Variable Stress Analysis

Variable Stress Analysis
in Machine Parts
Variable Stresses in Machine Parts
• The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the
same nature ( i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
• The stresses which vary from zero to a maximum value of the same nature
( i.e. tensile or compressive) are called repeated stresses.
• The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same
value of tensile or vice versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic
stresses.
• The stresses which vary from minimum value to a maximum value of
the
opposite nature( i.e. from certain minimum compressive to a certain
maximum
tensile or from a minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are ca
lled alternative stresses.
• When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails
at stresses below the yield point stresses.
Such type of failure of material is known as fatigue.
• The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation
which are usually fine and microscopic size. The failure
may occur even without any prior indications.
• The fatigue of materials is effected by the size of the component,
relative magnitude of static and fluctuating load and the number of
load reversal.
• If the stress is kept below a certain value the material will not fail whatever
may be the number of cycle. This stress is knows as endurance or
fatigue limit. It is define as a maximum value of the completely
reversed bending stress which a polished a standard specimen can
withstand without failure, for infinite number of cycles (usually 106 cycles)
• The term
endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other
types of loading, the term endurance strength may be used when ref
erring the fatigue strength of the material. It may be defined as the safe
maximum stress which can be applied to the machine part working under
actual conditions.
• Characteristics of fatigue
• Fatigue is stochastic process, often showing considerable scatter even in
controlled environments
• Greater the applied stress range, shorter the life
• Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested
• Fatigue life is influenced by variety of factors such as temperature, surface
finish, microstructure, presence of oxidizing chemicals, residual stresses,
fretting, etc.
Cyclic Stress
Effect of Surface Finish on Endurance Limit
Relation Between Endurance Limit and
Ultimate Tensile Strength
Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading
• When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance
limit is the criterion for failure. Therefore, the factor of safety should
be based on endurance limit.
Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading
Factors to determine Factor of Safety
• Material properties
• Nature of loads
• Presence of localized stresses
• Mode of failure
• Presence of initial stresses
Example
• Determine the design stress for a piston rod where the load is
completely reversed (load correction factor is 0.8). The surface of the
rod is ground and the surface finish factor is 0.9. There is no stress
concentration. The load is predictable and the factor of safety is 2.
Stress Concentration
• In many typical machine design situations, inherent geometric
discontinuities are necessary for the parts to perform their desired
functions.
• When a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section,
the simple stress distribution no longer holds good and
neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the
stress distribution caused by abrupt changes in the shape is called
stress concentration.
* Each dark line, called a fringe, indicates a change in stress of a certain amount.
* The material near the edges is stressed considerably higher than the average value. The maximum stress occurs at some point on the fillet and in
directed to the boundary at that point.
• In static loading, stress concentration in ductile material is not so serious as
in brittle materials because in ductile materials local deformation or
yielding takes place which reduces the concentration. In brittle materials,
cracks may appear at these local concentration of stress which will
increases the stress over the rest of the section.
• In order to avoid failure due to stress concentration fillets at the changes of

section must be provided.
• In cyclic loading, stress concentration is always serious
because the ductility of the material is not effective in
relieving the concentration of stress caused by cracks,
flaws or any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical
form of the member.
• If the stress at any point in a member is above the
endurance limit of the material, a crack may develop
under the section of repeated load and the crack will
lead to failure of the member.
• The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is
defined as the ratio of the maximum stress in
a member ( at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress
at the same section.
Example
• Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress
concentration into account: a.) Rectangulare plate with hole b.)
Stepped shaft
Example
Example
S.W. Case 2
S.W. Case 2
S.W. Case 2
Factors to avoid fatigue failure
• Variation in the size of the component should be as gradual as possible.
• Holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
• If holes cant be avoided, provide multiple holes if possible
• Proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be
provided wherever necessary.
• The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
• A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases fatigue life.
• Material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
• The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface increases its
fatigue strength
S-N Curve
• SN-Curves were developed by the German scientist August
Wöhler during the resulting investigation of an 1842 train crash
in Versailles, France. In this crash, the axle of the train locomotive
failed under the repeated “low level” cyclic stress of everyday
usage on the railroad.
• While investigating, Wöhler discovered that cracks formed and
slowly grew on an axle surface. The cracks, after reaching a
critical size, would suddenly propagate and the axle would fail.
The level of these loads was less than the ultimate strength
and/or yield strength of the material used to manufacture the
axle.
S-N Curve
• The S-N curve describes the relation between cyclic stress
amplitude and number of cycles to failure.S-N curves are derived
from fatigue tests. Tests are performed by applying a cyclic stress
with constant amplitude (CA) on specimens until failure of the
specimen. In some cases the test is stopped after a very large
number of cycles (N>10^6). The results is then interpreted as
infinite life.
S-N Curve
SN-Curve for a material: Higher amplitude stress cycles resulting in lower number of cycles to failure
S-N Curve
SN-Curve relating Alternating Stress Level to corresponding Number of Cycles to Failure via dashed dark blue line
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
S-N Curve
Important terms
• Creep – When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature
for a long period of time, it will undergo slow and permanent deformation
which is called creep
• Resilience – property of the material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. Essential for spring materials
• Factor of safety – defined as the ratio between the maximum stress and
working stress.
• Eccentric load - an external load whose line of action is parallel but does
not coincide with the centroidal axis of the machine component
• Brittle fracture Is when crack growth is up to a small depth of the material
• Ductile fracture - a large amount of plastic deformation is present to a
higher depth
Important terms
• Hardness - the ability of material to resist scratching and indentation
• Stiffness – the ability of material to resist deformation under loading
• Common materials used in engineering design
• Alloy steel
• Low, medium and high carbon steel
• Cast iron
• Composites (fiber and metal composites)

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• In order to avoid failure due to stress concentration fillets at the changes of

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