Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

Mechanics V: Rotation
Two-dimensional rotation is covered in chapter 6 of Kleppner, chapter 8 of Morin, or chapters 3
and 5 of Wang and Ricardo, volume 1. Further discussion is given in chapters I-18 and I-19 of the
Feynman lectures. For more on dot and cross products, see the first two lectures of MIT OCW
18.02. There is a total of 83 points.

1 2D Rotational Kinematics
Idea 1
The instantaneous velocity of a two-dimensional rigid body can always be written as pure
rotation about some point r0 , not necessarily in the body, so the velocity of a point in the
body at location r is
v = ω × (r − r0 ),
as you can check with some geometry. This equation defines ω, the angular velocity vector,
which points out of the page. Differentiating gives the acceleration of a point in the body,

a = α × (r − r0 ) + ω × (v − v0 )
= α × (r − r0 ) + ω × (ω × (r − r0 )) − ω × v0

where v0 = dr0 /dt is the rate of change of the location of the pivot point. (Note that this
differs from the velocity of the point in the body instantaneously at the pivot, which is
always zero.) However, this latter expression is often hard to use, because you usually won’t
know r0 (t), or it’ll have a complicated form.

Alternatively, we can write the velocity in terms of translation plus pure rotation about any
desired point, which is almost always chosen to be the center of mass. This gives

v = vCM + ω × (r − rCM ).

The ω here is the same as in the previous expression. Differentiating gives the acceleration,

a = aCM + α × (r − rCM ) + ω × (v − vCM )

= aCM + α × (r − rCM ) + ω × (ω × (r − rCM )).

If you need an acceleration, this form tends to be easiest to use. The three terms represent the
acceleration of the center of mass, the angular acceleration, and the centripetal acceleration,
written in a slightly fancy way.

Remark 1: Cross Products

The cross product of two vectors is antisymmetric and distributes over addition,

a × b = −b × a, a × (r1 b1 + r2 b2 ) = r1 a × b1 + r2 a × b2 .

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

The latter means a cross product can be differentiated using the product rule. Moreover,

x̂ × ŷ = ẑ, ŷ × ẑ = x̂, ẑ × x̂ = ŷ.

These are all you need to compute any cross product, but it’s also helpful to get geometric
intuition. If a × b = c, then the direction of c is found by applying the right-hand rule to
a and b, and its magnitude is |a||b| sin θ where θ is the angle between them. Finally, when
differentiating a cross product, the ordinary product rule applies (just like for dot products).

Example 1

Describe the velocities of points in a disc rolling without slipping using both methods.

Solution
Let the disc have radius R, lie in the xy plane, and roll along the x axis. Consider the
moment where the bottom of the disc touches the origin. At this moment its motion can be
thought of as pure rotation about the origin,

v = ω × r = −ωẑ × r.

On the other hand, the motion can also be thought of as simultaneous translation of the
center of mass and rotation about the center of mass, so

v = vCM + ω × (r − rCM )
= ωRx̂ − ωẑ × (r − Rŷ)
= ωRx̂ − ωẑ × r − ωRx̂
= −ωẑ × r.

As we can see, both decompositions are completely equivalent. Which one you want to use
depends on the problem; you might even use both in the same problem.

Example 2

In ancient times, large stone slabs were transported by rolling them on logs. Each log has
radius R. How far does a slab of length L move between the time a certain log is at its front
and back?

Solution
Since the logs roll without slipping, the tops move twice as fast as the centers, so the slab
moves by 2L.

[4] Problem 1. Some brief puzzles about rotation.

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

(a) Consider two identical coins laid flat on a table. One is fixed in place, and the second is rolled
without slipping around the first. Once the second coin’s center has returned to its original
position, how many times has it rotated? (Be sure to check your answer experimentally!)
(b) A bicycle wheel is rolling without slipping. When it is photographed, its spokes look blurred,
except along a curve of special points, which don’t look blurred at all. What is this curve?
(c) If a spaceship is floating in space, and it have any thrusters that would expel material, then
conservation of momentum implies that it cannot move its center of mass. But is it possible
to turn the spaceship around? In other words, is it possible for it to begin stationary in one
orientation, and end up stationary in another orientation? If so, why doesn’t this violate
conservation of angular momentum?
(d) Hold out your arm with your elbow bent at 90◦ and your palm straight out, facing down. Find
a way to end up in the same position but with your palm facing up, without ever bending or
rotating your wrist.
[2] Problem 2 (Kalda). A rigid lump is squeezed between two places, one of which is moving at
velocity v1 and the other at v2 . At some moment, the velocities are horizontal and the two contact
points are vertically aligned.

01W
Indicate geometrically all of the points in the body with speed either v1 or v2 .
[2] Problem 3. USAPhO 2010, problem A1.

2 Moments of Inertia
Idea 2
For a two-dimensional object, the moment of inertia
Z
I = x2 + y 2 dm

about the origin obeys the parallel axis theorem

2
I = ICM + M rCM

where ICM is the moment of inertia about the center of mass, and M is the total mass.
Defining Ix and Iy to be the moment of inertia about the x and y, we have
Z Z
I = Ix + Iy , Ix = y 2 dm, Iy = x2 dm

which is called the perpendicular axis theorem.

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

[3] Problem 4. Basic moment of inertia computations.

(a) Compute the moment of inertia for an Lx × Ly rectangular plate about an axis passing
perpendicular to it through the center.

(b) Compute the moment of inertia for a uniform disc of radius R and mass M , about an axis
perpendicular to it through its center. What about an axis lying in the disc, passing through
its center?

(c) Compute the moment of inertia of a uniform solid cone of mass M , with height H and a base
of radius R, about its symmetry axis.
[2] Problem 5 (F = ma 2016 24). The moment of inertia of a uniform equilateral triangle with
mass m and side length a about an axis through one of its sides and parallel to that side is ma2 /8.
What is the moment of inertia of a uniform regular hexagon of mass m and side length a about an
axis through two opposite vertices?

3 Rotational Dynamics
In this section we’ll consider some dynamic problems involving rotation.
Idea 3: Angular Momentum

For a system of particles we define the angular momentum and torque

X X dL
L= ri × pi , τ= ri × Fi , τ= .
dt
i i

Using the first part of idea 1, we may write the angular momentum of a rigid body as
1
L = I ω, K = Iω 2
2
where I is the moment of inertia about the instantaneous axis of rotation. Alternatively,
using the second part,
1 1
L = ICM ω + rCM × M vCM , K = ICM ω 2 + M vCM
2
2 2
where M is the total mass. Both forms are useful in different situations. Systems cannot
exert torques on themselves, provided they obey the strong form of Newton’s third law: the
force between two objects is equal and opposite, and directed along the line joining them.

Idea 4
The idea above refers to taking torques about a fixed point, but often it is easier to consider
a moving point P . Let L be the angular momentum about point P in the frame of P , i.e. the
frame whose axes don’t rotate, but whose origin follows P around. Working in this frame
will produce fictitious forces, since P can accelerate. Such forces act at the center of mass,
just like gravity.

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The upshot is that if P is the center of mass, then the fictitious force in the frame of P will
produce no “fictitious torque”. So it’s safe to use τ = dL/dt about either a fixed point, or in
the frame of the center of mass.

Idea 5
There is a third, more confusing way of applying τ = dL/dt that you might rarely see:
taking torques about the instantaneous center of rotation. In general, this doesn’t work,
because the instantaneous center of rotation can accelerate, producing an extra fictitious
torque as mentioned above.

However, it turns out this procedure gives the correct answer if the object is instantaneously
at rest. That’s why taking torques about the contact point for the spool in M2 to find the
initial angular acceleration was valid. It wouldn’t have been valid at any instant afterward,
after the spool had picked up some velocity.

For more discussion of this subtlety, which isn’t mentioned in any textbooks I know of, see
the paper Moments to be cautious of .

Example 3: KK 6.13

A mass m is attached to a post of radius R by a string. Initially it is a distance r from the

center of the post and is moving tangentially with speed v0 . In case (a) the string passes
through a hole in the center of the post at the top. The string is gradually shortened by
drawing it through the hole. In case (b) the string wraps around the outside of the post.
Ignore gravity.

For each case, find the final speed of the mass when it hits the post.

Solution
In case (a), the energy isn’t conserved, since work is done on the mass as it moves inward.
(Physically, we can see this by noting there could be a weight slowly descending on the other
end of the string.) However, angular momentum conservation says Rv = rv0 , so v = rv0 /R.

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If you don’t believe in angular momentum conservation yet, it’s not too hard to show this
with F = ma as well. Let the tangential and radial speeds of the mass be vt and vr , where
vr  vt . Since vr is nonzero, there is a component of acceleration parallel to the velocity,

T v 2 vr
sin θ ≈ t
m r vt
and this is equal to the rate of change of speed, which to first order in vr /vt is dvt /dt. Thus,

dvt vr vt vt dr
= =−
dt r r dt
from which we conclude rvt is constant, as expected. (As mentioned in M2, you never need
ideas like torque and angular momentum. Life is just harder without them.)

In case (b), the angular momentum about the axis of the pole isn’t conserved, since the
tension force has a lever arm about that axis. However, the mass’s energy is conserved. A
simple physical way to see this is to note that the massless string can’t store any energy,
and the post doesn’t do work on the string, which means the string can’t do any work on
the mass. Thus, the final speed is just v = v0 . (Of course, if you don’t believe in energy
conservation, you could get the same result by showing that the trajectory of the mass is
always perpendicular to the string, though this takes more work.)

[2] Problem 6 (KK 6.9). A heavy uniform bar of mass M rests on top of two identical rollers which
are continuously turned rapidly in opposite directions, as shown.

The centers of the rollers are a distance 2` apart. The coefficient of friction between the bar and
the roller surfaces is µ, a constant independent of the relative speed of the two surfaces. Initially
the bar is held at rest with its center at distance x0 from the midpoint of the rollers. At time t = 0
it is released. Find the subsequent motion of the bar.

[2] Problem 7 (BAUPC). A mass is connected to one end of a massless string, the other end of which
is connected to a very thin frictionless vertical pole. The string is initially wound completely around
the pole, in a very large number of small horizontal circles, with the mass touching the pole. The
mass is released, and the string gradually unwinds. What angle does the string make with the pole
when it becomes completely unwound? (Though the setup is similar to that of example 3, you can’t
ignore gravity here.)

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Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

Example 4: MPPP 49

A uniform rod of mass M and radius R is attached to two identical strings. The strings are
wound around the cylinder as shown, and their free ends are fastened to the ceiling.

A third cord is attached to and wound around the middle of the cylinder, and a mass M is
attached to the other side. There is sufficient friction so that the strings do not slip. Find
the acceleration of the mass immediately after release.

Solution
Let a be the downward acceleration of the center of mass of the rod, let T1 be the total
tension in the first two strings, and let T2 be the tension in the third. The rod rolls without
slipping about its contact axis with the first two strings, which means the downward
acceleration of the mass is amass = 2a.

The Newton’s second law equations are thus

M a = T2 + M g − T1 , 2M a = M g − T2

for the rod and mass. Taking torques about the axis of the rod gives
1
(T1 + T2 )R = M R2 α
2
and using a = αR converts this to

M a = 2T1 + 2T2 .

We now have three equations in three unknowns, so we can straightforwardly solve to find
a = (6/11)g. This implies that the acceleration of the mass is
12
amass = g.
11
Done, right? No, this is the wrong answer! Since the acceleration is greater than free fall,
the tension T2 must be negative. But a string can’t support a negative tension, so it instead
goes slack. The mass thus free falls, so amass = g.

In retrospect, we could have seen this conclusion with less work. Suppose the mass were
not attached. Then the acceleration of the rod can be computed with the standard rolling

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Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

without slipping formula,

g sin θ g
a= = , I = βM R2 .
1+β 1+β

For any (axially symmetric) mass distribution in the rod, we have 0 ≤ β ≤ 1. The acceleration
of the part where the mass would have been attached is hence
2g
amass = ≥ g.
1+β
This implies that any string we attach there must go slack immediately after release.

Example 5

If you’re riding a bike and need to stop quickly, what are the advantages and disadvantages
of using the front brake versus the rear brake?

Solution
Work in the reference frame moving with the bike. In this frame, the backward friction force
is balanced by a forward friction force on the center of mass; the combination of the two
produces a torque that tends to lift the rear wheel off the ground. If you use the front brake,
you can stop more quickly, because the normal force on the front tire stays higher. But if
you brake too hard with the front brake, you could flip yourself over the handlebars. This
can’t happen when using the rear brake alone, because the brake stops doing anything the
moment the rear wheel lifts off the ground.

Idea 6
It is often useful in rotational dynamics to treat the rotational and linear motion of a rigid
body conceptually separately.

Example 6: F = ma 2018 B23

Two particles with mass m1 and m2 are connected by a massless rigid rod of length L and
placed on a horizontal frictionless table. At time t = 0, the first mass receives an impulse
perpendicular to the rod, giving it speed v. At this moment, the second mass is at rest.
When is the next time the second mass is at rest?

Solution
The motion is the superposition of two motions: uniform translation of both masses with
speed m1 v/(m1 + m2 ) and circular motion about the common center of mass, where the two
masses have speeds m2 v/(m1 + m2 ) and m1 v/(m1 + m2 ), respectively. This ensures that
the second mass begins at rest and the first mass has speed v.

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The circular part of the motion determines when the second mass will be at rest again.
The radius of the circle the second mass makes is its distance from the center of mass,
Lm1 /(m1 + m2 ). This gives a period of

2πLm1 /(m1 + m2 ) 2πL

t= = .
m1 v/(m1 + m2 ) v

[2] Problem 8 (KK 6.14). A uniform stick of mass M and length ` is suspended horizontally with
end B on the edge of a table, while end A is held by hand.

Point A is suddenly released. Right after release, find the vertical force at B, as well as the downward
acceleration of point A. You should find a result greater than g. Explain how this can be possible,

01O
given that gravity is the only downward external force in the problem.

[2] Problem 9. Quarterfinal 2005, problem 4. This is a neat example of separating out rotational
and translational motion. For a similar idea, see Morin 8.73.

[2] Problem 10 (Morin 8.71). A ball sits at rest on a piece of paper on a table. You pull the paper
in a straight line out from underneath the ball. You are free to pull the paper in an arbitrary way
forward or backwards; you may even jerk it so that the ball starts to slip. After the ball comes off
the paper, it will eventually roll without slipping. Show that, in fact, the ball ends up at rest. Is it
possible to pull the paper in such a way that the ball ends up exactly where it started?

[2] Problem 11 (Morin 8.28). Consider the following “car” on an inclined plane.

The system is released from rest, and there is no slipping between any surfaces. Find the acceleration

01W
of the board.

[2] Problem 12. USAPhO 2006, problem A1.

[2] Problem 13. 01W USAPhO 2013, problem A2.

[3] Problem 14. 01W USAPhO 2014, problem A1.

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[3] Problem 15. A uniform stick of length L and mass M begins at rest. A massless rocket is attached
to the end of the stick, and provides a constant force F perpendicular to the stick. Find the speed
of the center of mass of the stick after a long time. Ignore gravity. You may find the integral
Z ∞
2 √
e−x dx = π,
−∞

which we first encountered in P1, useful.

[4] Problem 16 (KK 6.41). A plank of length 2L leans nearly vertically against a wall. All surfaces
are frictionless. The plank starts to slip downward. Find the height of the top of the plank when it
loses contact with the wall or floor.

Example 7: EFPhO 2013

A uniform ball and a uniform ring are both released from rest from the same height on an
inclined plane with inclination angle θ. They arrive at the bottom of the plane in time TB
and TR , respectively. The coefficients of friction of both objects with the plane are µk = 0.3
and µs = 0.5. Find the ratio TB /TR as a function of the angle θ.

Solution

When rolling without slipping, the acceleration of an object with moment of inertia βmR2
about its center of mass is
g sin θ
a=
1+β
as mentioned in a previous example. The tangential force from friction is thus
β
f = mg sin θ
1+β
which means rolling without slipping occurs when
β
µs mg cos θ ≥ mg sin θ
1+β
or equivalently
1+β
tan θ ≤ µs .
β
For the ball, this is when θ ≤ 60.3◦ , and for the ring θ ≤ 45◦ . Whenever either object slips,
its acceleration is instead a = g(sin θ − µk cos θ).

Since the motion is uniformly accelerated, TB /TR = aR /aB . For θ ≤ 45◦ , both roll without
p

slipping, so the formula above applies, giving a ratio of

s r
TB 1 + βB 7
= = .
TR 1 + βR 10

For θ ≥ 60.3◦ they both slip, so the ratio is unity. For the angles in between, the ring slips,
giving a slightly more complicated expression. At the boundaries between these three regimes,
the ratio TB /TR jumps discontinuously.

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The next two problems require careful thought, and test your understanding of the multiple ways

01mƒ
to describe rotational kinematics and dynamics. It will be useful to review idea 1.

[3] Problem 17. USAPhO 1999, problem B1.

[3] Problem 18. 01^‚ USAPhO 2019, problem B3. It’s worth reading the solution carefully afterward.

4 Rotational Collisions
Idea 7: Angular Impulse

During a collision with impulse J, the angular momentum changes by the “angular impulse”
r × J. In many problems involving collisions which conserve angular momentum, energy is
necessarily lost in the collision process. This is another example of an inherently inelastic
process, an idea we first encountered in M3.

[3] Problem 19 (Morin 8.22). A uniform ball of radius R and mass m rolls without slipping with
speed v0 . It encounters a step of height h and rolls up over it.

(a) Assuming that the ball sticks to the step during this process, show that for the ball to climb
over the step,
5h −1
r  
10gh
v0 ≥ 1− .
7 7R

(b) Now let’s consider the case of a small step, i.e. take h small while holding the other parameters
fixed. Energy is lost to heat by the inelastic collision of the ball with the step. In this limit,
how much heat is produced?

[3] Problem 20 (KK 6.38). A rigid massless rod of length L joins two particles, each of mass m. The
rod lies on a frictionless table, and is struck by a particle of mass m and velocity v0 as shown.

After an elastic collision, the projectile moves straight back. Find the angular velocity of the rod
about its center of mass after the collision.

[3] Problem 21 (PPP 47). Two identical dumbbells move towards each other on a frictionless table
as shown.

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

Each consists of two point masses m joined by a massless rod of length 2`. The dumbbells collide

01mƒ
elastically; describe what happens afterward.

[3] Problem 22. USAPhO 2014, problem B1.

[4] Problem 23. 01@ EuPhO 2018, problem 1. An elegant rotation problem.

5 Rotational Oscillations
In this section we’ll consider small oscillations problems involving rotation.
Idea 8
A physical pendulum is a rigid body of mass m pivoted a distance d from its center of mass,
with moment of inertia I about the pivot. When considering physical pendulums, we always
assume that the pivot exerts no torque on the pendulum; that is, it is a “simple support”,
providing no bending moment, as discussed in a problem in M2. This is a good approximation
if the pivot is smooth and small. In this case, the frequency for small oscillations is
r
mgd
ω= .
I
For some neat real-world applications of this formula, see this paper.

Example 8: F = ma 2018 A14

Three identical masses are connected with identical rigid rods and pivoted at point A.

If the lowest mass receives a small horizontal push to the left, it oscillates with period T1 . If
it receives a small push into the page, it oscillates with period T2 . Find the ratio T1 /T2 .

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Solution
p
Both modes are physical pendulums, which have period proportional to I/M gx where x
is the distance from the pivot to the center of mass, and
p I is the√moment of inertia about
the pivot. Since x is the same in both cases, T1 /T2 ∝ I1 /I2 = 3, because in the second
case only the bottom mass contributes to the moment of inertia.

Example 9: Morin 8.41

The axis of a solid cylinder of mass m and radius r is connected to a spring of spring constant
k, as shown.

If the cylinder rolls without slipping, find the frequency of the oscillations.

Solution
This is a question best handled using the energy methods of M4. The potential energy is
kx2 /2 as usual, where x describes the position of the cylinder’s center of mass. The kinetic
energy is mv 2 /2 + Iω 2 /2 = (3/4)mv 2 , since the cylinder is rolling without slipping. Therefore
s r
k 2k
ω= = .
meff 3m

More complicated variants of this kind of problem can be solved in a similar way.

Example 10: Russia 2011

A uniform ring of mass m and radius r is suspended symmetrically on three inextensible

strings of length `. Find the frequency of small oscillations.

Solution
The small oscillations are torsional, i.e. the ring rotates about its axis of symmetry. When
the ring has twisted by an angle θ, the strings are an angle φ ≈ (r/`)θ from the vertical.
Thus, summing over the three strings, the restoring torque is

mgr2
τ ≈ −mgrφ ≈ − θ.
`
p
Setting this equal to Iα, we find ω = g/`.

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The tricky thing about this problem is that it’s harder to solve with the energy method. If
you try, you immediately run into the problem that there seems to be no potential energy
anywhere, since the strings don’t stretch! The source of the potential energy is that the ring
moves up a small amount as it oscillates, since the strings are no longer vertical,
p r2 θ2
h=`− `2 − r2 θ2 ≈ .
2`
Therefore we have
1 1 mgr2 2
K = mr2 θ̇2 , V = θ
2 2 `
and the answer follows as usual. (There is also a kinetic energy contribution from the ring’s
vertical motion, but it’s negligible.) The lesson here is that the force/torque and energy
approach have different strengths. The energy approach is often easier because it lets you
ignore some internal details of the system. But it can be harder because it requires you to
understand the kinematics of the system to second order, rather than first order.

[2] Problem 24. A circular pendulum consists of a point mass m on a string of length `, which is
made to rotate in a horizontal circle. By using only the equation τ = dL/dt about an origin of your
choice, compute the angular frequency if the string makes a constant angle θ with the horizontal.

[3] Problem 25. Using a physical pendulum, one can measure the acceleration due to gravity as

4π 2 I
g= .
T 2 md
In practice, I is not very precisely known, since it depends on the exact shape of the material. Kater
found an ingenious way to circumvent this problem. We pivot the pendulum at an arbitrary point
and measure the period T . Next, by trial and error, we find another pivot point which has the same
period, which lies at a different distance from the center of mass. Show that

4π 2 L
g=
T2
where L is the sum of the lengths from these points to the CM. This allows a measurement of g
without knowledge of the moment of inertia about the center of mass. (Kater selected his two pivot
points to lie on a line, on opposite sides of the center of mass. This has the additional benefit that
L is simply the distance between the pivot points, removing the need to find the center of mass.)

[3] Problem 26. 01W USAPhO 1999, problem A4.

[3] Problem 27. 01mƒ USAPhO 2011, problem B2.

[3] Problem 28. 01mƒUSAPhO 2002, problem B1. This one is trickier than it looks! It can be solved
with either a torque or energy analysis, but both require care.

[4] Problem 29 (IPhO 1982). A coat hanger can perform small oscillations in the plane of the figure
about the three equilibrium figures shown.

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 Kevin Zhou Physics Olympiad Handouts

In the first two, the long side is horizontal. The other two sides have equal length. The period
of oscillation is the same in all cases. The coat hanger does not necessarily have uniform density.
Where is the center of mass, and how long is the period?

[4] Problem 30 (APhO 2007). A uniform ball of mass M and radius r is encased in a thin spherical
shell, also of mass M . The shell is placed inside a fixed spherical bowl of radius R, and performs
small oscillations about the bottom. Assume that friction between the bowl and shell is very large,
so the shell essentially always rolls without slipping.
The ball is made of an unusual material: it can quickly transition between a liquid and solid
state. When the ball is in the liquid state, it has no viscosity, and hence no friction with the shell.
When the ball is in the solid state, it rotates with the shell.

(a) Find the period of the oscillations if the ball is always in the solid state.

(b) Find the period of the oscillations if the ball is always in the liquid state.

(c) The ball is now set so that it instantly switches to the liquid state whenever it starts moving
downward, and instantly switches to the solid state whenever it starts moving upward. If the
initial amplitude of oscillations is θ0 , find the amplitude after n oscillations.

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