
acetone/m2hr(kmol acetone/kmol dry air)

8. One kilo-mole per unit time of gas consisting of 75% methane and 25% n-pentane vapor at 27 deg C
1atm, is to be scrubbed with 2kmol/unit time of non volatile paraffin oil, molecular weight is 200
entering the absorber free of pentane at 35 deg C. Compute the number of ideal trays for
98% recovery of pentane. The equilibrium data

X 0 0.13 0.18 0.2 0.28 0.33

Y 0 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.2 0.25

9. Ammonia air mixture contain 2% by volume is to be scrubbed with water at 20deg C in a tower packed
with 1.27cm Rasching Rings. The water and gas rate are 1170 kg/hr each based on the empty tower cross
section. Estimate the height of the tower required if 98% of the ammonia is entering gas is to be
absorbed. The tower operates at 1atm. The equilibrium relationship is given by Y = 0.746 X

10. Acetone is to be recovered from a 5 % acetone air mixture by scrubbing with water in a packed tower the
liquid rate is 0.85kg/s m2 and the gas rate is 0.5 kg/s m 2. The overall mass transfer coefficient is 1.5 x 10-4
what should be the height of the tower for 98% recovery?

X 0.0099 0.0196 0.0360 0.04

Y 0.0076 0.0156 0.0306 0.0333
UNIT – III – MASS TRANSFER – II – SCHA1501
UNIT4ADSORPTION

 Removal of solute from the fluids by using suitable solid.

 The separation of colour from effluent by using charcoal.

DifferencesbetweenPhysisorptionandChemisorption

PHYSICAL ADSORPTION CHEMISORPTIONS

The forces operating in these are weak vander The forces operating in these cases are similar to
Waal’s forces. those of a chemical bond.
The heat of adsorption are low i.e. about 20 – 40 The heat of adsorption are high i.e. about 40 –
kJ mol-1 400 kJ mol-1
No compound formation takes place in these Surface compounds are formed.
cases.
The process is reversible i.e. desorption of the The process is irreversible. Efforts to free the
gas occurs by increasing the temperature or adsorbed gas give some definite compound.
decreasing the pressure.
It does not require any activation energy. It requires any activation energy.
This type of adsorption decreases with increase ofThis type of adsorption first increases with
temperature. increase of temperature. The effect is called
activated adsorption.
It is not specific in nature i.e. all gases are It is specific in nature and occurs only when there
adsorbed on all solids to some extent. is some possibility of compound formation
between the gas being adsorbed and the solid
adsorbent.
The amount of the gas adsorbed is related to the There is no such correlation exists.
ease of liquefaction of the gas.
It forms multimolecular layer. It forms unimolecular layer.

AdsorptionIsotherm

At constant temperature the relation between the amount of gas adsorbed on the solid and the
concentration of fluid is termed as adsorption isotherm.

AdsorptionIsobar

At constant pressure the relation between temperature and amount of gas adsorbed is termed as
adsorption isobar

AdsorptionIsostere

At constant amount of gas adsorption the relation between temperature and pressure is termed as
adsorption isobar.
Types of Adsorption Isotherms

1. Langmuir

2. BET

3. Freundlich

Langmuir Isotherm
IndustrialAdsorbents

1. Silica gel

2. Activated carbon

3. Alumina

4. Bauxite

5. Molecular sieves

6. Bone char

BreakthroughCurve
FixedBedAdsorption
 Continuous Adsorbers

Cross Current Adsorption

Multistage Counter Current Adsorption

The number of stages can be calculated using analytically based on the adsorption
factor.

1. A solid adsorbent is used to remove the colour impurities from an aqueous solution. The original
value of colour on an arbitrary scale is 48. It is required to reduce this value to 10% of its original
value. Using the following data find the quantity of fresh adsorbent used for 1000 kg of a
solution for
(i) Single stage

(ii) Plot the adsorption isotherm

 Equilibrium data:

0 0.001 0.004 0.008 0.02 0.04

Equilibrium colour 9.6 8.6 6.3 4.3 1.7 0.7

Solution

Basis : Ls =1000 kg solution

Unit of Y = unit of colour / kg solution

Unit of X = unit of colour / kg adsorbent

The Freundlich equation

Y = mXn

Y = 8.36 x 10-5 X1.67

Fresh solid required = 32kg
Assignment Problems

1. Experiments on decolonization of oil yielded the following equilibrium relationship y = 0.5x 0.5.
where y = grams of colour removed/gm of adsorbent. x = colour in the oil, gm of colour /1 kg of
colour free oil. 100kg oil containing 1 part of colour to 3 part of oil is agitated with 25 kg of
adsorbent calculate the % of colour removed if
(a) All 25 kg absorbent is used in one step

(b) 12.5 kg adsorbent is used initially, following by another 12.5

kg of adsorbent.

2. A solid adsorbent is used to remove the colour impurities from an aqueous solution. The original
value of colour on an arbitrary scale is 48. It is required to reduce this value to 10% of its original
value. Using the following data find the quantity of fresh adsorbent used for 1000 kg of a
solution for
(i) Single stage

(ii) Two stage cross current operation with the intermediate colour value of 24.

Equilibrium data:

0 0.001 0.004 0.008 0.02 0.04

Equilibrium colour 48 43 31.5 21.5 8.5 3.5

 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV – MASS TRANSFER – II – SCHA1501

Liquid Extraction
Liquid extraction produces separation of the constituents of a liquid solution by contact
with another insoluble liquid. If the components of the original solution distribute
differently between the two liquids, separation will result. The component balances will
be essentially identical to those for leaching, but there are two major differences that
complicate the calculations:

 the carrier phase is a liquid, not a solid, so the physical separation techniques will
change, and
 two distinct phases develop, so the simplicity of uniform solution is lost.

Common applications of liquid extraction include: the separation and purification of

lube oils, separation of penicillin from fermentation broth, etc.

Extraction is driven by chemical differences, not by vapor pressure differences, and so

can be used in situations when distillation is impractical. For instance, it can be used to
separate materials with similar boiling points (so that distillation is impractical) or
mixtures containing temperature sensitive compounds.

Distillation and evaporation produce finished products; liquid extraction generally does
not. The products are still mixtures, although with new compositions, and these must be
separated to obtain final products. Secondary separation often requires distillation or
evaporation. The overall process cost thus must be considered when choosing
extraction.

Extraction may become economical for dilute aqueous solutions when evaporation
would require vaporization of very large amounts of water.

Terminology

Certain terms are commonly used when describing extraction processes. The solution to
be extracted is called the feed, the liquid used in contacting is the solvent. The enriched
solvent product is the extract and the depleted feed is called the raffinate.

Extraction processes may be be single stage, multistage crosscurrent, or countercurrent.

Cocurrent extraction offers no advantages over a single stage (convince yourself of
this!). This class will primarily be concerned with countercurrent systems.
 Equilibrium

Extraction calculations require

an understanding of ternary
equilibrium. You probably
should refresh your memory on
how ternary diagrams are read
and used. I would anticipate that
you learned this in your material
balance course.

One new term that may not be

familiar is the plait point. This
point is located near the top of
the two-phase envelope, at the
inflection point. It represents a
condition where the 3-
component mixture separates into two phases, but the phases have identical
compositions. (Compare this with an azeotropic mixture of liquid and vapor.)

There are two main classes of liquid-liquid equilibrium that occur in extraction. A Class
I system is the one I expect you are familiar with; it has one immiscible pair of
compounds and produces the familiar envelope. Class II mixtures have two pair of
immiscible compounds, and so the two-phase envelope crosses the triangular diagram
like a bridge. Class I mixtures are the most common and are preferable -- so if you can
pick a solvent to get a Class I, you usually want to do so. Classes can change with
temperature, so that is
also a concern.

Solvent Selection

One of the key decisions

when designing an
extraction process is the
choice of the solvent to be used. Issues include:

 Selectivity -- compare the equilibrium ratio of solute in each phase

 Distribution Coefficients -- y/x at equilibrium; large values preferable
 Insolubility -- solvent should not be soluble in carrier liquid
 Recoverability -- consider constraints (i.e. azeotropes)
 Density -- must be different so that phases can be separated by settling
 Interfacial Tension -- if too high, liquids will be difficult to mix
 Chemical Reactivity -- solvent should be inert and stable
 Viscosity, Vapor Pressure, Freezing Point -- low values make storage easier
 Safety -- toxicity, flammability
 Cost

Calculations

As with the other separations we discuss, there are two primary calculations:

 the number of stages needed to make a separation (extent)

 the amount of solvent needed to make a separation (rate/capacity)

Since LL equilibrium is seldom available in algebraic form, the calculations tend to be

iterative or graphical. You have a choice of graphical approaches depending on the type
of equilibrium diagram you have available (or choose to construct):

 A modified McCabe-Thiele approach can be used if y vs. x data is available. The

coordinates for the diagram are the mass fraction of solute in the extract phase
and the mass fraction in the raffinate for the other. The curve is typically concave
downward, begins at the origin and ends with the plait point composition.
 When one has a convenient equilateral triangle diagram, construction can be done
directly on the triangle. Some authors refer to this as the Hunter-Nash method.
 Rectangular equilibrium diagrams can be constructed. These look a lot like the
enthalpy-composition diagrams from distillation calculations or the "solid-free"
diagrams used in leaching.

Solvent-to-Feed Ratio

For a given feed mixture, required degree of extraction, operating pressure and
temperature, and choice of solvent, there is a minimum solvent-to-feed ratio which
corresponds to an infinite number of contact stages.

As with the other separations we have studied, this corresponds to a "pinch" between the
equilibrium and operating curves at the feed composition. Algebraically, this
corresponds to an extract phase in equilibrium with the entering feed. The pinch can
also be found graphically -- on a McCabe-Thiele type construction, minimum solvent
ratio corresponds to a pinch (curves intersecting) at the feed composition. During a
triangular construction, a feed pinch is represented by the operating line overlapping a
tie-line and running through the feed point.

A theoretical upper limit or maximum solvent-to-feed ratio also can be determined. If

you visualize the ternary diagrams, you notice that if enough solvent is added, the
equilibrium curve is crossed and the single phase region is entered. Once this happens, it
is impossible to divide the mixture into different phases, hence no separation is
achieved. The maximum solvent-to-feed ratio is thus that which puts the mixture on the
phase boundary.

McCabe-Thiele Method

A modified McCabe-Thiele approach is probably the most straightforward graphical

technique for solving extraction problems. As always, the main constraint is the
equilibrium data. When the data is given in a tabular form, it isn't difficult to construct
the needed y (solute in the extract phase) vs. x (solute in the raffinate phase) diagram;
however, it is a bit of a chore to pull the points off of a ternary diagram. In the latter
case, it may may sense to construct directly on the triangle.

Once you have the y vs. x plot, the component and material balances can be used to set
the endpoints of the operating curve. Interior points can be found by selecting an
intermediate value of x, and calculating the appropriate y (this typically is an iterative
calculation). You want to find enough interior points to be sure of the shape of the
curve, but shouldn't have to calculate too many of these points. The operating curve that
results will typically be curved. For extraction calculations, both the equilibrium and the
operating equations will be typically be curved.

Once the curves are available, they can be "stepped off" into triangles, just as one would
expect from McCabe-Thiele.

Construction on Ternary Diagram

Construction on a ternary diagram is

a little messier. The diagrams are
typically much more crowded and so
counting stages is more complicated.
You also typically need substantial
extra space on the side of the
diagram; often you want to tape a
spare sheet of paper in place to get
the workspace. Pocket rulers end up
being too short, so make sure you
have a longer (~ 2 ft) straightedge around.

The first step is to locate the known endpoints.

 The fresh solvent point will typically lie on a side of the triangle (it has little or no
solute and minimal raffinate). If pure, the fresh solvent point will be at an apex.
 The feed point will lie on the solute-carrier axis; only rarely will the feed contain
solvent.
 Products result from equilibrium stage separation, so both will lie on the phase
envelope. Often, only one of
these is given in the problem
statement.

The fundamental idea of all

constructions is that a single line
connects points made from "mixing"
two streams. The endpoints are thus
connected two different ways.

First, a segment is drawn connecting the "entering" streams (La, Vb) and one between
the "leaving" streams (Lb, Va). These will intersect in the middle of the diagram at a
"mixing point", M. Since the two streams leaving an ideal stage, are in equilibrium, this
point is related to the equilibrium curve. Lever arm principles apply, so that the M point

splits the line segments proportionately to the solvent/feed ratio, so that

An "operating" point, P, is located by connecting the "sides" of the cascade: La to

Va and Lb to Vb. The P point can lie on either side of the triangle, depending on the
slope of the tie lines. (This is where that extra piece of paper comes in handy!) All

possible operating points must pass through the P point.

With the endpoints and the P point, the stages can be stepped off. Begin at the
Va (extract product) point. Trace down a tie- line to the raffinate side of the envelope;
the intersection will be at the composition of the stream leaving stage one, so this is the
L1 point. Next, construct a line connecting L1 with P and extend the line back across to
the extract side of the diagram. This is an operating line, and the intersection is the
V2 point. The triangle that has been formed represents one ideal equilibrium stage.

This procedure -- down a tie line, up an operating line -- is repeated until the feed point
is reached/passed. The total number of triangles created is the number of stages. Often
the construction gets crowded and may be hard to read.

Problems can be varied by changing the given information. You then will need to think
through the relationships (solvent/feed ratio, equilibrium tie-lines, operating lines, etc.)
and adapt the procedure.

Minimum solvent-to-feed is determined by extending the tie-line that runs through the
feed point until it intersects the segment connecting Vb and Lb. This intersection is the
point Pmin, an operating point at minimum S/F. The line is then extended back across the
envelope to the extract side. The intersection is the point Vmin, corresponding to the
extract product at minimum S/F. (Remember that a "pinch" on this type of diagram
means that the operating and equilibrium (tie-lines) overlap.) A mixing point "Mmin" can
be determined using the feed point, Vb, Lb, and Vmin, and the lever-arm rule will provide
a value for the S/F ratio.

Maximum solvent-to-feed is found by locating a point "Mmax" on the line connecting the
fresh solvent and the feed, at the point where it intersects the extract side of the
envelope. S/F is then calculated by lever arm.

Note on Tie Lines

Rarely do you have all the equilibrium tie lines you want. It is thus good to know that
there is a fairly easy way of generating
additional lines.

To do this, you construct a "conjugate

curve" from the existing tie lines. Take each
endpoint and draw a line from it downward,
perpendicular to base of the triangle. The
extensions from the raffinate side will
intersect those from the extract side, and
each pair forms a point on the conjugate
curve. The final point is the plait point. When a new tie line is needed, one composition
is chosen, a line is traced down to the conjugate curve, and then back up to the envelope
on the other side. This is the other end of the tie line.

Construction on Rectangular Equilibrium Diagram

Graphical solution can be readily done on rectangular equilibrium diagrams, but this
method will not be discussed here. This method is usually the first choice only if the
equilibrium data is already plotted in rectangular form.
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V – MASS TRANSFER – II – SCHA1501

LEACHING

(Liquid-Solid) Leaching

Leaching is a liquid-solid operation. The two phases are in intimate contact, the solute(s) can
diffuse from the solid to the liquid phase, which causes a separation of the components originally
in the solid. A special leaching process, when an undesirable component is removed from a solid
with water, is called washing.

Leaching is widely used in the biological and food processing industries, such as the separation
of sugar from sugar beets with hot water, the extraction of oils from peanuts, soybeans,
sunflower seeds, cotton seeds, and halibut livers.

In pharmaceutical industry, many products are obtained by leaching plant roots, leaves, and
stems.

In the metals processing industry, leaching is used to remove the metals from their ores, which
contains many undesirable constituents, as solute salts. A good example is gold leaching, gold is
leached from its ore using an aqueous sodium cyanide solution.

Preparation of Solids for Leaching

This depends on the proportion of the soluble constituent present, its distribution throughout the
original solid, the nature of the solid, and the original particle size. If the soluble material is
surrounded by a matrix of insoluble matter, the solvent must diffuse inside to contact and
dissolve the soluble material and then diffuse out. This is common in leaching metal salts from
mineral ores. In these cases crushing and grinding of the ores is used to increase the rate of
leaching since the solution portions are made more accessible to the solvent. Biological materials
are cellular in structure and the soluble constituents are inside the cells. Because the cell walls
provide another resistance to diffusion, the rate of leaching may be slow. In this case the
biological materials are cut into thin wedge-shaped slices to reduce the diffusion distance of
solvent

Rates of Leaching
Generally there are five rate steps in the leaching process:

1. The solvent is transferred from the bulk solution to the surface of the solid.

2. The solvent penetrates or diffuses into the solid (intraparticle diffusion).

3. The solute dissolves from the solid into the solvent.

4. The solute diffuses through the mixture to the surface of the solid (intraparticle diffusion).

5. The solute is transferred to the bulk solution.

Step 1 is usually fast. The controlling rate process is generally the intraparticle diffusion or the
dissolving step. For the intraparticle diffusion, we will study in more detail in the subject of
“Advanced Separation Processes”.

Equilibrium Relationship in Leaching

In leaching it is assumed that there is sufficient solvent present so that all the solute in the
entering solid can be dissolved into the liquid, equilibrium is reached when the solute is
dissolved. Hence, all the solute is completely dissolved in the first stage.

Countercurrent leaching: A, launder; B, rake; C, pump

It is also assumed that the solid is insoluble, and no adsorption will happen for the solute in the
solid, meaning that the solution in the liquid phase leaving a stage is the same as the solution
remaining with the solid matrix in the settled slurry leaving the same stage. The settled solid
leaving a stage always contains some liquid. This solid-liquid stream is called the underflow or
slurry stream. The liquid is called the overflow stream. The concentration of oil or solute in the
overflow stream is equal to that in the liquid solution accompanying the slurry or underflow
stream. Hence, on an xy plot the equilibrium line is on the 45o line.

Equilibrium diagrams for leaching

Since we have three components: solute (A), inert or leached solid (B), and solvent (C), a
rectangular diagram is used to show the equilibrium data.

The concentration of inert or insoluble solid B in the solution mixture or the slurry mixture is
defined as N= =

For the overflow, N = 0, for the underflow, N depends on the solute concentration in the liquid.
The compositions of solute A in the liquid as weight fractions are

xA = = (overflow liquid)

yA = (liquid in slurry)

For the entering solid feed to be leached, N is kg inert solid/kg solute A and yA = 1.0. For pure
entering solvent N = 0 and xA = 0.
Several typical equilibrium diagrams: (a) case for vertical tie lines and yA = xA, (b) case where
yA ≠ xA for tie lines.

Single-Stage Leaching

The following figure shows a single-stage leaching process where V is kg/h of overflow solution
with composition xA and L is the kg/h of liquid in the slurry solution with composition yA based
on a given flow rate B kg/h of dry solute-free solid.
By doing material balances,

we have total solution (A+C): L0 + V2 = L1 + V1 = M

(A): L0yA0 + V2XA2 = L1y A1 + V1XA1 = MXAM

(B): L0N0 + 0 = L1N1 + 0 = MNM

A balance on C is not needed since xA + XC = 1

and yA + yC = 1

where M is the total flow rate in kg (A+C)/h,

xAM and NM are the coordinates of this point M.

If L0 entering is the fresh solid feed to be leached with no solvent C present, it would be located
above the N versus y line in the above figure.

Example L1: Single-Stage Leaching of Flaked Soybeans In a Single-Stage Leaching of soybean

oil from flaked soybeans with hexane, 100 kg of soybeans containing 20 wt % oil is leached with
100 kg of fresh hexane solvent. The value of N for the slurry underflow is constant at 1.5 kg
insoluble solid/kg solution retained. Calculate the amounts and compositions of the overflow V1
and the underflow L1 leaving the stage.
Solution: The process flow diagram and known variables are as follows.

To locate the point M, use the material balances:

Countercurrent Multistage Leaching

The ideal stages are numbered in the direction of the solids or underflow stream. The overall balance
and the component balance on solute A give

Solving for xn+1 and eliminating Vn+1, the operating line is obtained as

This can be plotted on an xy plot passes through the terminal points (x 1, y0) and (xn+1, yn)
If the viscosity and density of the solution change with the solute (A) concentration, the liquid
retained in the solid underflow will change and so will the overflow and the slope of the
operating line vary. This is called variable underflow. If the amount of solution Ln retained by
the solid is constant and independent of concentration, then we will have constant underflow.

Constant Underflow in Countercurrent Leaching

Multistage Leaching In this case the liquid Ln retained in the underflow solids is constant from
stage to stage. This means that a plot of N versus yA is a horizontal line and N is constant. The
calculation procedure discussed in the previous section for variable underflow can still be used
for constant underflow by simply using a horizontal line of N versus yA and stepping off the
stages with the point. For constant underflow, it is also possible to use the McCabe and Thiele
method on the xy diagram, since the operating line is now a straight line. The equilibrium line is
usually linear (yA = xA) so we can also use the analytical solution as below. However, special
treatment must be given for the first stage, because L0 is generally not equal to Ln , since it
contains little or no solvent. A separate material balance must be made on stage 1 to obtain L1
and V2. Any units may be used in the following equation

Any units may be used in the following equation

as long as the units are consistent and the overflows and underflows are constant.
Example L2. By extraction with kerosene, 2 tons of waxed paper per day is to be dewaxed in a
continuous countercurrent extraction system that contains a number of ideal stages. The waxed
paper contains, by weight, 25% paraffin wax and 75% paper pulp. The extracted pulp is put
through a dryer to evaporate the kerosene. The pulp, which retains the unextracted wax after
evaporation, must not contain over 0.2 lb of wax per 100 lb of wax-free pulp. The kerosene used
for the extraction contains 0.05 lb of wax per 100 lb of waxfree kerosene. Experiments show that
the pulp retains 2.0 lb of kerosene per lb of kerosene- and wax-free pulp as it is transferred from
cell to cell. The extract from the battery is to contain 5 lb of wax per 100 lb of wax-free
kerosene. How many stages are required?

Solution. Since here the ratio of kerosene to pulp is constant, flow rates should be expressed in
pounds of kerosene. All concentrations must be in pounds of wax per pound of wax-free
kerosene. The unextracted paper has no kerosene, so the first cell must be treated separately.

The kerosene in with the fresh solvent is found by a wax balance. Take a basis of 100 lb of wax-
and kerosene-free pulp, and let s be the pounds of kerosene fed in with the fresh solvent. The
wax balance, in lb, is

Wax in with pulp, 100x25/75 = 33.33

Wax in with the solvent, 0.0005s

Total wax input = 33.33 + 0.0005s

Wax out with pulp, 100x0.002 = 0.2

The total kerosene input is S, there are 200 lb of kerosene in the outlet of underflow, so the
output of kerosene in the extract = s-200, hence,

Wax out with extract is = (s-200)0.05 = 0.05s – 10

Total wax output = 0.05s – 9.8

Therefore, 33.33 + 0.0005s = 0.05s – 9.8 s = 871 lb. 0.0005s = 0.436

The kerosene in the exhausted pulp is 200 lb, in the strong solution is 871- 200 = 671 lb.

The wax in this solution is 671x0.05 = 33.55 lb.

The concentration in the underflow to the 2nd unit (ya) = that of the overflow from the 1st stage
(x1) = 33.55/(33.54+671) = 0.0476

The wax in the underflow to unit 2 (Wa) can be found from ya = 0.0476 = Wa/(Wa+200)

So Wa = 200x0.0476/(1-0.0476) = 9.996 lb.

The wax in the overflow from the 2nd cell to the 1st is, by a wax balance over the 1st unit,

9.996 + 33.55 – 33.33 = 10.22 lb

The concentration of this stream (xa) = 10.22/(871+10.22) = 0.0116.

xa* = ya = 0.0476

xb* = yb = 0.2/(200+0.2) = 0.001

xb = 0.436/(0.436+871) = 0.0005

Where xa, xb are the overflow concentration of A entering the 1st and final stages, respectively.
xa* and xb* are the overflow concentration of A in equilibrium with ya an yb (the underflow
concentration of A leaving the 1st and final stages), respectively

Since stage 1 has already been taken into account,

The total number of ideal stages is N = 1+3 = 4.

Variable Underflow in Countercurrent Multistage Leaching

The material balances for the whole system are

L0MVN+1 must lie on a straight line and L NMV1 must be another straight line. Usually the flows and
compositions of L0 and VN+1 are known and the desired exit concentration y A,N is set. Then the coordinates
NM and xAM can be determined.

In order to go stage by stage, we must derive the operating point equation, as we did for
distillation by Ponchon and Savarit method. Making a total balance on stage 1 and then on stage
n,
This point  can also be located graphically as the intersection of lines L0V1 and LNVN+1.

To graphically determine the number of stages, we start L 0 and draw a line L0 to locate V1 .
Then an equilibrium tie line through V1 locates L1. Line L1  is drawn to give V2. A tie line from
V2 gives L2. This is continued until the desired LN is reached.

Example L3: Countercurrent Leaching of Oil from Meal A continuous countercurrent multistage
system is to be used to leach oil from meal by benzene solvent. The process is to treat 1000 kg/h
of inert solid meal (B) containing 400 kg oil (A) and also 25 kg benzene (C). The inlet flow per
hour of fresh solvent mixture contains 655 kg benzene and 10 kg oil. The leached solids are to
contain 60 kg oil. Settling experiments similar to those in the actual extractor show that the
solution retained depends on the concentration of oil in the solution. The data are tabulated
below as N kg inert solid B/kg solution and yA kg oil A/kg solution.

Calculate the amounts and concentrations of the stream leaving the process and the number of
stages required. Solution:

The underflow data are plotted as N vs yA.

 = (425x0.941+665x0.015-508x0.118)/582 = 0.60

Another method to locate V1 is to determine the M point first.

is obtained as the intersection ofThe operating point lines L0V1 and LNVN+1 in the above
figure. The stages are stepped off as shown. The fourth stage L4 is slightly past the desired LN.
About 3.9 stages are required.

Variable Underflow in Countercurrent Multistage Leaching: McCabe-Thiele method

The number of ideal stages for variable underflow can also be determined by the McCabe-Thiele
method. The terminal points on the operating line are determined usiny the material balances.
Normally only one interdemiate point is reuired to draw the operating line unless there is a large
change in L and V or the operating line is very close to the equilibrium line. To locate the
intermediate point of the operating line, choose a yn value of about (y0+yN)/2 to fix Ln, Vn+1 xn+1
and are calculated from

This point (yn, xn+1) together with the two terminal points (y0, x1) and (yN, xN+1) are used to draw
the operating curve. The McCabe-Thiele method is used to determine the number of ideal stages
by couting the number of triangles between the equilibrium and curved operating lines in the x-y
diagram.

Example L4: Use the McCabe-Thiele method to calculate the number of idear stages for the
leaching system in Example L3
The amount and composition of the solution in the spent solids, LN and yN are obtained by trial.
Assume yAN = 0.1, from the given table,
The points (y0, x1), (yn, xn+1), and (yN, xN+1) define a slightly curved operating line. By the
McCabe-Thiele method, slightly more than 4 stages are required.